Sun Jun (219 – 19 October 256), courtesy name Ziyuan, was a military general and regent of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He served under the second Wu emperor, Sun Liang.

Life
Sun Jun was a great-grandson of Sun Jing, an uncle of Wu's founding emperor Sun Quan; his father was Sun Gong (孙恭) and his grandfather was Sun Gao (孙暠). Late in Sun Quan's reign, he became a trusted personal assistant of Sun Quan's, and he was said to have been, in conjunction with Sun Quan's daughter Sun Luban, involved in falsely accusing the crown prince Sun He, leading to Sun He's deposal in 250. At his and Sun Luban's recommendation, Sun Quan created his youngest son Sun Liang as his successor. Again at Sun Jun's recommendation, Sun Quan named Zhuge Ke regent for Sun Liang in 251, and after his death in 252, Sun Jun became a key assistant to Zhuge.

In 253, after Zhuge Ke had suffered a major military defeat to Wu's rival state, Cao Wei, and subsequently refused to admit fault but instead tried to wipe out all dissent, Sun Jun assassinated him and took over as regent. There was initial anticipation that he might be willing to share power with other key officials, but he instead consolidated power into his own hands. He was not known for his accomplishments during his regency, and he was severe in his punishments. As a result, there were several conspiracies against his life during his regency, including one in 254 led by Sun Ying (孫英), the Marquis of Wu, the son of Sun Quan's eldest son Sun Deng, and one in 255, which Sun Luban (with whom Sun Jun might have had an affair) falsely accused her sister Sun Luyu of being the leader of, and Sun Jun had Sun Luyu executed.

In 256, at the urging of Wen Qin, a Wei general who had surrendered to Wu after a rebellion of his and Guanqiu Jian's failed, Sun Jun considered launching a major attack against Wei, but as he was about to do so, he grew ill. He transferred his powers to his cousin Sun Chen and then died. Sun Chen succeeded him.

In 258, after Sun Chen had deposed Sun Liang and had in turn been executed by the succeeding emperor Sun Xiu, Sun Jun's casket was disinterred and reduced in size, as a sign of imperial disapproval; both Sun Jun and Sun Chen were posthumously banished from the royal family and renamed Gu Jun (故峻) and Gu Chen (故綝) respectively.

See also
 Eastern Wu family trees#Sun Hao (Sun Jing's son)
 Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms

Notes

References

 Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
 Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
 Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 75-77.

219 births
256 deaths
Eastern Wu regents
Eastern Wu generals

Sun Jun (Eastern Wu)


The Severn Estuary () is the estuary of the River Severn, flowing into the Bristol Channel between South West England (from North Somerset, Bristol and South Gloucestershire) and South Wales (from Cardiff, Newport to Monmouthshire). Its very high tidal range, approximately , creates valuable intertidal habitats and has led to the area  being at the centre of discussions in the UK regarding renewable tidal energy.

Geography

Definitions of the limits of the Severn Estuary vary. In pre-modern times the area was commonly referred to as the River Severn, or the Severn Sea. Today, at the upstream boundary, the tidal limit of the river is at Gloucester Docks. Downstream, the International Hydrographic Organization places the boundary between the estuary and the open sea of the Bristol Channel at a line between Sand Point, North Somerset (north of Weston-super-Mare) and Lavernock Point (south of Penarth in south Wales). This definition is used by the Severn Estuary Partnership and Visit England.

A narrower definition adopted for navigation purposes by some charts includes only the area downstream of the Second Severn Crossing near Severn Beach, South Gloucestershire. The definition used on Admiralty Chart SC1179 and the Bristol Channel and Severn Cruising Guide is that the estuary extends upstream to Aust, the site of the Severn Bridge.

On the north-west (Welsh) side, the rivers Wye and Usk flow into the estuary, and on the south-east (English) side, the River Avon joins at Avonmouth.  West of the Wye, the estuary forms the boundary between Wales and England. On the northern side of the estuary are the Caldicot and Wentloog Levels which are on either side of the city of Newport; and, to the west, the city of Cardiff together with the resort of Penarth. On the southern, English, side, are Avonmouth, Portishead, Clevedon, and Weston-super-Mare. Denny Island is a small rocky island of , with scrub vegetation, approximately three miles north of Portishead. Its rocky southern foreshore marks the boundary between England and Wales, but the island itself is reckoned administratively to Monmouthshire, Wales.

The estuary is about  wide at Aust, and about  wide between Cardiff and Weston-super-Mare. It has one of the highest tidal ranges in the world — about . This funnel shape, large tidal range, and the underlying geology of rock, gravel and sand, produce strong tidal streams and high turbidity, giving the water a notably brown coloration. During the highest tides, rising water is funnelled up the estuary into the Severn bore, a self-reinforcing solitary wave that travels rapidly upstream against the river current.

West of the line between Lavernock Point and Sand Point is the Bristol Channel, which in turn discharges into the Celtic Sea and the wider Atlantic Ocean. The islands of Steep Holm and Flat Holm are located close to that line, in the middle of the estuary. The Ordnance Survey refers on its published mapping to a section of the estuary seaward of the two estuarine motorway crossings as the Mouth of the Severn.

Conservation and SSSI status

The tidal range results in the estuary having one of the most extensive intertidal wildlife habitats in the UK, comprising mudflats, sandflats, rocky platforms and islands. These form a basis for plant and animal communities typical of extreme physical conditions of liquid mud and tide-swept sand and rock.  The estuary is recognised as a wetland area of international importance and is designated as a Ramsar site. The estuary is recognised as a Special Protection Area (SPA) under the EC Directive on the conservation of Wild Birds. The estuary is recognised as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) under the EU Habitats Directive.

Parts of the estuary have also been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest.  The SSSI includes most of the foreshore upstream from Cardiff and Brean Down and most of the upper estuary as far as Sharpness.  The Upper Severn Estuary SSSI covers the tidal river between Purton and Frampton on Severn.

The Severn Estuary SSSI original designation involves the then counties of Somerset, Avon and Gloucestershire in England, and Gwent and South Glamorgan in Wales.  The Severn Estuary SSSI designation overlaps individual site designations for separate sites in Avon (Spring Cove Cliffs, Middle Hope, Portishead Pier to Black Nore, Aust Cliff), Gloucestershire (Purton Passage) and South Glamorgan (Penarth Coast). The 1976 designation includes two sites previously notified in 1952 (Brean Down and Uphill Cliff). The SSSI forms the major part of a larger area which includes the Taff/Ely Estuary and Bridgwater Bay (as well as the Upper Severn Estuary)

The Upper Severn Estuary SSSI designation involves the English county of Gloucestershire. The site (Severn Estuary and Upper Severn Estuary) is listed in the 'Forest of Dean Local Plan Review' as a Key Wildlife Site (KWS).

Both SSSI citations provide detail of the geological and biological interest and of particular note is the international importance for wintering and wading birds of passage, and of estuarine habits of outstanding ornithological significance. It is stated that the estuary supports over 10% of the British wintering population and is the single most important wintering ground for dunlin, and for significant numbers of Bewick's swans, European white-fronted geese and wigeon. Nationally important wintering populations are supported such as gadwall, shoveller and pochard.

There are notably seven species of migratory fish which pass through the estuary in both directions.  These include significant numbers of Atlantic salmon and common eel.   At Black Rock, Portskewett,  a traditional method of fishing for salmon with lave nets is practised. The fishermen promote the fishery as a tourist attraction.  In 2021, they reduced their activities in response to pressure from Natural Resources Wales to reduce their catch.

Tidal power

A huge tidal range and high level of surrounding industry and population have long made the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel a focus for tidal energy schemes and ideas. Plans for a Severn Barrage — running  across the Bristol Channel from Lavernock Point near to and south west of Cardiff to Brean Down near and just south west of Weston-super-Mare in Somerset — would generate a massive 8640 MW when the tide flows, and have been discussed for several decades now.  The power generated would come from a lake of  with a potential energy depth of . Tidal power only runs for around ten hours a day, but by using the enclosed lake as a reservoir of potential energy more hours of operation could be achieved. Other energy sources, such as wind and solar power, also create electricity at times that do not always match when it is needed. Excess power could be stored by pumping water uphill, as is already done at a variety of other installations in the UK.

The UK Government shelved the plans in the late 1980s due largely to cost issues and local environmental concerns. However, this was before recent huge rises in the price of energy, and before global warming had started to be taken seriously. In April 2006 the Welsh Assembly approved the idea of utilising the tidal power, but the RSPB has raised serious concerns about the effect on the mud flats, that have European Environmental protection status, and the UK government Energy Review published later in the year did not endorse the scheme.

Opinion is still divided on the benefits of a proposed barrage. John Hutton, Secretary of State for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform, announced a further feasibility study on 25 September 2007.  The Severn Tidal Power Feasibility Study was launched in January 2008 to assess all tidal range technologies (including barrages, lagoons and others). The study will look at the costs, benefits and impacts of a Severn tidal power scheme and will help Government decide whether it could or could not support such a scheme.

The Severn Estuary has the potential to generate more renewable electricity than all other UK estuaries. If harnessed, it could create up to 5% of the UK's electricity, contributing significantly to UK climate change goals. The proposal for a hydro-electric barrier to generate 8.6 GW and meet five percent of Britain's power needs, is being opposed by some environmental groups.

