In physics, the differential coefficient of a function f(x) is what is now called its derivative df(x)/dx, the (not necessarily constant) multiplicative factor or coefficient of the differential dx in the differential df(x).

A coefficient is usually a constant quantity, but the differential coefficient of f is a constant function only if f is a linear function.  When f is not linear, its differential coefficient is a function, call it , derived by the differentiation of f, hence, the modern term, derivative.

The older usage is now rarely seen.

Early editions of Silvanus P. Thompson's Calculus Made Easy use the older term.  In his 1998 update of this text, Martin Gardner lets the first use of "differential coefficient" stand, along with Thompson's criticism of the term as a needlessly obscure phrase that should not intimidate students, and substitutes "derivative" for the remainder of the book.

Mathematical analysis
Differential calculus
Functions and mappings

Differential coefficient


Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice is a romantic comedy-drama movie. It is about affairs and swinging  Las Vegas and California. Robert Culp plays Bob. Natalie Wood plays Carol. Elliott Gould plays Ted. Dyan Cannon plays Alice.

The movie was rated R for sexual material. This was released in September 1969.

Other websites

1969 romantic drama movies
1969 comedy-drama movies
1969 romantic comedy movies
Adultery in movies
American comedy-drama movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
English-language movies
Movies set in Las Vegas
Movies set in Los Angeles
Sex comedy movies
Movies directed by Paul Mazursky

Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice


Horticultural botany is the study of the botany of current and potential cultivated plants, with emphasis on the ornamental plants of horticulture, by a horticultural botanist or plantsman—plantsperson."

Horticultural botanists
Professional horticultural botanists are employed by botanical gardens, large plant nurseries, university departments, and government agencies. The activities vary according to the mission goals and priorities of the institutions.
Duties can include:
 searching for new plants suitable for cultivation (plant hunting),
 communicating with and advising the public on matters concerning the classification and botanical nomenclature of cultivated plants,
 carrying out original research on these topics:
 describing the cultivated plants and their history of particular regions in horticultural floras,
 recording new plant introductions;
 maintaining databases of cultivated plants;
 curating horticultural herbaria, including collections of dried specimens and images;
 contributing to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.

Taxonomy of cultivated plants
Perhaps the single major concern of horticultural botanists has been the taxonomy of cultivated plants and so, at the present time, many horticultural botanists will be members of the International Association of Cultivated Plant Taxonomy which was established in 2007.

See also
 Cultivar
 Cultivated plant taxonomy
 Horticulture
 International Cultivar Registration Authority
 Plant taxonomy

Bibliography

External links
 The Garden Club of America: SCHOLARSHIPS and FELLOWSHIPS - Botany and Horticulture

Horticulture
Botanical nomenclature
Plant taxonomy

Horticultural botany


Carotenoids (or tetraterpenoids) are organic pigments. They are found in the chloroplasts and chromoplasts of plants, and also some bacteria and fungi.

The only animals known to produce carotenoids are aphids and mites, which got the genes from fungi.

There are over 600 known carotenoids. They are of two types, xanthophylls (which contain oxygen) and carotenes (which are purely hydrocarbons with no oxygen).

Carotenoids have two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in photosynthesis, and they protect chlorophyll from photodamage. Beta-carotene is the most common form in plants.

Some carotenoids (like β-carotene) have vitamin A activity (so they can convert to retinol). These and other carotenoids can also act as antioxidants. In the eye, certain other carotenoids (lutein, astaxanthin, and zeaxanthin) apparently act directly to absorb damaging blue and near-ultraviolet light. This protects the macula of the retina, the part of the eye with the sharpest vision.

References

Hydrocarbons
Pigments
Horizontal gene transfer

Carotenoid


Paul Merlyn Buhle (born September 27, 1944) is a (retired) Senior Lecturer at Brown University, author or editor of 35 volumes including histories of radicalism in the United States and the Caribbean, studies of popular culture, and a series of nonfiction comic art volumes. He is the authorized biographer of C. L. R. James.

Biography
Buhle was born in Champaign, Illinois, on September 27, 1944. His mother was a registered nurse with the maiden name of Pearle Drake. His father, Merlyn Buhle, was a geologist. On December 30, 1963, Paul Buhle married Mari Jo Kupski, who later earned a doctorate in history and co-authored several works with Buhle.

Buhle graduated from the University of Illinois in 1966, where he had been a spokesperson for the chapter of Students for a Democratic Society's antiwar activities. He received a master's degree from the University of Connecticut (in 1967) and a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison (in 1975). He had been active in the civil rights movement in SDS, and a member for some months of the Socialist Labor Party. In 2006–07, he was one of the founding figures of the new Students for a Democratic Society, and more recently a leader of the Movement for a Democratic Society.

Buhle was founding editor of the journal Radical America (1967–1999), an unofficial organ of Students for a Democratic Society, founder of Cultural Correspondence (1977–83), a journal of popular culture studies, and founder and director of the Oral History of the American Left archive at New York University in 1976. In Rhode Island, he co-founded the Rhode Island Labor History Society, was active in labor history and labor support activities and produced several popular histories of the state's labor movement. He also produced Vanishing Rhode Island, a pictorial history and plea for preservation; and with his students, Underground Rhode Island. He has contributed frequently to the journals and newspapers The Nation, The Village Voice, Monthly Review, Jewish Currents, The Chronicle of Higher Education and The San Francisco Chronicle.

Buhle is the co-author of four books on the history of the Hollywood Blacklist, and the editor of a series of graphic non-fiction works by American comics artists and writers, among them Harvey Pekar, Sabrina Jones and Sharon Rudahl.

He is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America.

Career
Buhle taught at the Cambridge-Godard Graduate School, 1971–73, and lectured at the Rhode Island School of Design until accepting an appointment as lecturer in History and American Civilization at Brown University in 1995. In 1982–83 he created an oral history collection at the Tamiment Library, New York University, the Oral History of the American Left Collection, with associated research on ethnic radicalism. He has served on the Board of The Minnesota Review, as Contributing Editor to Tikkun, and on the editorial advisory board on Radical Americas (an on-line publication of MDS). He has also been a sponsor of New Politics and an adviser on documentary biographies of Howard Zinn, comic artist Will Eisner, and Sacco and Vanzetti, and served as historian for the radio series Grandma was an Activist in the 1980s.

Selected bibliography

Books:
 Co-editor, Prophet Against Slavery (2022)
 Co-editor, Herbert Marcuse, Philosopher of Utopia (City Lights, 2019)
 Co-editor, Yiddishkeit: Jewish Vernacular & the New Land (2011)
 Co-author, with Howard Zinn and Mike Konopacki of A People's History of American Empire (2008),
 Editor, Che Guevara, a Graphic Biography (2008)
 Editor, Jews and American Popular Culture, 3 volumes (2007)
 Author, Tim Hector, Caribbean Radical (2006)
 Co-editor, Wobblies! A Graphic History of the Industrial Workers of the World (2005)
 Co-editor, The New Left Revisited (2004)
 Co-author, Hide in Plain Sight, the Blacklistees in Film and Television, 1950–2002 (2003)
 Co-author, Radical Hollywood (2001)
 Co-author, A Very Dangerous Citizen, Abraham Lincoln Polonsky and the Hollywood Left (1999)
 Co-editor, Encyclopedia of the American Left (1990, 1998), with Mari Jo Buhle and Dan Georgakas
 Co-author, The Tragedy of Empire: A biography of William Appleman Williams (1995)
 Editor, History and the New Left: Madison, Wisconsin, 1950–1970 (1990)
 Author, The Artist as Revolutionary, C. L. R. James (1988)
 Author, Marxism in the United States (1987)

Articles:
 " E. P. Thompson and his Critics ". Telos 49 (Fall 1981). New York: Telos Press
    "The Left and the Class Struggle." Monthly Review 72 (7) 2020.: 57–63.

See also

 Mari Jo Buhle
 Dan Georgakas

References

External links

 Salar Mohandesi, 'The Search for a Useable Past: An Interview with Paul Buhle on Radical America' at Viewpoint Magazine, March 2, 2015
 Power to the panels, an interview with Paul Buhle
 Book review (villagevoice.com)
 Josh Jones, "Howard Zinn's 'What the Classroom Didn't Teach Me About the American Empire': An Illustrated Video Narrated by Viggo Mortensen", Open Culture, December 9, 2003
 Michael Schapira, "Paul Buhle" (interview), Full Stop, May 21, 2014
Paul Buhle Papers at Tamiment Library and Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives at New York University

1944 births
Living people
People from Champaign, Illinois
American book editors
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American social sciences writers
Brown University faculty
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Members of Students for a Democratic Society
Members of the Democratic Socialists of America from Illinois
Historians from Illinois
American male non-fiction writers

Paul Buhle


Roland Theis (1980) is a German politician of the Christian Democrat Union. Since 2017 he has been serving as State Secretary  in the State Ministry of Justice in Saarland, in the government of Minister-President Tobias Hans.

Education and early career
After his studies in the field of law and politics in the University of Saarland and the Université d'Aix-Marseille III he gained his first law degree in 2005 and second in 2008. He is a scholarship holder from the Konrad Adenauer Foundation and is currently working as a lecturer of constitutional and media law in the University of Saarland. Theis is the alumnus of the Marshall Memorial Fellowship of the German Marshall Fund and the American Jewish Committee.

Following his studies, Theis worked as a lawyer at SaarLB.

Political career
Theis was the chairman of the Junge Union in Saarland from 2005–2010 and is still the vice chairman of the International Commission of the Junge Union in Germany.

Theis was a member of the city council of Ottweiler and the district council of Neunkirchen from 2004 until 2009. In his home town Ottweiler he is the chairman of the local CDU association.

In the 2009 state elections, Theis ran for Landtag as a member of CDU and was elected as a representative. He was elected as Secretary General of the CDU in Saarland in November 2010, after the board had appointed him to the position already in November 2009; in this capacity, he assisted chairwoman Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer. In the current legislative period Theis is his parliamentary group's spokesman in issues concerning judicial, media and economical politics. In addition he is also the chairman of the committee of inquiry for Landtags elections of 2009.

References

1980 births
Living people
Members of the Landtag of Saarland
Paul Cézanne University alumni
Saarland University alumni
Jurists from Saarland

Roland Theis


The Yadkin Valley Railroad  is the trade name of the Piedmont and Atlantic Railroad and is a shortline railroad operating two lines leased from the Norfolk Southern Railway (Then purchased outright in 2009) originating out of Rural Hall, North Carolina for a distance of . The railroad began operation in 1989 and is currently a subsidiary of Gulf and Ohio Railways.

Primary commodities include poultry feed ingredients, wood products, steel, plastics, propane, ethanol, and rail car storage, amounting to approximately 12,700 annual carloads.

History
Two separate lines comprise the Yadkin Valley railroad, both originating out of Rural Hall. The first runs to North Wilkesboro and was completed by the North Western North Carolina Railroad on August 30, 1890, as part of the Richmond & Danville. The second line to Mount Airy was constructed by the Cape Fear & Yadkin Valley in June 1888. Both railroads were absorbed by the Southern prior to the turn of the century.

The Yadkin Valley railroad began operations December 11, 1989, as a subsidiary of the Laurinburg & Southern under Norfolk Southern's Thoroughbred Shortline Program. Interchange is made with Norfolk Southern at Rural Hall. Control of the railroad was turned over to Gulf & Ohio on March 1, 1994. Recently acquired trackage rights allow the railroad access to Winston-Salem.

As both lines were still leased from Norfolk Southern, the railroad sought to purchase both lines outright in 2009.

See also

Gulf and Ohio Railways
HawkinsRails.net Yadkin Valley page

References

North Carolina railroads
Spin-offs of the Norfolk Southern Railway
Gulf and Ohio Railways
Railway companies established in 1989

Yadkin Valley Railroad


Douglas Theatre Company was an American movie theater chain in based in Nebraska, operating in both Lincoln and Omaha.  It was the 38th largest cinema chain in North America.

Early years
The company was formed in 1952, by Russell Brehm and then-Senator Roman Hruska.  Brehm and Senator Hruska wanted to build an entertainment company for Nebraska, by Nebraskans.  The founders settled on naming the company "Douglas" because Omaha, in Douglas County, would be the location of their first venue: a drive-in theater, the 84th & Center, which opened the following year.  In ensuing years, other drive-ins were built in Lincoln and Omaha, and temporary acquisitions were made in Texas as well.

In 1967, Douglas opened its first indoor theater in Omaha, the Cinema Center, which remained in operation until the company sold to Marcus in 2008.  Three theaters were opened in Lincoln shortly thereafter: the Cinema Twin, in September 1971 (first showing Summer of '42 and Le Mans), Douglas 3, in March 1973 (first showing 2001: A Space Odyssey, The Sting and Serpico) and Plaza 4, in April 1973.

In the early 1970s, the Jerry Lewis Theater complex in Omaha was purchased and the name was changed to the "Maplewood Twin Cinema."  The "Q-Twin Drive-in" and the "Q-4 Cinemas" were built and operated on 120th and Q Streets in Omaha.

In 1989, the Edgewood 3 theater opened in southeast Lincoln, at 56th & Hwy 2.  It was remodeled, and reopened in April 2003, to include three additional screens and stadium seating.  Having six screens, it also dropped the "3" from its name.

On November 21, 1997, the East Park theater at 66th & 'O' in Lincoln re-opened after remodeling.  It was once part of a small indoor mall, which had been converted into strip shops.