Severn Estuary Partnership
The Severn Estuary Partnership (SEP) was set up in 1995 as an independent initiative to focus the activities of local government, statutory authorities and interested parties such as farmers and fisherman. Its stated aim is To bring together all those involved in the development, management and use of the Estuary within a framework which encourages the integration of their interests and responsibilities to achieve common objectives.
In 2001 SEP published the Strategy for the Severn Estuary, which sets out a plan for the management of the estuary.

SEP uses a geographically extended definition of the Severn Estuary, beginning at the tidal limit of the River Severn in Gloucester and ending at a line drawn between Hurlestone Point near Minehead and Nash Point in the Vale of Glamorgan.

Archaeology
The archaeology of the Severn Estuary is richly varied and of considerable importance, reflecting both the varied nature of the topography and the importance of the river for both fishing and as a maritime waterway. The archaeological resource within the estuary is under threat from natural processes such as coastal erosion, exacerbated by the high tidal range and strong tidal currents, and from threats such as ongoing development pressure along the shoreline, marine aggregates extraction and new coastal defensive and realignment measures as well as proposed major infrastructure projects. An archaeological aerial survey report of the archaeology on the English side is available to view and download from the reference link.

See also
Severnside
Severn Barrage
Severn Tidal Power Feasibility Study

References

External links

 The Severn Estuary Partnership
 Natural England (SSSI information)

Bristol Channel
River Severn
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Avon
Coast of Cardiff
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Gloucestershire
Coast of Monmouthshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Monmouthshire
Coast of Newport, Wales
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Newport
Coast of the Vale of Glamorgan
Estuaries of England
Ramsar sites in England
Ramsar sites in Wales
England–Wales border
Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1976
Wetland Sites of Special Scientific Interest
Natural regions of England
Estuaries of Wales
Bodies of water of Monmouthshire
Bodies of water of Newport, Wales
Bodies of water of the Vale of Glamorgan

Severn Estuary


The  or German Workers' Party (DAP) was a political party in Germany just after World War I.   It did not last for very long, and became the National Socialist German Workers' Party or Nazi Party (, acronym NSDAP).

Origins
Eight days before elections in Bavaria, the DAP was founded in Munich in the  Café Gasteig on 5 January 1919 by Anton Drexler and Michael Lotter. The DAP grew out of the 'Free Worker's Committee for a Good Peace' ()  which Drexler had also started.

Most of the DAP's first members were friends of Drexler's from the Munich rail depot. Drexler wanted a party that was nationalist and aimed at ordinary people.  Most other nationalist parties were middle class parties. The first membership was about forty people.

On 24 March 1919, Karl Harrer (a sports journalist and member of the Thule Society) joined the DAP to try to get more control over the DAP for the Thule Society.  There were still not many members, and meetings were often held in local pubs.

Adolf Hitler joins the DAP

When Adolf Hitler was still a corporal in the German army, he was ordered to spy on the DAP during one of its meetings at the Sterneckerbräu on 12 September 1919.

Hitler was very good at making speeches, so  Anton Drexler asked him to join the party. Hitler thought about this, and then joined near the end of September 1919. There were no membership numbers or cards when Hitler joined the party. In January 1920 the DAP began to give membership cards and numbers.  They started at number 501 to make the party look bigger.  Hitler got number 555, but he was also committee member number 7.  Later Hitler said he  was party member number 7, to make it look like he was a founder member of the DAP.

From DAP to NSDAP
The small number of party members were quick to believe in Hitler's ideas.

To try to make the party more popular the DAP changed its name on 24 February 1920 to the National Socialist German Workers' Party. The name was borrowed from a different Austrian party active at the time (Deutsche Nationalsozialistische Arbeiterpartei).  At first Hitler wanted the new name to be the 'Social Revolutionary Party'; but Rudolf Jung persuaded Hitler to use NSDAP.

Membership

Hitler was the 55th member of the party. Other well-known early members were:

Karl Harrer
Anton Drexler
Gottfried Feder
Dietrich Eckart
Alfred Rosenberg
Hans Frank

References

Weimar Republic
Former political parties in Germany
Nazi Party
1919 establishments in Germany
1920 disestablishments in Europe
20th-century disestablishments in Germany

German Workers' Party


Mutualism is a relationship between two organisms in which both benefit. It is a type of symbiosis which improves the biological fitness of both parties. The two organisms usually come from widely different types, often from different phyla or even kingdoms. The term is not used for any cooperation between animals of the same species.

Edouard van Beneden (18091894) introduced the term into evolutionary biology and ecology in the 1870s.

Examples:
Mycorrhiza: relationship between roots of plants and fungi.
Rhizobia: relationship between roots of plants and bacteria which promotes nitrogen fixation.
Many relationships between insects and flowering plants, where the insect gets food, and the plant gets transfer of pollen.
Gut flora: many relationships between gut bacteria and herbivores. The bacteria digest cellulose, and get a regular supply of nutrients. Almost no animal can digest cellulose by itself.
Lichen: an extremely close relationship between algae and fungi. Probably a mutualistic relationship, but less clearly.
Figs: each fig tree species is pollinated by its own wasp species.
Cleaner fish: small fish which pick parasites and dead matter from the mouth and body of much larger fish. The larger fish responds to the 'dance' of the cleaner by going passive.

References

Coevolution
Symbiosis

Mutualism


The Fort Peck Dam is the highest of six major dams along the Missouri River, located in northeast Montana in the United States, near Glasgow, and adjacent to the community of Fort Peck. At  in length and over  in height, it is the largest hydraulically filled dam in the United States, and creates Fort Peck Lake, the fifth largest artificial lake in the U.S., more than  long,  deep, and it has a  shoreline which is longer than the state of California's coastline. It lies within the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge. The dam and the  lake are owned and operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and exist for the purposes of hydroelectric power generation, flood control, and water quality management.

The dam presently has a nameplate capacity of 185.25 megawatts, divided among 5 generating units (which in turn are divided between the Western and Eastern grids). Three units in powerhouse number one, completed in 1951, have a capacity of 105 MW. Completed in 1961, the two remaining generating units in powerhouse number 2, have a nameplate capacity of 80 MW.

The lake has a maximum operating pool elevation of  above mean sea level and a normal operating pool elevation of  above mean sea level.  The lake level fluctuates over time based on a number of factors. During the first week of February 2007, the reservoir set a record low elevation of  above mean sea level, nearly  lower than the previous record low set in 1991. In June 2011, in response to the 2011 Missouri River Floods, the dam was releasing almost , which greatly exceeded its previous record release of  set in 1975.

Background
Fort Peck was a major project of the Public Works Administration, part of the New Deal. Construction of Fort Peck Dam started in 1933, and at its peak in July 1936 employed 10,546 workers. The dam, named for a 19th-century trading post, was completed in 1940, and began generating electricity in July 1943. The town of Fort Peck, Montana, "the government town," was built for Army Corps of Engineers personnel and men in "positions of responsibility" and their families during the dam's construction. Many of the facilities that supported the dam's workers are still used today, such as the recreation center and the Fort Peck Theater. In addition to Fort Peck, other towns sprang up to house the workers. Among these were Wheeler and McCone City as well as more than a dozen others. Many of the homes were later moved to farms and towns around Montana.

Fort Peck Dam is one of six Missouri River Main stem dams operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District. The dams downstream of Fort Peck Dam are: Garrison Dam (near Riverdale, North Dakota), Oahe Dam (near Pierre, South Dakota), Big Bend Dam (near Fort Thompson, South Dakota), Fort Randall Dam (near Pickstown, South Dakota), and Gavins Point Dam (near Yankton, South Dakota). These six mainstem dams impound these Missouri River reservoirs with a total combined water storage capacity of approximately  and approximately  of water surface area.

Construction
The site chosen was on a stretch of the Missouri River flowing from south to north. The river bed at the site consisted of approximately  of alluvial deposits, varying from coarse, pervious sands and gravels to impermeable clays. Beneath these deposits lay a thick (approximately ) deposit of Bear Paw shale. This shale is classified as a firm shale and contains thin (< layers of bentonite. The topmost layer of soft clay was removed from the alluvium in order to found the dam on the stable sandy deposits beneath, at an elevation of approximately . The remaining deposits consisted of the alluvial materials mentioned above. These deposits had many interconnecting layers of coarse sands and gravels, necessitating the installation of a steel sheet pile wall down to the firm shale, from the left to the right abutment.

As designed, the dam extends to an elevation of , for a total height of  from the cleared river bed and has a length from the left to the right abutment of approximately . The upstream face was designed with an average slope of one vertical on four horizontal and included three horizontal shelves built into the slope. A flatter (1 on 7.5) berm was to be placed between stations 30+00 and 75+00 (approximately the center half of the length of the dam).

Since the construction method of hydraulic fill was chosen, four electric dredges were built. Because of the distance of the site from the nearest shoreline, a shipyard was started on the site, affectionately dubbed "The Fort Peck Navy" and "The Biggest Shipyard in Montana" by the workers. These dredges would pump material from nearby borrow pits to the dam site where it was discharged by pipes along the outside edges of the fill. The coarser material settled out quickly, while the fines were carried downhill toward what would eventually become the core of the dam. Samples were taken from all zones regularly to ensure that the material had the gradation and consolidation characteristics specified by the design.