Peak years
On February 4, 2003, then-mayor of Lincoln Don Wesely announced plans for Douglas Theatres to build a $15 million, 14-screen megaplex downtown.  On 8 August, demolition began to raze most of the buildings on the block bordered by 11th, 12th, O and P streets.  After over a year of construction, The Grand opened on November 19, 2004.  It took the place of four smaller theaters: the Lincoln, which was torn down to partially make way for the Grand, as well as the Cinema Twin, Douglas 3 and Plaza 4, which closed the night before the opening of the Grand.  The Douglas 3 was demolished in October 2006 to make way for an urban park  which is also a public wireless hotspot.  The other two theaters remain vacant in downtown Lincoln .  The Grand included over 3,000 stadium seats, and an arcade, "The Vault", which features a 60,000-pound vault door purchased from Wells-Fargo.

At its peak, Douglas Theatres had a total of 100 screens, including:

 East Park (Lincoln) - Sold to Marcus Theatres
 Edgewood Cinema (Lincoln) - Sold to Marcus Theatres
 Lincoln Grand (Lincoln) - Sold to Marcus Theatres
 SouthPointe Cinema (Lincoln) - Sold to Marcus Theatres
 20 Grand (Omaha) - Sold to Marcus Theatres and later renamed The Majestic
 Maplewood Twin Cinemas (Omaha) - Closed
 Cinema Center (Omaha) - Closed
 Q-Cinema 9 (Omaha) - Closed
 Q-Twin Drive-in (Omaha) - Closed
 Twin Creek Cinema (Bellevue) - Sold to Marcus Theatres
 Village Pointe Cinema (Omaha) - Sold to Marcus Theatres

Sale and closure
On March 26, 2008, it was announced that Marcus Theatres of Milwaukee, Wisconsin would buy seven Douglas Theatres, along with the name for $40.5 million.  Cinema Center and Q-Cinema 9 in Omaha would continue to be owned by Douglas Theatres, and set close before summer, and Cinema Center would be set to close between October 2008 and February 2009.

Q-Cinema 9 officially closed on April 3, 2008, and the final Douglas location, the Cinema Center, closed its doors in January 2009.

References

External links

From Lincoln Journal Star Newspaper
The Douglas Grand: Tickets, parking
A Grand timeline: A quick history of area movie houses
Theater complex set to draw audiences
Final day business slows at downtown theaters
Few tears for three closing theaters
Demolition crews take down Douglas 3

Movie theatre chains in the United States
Former cinemas in the United States
Companies based in Lincoln, Nebraska
Entertainment companies established in 1952
Cinemas and movie theaters in Nebraska
1952 establishments in Nebraska

Douglas Theatre Company


Khedr Sayed El Touny (; December 15, 1916 – September 22, 1956) was an Egyptian weightlifter. He was ranked number one on the list of history's 50 greatest weightlifters issued by the International Weightlifting Federation, until Turkey's Naim Süleymanoğlu surpassed the Egyptian to top the list at the 1996 Games in Atlanta.

1936 Olympics

Eltouny was one of the sensations of the 1936 Olympics.  At the time, Eltouny had already set the world record for his weight class.  The International Weightlifting Federation, however, did not recognize this as a world record, causing much controversy and anticipation.  Many felt that no man could lift such remarkable numbers, while others were excited at the chance to view this human miracle.  At the 1936 Olympics, in front of a global audience, Eltouny did not disappoint, as he proved his reported numbers to be accurate, shattering 3 previous Olympic and World records on his way to the gold medal.  Eltouny crushed two German world champions at the time on their home soil, who had been widely advertised by Hitler as the stars of the sport.  His performance is considered one of the greatest upsets in Olympic history.

After winning the middleweight class gold medal, Eltouny continued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg.  The 20-year-old Eltouny lifted a total of 387.5 kg, while the German lifted 352.5 kg.  Not only had Eltouny lifted more than his middleweight competition, but he actually finished having lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist; a feat only Eltouny has accomplished until this day.  Eltouny's new world records stood for an unprecedented thirteen years.

Fascinated by Eltouny's performance, Adolf Hitler, who was watching from the stands, rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure that Rudolf Ismayr and Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents.  While awarding Eltouny with the gold medal, Hitler told him: "Egypt should be proud of you. I wish you were German. I hope you consider Germany your second home". Hitler was so impressed by his domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin.

Upon returning to Egypt, Eltouny received a 1,000 L.E. cash bonus, as well as a free pass from the tramway company. Eltouny cashed in the policy in 1953 and built a house in Helwan, which is still occupied by the Eltouny family.

1948 Olympics

Eltouny could have taken part in the 1940 and 1944 Olympics, but World War II put an end to those dreams.  Finally in 1948, when the games resumed in London, Eltouny was able to compete again. Eltouny fell ill the night before the games, and would require surgery. Doctors ordered Eltouny not to compete, but frustrated about missing the prior two Olympic Games, Eltouny refused to follow doctors' orders. Well past his prime at the age of 32, and in terrible pain, Eltouny attempted to win a medal once again. Unfortunately, Eltouny failed to win a medal this time.  Although he tied for third place, he lost the bronze medal on tiebreak.  Nevertheless, Eltouny won the hearts of the Egyptian people with his determination.  Immediately after the competition, Eltouny was rushed to a nearby hospital for surgery.

Death and legacy

Eltouny died in 1956 by electrical shock while making a home repair in Helwan.  His performance in 1936 is considered by many to have produced Egypt's most significant gold medal, and his legacy can be felt in various cities.  In recognition of his achievements in 1936, Hitler ordered one of the streets in the Olympic Village of Berlin to be named after him. In addition to Berlin, Nasr City in Cairo and the Sporting neighborhood of Alexandria have streets carrying his name. In the 1990s, nearby his final residential town of Helwan, a major square was also named in his honor. Today, he is considered by many to be the greatest athlete in the history of Egyptian sports, having recorded a total of 16 world records, an Olympic gold medal, and 3 world titles (1946, 1949, 1950).

See also

 List of Egyptians

References

1916 births
1956 deaths
Egyptian male weightlifters
Olympic weightlifters for Egypt
Weightlifters at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Weightlifters at the 1948 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Egypt
Accidental deaths in Egypt
Accidental deaths by electrocution
Olympic medalists in weightlifting
Medalists at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Cairo
20th-century Egyptian people

Khadr El-Touni


American Songwriter is a bimonthly magazine covering songwriting. Established in 1984, it features interviews, songwriting tips, news, reviews and lyric contest. The magazine is based in Nashville, Tennessee.

History
The American Songwriter staff concentrates on fulfilling the original objective of the magazine as set forth in the first issue in August 1984: producing an insightful, intellectually intriguing magazine about the art and stories of songwriting.

American Songwriter covers all musical genres. Over the years, issues have featured Garth Brooks, Bob Dylan, Poison, Clint Black, John Denver, Smokey Robinson, Wilco, Bon Jovi, Willie Nelson, Billy Joel, Kris Kristofferson, John Mellencamp, Richard Marx, Drive-By Truckers, Paul McCartney, Elton John, Beck, Dolly Parton, Eric Clapton, R.E.M., Weezer, Death Cab for Cutie, Ryan Adams, Jimmy Buffett, Merle Haggard, Rob Thomas, Toby Keith, Eddie Rabbitt, Roger Miller, Public Enemy, Sheryl Crow, James Taylor, Ray LaMontagne, Tom Petty, Neil Diamond, Zac Brown Band, Kings of Leon, Neil Young, My Morning Jacket, Taylor Swift and others.

In 2004 the magazine, previously published by Jim Sharp, was sold to an investment group based in Mobile, Alabama.  In 2011, Albie Del Favero took over the reins, "joining the team as Co-Publisher, and President of its parent company ForASong Media, LLC. Del Favero's extensive background in media includes being founding publisher of the Nashville Scene. More recently he served as Nashville-area group publisher at SouthComm, which currently owns The City Paper and the Nashville Scene." Since 2004, American Songwriter has grown from a 2,000 circulation to more than 30,000 as of November 2013, and claims a readership of approximately 90-95,000 per issue and 150-200,000 unique visitors to AmericanSongwriter.com each month. American Songwriter is distributed worldwide.

The magazine holds six bi-monthly lyric contests. The winner of each contest receives a new Gibson acoustic guitar, a Shure SM58 microphone, and a feature in the magazine. One annual grand-prize winner for the 2014 contest will win a co-writing session with Ashley Monroe, and get a chance to record a demo at a leading Nashville studio.

In 2019, American Songwriter was acquired by Savage Media.

A special section of the website, Songwriter U, focuses on the business of songwriting and includes articles on royalty collection, marketing, touring, guitar instruction and lyric technique.

Advertisers include national instrument manufacturers, record companies who want to gain exposure for their singer/songwriters and bands, publishers who honor writer achievements, demo studios, recording software and a select group of non-musical companies who are positioning their products within the musical culture.

See also
 M Music & Musicians

References

External links
 Website

1984 establishments in the United States
Music magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1984
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in Tennessee
Mass media in Nashville, Tennessee

American Songwriter


Hamburg steak is a patty of ground beef. Made popular worldwide by migrating Germans, it became a mainstream dish around the start of the 19th century. It is related to Salisbury steaks, which also use ground beef. It is considered the origin of the ubiquitous hamburger, when, in the early 20th century, vendors began selling the Hamburg steak as a sandwich between bread.

History

The German equivalent of the Hamburg steak is the Frikadelle, also known as a Frikadelle or Bulette, which is known to have existed in the 17th century.

In the late 19th century, the Hamburg steak became popular on the menus of many restaurants in the port of New York. This kind of fillet was beef ground by hand, lightly salted, often smoked, and usually served raw in a dish along with onions and bread crumbs. The oldest document that refers to the Hamburg steak in English is a Delmonico's Restaurant menu from 1873 that offered customers an 11-cent plate of Hamburg steak that had been developed by American chef Charles Ranhofer (1836–1899). This price was high for the time, twice the price of a simple fillet of beef steak. By the end of the century, the Hamburg steak was gaining popularity because of its ease of preparation and decreasing cost. This is evident from its detailed description in some of the most popular cookbooks of the day. Documents show that this preparation style was used by 1887 in some US restaurants and was also used for feeding patients in hospitals; the Hamburg steak was served raw or lightly cooked and was accompanied by a raw egg.

The menus of many American restaurants during the 19th century included a Hamburg beefsteak that was often sold for breakfast. A variant of Hamburg steak is Salisbury steak, which is usually served with a gravy similar in texture to brown sauce. Invented by Dr. James Salisbury (1823–1905), the term Salisbury steak has been used in the United States since 1897.

By 1930, Hamburg steaks were usually served as part of a sandwich known as a hamburger; the meat part of the sandwich became known as a patty. The term "hamburger" has in turn often been shortened to simply "burger". "Burger" is now commonly used as a suffix to create new words for different variants of the hamburger, including cheeseburger, porkburger, baconburger, and mooseburger.

Preparation
Hamburg steak is made from finely ground beef. Seasoning, egg, breadcrumb, onion and milk may be combined with the meat, which is then formed into patties and cooked, by frying, roasting, or smoking.

Around the world
Hamburg steak is listed by Escoffier as a classic dish in haute cuisine.

 is a popular dish in Japan.  It is made from ground meat with finely chopped onion, egg, and breadcrumbs flavored with various spices, and made into a flat, circular shape about 4 cm thick and 10 to 15 cm in diameter.  Many restaurants specialize in various styles of hamburg steak.  Some variations include hanbāgu topped with cheese (チーズハンバーグ, or chīzuhanbāgu), hanbāgu with Japanese curry, and Italian hanbāgu (with tomato sauce rather than demi-glace).

Hamburg steak became popular during the 1960s as a more affordable way to serve otherwise costly meat. Magazines regularly printed the recipe during that decade, elevating it to a staple dish in Japanese culture. In Japan, the dish dates back to the Meiji period and is believed to have been first served in Yokohama, which was one of the first ports opened to foreigners. Since the 1980s, vacuum-packed hamburgers are sold with sauce already added, and these are widely used in box lunches (bento). Frozen hamburgers are popular, as well, and are often served in fast-food style restaurants.

In Hawaii, hamburger steak is very similar to the Japanese hanbāgu. It consists of burger patty with brown gravy. It is usually served with macaroni salad and rice in a plate lunch. Also, another variety includes an egg, which is called loco moco.

In the Philippines, hamburger steaks are a popular menu item from the fast food chain Jollibee, and are served with gravy, mushrooms, and a side of steamed or adobo fried rice.

In Finland, the dish is called jauhelihapihvi ("ground meat steak") and is prepared and served like the meatball: pan-fried, and served with potatoes and brown sauce.

See also

 Cutlet

References

Bibliography

German beef dishes
Ground meat

Hamburg steak


Carburization (often also called carburizing) is how carbon is introduced into a metal. It is done to make the surface harder and more abrasion resistant.

Depending on the amount of time and temperature, the affected area can vary in carbon content.
In earlier times, direct application of charcoal was packed onto the metal for carburization. Modern techniques use carbon-bearing gases or plasmas (such as carbon dioxide or methane). Carburization is mainly used to harden the surface of low alloy steel.

Too great a concentration of carbon makes metal brittle and unworkable, so then metals may be decarburized.