Dam failure during construction
This process proceeded until elevation of the fill reached approximately , while the reservoir was at an elevation of . At this point, the danger of the core pool overtopping or bursting the shell became greater because the beaches became narrower. For this reason, an extensive alarm system was implemented along the narrower upstream shell. This alarm system could immediately shut off the dredge pumps if a shell breach was detected. Part of this alarm system involved monitoring the elevations of the core pool and the pipelines carrying the dredged fill.

On the morning of September 22, 1938, an inspection by the engineer in charge of construction revealed that the elevation of the pipeline relative to the core pool near station 15+10 (see attached overhead photo) was only  when it should have been . A survey crew was dispatched immediately to determine if the fill on which the pipeline was founded was settling or if the pipeline footing itself was settling. Preliminary measurement showed that the pipeline was closer to the pool than expected from station 15+00 to station 17+00. A meeting with the district engineer and supervisory personnel was scheduled for 1:15 p.m. near the location in question.

At approximately 1:15 p.m. the core pool near station 15+00 began to settle slowly. As its rate of settlement increased, cracks appeared  below the crest in the upstream embankment. As the settlement of the pool got larger, portions of the shell began to slide backwards into the core pool area and the majority of the upstream shell began to move into the reservoir, translating south and rotating slightly about the east abutment. The west end of the slide mass broke away from the dam near station 27+00 and the core pool water rapidly poured out of the breach that was created in the shell. Portions of the core in the still-stable portion of the dam continued to slump into the hole created by the loss of the slide mass. One construction supervisor was backing his car away from the advancing scarp to the west along the beach to avoid the slumping and noted that the small scarp in the core was advancing to the west at a speed equal to his own (approximately 10 mph (16 km/h)).

A pump barge moored near the dam at the east abutment was swamped by the slide and was lost along with several tractors, loadmasters, and draglines on the slope. Of the 134 men working in the area at the time, 34 were carried into the sliding material. Of these 34, eight were unable to be rescued and lost their lives. Of the eight men, only two bodies were ever recovered, leaving six men permanently entombed in the structure.

In the testing and analysis done by the Corps of Engineers and others to determine the cause of the slide, several modes of failure were considered. These were: movement along a weak zone in the shale in the abutment, movement along the shale surface, bursting of the shell due to excessive core pressure, and temporary liquefaction of the shell or foundation sand. Extensive laboratory testing of the shale, both weathered and unweathered indicated strengths leading to a factor of safety greater than one. Also, portions of the weathered shale were found in the slide mass, indicating that the slip surface was located somewhere in the shale, but probably at a shallow depth. The core material turned out to be much stronger than expected (having a friction angle of approximately 29 degrees) and was carried out into the slide nearly in a solid mass, making it unlikely that the core was the weak point in the slide. Laboratory testing was done on the shell material and the foundation sand and it was determined that both materials were denser than the critical state for liquefaction. There was no evidence of ground vibration, seismic or otherwise. Some liquefaction may have occurred after the sliding was initiated, but it was unlikely that it caused the slide.

The major weak point in the dam seemed to be the bentonite seams in the Bear Paw shale. Very high water pressures were reported at some points in the shale during the construction. This was likely caused by consolidation due to the overburden of the fill being placed for the dam. The excess pore pressures could not be relieved due to the low permeability of the surrounding shale. This resulted in a low effective stress in the bentonite and a very low shear strength.

2011 flooding and repairs
According to the Billings Gazette, the dam was damaged by "record-high runoff and flooding in 2011." As of March 2013, "more than $42.9 million in repairs to Fort Peck Dam have been approved by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers."

Representations in art and literature

Fort Peck Dam is probably best known for being the subject of a photograph of the spillway taken by Margaret Bourke-White while still under construction that was the cover photo of the first issue of Life magazine on November 23, 1936. Later, the photograph by Bourke-White was used on a United States postage stamp in the "Celebrate the Century" series.

The dam is also center-stage in Bucking the Sun, by the Montana-born writer Ivan Doig, published in 1996. The novel tells the story of the fictional Duff family and their various roles in the mammoth dam project, and in the process describes the working conditions and way of life of the thousands of workers hired to construct the Fort Peck Dam, many of them homesteaders from upriver farms destined to disappear under the waters of the newly formed Fort Peck Lake.

Fifty Cents an Hour: The Builders and Boomtowns of the Fort Peck Dam, by Montana author Lois Lonnquist, published in 2006, is an overall history of the Fort Peck dam and spillway construction. Built by the Army Corps of Engineers, PWA Project #30 provided thousands of jobs during the Great Depression. The book includes the history of the boomtowns that sprang up in the area, and the "project people" who lived and worked at Fort Peck during the "dam days."

M.R. Montgomery, Personal History, "Impalpable Dust," The New Yorker, March 27, 1989, p. 94 was written by the son of an engineer who worked at the dam during its construction.  After his father's death, the author researched the dam's construction and his father's role in it.

Notes and references

Further reading
Doig, Ivan (1996) Bucking the Sun, New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Lonnquist, Lois (2006) Fifty Cents an Hour: The Builders and Boomtowns of the Fort Peck Dam, MtSky Press
Middlebrooks, T. A. (1942),  "Fort Peck Slide,"  Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 107, 723-764
"Report on the Slide of a Portion of the Upstream Face of the Fort Peck Dam" (1939), Corps of Engineers, US Army.

External links

 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers - Fort Peck Project
 Snake Butte: Quarry for Rock Used to Make Ft. Peck Dam
 Fort Peck Dam, unofficial website
 Life Magazine construction photos
 Fort Peck Dam Documentary produced by PBS

Dams on the Missouri River
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Fort Peck, Montana
United States Army Corps of Engineers dams
Dams completed in 1940
Dams on the National Register of Historic Places in Montana
Earth-filled dams
National Register of Historic Places in McCone County, Montana
Hydroelectric power plants in Montana
Public Works Administration in Montana
1940 establishments in Montana

Fort Peck Dam


Anderson Hunter Dupree (29 January 1921 – 30 November 2019) was an American historian and one of the pioneer historians of the history of science and technology in the United States. He died in November 2019 at the age of 98.

Early education
The son of a lawyer, George W. Dupree, and his wife, Sarah Hunter, he attended Oberlin College, where he earned his bachelor of arts degree (summa cum laude) in 1942. Upon completion of his undergraduate work, he served the United States Navy from 1942 to 1946, and became a Lieutenant in the U.S. Naval Reserve.

At the end of World War II,  Dupree married Marguerite Louise (Betty) Arnold (c. 1918-May 27, 2014) of Seattle on July 18, 1946, having two children including the historian Marguerite Dupree and the harpsichord maker Anderson H. Dupree.

Hunter Dupree entered Harvard University, where he completed his master's degree in 1947, and his Ph.D. in 1952, having written his doctoral dissertation on Asa Gray, titled "Asa Gray: The Development of a Statesman of Science, 1810–1848". Marguerite earned a Ph.D. in history from Harvard and also taught at universities.

Academic career
In 1950, Dupree took up his first academic position as assistant professor of history at Texas Technological College (now Texas Tech University) in Lubbock, Texas, where he remained until 1952, when he was appointed a research fellow at the   Gray Herbarium at Harvard University. He served two appointments there in 1952–54 and 1955–56. In addition, he served as project director on grants at the National Science Foundation, 1953-55.

In 1956, the University of California, Berkeley appointed Dupree as visiting assistant professor of history, then promoted to associate professor in 1958, and professor of history in 1961. He served additionally as assistant to the chancellor in 1960–62, and director of the Bancroft Library in 1965–66.  In addition, Dupree was a consultant to the committee on science and public policy at the National Academy of Sciences in 1963–64. He remained at Berkeley until 1968.

Despite being a competent academic, Dupree's tenure in the Bancroft Library directorship was brief and stormy. He was appointed to the directorship in June 1965 but clashed repeatedly with the staff over library internal policy, which sparked a near-revolution among its employees. Part of the disagreement involved Dupree's emphasis on modernizing traditional library practices and the way collections, particularly manuscripts, were handled in the collections. He also required an accounting for long-term projects on which the library devoted resources but could show few actual results. In January 1966 The UC-Berkeley president returned him to the history faculty that same June.

In 1968, Brown University appointed Dupree George L. Littlefield Professor of History, a position he held until his retirement in 1981. While in this post, he served as a consultant to the Panel on Science and Technology and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives, 1969–73; trustee of the American Textile History Museum, a member of the NASA Historical Advisory Committee, and the Atomic Energy Commission's Historical Advisory Committee.

Awards
 In 1976, he received the Presidential Award of the New York Academy of Sciences and was selected as a Fellow, Center for Advanced Studies, National Humanities Center in 1978-79.
 In 1990, he was awarded the George Sarton Medal.

Published works

• 'Some Letters from Charles Darwin to Jeffries Wyman', Isis Vol.42,Part 2., No.128. (June, 1951), pp. 104–110.