Metallurgy

Carburization


George Washington Donaghey (July 1, 1856 – December 15, 1937) was an American businessman and the 22nd Governor of the U.S. state of Arkansas from 1909 to 1913.

Early life and education
Donaghey was born as the oldest of five children to Christopher Columbus and Elizabeth (née Ingram) Donaghey, in the Oakland Community in Union Parish in north Louisiana. His father's family was from Ireland and his mother's from Scotland. His father Christopher was a farmer who moved from Alabama to northern Louisiana, purchasing land there, and later moved to Arkansas where he served in the Confederate Army.

In 1875, without letting his family know, Donaghey moved to Texas where he worked as a cowboy on the Chisholm Trail and farmer, but later moved again to Arkansas in 1876 due to cowboy lifestyle and health issues. From 1882 to 1883, he attended the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville. He was a school teacher and carpenter, and studied both architecture and structural engineering. In 1883, Donaghey established his residence at Conway, Arkansas, and adopted that city as his hometown. There, he later met his wife Louvenia Wallace; they had no children. One of the major streets there bears his name. He served one term as town marshal and was an unsuccessful prohibition candidate for mayor in 1885.

Having himself lacked a formal education, Donaghey worked diligently to bring institutions of higher learning to Conway. He served on the boards of Philander Smith College in Little Rock, Hendrix College (to which he donated $75,000 in 1910), the University of Central Arkansas, State Normal School (where he was the principal speaker for its 1908 dedication) and Little Rock Junior College (both now part of University of Central Arkansas) in Conway, where his service extended from 1906 until his death. Additionally, he gave generously to both institutions.

Business
Donaghey entered business as a contractor and constructed courthouses in Texas and Arkansas, including the first bank building in Conway in 1890. Shortly afterward, he detoured into the mercantile business—for his contracting business was not profitable in its early years—and suffered significant losses after building the second Faulkner County courthouse. When he returned, he reconstructed the Arkansas Insane Asylum after a tornado in 1894. He built ice plants and roads in Arkansas, and water tanks and railroad stations for the Choctaw, Oklahoma and Gulf Railroad, and often invested in farm and timber land.

In 1899, Donaghey was appointed to the commission tasked with constructing the new state capitol. The project was not complete until a dozen years later; during much of that time Jefferson "Jeff" Davis was state governor and firmly opposed all the new plans. This obstruction impelled Donaghey to enter politics; eventually in 1907 he sought the nomination for governor, in the teeth of opposition from Davis (who had been elected U.S. senator for Arkansas) and Davis's ally William F. Kirby.

As governor
In 1908, Donaghey won a three-way primary election that broke the hold of Jeff Davis on the Arkansas Democratic Party. He then attained an easy victory in the gubernatorial general election with 106,512 votes, over Republican John I. Worthington (42,979) and Socialist J. Sam Jones (6,537). Worthington had also run in 1906 against Davis. Donaghey had to wait ten months to take office. In the meantime he traveled the country, and as professor Calvin Ledbetter, Jr. of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock points out in his book The Carpenter from Conway, Donaghey educated himself for the political office which awaited him. In June 1909, he appointed the fourth and final state capitol commission and hired Cass Gilbert for the architecture project.

Donaghey was reelected in 1910, defeating another Republican, Andrew L. Roland, by 101,612 votes to 38,870. Another 9,196 ballots were cast for the Socialist candidate, Dan Hogan. That same year he negotiated with the Southern Regional Education Board to bring its campaign to Arkansas, which had successful results in the state, and he also supported four agricultural high schools that later formed into Arkansas Tech University, Arkansas State University, Southern Arkansas University and the University of Arkansas at Monticello. His actions in 1910 also included helping to create the Booneville Tuberculosis Sanatorium, thus improving public health; he later also negotiated with the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission to eradicate hookworm. During his term, Arkansas was the first state in the country to require smallpox vaccinations for all schoolchildren and school personnel, and the Crossett malaria control experiment campaigned against the mosquitos. Donaghey's achievements included establishment of a new state board of education, support for high schools, and the passage of a law making consolidation easier.

Although several of the prisoners he pardoned from the convict lease program were black, Donaghey still supported segregation. In 1910 at the state Baptist Colored Convention in Little Rock, he said "It is not for any political purpose that I come to talk to you. It is not for the purpose of getting your votes, this you know as well as I do, because your people don't vote much. This, perhaps, is best for you. The greatest man in your race [Booker T. Washington] has said that you should keep out of politics and in this I agree with him. I think it is best that you stay out of politics and look after the condition of your people, and in this you have as much as you can do". In autumn 1911, he appeared with Booker T. Washington at the National Negro Business League and said to an audience of one thousand black men to "not waste their time running around begging for social equality". The Chicago Defender quoted him as saying "You must ride in the last two seats in our street cars; you must not sit in a Pullman car; you must not ride on the same deck, nor eat in the same restaurant, nor drink in the same saloon as me...You are a race of degenerates, your women are lewd and we cannot afford to have our white women and children associate with you".

Donaghey's progressive stance procured passage of the Initiative and Referendum Act by which Arkansans can take governmental matters into their own hands and bypass the state legislature. He recruited William Jennings Bryan to help campaign for the amendment's adoption in 1910. Arkansas is the only state in the American South to grant its citizens such power. The initiative, which began in South Dakota, is otherwise particularly known in California and Colorado.

The Donaghey administration focused on roads, public health, and railroads. Donaghey was vehemently opposed to the use of prisoners for contract-leased labor, especially for building railroads. He particularly learned about convict lease while at a Southern governors' conference in West Virginia in autumn 1912. Unable to get the legislature to abolish the practice, he prior to leaving office pardoned 360 prisoners, 44 in country farms and 316 out of 850 in penitentiaries and 37 percent of the incarcerated population. This left the lease system with insufficient available prisoners for utilization in construction. In 1913, a year after Donaghey left office, the legislature finally ended the practice and a new prison board was formed.

In 1912, he was eager for a third term, hoping to take care of statewide prohibition and the much-needed tax reform, but the legislature rejected his reforms and the electorate rejected his prohibition plans. During his campaign for the third term the state capitol project ran out of money, and Donaghey's appropriation plans were not successful. What also helped bring on his defeat was that former governor Jeff Davis and his allies also campaigned for governor, along with emerging powerbroker Joseph Taylor Robinson.

Donaghey was the first Arkansas governor who could indisputably be labeled 'progressive' but was also within the southern progressive tradition, as well as the first businessman to become governor of Arkansas.

After being governor
After his bid for a third term as governor was defeated by Joseph Taylor Robinson in 1912, Donaghey persisted in his quest to complete the Capitol. A critical year was 1913. Senator Jeff Davis died two days into the year. Robinson, by this time state governor, was named by the legislature as Davis's successor. J. M. Futtrell, president of the Arkansas Senate, became acting governor. The result was that Futtrell and the Capitol Building Commission asked Donaghey to become a commission member and take charge of completing construction, which he did. The Capitol, valued at more than $300 million today, was completed in 1917 for $2.2 million, ending an 18-year effort. As a hallmark to completion, Donaghey personally built the governor's conference table, which sets today as the centerpiece of the governor's conference room in the north wing of the Capitol.