• 'Thomas Nuttall's Controversy With Asa Gray', Rhodora, Vol. 54, (1952), pp. 293–303.

• 'Science vs. the Military: Dr. James Morrow and the Perry Expedition', The Pacific Historical Review, vol. 22, no. 1, (1953), pp. 29–37.

• 'Jeffries Wyman's views on evolution', Isis, vol. 44 (1953), pp. 243–246.

• Science in the Federal Government, a history of policies and activities to 1940. (1957, 1986).

• Asa Gray, 1810-1888 (1959, 1968, 1988).

• "What manuscripts the historian wants saved", Isis, vol. 53 (1962), pp. 63–66.

• Darwiniana; essays and reviews pertaining to Darwinism by Asa Gray; edited A. Hunter Dupree. (1963)

• Science and the emergence of modern America, 1865-1916, edited by A. Hunter Dupree. (1963)

• Some general implications of the research of the Harvard University Program on Technology and Society edited by Emmanuel G. Mesthene. Comment: the anticipation of change by Simon Ramo. Comment: Is technology predictable? by Peter F. Drucker. Comment: the role of technology in society and the need for historical perspective by A. Hunter Dupree. Comment on the comments by Emmanuel G. Mesthene. (1969)

• "The crisis in authority", Brown Alumni Monthly, vol. 70, no. 1, (1969)

• Science and society: past, present, and future  edited by Nicholas H. Steneck with a contribution by A. Hunter Dupree (1975)

• Sir Joseph Banks and the origins of science policy. James Ford Bell Lecture; no. 22. (1984).

Manuscript collections

 Oberlin College Library RG 30/417: A. Hunter Dupree Family Papers, 1830-2002
 Brown University Library:   Anderson Hunter Dupree Papers.

References

1921 births
2019 deaths
People from Hillsboro, Texas
Oberlin College alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
21st-century American historians
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy officers
Historians of science
Historians of technology
Historians of the United States
Brown University faculty
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Historians from Texas
Historians from California
20th-century American male writers
Military personnel from Texas
Texas Tech University faculty

A. Hunter Dupree


Natural killer cells (or NK cells) are a type of lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system. NK cells provide a rapid response to cells infected by viruses, or to bacterial cells. The response happens about 3 days after infection. NK cells also respond to tumour formation.

NK cells are unique: they have the ability to recognise stressed cells in the absence of antibodies and major histocompatibility complex (MHC). This allows for a much faster immune reaction.

In early experiments in cancer patients and animals, investigators found what was called a "natural" reactivity. That is, a certain population of cells seemed to be able to kill tumour cells without previously being sensitized to them. At first many thought that these observations were artifacts. However, by 1973, 'natural killing' activity was established across a wide variety of species, and the existence of a separate line of cells with this ability was suggested.

Function
To control their cytotoxic activity, NK cells have two types of surface receptors: activating receptors and inhibitory receptors. When the NK cell is activated, it destroys the cells which have switched it on.

Small granules in their cytoplasm contain proteins and enzymes called granzymes. They are released close to a cell which has triggered their action. A protein perforin forms pores in the cell membrane of the target cell, creating a channel through which enzymes and other molecules can enter. This kills the target cell. The details vary according to whether the target is a virus, a bacterium or a tumour cell.

Hypothesis
These inhibitory receptors recognize MHC class I molecules, which could explain why NK cells kill cells with low levels of MHC class I molecules. This inhibition is crucial to the role played by NK cells. MHC class I molecules are main way cells display viral or tumor antigens to cytotoxic T-cells. A common evolutionary adaptation to this seen in both intracellular microbes and tumours is a long-term down-regulation of these MHC I molecules. This makes the cells impervious to T-cell action. NK cells may have evolved as an evolutionary response: the loss of MHC would deprive these cells of the inhibitory effect of MHC and make them vulnerable to NK cell attack.

NK cell function in adaptive response
The adaptive immune response generates memory cells after a primary infection. Then there is a rapid response to later infections by the same antigen. Earlier it was thought that NK cells play no role in the adaptive immune responses, but now it seems they do.

References

Blood cells
Immunology

Natural killer cell


Sonitpur is a major district of Assam, India.

Legend
The name "Sonitpur" as well as "Tezpur" literally means "the city of blood".

It reminds of the romantic legend of Usha and Anirudha. The legend revolves around Banasura, the great Asura king of ancient Tezpur, his beautiful daughter Usha and her friend Chitralekha. The princess saw a handsome prince in her dreams and fell in love with him. Chitralekha, a talented artist, not only painted his portrait from Usha's description but recognised him to be Aniruddha, the grandson of Lord Krishna and ruler of Dwarka. Using her magical powers, Chitralekha spirited Aniruddha away to the princess' boudoir where the two married each other according to Gandharva rites, without the knowledge of the king. When Banasura learnt of the clandestine romance, he imprisoned Aniruddha, which led to the arrival of Lord Krishna to rescue his grandson. A fierce battle followed and the entire city was drenched in human blood, hence the name Sonitpur or Tezpur, i.e. 'the city of blood' .
The story of eternal love between Usha and Aniruddha finds expression in many stories, novels, dramas, dance-dramas, movies.

Pre-British Era
Sir Edward A. Gait ( 1897) had made reference to the nine line inscription of Harjjar Varma in his ''A History of Assam.'' The inscription is the first recorded history of Assam and dates back to 829 A.D. The inscription was found engraved on a massive

stone some two kms away from Tezpur town situated near a temple called Rudrapad.

Salastambha dynasty ruled Kamrupa from seventh to Tenth century A.D. The accurate boundary of their kingdom is debatable. But the erstwhile Darrang was certainly a part of the kingdom. They shifted their capital from Pragjyotishpur to Haruppeswara, or Hatappeswara- the present day Tezpur. The famous King of the dynasty Harjjar Varma, besides other things had excavated a large pond in 70 acres of land, later came to be known as Hajara Pukhuri ( Harjjara Pukhuri ).Pal dynasty ruled Haruppeswara till the 12th century. The most famous ruler of the Pal dynasty was Brahmapal.

After the Pal dynasty'' the royal dominance of the Koch Kings in the west and the Ahoms in the east started growing. During the 14th and 15th century a large part of the western bank of Brahmaputra from Singri in the west and Sootea in the east was ruled by the Bara-Bhuyans. The great saint poet Sri Sri Shankardeva belonged to Bara-Bhuyan family, who settled at Rowta in Darrang District. The Ahom King Suhungmung alias Dihingia Raja occupied the territories of the Bara-Bhuyans on the north in 1505 A.D.The Koch King Biswa Sinha rose to power in 1515 A.D. King Naranarayana who ascended the thorne in about 1540 A. D. divided his Kingdom into two parts. He had given the eastern part to the son of his brother Chilarai and the western part of the kingdom to his own son Lakshminarayana. But soon after their ascension as kings, fatricidal war broke out and Lakshminarayana sought refuge with the Mughals which eventually led to invasion of Kamrup by the Mughals. Balinarayana, one of the brothers of Pariksitnarayana fled away to Gorgaon to seek the help of the Ahom king Swargadew Pratapsingha. Pratapsingha christened Balinarayana as Dharmanarayana, made him the king of Darrang and declared war against the Mughals (1616-1637 A.D.). The Ahoms defeated the mighty Mughals in the Bharali war and re-occupied Darrang from the Mughals. King Dharmanarayana made supreme sacrifice in Singari war in 1638. His son Sundarnarayana ascended the throne and became the king of Darrang.(excluding Tezpur). On the other hand, the Ahoms ruled the eastern part of Darrang ( present Sonitpur) through Kalia Bhomora Borphukan, stationed at Kaliabor. The Ahom Kings resettled many people in the southern part of Brahmaputra.

British Period
The British annexed the then Assam into the Indian British Empire in 1826. After1826 the Lower Assam and the Central Assam (Darrang, Nagaon and Raha) were made one division which extended up to Biswanath. The division was placed under one Administrative Officer designated as the Principal Assistant to the Commissioner. The Upper Assam portion was left to the native rulers with supervisory control under a British political agent with political headquarters at Biswanath. Captain Neufville was the political agent for Upper Assam. Darrang Division was administered till 1833 from Guwahati.

Darrang was converted into a district and Mangaldai was made the district Headquarter in 1833. But due to various reasons the British shifted the head quarter to Tezpur in 1835. The district comprised of two sub-divisions, Tezpur sadar sub-division and Mangaldoi sub-division with head quarter at Mangaldoi. The District of Darrang was divided in to six Revenue Circles under one Sub-Deputy Collector in each Circle. There was one Transferred area in the district at Charduar. An Asst. Political Officer was posted at Charduar under the Deputy Commissioner who acted as Political Officer.

Tezpur was a small township then. The British developed Tezpur as a small garrison township. Later, tea gardens were set-up throughout the district. The old steamarghat at Jahajghat, the Dak-Bungalow, the then Chummery compound at present Don-Bosco School campus, the Planters Club of Tezpur (Stations Club), the Jahajghat Railway Station, the Church of Ephiphany etc. and many tea gardens are some of the examples of the contributions of the British.

Freedom Struggle
There is no specific information about the alignment of the people of the district in the earlier struggle for liberation waged by the princely and upper class people in Upper Assam from 1828 to 1857. But, with the spread of western education during the last part of the 19th century a new awakening surcharged the patriots of the land.

Few years before the birth of the Indian National Congress in Bombay in 1885, the Tezpur Ryot Sabha was formed by a group of enlightened people primarily to protest against the enhancement of land revenue and to ventilate other public grievances .

The Tezpur Ryot Sabha sent Kali Krishna Barkakoti to as its delegate to the National Congress in 1885. It had played an active role in early period of the freedom struggle.

The All Assam Student Association formed in 1916 worked in the district under the leadership of Chandra Nath Sarma.

In June, 1921, the Tezpur District Congress Committee was formed under the presidency of Chandra Nath Sarma.

In August 1921, Mahatma Gandhi visited Tezpur and recorded his impression of the visit in Young India in the article "From the Bank of Brahmaputra".

In 1934 Mahatma Gandhi visited Tezpur again during the course of Civil Disobedience Movement.

In the final phase of British Period the Quit India Movement gained momentum with the slogan "Do or Die" in places like Tezpur, Sootea, Gohpur, Dhekiajuli and Jamuguri.

On 10th September 1942, at Gohpur a young girl led a procession of unarmed villagers under Congress flag. She was Kanaklata Barua – a girl from Barangabari village. As soon as Kanaklata unfurled the flag she and her companion Mukunda Kakati were gunned down by the armed Police. The saga of her heroic sacrifice is still remembered with pride.

On the same day at Dhekiajuli Police Station eleven unarmed villagers were gunned down by the armed Police while trying to hoist the tri-color at the Police Station - three of them were teen-aged girls- Tileswari, Numali and Khahuli .

Finally, the British era had come to an end on 15th August "1947" when India gained her Independence in the midnight of 14th August.

Post-Independence
The administration set up by the British continued even after Independence. Darrang district with head quarter at Tezpur continued as an important district of Assam.

Towards 1961, Tezpur started to become a center of Trade and Commerce. A year later, in 1962, war broke out with China. The Chinese Army advanced up-to Sessa near Bhalukpung. People started fleeing from their homes. The war had left a bitter experience in the minds of the people of the district.

In 1983, Darrang district was bifurcated. Tezpur sadar sub-division was named as Sonitpur district with an outlying Sub-Division at Biswanath Chariali. Mangaldoi sub-division was named as Darrang district.

On 15th August, 2000, another Sub-Division namely Gohpur Sub-Division was carved out from the erstwhile Biswanath Sub-Division.

Two major events in the field of communication and education can be cited as landmarks in post-independence history of the district. The first one being the construction of Kalia Bhomora Bridge and its inauguration on 14th April,1987, by Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India. The second one is the establishment of a Central University at Napaam named as Tezpur University.

In the cultural front one can very well name the trio of Assamese culture who were born in the district. The post independence era had seen their talents flourishing which had not only enriched the cultural horizon of the district but has also contributed to formation of a composite Assamese culture.

Districts of Assam

Sonitpur district


Hazardous waste is any waste that contains chemicals, toxic or corrosive materials. Hazardous waste can be found in many industries, including mining, manufacturing, and agriculture. It can also be produced by households through activities such as cleaning up after a spill or accident. These materials can pollute the environment and pose threat to human lives. The main reason for this is that these hazardous wastes are not properly disposed of. They can cause serious environmental damage such as groundwater pollution, air pollution and soil contamination.

Definition
Hazardous waste is any waste that contains chemicals, toxic or corrosive materials. Hazardous waste can be found in many industries, including mining, manufacturing, and agriculture. It can also be produced by households through activities such as cleaning up after a spill or accident.

Hazardous waste is any waste that has been determined to be hazardous under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976. Hazardous wastes are divided into two general categories: ignitable waste and corrosive waste.

Hazardous wastes are materials that

 Are liquid, solid, or gas at room temperature and pressure;
 Have a characteristic odor;
 Can cause cancer, birth defects or other reproductive harm if swallowed;
 Have an acute or chronic toxic effect on humans;
 Are combustible; and/or
 Combustible liquids present a fire or explosive hazard.

Hazardous waste is called "hazardous" because of the potential harm it could cause to people or the environment. For example, if you spilled a paint thinner on your carpet, it could cause burns to anyone who breathes in the fumes.

When hazardous wastes are improperly handled, they can release harmful chemicals into the air or water supply that cause health problems for nearby residents and wildlife. These wastes also pose risk to workers who handle them improperly or who work with them on a regular basis. If proper precautions are not taken when handling hazardous waste, accidents can occur which may result in death or serious injury to workers and others who come into contact with them.

Authorization
The rule 6 of the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management & Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 and amendment thereto shall be required to make an application in Form 1 to the State Pollution Control Board and obtain an authorisation from the State Pollution Control Board of Every occupier of the facility who is engaged in handling, generation, collection, storage, packaging, transportation, use, treatment, processing, recycling, recovery, pre-processing, co-processing, utilisation, offering for sale, transfer or disposal of the hazardous and other wastes. Such application for authorisation shall be accompanied with a copy each of the following documents, namely:-

 Consent to establish granted by the State Pollution Control Board under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (25 of 1974) and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (21 of 1981);
 Consent to operate granted by the State Pollution Control Board under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (25 of 1974) and/or Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, (21 of 1981);
 In case of renewal of authorisation, a self-certified compliance report in respect of effluent, emission standards and the conditions specified in the authorisation for hazardous and other wastes.

Procedures to get authorization under Hazardous Waste Management
The procedure for obtaining authorization under Hazardous Waste Management is as follows:

 The owner of an industrial plant/facility must obtain an authorization from the local health office which is responsible for issuing such permits. The same applies to business establishments.
 The health office will then issue a license to dispose of hazardous waste on your property, based on your company's report and demonstration of compliance with all requirements (e.g., environmental impact assessment).
 You must submit an annual report on the amount of hazardous waste disposed, its type, location and disposal method; along with other important information such as how much was recovered and recycled or resold during that year. You also need to keep detailed records showing your efforts at recycling or reusing hazardous waste materials in other ways (e.g., by selling them for reuse as raw materials).

References

Air pollution
Water pollution

Hazardous waste


David Henderson may refer to:

Academy
David Henderson (philosopher) (born 1954), American philosopher
 David Henderson (psychiatrist) (1884–1965), Scottish psychiatrist
 David W. Henderson (1939–2018), American professor of mathematics
 David Willis Wilson Henderson (1903–1968), Scottish microbiologist. Director of MRE, Porton Down

Economics
 David Henderson (economist) (1927–2018), chief economist at the OECD in Paris from 1984 to 1992
 David R. Henderson (born 1950), American economist

Journalism
 David Henderson (broadcaster) (born 1970), Scottish journalist/newsreader working for BBC Scotland
 David Henderson (American journalist), CBS Network News television and radio journalist

Politics
 David B. Henderson (1840–1906), U.S. politician of the 1890s and 1900s
 David Henderson (Canadian politician) (1841–1922), former Canadian Member of Parliament
 David N. Henderson (1921–2004), U.S. Representative from North Carolina

Sport
 David Henderson (footballer) (1868–1933), Scottish football player (Liverpool FC)
 Dave Henderson (1958–2015), former Major League Baseball player
 Dave Henderson (footballer) (born 1960), retired Irish football goalkeeper
 David Henderson (basketball) (born 1964), former Duke Co-Captain and head basketball coach at University of Delaware
 David C. Henderson (born c. 1917), American football player and coach of football and basketball
 Dave Henderson (ice hockey) (born 1952), Canadian-born French ice hockey coach and player

Others
 David Henderson (British Army officer) (1862–1921), senior British Army and, later, RAF officer
 David Ezekiel Henderson (1879–1968), U.S. federal judge
 David Henderson (poet) (born 1942), poet associated with the Umbra workshop and Black Arts Movement
 Davy Henderson (born c. 1962), Scottish musician, The Fire Engines, Win, The Nectarine No. 9
 David Henderson (Christchurch, New Zealand), property developer in New Zealand

David Henderson


The Port of Manchester is in the north west of England. It was created as a customs port on 1 January 1894. This was four months before the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal transformed Manchester from a landlocked city into a major sea port. It extended along the whole 36 miles length of the canal, from Eastham in the west to Manchester in the east, absorbing the Port of Runcorn, which had been created in 1862. The creation of the new port moved the Port of Liverpool's boundary 11 milles to the west. Once delivered to the port, goods travelled as far west as Warrington, about 20 miles north, as far east as Leeds, and up to 100 miles south to Birmingham.

References

Greater Manchester

Port of Manchester


Alfred Mordecai Freedman (January 7, 1917April 17, 2011) was an American psychiatrist. A long-time educator and advocate of social justice, Freedman is known for leading the effort to have the American Psychiatric Association de-classify homosexuality as a mental illness.

Early life and education
Alfred Freedman was born January 7, 1917, in Albany, New York. After earning his undergraduate degree at Cornell University in 1937, Freedman graduated from the University of Minnesota Medical School in 1941. He began an internship at Harlem Hospital but left before completion to enlist in the United States Army Air Corps. He left the service having attained the rank of Major.