As a former governor, Donaghey served on a number of boards and commissions responsible for a variety of tasks such as constructions, education, and charities. He penned the book Build a State Capitol, which details the construction of the Arkansas capitol building.

Donaghey died from a heart attack in Little Rock in 1937, and is interred there at the Roselawn Memorial Park Cemetery. His estate is managed by George W. Donaghey Foundation in Little Rock.

Former Arkansas Governor (1949-1953) Sid McMath said in his memoir Promises Kept: a Memoir that Donaghey was "without a doubt, one of the great governors of Arkansas and served as an inspiration to my administration and to others, particularly in the continuing struggle for human rights, and I decided to continue what he had begun". One book called him "arguably one of the best and most influential governors and philanthropists in Arkansas history".

In 1999, the Log Cabin Democrat named him one of the ten most influential people in Faulkner County's history.

Donaghey's Monument
In 1931, Donaghey, who felt a kinship to both Arkansas and Louisiana, established a monument at the Union Parish/Union County state line near his birthplace. The Art Deco-style monument contains intricate carvings; it includes references to transportation in 1831 and 1931, and mentions Governor Huey P. Long, Jr., whose educational program Donaghey admired. The land was not registered with state parks offices in either state, timber companies cut trees around it, and the marker was forgotten.

In 1975, an employee of the Louisiana Department of Transportation came across the abandoned monument and informed then-State Representative Louise B. Johnson of Bernice of his discovery.

The Monument was dedicated in 1933; Donaghey died four years later. At one time there were plans for a Donaghey State Park, but these were never implemented.

See also

References

External links
 Encyclopedia of Arkansas
 Arkansas Secretary of State

Democratic Party governors of Arkansas
People from Union Parish, Louisiana
People from Conway, Arkansas
Politicians from Little Rock, Arkansas
1856 births
1937 deaths
University of Arkansas alumni
University of Arkansas at Little Rock people
American real estate businesspeople
Businesspeople from Little Rock, Arkansas

George Washington Donaghey


John Graves  Simcoe was a British General and politician.

Family
Simcoe's father John Simcoe died of pneumonia shortly after the Battle of Quebec during the Seven Years War while serving in the Royal Navy. To honour his late father, John Graves Simcoe enlisted as an Ensign in the British Army.

Military service
John Graves Simcoe was then sent to Boston in the 1770s on the eve of the American Revolution. Simcoe fought for the British Empire against the Rebels during the Siege of Boston. Simcoe was then promoted to captain. Captain John Graves Simcoe then fought for the Empire against the Rebels in Pennsylvania in the Battle of Brandywine. Rumour has it that at Brandywine Simcoe commanded his men not to shoot at a number of fleeing rebels one of whom was George Washington. Simcoe wanted to raise a Black Loyalist regiment made entirely of freed slaves. Instead, Simcoe was asked to replace Robert Rogers as the commander of the Queen's Rangers. Lieutenant-Colonel John Graves Simcoe, Commander of the Queen's Rangers participated in several important battles of the Revolutionary War. Simcoe was at one point captured by the French and later freed by the Rangers. Simcoe also tried to expose Washington's Culper spy ring. Simcoe was shot in the Battle of Yorktown and sent back to England where he wrote a history of the revolutionary war from a British perspective.

Politics
Simcoe got married to Elizabeth Posthuma Gwillim and he was elected to the House of Commons as a supporter of Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. Simcoe supported banning the slave trade and having Warren Hastings removed from his position as Governor of India. Simcoe also voted in favour of the Constitutional Act of 1791 which split Quebec into two provinces called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Simcoe offered to lead the British in their war with Spain but instead he was named Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada. Simcoe was opposed to slavery and wanted to get rid of it. Because Simcoe wanted to abolish slavery a group of Upper Canadians sold a woman named Chloe Cooley to Americans and forcibly dragged her onto a boat to the United States of America. Simcoe was horrified by the Chloe Cooley Incident and used it to justify abolishing slavery. Simcoe said " The principles of the British Constitution are fundamentally at odds to that vile practice of slavery which Christianity condemns, when I assume the governorship of Upper Canada I shall never allow discrimination by dishonest practice against those of African, Indian or American descent." Because a number of people in the Legislative Assembly were slaveowners Simcoe wasn't able to ban Slavery outright. Instead Simcoe issued An Act to Prevent the Further Introduction of Slaves also known as the Act to Limit Slavery which said that from now on one who was born in Upper Canada could not be born a slave and it became illegal to buy or sell slaves. Since there were not that many slaves in Upper Canada Simcoe's law abolished slavery within his own lifetime. After that a lot of slaves fled the United States to Upper Canada where they would be free to escape giving rise to what became known as the Underground Railroad.

British generals
Members of the British House of Commons

John Graves Simcoe


Friedrich Wilhelm Weber (25 December 1813 – 5 April 1894) was a German doctor, politician of the Prussian House of Deputies, and poet.

Weber was born in Alshausen, near Bad Driburg, in Westphalia. His father was forester for the Count of Asseburg. Weber first attended the village school, then when thirteen years old he went to the Gymnasium at Paderborn, and afterwards studied medicine at the University of Greifswald. His talent for poetry had been evidenced at the gymnasium; at university, it grew. After spending two years at Greifswald he went to Breslau, where he became acquainted with Gustav Freitag. After a year, however, he returned to Greifswald, where he obtained a doctorate; thence he went to Berlin, where he passed the state medical examination with great honour. After a brief journey for recreation to southern Germany he settled as a physician in Driburg, where he spent twenty-six years.

His practice as a doctor did not keep him from writing poetry. In 1887 he settled permanently at Nieheim. In 1863 he was made Sanitätsrat (honorary title given to a distinguished doctor) in recognition of his medical services; he was made an honorary doctor of philosophy by the academy in Munich, and when he celebrated his semi-centennial as a physician he received the Order of the Red Eagle, fourth class, while three years before his death he received the further honour of the title of Geheimen Sanitätsrat.  He was elected a member of the Prussian House of Deputies. He remained a member of the Centre Party until 1893, when he declined a re-election on account of his health.

His poetry fell into the genres of epic, lyric, and didactic. His early poems were frequently imitations of foreign poets. He was also one of the translators who made Scandinavian and English poetry accessible to Germans, including Tennyson's Enoch Arden, Aylmers Field and Maud, and Esaias Tegnér's Axel. His reputation, however, was founded on his epic, Dreizehnlinden (1878). It enjoyed a wide circulation, and was arranged for the stage; composers Ludwig Bonvin and Maria Vespermann also set it to music. Weber was nicknamed 'Dreizehnlinden-Weber' after it. His second work is his Goliath (1892). His Gedichte(1881) and Herbstblätter (1895) were published after his death. Other works include Marienblumen (1885), and two other religious poems written for special occasions, Vater unser and Das Leiden unseres Heilandes (1892).

Sources

Attribution
 Cites
KEITER, Friedr. W. Weber, der Dichter von Dreizehnlinden (1884);
SCHWERING, Friedr. W. Weber, sein Leben u. sein Werke (1900)

External links

1813 births
1894 deaths
People from Bad Driburg
People from the Province of Westphalia
German Roman Catholics
Centre Party (Germany) politicians
Prussian politicians
University of Greifswald alumni
University of Breslau alumni
German male poets
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Friedrich Wilhelm Weber


Francesco Saverio Merlino (born 9 September 1856 in Naples; died 30 June 1930 in Rome) was an Italian lawyer, anarchist activist and theorist of libertarian socialism.

Life
Merlino started to participate in the anarchist movement in Italy during his university studies.

In 1884 he went into exile in England and also travelled to the USA. After he returned to Italy in 1894, he was arrested and had to spend two years in prison.

In the following years, he developed his theory of libertarian socialism in arguments with his friend Errico Malatesta.

Main works
Socialismo o monopolismo? (1887)
L'Italie telle qu'elle est (1890)
gli opuscoli Necessità e basi di un accordo (1892)
L'individua-lismo nell'anarchismo (1893)
Pro e contro il socialismo (1897)
L'utopia collettivista e la crisi del "socialismo scientifico" (1898)
Formes et essence du socialisme (1898)
Fascismo e democrazia (1924)
Politica e Magistratura dal 1860 ad oggi in Italia (1925)
Il socialismo senza Marx. Studi e polemiche per una revisione della dottrina socialista (1897-1930), Massimiliano Boni, Bologna 1974.
Il problema economico e politico del socialismo. (1948)

Related pages
 List of anarchists

Italian anarchists
Italian lawyers
Jurists from Naples
1856 births
1930 deaths

Francesco Saverio Merlino


Neil Alden Armstrong (5 August 1930 – 25 August 2012) wis an American astronaut an pilot and is kent as the first fowk to walk on the moon. On 20 Julie 1969, Neil Armstrong an Buzz Aldrin landit on the Muin in a small spacecraft that had been sent to the moon usin the Saturn V rocket. The rocket wis callit Apollo 11. They both walkit on the moon, an millions o fowk watchit an heard this event on live televeesion.

Armstrong wis frae Ohio; He veesitit the toun o Langholm in what is the nou the Scots cooncil aurie o Dumfries an Gallowa in 1972, sayin he conseedert it tae be his "hame toun"; it is the tradeetional seat o the Clan Armstrong.

1930 births
1966 in spaceflicht
1969 in spaceflicht
2012 daiths
American aerospace businessfowk
American aerospace ingineers
American astronauts
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American Korean War pilots
American naval personnel o the Korean War
American fowk o German strynd
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American fowk o Scotch-Erse strynd
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Armstrong
Aviators frae Ohio
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Fowk frae Indian Hill, Ohio
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Neil Armstrong


Wouter Pietersz Crabeth (1510–1590) was a Dutch Renaissance glass painter. He was employed by the Sint Janskerk (Gouda) during the Protestant Reformation, where he created six of the stained glass windows during the years 1555 to 1571. His windows, that he created in close collaboration with his brother Dirk Crabeth, are one of the reasons that the church was placed on the UNESCO list of monuments.

Biography
He and his brother Dirk were the sons of Pieter Dirckz of Gouda. They came from a painting family that was employed in the stained glass industry of Gouda. Archival evidence survives today showing orders of glass panes from
various Netherlands towns. Wouter's fame began when his brother became head builder in charge at the Janskerk, and he was hired to help with the window design for an ambitious series of windows depicting the life of St. John the Baptist. Wouter probably assisted his brother from 1555 onwards, but he only signed his own work after he took a trip to Italy, which made him a master painter in his own right. His paintings show better skill at perspective, and he often included architectural backgrounds that accentuated this. According to Houbraken, his work gave the viewer the impression of height, while Dirk's work gave the impression of depth.

His brother had no children, but Wouter had at least one son named Pieter, who became a mayor of Gouda. He in turn had a son, also named Wouter Pietersz, who became a painter like his namesake. This grandson Wouter Crabeth II also travelled to Italy, like his grandfather did before him. He also had a granddaughter by his son Pieter, named Maria Crabeth, who later married Reinier van Persijn, the painter and engraver from Alkmaar.

Wouter's stained glass windows in the Sint Janskerk of Gouda and Museum Gouda

Legacy
The stained glass windows of Gouda are famous, but this is not only for their beauty. It remains a mystery today why these stained glass windows survived the Beeldenstorm and why
Wouter and his brother were allowed to continue their work after the changeover from a Catholic church to a Protestant one. The church has windows from both of the enemies Philip II of Spain and William the Silent.

Houbraken wrote two pages about the brothers Dirk and Wouter Crabeth in his Schouburgh (1718), since he was surprised they were overlooked in Karel van Mander's
Schilder-boeck, who only mentioned their brother Adriaen Pietersz Crabeth. Van Mander also mentioned that the father of this Adriaen was called Krepel Pieter and that he died in Autun (known then for its stained glass windows in the Cathedral) after travelling for a long time in France.

References

External links

Website of the St. Janskerk in Gouda with windows online

1510 births
1590 deaths
Dutch Renaissance painters
People from Gouda, South Holland
Sibling artists
Catholic decorative artists
Catholic stained glass artists

Wouter Crabeth I


African-American musical theater includes late 19th and early 20th century musical theater productions by African Americans in New York City and Chicago. Actors from troupes such as the Lafayette Players also crossed over into film. The Pekin Theatre in Chicago was a popular and influential venue.

Early history
The African Grove Theatre opened in New York City in 1821.

Before the late 1890s, the image portrayed of African-Americans on Broadway was a "secondhand vision of black life created by European-American performers." Stereotyped "coon songs" were popular, and blackface was common. Minstrel shows were often performed in early history and were inspired by black music. These shows were first performed by white people who used black face in the 1800s. Many of these performers wore old ripped clothing, some actually stolen from slaves, to "represent" the enslaved African Americans. Along with the clothing, the white performers portrayed black people out to be lazy, thieves, and dumb.