After initially studying neuropsychology, Freedman trained in both general and child psychiatry, undertaking a residency at Bellevue Hospital. He became the chief of child psychiatry at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center, a post in which he served for five years, before becoming the first person to serve full-time as the department of psychiatry Chairman at New York Medical College, a post which he held for 30 years.

Removing homosexuality as a mental illness
In 1972, Freedman was approached by the Committee of Concerned Psychiatrists, a group of young reform-minded doctors, who encouraged him to run for the presidency of the American Psychiatric Association. He won the election by 3 votes out of some 9,000 that were cast.

In his position as president, Freedman immediately supported a resolution offered by Robert L. Spitzer to delete homosexuality from the list of mental illness diagnoses. On December 15, 1973, the APA's board of trustees voted 13—0 in favor of the resolution, which stated that "by itself, homosexuality does not meet the criteria for being a psychiatric disorder" and that "We will no longer insist on a label of sickness for individuals who insist that they are well and demonstrate no generalized impairment in social effectiveness." LGBT rights organizations have hailed this decision as one of the greatest advances for gay equality in the United States. Freedman himself believed that passing this resolution was the most important accomplishment of his one-year tenure as president. A second resolution called for an end to discrimination based on sexual orientation and the repeal of laws against consensual gay sex.

Other concerns
Freedman was also concerned about the treatment of drug addiction. In 1959 he established in East Harlem one of the earliest drug treatment programs for adults and the following year created a similar program for adolescents. As president of the APA Freedman worked to draw attention to the abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. He led a delegation to the USSR and challenged the practice of detaining political dissidents in mental facilities. Following his retirement he turned his attention to the role of psychiatry in capital punishment and campaigned for doctors not to participate in executions and against the administration of psychiatric medicines to death row inmates so they could be declared competent for execution.

The Alfred M. Freedman Award for best scientific paper presented at the annual International Society of Political Psychology meeting was awarded from 1993 to 1999.

Death
Alfred Freedman died in Manhattan on April 17, 2011, following complications after surgery to treat a hip fracture. He is survived by his wife, Marcia, sons Dan and Paul  and three grandchildren.

References

External links
 The New York Times obituary

1917 births
2011 deaths
American psychiatrists
University of Minnesota Medical School alumni
American anti–death penalty activists
American LGBT rights activists
United States Army officers
Cornell University alumni

Alfred Freedman


NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 12 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NLRP12 gene.

NALPs are cytoplasmic proteins that form a subfamily within the larger CATERPILLER protein family. Most short NALPs, such as NALP12, have an N-terminal pyrin (MEFV; MIM 608107) domain (PYD), followed by a NACHT domain, a NACHT-associated domain (NAD), and a C-terminal leucine-rich repeat (LRR) region. The long NALP, NALP1 (MIM 606636), also has a C-terminal extension containing a function to find domain (FIIND) and a caspase recruitment domain (CARD). NALPs are implicated in the activation of proinflammatory caspases (e.g., CASP1; MIM 147678) via their involvement in multiprotein complexes called inflammasomes (Tschopp et al., 2003).[supplied by OMIM]

References

Further reading

LRR proteins
NOD-like receptors

NLRP12


Goodnight Moon is an American picture book. It was published by Harper & Brothers in 1947. It was written by Margaret Wise Brown. The pictures were drawn by Clement Hurd. The book is about a bunny who says "goodnight" to all the things he can see about his bedroom.

1947 books
English-language picture books

Goodnight Moon


In astronomy, a circular orbit refers to an object (such as a planet or a star) which orbits around a central body in a fixed, circular motion. This motion follows Kepler's Laws. A circular orbit occurs when the eccentricity of its orbit is equal to 0.

Objects with a circular orbit are uncommon. The Moon moves in an elliptical orbit around the Earth, and the planets move in an elliptical orbit around the Sun.

Other types of motion in astronomy include elliptical orbit, parabolic trajectory, and hyperbolic trajectory.

Orbits

Circular orbit


Culture Vannin is the trading name for the Manx Heritage Foundation, established in 1982 by the Isle of Man Government to promote Manx culture, heritage and language. It was rebranded in February 2014, having previously been known as the "Manx Heritage Foundation" (), since the former title "held connotations more towards the cultural history of the island" which were not felt to be accurate to the organisation's progressive approach to invigorating Manx culture. Culture Vannin's motto is "Taking our culture forward".

Organisation
The management board of the Foundation consists of two MHKs appointed by Tynwald, three members of the general public nominated by the Council of Ministers and approved by Tynwald, and a representative from both the Isle of Man Arts Council and Manx National Heritage. It is chaired by Chris Thomas MHK.

The Foundation currently employs four members staff:
 Director: Dr Breesha Maddrell
 Manx Language Development Officer: Ruth Keggin Gell
 Manx Music Development Officer: Dr Chloë Woolley

Its offices are based in Fairfield House, St. John's, opposite Tynwald Hill and next to Bunscoill Ghaelgagh. Having announced plans for this relocation in June 2015, Culture Vannin opened its doors to the public at Fairfield House on Tynwald Day 2016. It was previously located at The Nunnery, Douglas.

Activities
Culture Vannin's policy states that its four main aims are:
1) To identify the unique areas of Manx Heritage and Culture and;2) To find practical ways of making them relevant to today's society;3) To support the Manx identity and contemporary Manx culture.

The Foundation sets out to achieve these aims by offering financial assistance through grants or loans, by undertaking and commissioning its own research/publishing, and by offering practical advice and assistance where appropriate.

The Foundation considers Manx culture to include all of the following: crafts, language, history, natural history, music, literature, folk-lore, art, folk dance, architecture, archaeology, industrial development, law and ecology.<ref>[http://www.manxheritage.org/pdfs/MH%20Foundation%20act.pdf Manx Heritage Foundation Act 1982] 'Objectives of the Foundation 2, i-xiv' (accessed May 15, 2013)</ref>

Examples of key work carried out by the Foundation includes:
 The awarding of Reih Bleeaney Vanannan'' (Manannan's Choice of the Year) in recognition of an outstanding contribution to Manx culture. This has been awarded annually since 1987.
 Support of events that celebrate the Manx language, music and dance, including: Shennaghys Jiu, Yn Chruinnaght, Cooish and Bree.
 The publication or support for publication of a number of books, CDs and DVDs.
 Commissioning and supporting a number of oral history projects.

References

External links
Official website

Cultural organisations based in the Isle of Man
Organizations established in 1982
Manx language
Celtic language advocacy organizations
1982 establishments in the Isle of Man
Government of the Isle of Man

Culture Vannin


True Dough Mania is a Canadian board game, created by George J. Reti, which was released in 1982 by Chieftain Products.

Subtitled "a game of chance where you have no chance", the game was a satire on Canadian politics. The name was a pun on "Trudeaumania", the name given to the aura of excitement surrounding Pierre Trudeau in the 1968 election; Trudeau was still Canada's Prime Minister in 1982, but his popularity had waned significantly.

In the game, each player is the owner of a Canadian business. Players roll the dice and advance around a map of Canada. On some squares, the player is required to draw a "Cabinet Shuffle" or "Constitution" card, and follow the directions on the card (much like the "Chance" and "Community Chest" cards in Monopoly).

The winner is the first player to lose all of their company's assets to the federal government.

External links

Board games introduced in 1982
Canadian board games
Satirical games
Economic simulation board games
Pierre Trudeau

True Dough Mania


The first USS Barnegat (SP-1232) was a commercial tugboat acquired by the U.S. Navy during World War I. She was armed with a 3-inch gun and sent to Brest, France, to perform towing services for Allied ships. Post-war, she returned to the United States, was decommissioned, and was subsequently used on the Delaware River by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Built in Camden, New Jersey

The first ship to be so named by the U.S. Navy, Barnegat (Id. No. 1232) was a steel-hulled, single-screw, ocean-going tug. Originally built for the Luckenbach Steamship Co., Luckenbach Tug No. 1 was completed in 1891 at Camden, New Jersey, by John H. Dialogue. The Navy acquired her "for distant service" on 12 October 1917, assigned her the identification number (Id. No.) 1232, and earmarked her for duty "as a tug to tow large disabled vessels".

Luckenbach Tug No. 1 was commissioned on 12 October 1917. On 30 October 1917, General Order No. 334 directed that Luckenbach Tug No. 1 be renamed Barnegat "at once".

World War I service

Crossing the Atlantic Ocean

Barnegat fitted out at the New York Navy Yard, Brooklyn, New York, and was detailed, on 20 November 1917, to accompany the armed yacht Nokomis (Id. No. 609) to the Azores, towing submarine chasers. Dispatch traffic, however, indicates difficulties in finding certain items of equipment to be installed on board, the Commander, Naval Station, New York, informing the Navy Department that Barnegat and Montauk (Id.No.1213) still needed binnacles and standard compasses as of 11 December, but prognosticated that both ships would be ready to sail on the 12th. Barnegat ultimately departed New York City for the Philadelphia Navy Yard, there to complete preparations "for distant service" and thence to await onward routing.

At sea mechanical problems

Barnegat—with the French submarine chaser SC-171 in tow—departed the Delaware Capes on 22 December 1917, bound for Bermuda, as part of a small flotilla of armed tugs and yachts ordered to deliver six submarine chasers built in American shipyards to the French government. Venetia (Id. No. 431), the flagship for the convoy, towed SC-67, Lydonia (Id. No. 700), SC-173; Montauk, SC-29, and Gypsum Queen (Id. No. 430), SC-170 and SC-172.

One day out, on the afternoon of 23 December, Lydonia reported boiler trouble. Consequently, Comdr. Louis B. Porterfield, the group's commanding officer, ordered Montauk to release SC 29 and to take Lydonia and her charge, SC-173, astern, and directed Barnegat to pick up SC 29. While Venetia stood by, her starboard whaleboat ready to assist the tug if necessary, Barnegat's sailors got the towline on board the French craft at 1600. Then, as Montauk and her disabled charge returned toward Norfolk, Virginia, the little flotilla again set course for Bermuda.

During the mid-watch on Christmas day, however, Barnegat and her tows dropped so far astern of the convoy that Venetia, with SC-67 still riding at the end of the towline astern, began searching for them. Hailing Gypsum Queen close at hand on her port beam, Venetia signaled to "stay close…and keep in sight". At less than a half-hour into the morning watch, at 0425, Venetia spotted a light on her starboard bow and began steering toward it. No sooner had the convoy flagship made contact with her one prodigal, but Gypsum Queen, that had fallen astern during the search for Barnegat, dropped below the horizon.

Barnegat soon informed Venetia of her difficulties, promising to be ready to proceed in about two hours. Eventually, by 0945 on Christmas Day, the tug was underway and steaming slowly; by the midpoint in the morning watch, the convoy was on course and together again, with Venetia's log containing the notation that she was steaming various courses and various speeds "to keep in touch with the tugs".

Regrouping at Bermuda

The little convoy reached Bermuda shortly before the start of the mid watch on 27 December, with Barnegat bringing up the rear; a strong northeasterly wind and nearly continuous rain made the reception chilly and damp, but eventually all of the ships and their tows were safely anchored in Great Sound. Barnegat then shifted to His Majesty's Dockyard, Bermuda, on the afternoon of the 29th.

Barnegat's executive officer visited Venetia on the morning of the 31st; presumably the topic of conversation was voyage repairs, for that afternoon the "exec" returned to the ship with an officer from Prometheus (Repair Ship No. 2). On New Year's Day, 1918, Ensign John Alexander, USNRF, was detached from Venetia with orders to command Barnegat.

Venetia later transferred foodstuffs to Barnegat via Prometheus's motor sailer on 5 January, the day that the tug quit the dockyard to anchor in Great Sound. More conferences between commanding officers ensued, probably dealing with the next leg of the voyage, that commenced as the flotilla took departure on 7 January 1918 for the Azores.

Forming a line of divisions with Venetia in the lead, again towing SC-67; Nokomis and Galatea (SP-714) followed, as did Penobscot (Id. No. 982), Nahant (Id. No. 1250) and Concord (Id. No.773); Barnegat and Gypsum Queen brought up the rear.

Stopping in the Azores

By the time that Barnegat reached Ponta Delgada, Azores, in late January, plans were being broached for her future employment. Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, U.S. Naval Forces in European Waters, suggested to the Chief of Naval Operations that the majority of vessels assigned to the western bases be tugs. Consequently, he contemplated sending, about 25 January, Barnegat (among other vessels) to the French coast to base at Brest.

She left the dockyard on 5 January; and the flotilla sortied for the Azores two days later. The convoy reached Punta Delgada late in the month, and Barnegat operated in and around that island group into the spring. Highlights of her Azores duty were a run to Horta, Fayal, to tow French submarine chaser SC 28 to Punta Delgada and a cruise in nearby waters to search for the troopship Hancock. Barnegat, with Gypsum Queen and two French subchasers, cleared the Azores early in the spring and proceeded to France. Upon their arrival at Brest on 23 April 1918, Barnegat and Gypsum Queen were assigned to Division 9, Patrol Force.

Homeport in Brest, France

Barnegat operated with that organization through the Armistice, towing vessels that ranged from lighters to battleships and transports. Continuing to operate out of Brest after the fighting ended, she added work as a dispatch vessel and as a passenger ferry to her duties as a tug. Toward the end of her service in Europe, she embarked a party of motion picture photographers on 7 August to film the gigantic transport Leviathan.

Barnegat got underway on 24 September 1919 in company with Bella (Id. No. 2211) and Nahant, bound for the Azores. However, less than 24 hours out, she accidentally rammed and holed Nahant. Then she and Bella stood by their damaged consort until they escorted her back to Brest.

While she waited for Nahant to complete repairs, Barnegat conducted harbor operations through the first fortnight of October.

Returning to Norfolk, Virginia

The same trio again left French waters on 15 October. After a brief stop at Punta Delgada, they encountered heavy seas and gale-force winds. Experiencing engine difficulties in the predawn darkness of 3 November, the tug radioed her plight to Bella and bridled her bow for towing. Nahant passed a hawser to the tug and Barnegat remained under tow until late the next afternoon when she was again able to proceed under her own power.

A few days later, Nahant suffered propulsion difficulties and Barnegat closely accompanied her to Bermuda. They got underway once more on 24 November and reached Norfolk four days later.

Post-war disposition

Although no record of Barnegat's decommissioning has been found, she was probably inactivated on the day of her arrival at Norfolk or very soon thereafter. The last entry in her log was made on that day. The tug was moved to Philadelphia in February 1920 and lay in the navy yard there until 17 August 1920 when she was ordered transferred to the War Department.

Thereafter, she was operated in the Delaware River by the Army Corps of Engineers. After 1923, her name disappeared from lists of vessels owned by the Federal Government.

References

World War I auxiliary ships of the United States
Tugs of the United States Navy
Ships built by Dialogue & Company
Dispatch boats of the United States Navy

USS Barnegat (SP-1232)


The San Jose de Ivana Church, also known as Ivana Church, is a Roman Catholic church located in Ivana, Batanes, Philippines dedicated to Saint Joseph under the jurisdiction of the Prelature of Batanes. The church was declared a National Historical Landmark by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines in 2008.

History
The church of Ivana was first established by the Dominicans as a chapel in 1787. Originally, there were three mission chapels in Said, Kadpidan and Radiwan in Ivana. The present stone church and convent was built in Radiwan under the direction of Father Francisco de Paula Esteban, OP, in 1795, while the bell tower was constructed during the term of Father Fausto de Cuevas, OP from 1814 to 1817. The church was intended to serve the people of Ivana, Sabtang and Uyugan. The residents of Sabtang had been forcibly resettled in Ivana, but were later allowed to return to their island, reducing the size of the congregation. In 1844, space in the church's nave that was no longer needed was closed off. The façade was renovated during the term of Father Fabian Martin, OP, from 1866 to 1869. The church was partially destroyed due to an earthquake in 2000 and was later renovated during the term of Father Gumersindo Hernandez, OP, in 2001.

Filipino revolutionaries waved the Katipunan flag in the church's bell tower on September 18, 1898.

Architectural features
The church's façade was built alongside the shortening of its nave in 1854. When the population decreased in the 1840s due to the return of the Isabtang to Sabtang, the rear portion of the church was closed. Today, ruins of the abandoned portion of the church can still be seen. It also has a crenellated bell tower supported by unusual buttresses. Its convent, which is part of the church complex, has an unusual circular masonry work near the stairway.

References

External links

Roman Catholic churches in Batanes
National Historical Landmarks of the Philippines
Churches in the Roman Catholic Territorial Prelature of Batanes

Ivana Church


In military terminology, a rocket is a self-propelled, generally guided, weapon-system powered by a rocket engine. Though used primarily as medium- and long-range artillery systems, historically rockets have also seen considerable use as air-to-surface weapons, some use as air-to-air weapons, and even (in a few cases) as surface-to-air devices. Examples of modern surface-to-surface rocket systems include the Soviet BM-27 Uragan and the American M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System.

In military parlance, a rocket differs from a missile primarily by lacking an active guidance system; early missiles became known as "guided rockets" or "guided missiles". Some rockets were developed as unguided systems and later upgraded to guided versions, like the GMLRS, and these generally retain the term "rocket" instead of becoming "missiles".
Rockets or missiles that travel underwater, like the VA-111 Shkval, are known as "torpedoes", whatever their propulsion system.

Early development

The use of rockets as some form of artillery dates back to medieval China where devices such as fire arrows were used (albeit mostly as a psychological weapon), and gradually spread to Europe and the Middle East. Rockets became a significant weapon during the 20th century when precise manufacturing processes made relatively accurate rockets possible.

Basic roles

Artillery

Rockets have been used as an artillery weapon for centuries, and continue to be used in the modern age after being extensively modernized in World War II. Rockets in the artillery role complement traditional field guns, being superior in some ways and inferior in others. Rocket artillery tends to be simpler, lighter and more mobile than guns or howitzers, most of which must be emplaced. Guns tend to have better accuracy, consistency, and range, while rocket artillery is light enough to be employed closer to the front lines and excels at saturation fire, expending its entire ammunition load in a single barrage on a target. The saturation fire produced by rocket artillery is only somewhat approximated in effectiveness with gun artillery via the time on target barrage method.

Time-sensitive soft target interdiction (such as personnel or unarmored vehicles moving in large groups) is where rocket artillery is particularly useful. This allows for the shoot-and-scoot method, avoiding the enemy counter-battery fire that is the greatest risk to emplaced artillery pieces, while maximizing damage to the target before it can find better cover. (see Rocket artillery vs gun artillery)

Portable anti-tank

With the invention of the tank, the infantry required a weapon to counter the threat. Tank armour soon developed beyond the point at which an anti-tank rifle could practically be carried by an infantryman, and by the Second World War rocket weapons such as the US bazooka and German Panzerschreck were in service. Development continued after the war, with weapons such as the RPG-7, although a need to increase range led to the development of guided weapons to fulfill the anti-tank role. Most modern armies now use guided missiles for long-range engagements and rockets for close-range or emergency use; disposable weapons such as the RPG-26 are popular for this.

The use of anti-tank weapons to attack buildings and other targets has led to the development of weapons and ammunition designed specifically to attack non-tank targets, such as the one-shot LASM and the larger SMAW.

Air-launched

Unguided rockets are a widely used weapon-system and have been launched from military aircraft to attack land, sea and air targets since 1916. French and British pilots used Le Prieur rockets to attack German observation balloons during the First World War.

Even after the development of guided missiles, rockets remain useful for short-range attacks – typically for close air support missions.

The standard NATO calibre is 70 mm and is considered the international calibre. The rockets can be fired from a variety of rotary and fixed-wing platforms and from combat aircraft of many nations worldwide by means of a rocket launcher.  The 70 mm rocket system offers several warhead configurations that fulfill a wide range of special mission-requirements to defeat soft- to lightly-armored targets.

See also
Hydra 70
CRV-7
S-5 rocket
S-8 rocket
S-13 rocket
Ugroza
Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (APKWS)

References

Missile types

Rocket (weapon)


Ivar de Graaf (born 20 August 1973)  is the founder and drummer of the Dutch progressive metal band Kingfisher Sky, but best known as the former drummer of the popular Dutch symphonic metal band  Within Temptation.

Early career
Ivar de Graaf was born in Amsterdam, and began playing drums at the age of 11. De Graaf followed education at the Haags Montessori Lyceum in The Hague, and was taught to play drums by Charles Schouten who has been the drummer for Kayak for a short period of time. On the HML he frequently performed with Edo van der Kolk and Michiel Parqui around 1990.

Within Temptation
He was asked to be the drummer for Within Temptation 1996, at that the time the band was relatively unknown and began working on their first studio album. De Graaf was credited as the drummer on the Within Temptation albums Enter and on their breakthrough album Mother Earth.

In 2002, just before the German tour in which followed the band to its international breakthrough, he left Within Temptation. This was for musical reasons, he wanted to play more various and challenging drum fills instead of the more similar he experienced in Within Temptation, and develop himself more as a composer an arranger. He was replaced by Stephen van Haestregt

De Graaf has performed with Within Temptation a few times after his departure. He filled in as a substitute at times when van Haestregt was unavailable, and at both the Java Concert in Amsterdam in 2005 and at the Elements Concert in Antwerp in 2012 he took on stage with other former Within Temptation band members and performed a couple of songs. He accompanied singer Sharon den Adel on acoustic guitar for Within Temptation's Together at Home concert on March 24, 2020.

Kingfisher Sky
De Graaf is married to singer Judith Rijnveld. Together they worked for three years on a demo which led to the formation of Kingfisher Sky. The first studio album has been released: Hallway of Dreams.

1973 births
Living people
Dutch drummers
Male drummers
Within Temptation members
Musicians from Amsterdam
21st-century drummers

Ivar de Graaf


The Jeopardy! College Championship is a yearly tournament on the American television game show Jeopardy! It features full-time undergraduate college students who have not yet gotten a degree.

The Jeopardy! College Championship is one of the traditional tournaments held each season on the TV quiz show Jeopardy! Contestants in this tournament are full-time undergraduate college students with no prior degrees and traditionally wear a sweater bearing the name of their college or university during their appearances. The existence of this tournament does not disqualify college students from auditioning for the regular shows, but tournament participants cannot later compete in regular play. The tournament began during the 1988-89 season (Season 5) and has been played every season (except for seasons 31, 35, and 37), always during any one of the three traditional sweeps ratings periods (November, February, or May) with the exception of being held in April 2018 due to Alex Trebek's brain surgery and April 2020 due to The Greatest of All Time Tournament. Some contestants for the inaugural tournament were selected through contestant searches held in Daytona Beach, Florida, and Palm Springs, California, during the Spring break season in 1989.

Format
The College Championship uses a ten-game format similar to that used for the Tournament of Champions and the Teen Tournament: 15 players, in groups of three, play in five quarterfinal games; the winners of those five games and the four highest-scoring nonwinners as wild cards become the nine semifinalists who compete in three games, with no two players rematching each other in the semifinal round. The three semifinal winners advance to the two-day final round, in which contestants play two separate matches, with the contestants' combined scores for both matches determining the champion (contestants start with $0 each day).

Prizes

Cash
All College Championship contestants receive cash prizes, based on their progress through the tournament. Contestants eliminated prior to the finals receive fixed payouts, while contestants in the finals receive guaranteed minimums, but can earn more. Over time, the prizes have increased in value, as shown below:

Trophies
Winners also receive a small replica trophy of the larger College Championship trophy, which is retained by Jeopardy! in Southern California. On the larger trophy are engraved the names of every year's winner.

Vehicles
From 1993–2004, the winner also won a new car (Dodge from 1993–1994, Volvo from 1995–2003, and Volkswagen in 2004), and the company who manufactured the car matched each finalists' totals and set up scholarships in those amounts earned for the finalists' schools.

Other Prizes
 Participants in the Season 17 College Championship received custom Jeopardy! jackets by L.L. Bean.
 Participants in the Season 27 College Championship received a Nintendo Wii and the Jeopardy! Wii game.

Tournament of Champions
In addition to the above-mentioned winnings, the winner earns an automatic position in the next Tournament of Champions, though two winners (Vinita Kailasanath in 2001 and Joey Beachum in 2008) deferred their berths in their intended tournament until the following installments due to scheduling conflicts. Three College Champions have made the Tournament of Champions finals (Tom Cubbage in 1989, Jeff Stewart in 1994, and Cliff Galiher in 2007), but only Cubbage won the event.

Many college champions have been invited to later Jeopardy! "all-time best" tournaments as well, with varying degrees of success:
1989 winner Tom Cubbage competed in the next year's Super Jeopardy! tournament, losing his opening quarterfinal match.
Every College Championship winner to that point competed in 2005's Ultimate Tournament of Champions, with 2000 winner Pam Mueller advancing to the semifinals, and 1996 winner Shane Whitlock advancing to the quarterfinals.
Cubbage, Mueller, Whitlock, 1993 winner Phoebe Juel, and 2001 winner Vinita Kailasanath all competed in 2014's Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades, with both Cubbage & Mueller advancing to the semifinals. Whitlock, 2008 winner Joey Beachum, and November 2010 winner Erin McLean were among the past champions in the fan favourite online voting to earn one of three slots in the tournament, but only Whitlock won the fan vote for his decade.
2017 winner Lilly Chin was the alternate of the All-Star Games appearing in the audience on Facebook Live.
Mueller and 2012 winner Monica Theiu both competed as team members in 2019's Jeopardy All-Star Games; Mueller was drafted to team Colby Burnett while Theiu was drafted to team Ken Jennings. Both teams advanced to the finals with Theiu's team finishing second and Mueller's team finishing third.

List of participants
The following is a list of contestants and where they placed in the tournament. Finalists who earned more than the minimum guarantee are as indicated.

 Milo Dochow was a losing contestant in the Winter 1999 Teen Tournament but was invited to participate in the following year's College Championship after being potentially disadvantaged by a questionable judges' ruling in Final Jeopardy!.

 The first quarterfinal match of the 1992 College Championship ended in a tie, between Chris Montplasir and Ken Kansa. Chris won the tie-breaker to earn a spot in the semifinals and Ken earned enough money to earn a wildcard spot (although two other tie-breaker clues were given and correct responses were given for neither, resulting in editing out of the broadcast). The first semifinal match of the 1997 College Championship also ended in a tie, between Steven Beiver and Brian Chan. Steven gave the correct response to the tie-breaker clue to earn a spot in the finals.

 Kevin ended up with $0 going into the Day Two Final Jeopardy!, and ineligible to play. He was kept to have his first day score tabulated for purposes of the final score in the two day total dollars format.

 Kate Laubscher, Hannah Norem, and Michael Sieja were tied at $14,400 in the quarterfinals at the end of Final Jeopardy. Hannah led going into Final Jeopardy, while Kate and Michael tied. Kate led going into Double Jeopardy, eliminating Michael for the last spot in the semifinals.

Stanford University is the only college to have two winners.

The only College Champions from Ivy League schools are Terry O'Shea of Princeton University in 2014 and Dhruv Gaur of Brown University in 2018.

References

Other websites
 Official Jeopardy! website
 Official Jeopardy! Season 34 College Championship website
 Official Jeopardy! Season 36 College Championship website

Jeopardy!

Jeopardy! College Championship