Will Marion Cook and Bob Cole brought black-written musical comedy to Broadway in 1898. Cook's Clorindy, or The Origin of the Cake Walk, an hour-long sketch that was the first all-black show to play in a prestigious Broadway house, Casino Theatre's Roof Garden.  Cole's A Trip to Coontown was the first full-length New York musical comedy written, directed and performed exclusively by blacks. The approach of the two composers were diametrically opposed: Cole believed that African Americans should try to compete with European Americans by proving their ability to act similarly on- and offstage, while Cook thought African Americans should not imitate European Americans but instead create their own style.

Bob Cole and brothers John Rosamond Johnson and James Weldon Johnson focused on elevating the lyrical sophistication of African American songs. Their first collaboration was "Louisiana Lize", a love song written in a new lyrical style that left out the watermelons, razors, and "hot mamas" typical of earlier "coon songs."

Cole and the Johnson brothers went on to create musicals such as The Belle of Bridgeport, The Red Moon (with Joe Jordan), The Shoo-Fly Regiment, In Newport, Humpty Dumpty, and Sally in Our Alley (featuring Bob Cole's "Under The Bamboo Tree"). Bob Cole's suicide in 1911 ended "one of the promising musical comedy teams yet seen on Broadway".

National recognition

Bert Williams and George Walker, called the "Two Real Coons", found fame in 1896 with a musical farce called The Gold Bug. The duo's performance of the cakewalk was successful. Williams met Walker in San Francisco in 1893, while they played Dahomeyans in an exhibit of the California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894. They played different venues while putting together their act.

Williams and Walker were dropped from "Isham's Octoroons", one of the first African American companies to break from the minstrel style performance. They then put together a number of small productions including A Lucky Coon, Sons of Ham, and The Policy Players, but their ultimate goal was to produce and star in their own Broadway musical. So they thought back to the times in San Francisco and produced In Dahomey (1903) alongside Paul Laurence Dunbar, Jesse A. Shipp, and Will Marion Cook. Abyssinia (1906) and Bandanna Land (1908) also stood high in the Williams and Walker claim to fame. Their dreams of stardom come to life and they took musicals in a new direction, back to Africa. George Walker died during the run of Bandanna Land and his wife Ada Overton Walker substituted for him during the final week of the run.

Crossover shows

By 1911, Ernest Hogan, Bob Cole, and George Walker had died. Will Marion Cook and the Johnson brothers, James and J. Rosamond, had pursued new careers and Bert Williams moved to the Ziegfeld Follies and black musical theater went into a hiatus.

In 1915 ragtime composer Scott Joplin attempted to stage an opera Treemonisha in Harlem but the show was a financial and critical failure and Joplin was ruined and retreated into retirement until his death in 1917.

In May 1921, the surprising hit Shuffle Along made its way to New York City with almost $18,000 in debt. "One of the most popular black shows of the 1920s; began to tinker with the pattern of segregation". The creators of the astronomical point in history are The Dixie Duo, Noble Sissle and Eubie Blake, who met at a party in Baltimore, Maryland in 1915. Their career was brief but successful. "Shuffle Along was a milestone in the development of the black musical, and it became the model by which all black musicals were judged until well into the 1930s." F. E. Miller and Aubrey Lyles, who wrote the book for Shuffle Along (1921) had met in 1906, and began performing at the "Pekin Theater Stock Company" near Chicago from 1906 to 1909, along with other African American stars such as Harry Lawrence Freeman.

In 1921, Miller and Lyles appeared in a short film made in Photokinema, a sound-on-disc process, singing their composition "De Ducks", while Sissle and Blake made three films in the Lee De Forest Phonofilm sound-on-film process in 1923. These short films are a record of music similar to the work these four men were doing on stage at the time...

Rang Tang
Rang Tang was premiered July 12, 1927, on Broadway at the Royale Theater and ran for 119 performances, including a 14-week overrun, finishing at the Majestic October 24, 1927.

Lew Leslie's Blackbirds
In 1928, white producer and director Lew Leslie staged the first of a popular series of Blackbirds revues, featuring such talents as singers Adelaide Hall and Aida Ward, dancer extraordinaire Bill "Bojangles" Robinson and top-flight funnyman Tim Moore.  Further Blackbirds revues were staged in 1930 with Ethel Waters, Buck and Bubbles, and Flournoy Miller, in 1933 with Edith Wilson, and in 1939 with Lena Horne and Tim Moore. The key to Leslie's success was the exceptional talent he found. "Leslie managed to build his black revues around one or more dynamic performers, who could carry a modest show to success."  Although these productions showcased black talent, they were almost completely created by white writers and composers. In an interview, Leslie made a remarkable claim that "They (white men) understand the colored man better than he does himself. Colored composers excel at spirituals, but their other songs are just 'what' (dialect for 'white') songs with Negro words."

Porgy and Bess, the WPA, The Swing Mikado, and Carmen Jones
George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess (1935) – starring Will Marion Cook's wife Abbie Mitchell among many others – is the most famous black musical of the 1930s. It is called a black musical because of the African American cast, even though neither the music or plot is of the "Negro inspiration" like the creators proclaim. "Porgy and Bess marked the nadir in the history of black musical comedy, symbolizing the end of tradition and experimentation in black musical theater on Broadway". This also led the Works Progress Administration to start the Federal Theater Project that established the Negro Unit with programs in 22 cities. This gave a new break to the struggling artists. The Negro Unit avoided musical comedies, but had a few musicals with black cast including Eubie Blake's Swing It, which closed in 1937 and lessened hope for the Federal Theater Project.

However, one black musical comedy succeeded and twisted the new realm of musical theater, The Swing Mikado (1937), a "modernization" of Gilbert and Sullivan's classic operetta, The Mikado.  This was followed by The Hot Mikado (1939). Another modern version of the classics was Oscar Hammerstein II's Broadway musical Carmen Jones (1943), a version of Georges Bizet's Carmen with an all-black cast.

Present day

In the late 20th and 21st century, predominantly Black musical theatre shows became more common. Notable shows include Once on This Island, The Color Purple, MJ the Musical, Dreamgirls, The Lion King,  Tina: The Tina Turner Musical, Ain't Too Proud, Passing Strange, and The Wiz. Sister Act is led by a Black character while Hairspray features multiple Black characters, ensemble members and a story about integration. Michael R. Jackson's A Strange Loop won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 2020, becoming the first African American musical to win this award.

Further reading
 Craig R. Prentiss, Staging Faith: Religion and African American Theater from the Harlem Renaissance to World War II. New York: New York University Press, 2014.
 Allen L. Woll, Black Musical Theater: From Coontown to Dreamgirls. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.

See also

The Frogs (club)
African American music

References

African-American theatre
Musical theatre

African-American musical theater


Langues d'oïl (which literally means in English: "languages of yes") is the linguistic and historical name for the Gallo-Romance languages which developed from Latin in the northern territories of Roman Gaul that now are occupied by northern France, part of Belgium and the Channel Islands.

 Romance languages
 Gallo-Romance languages
 Langue d'oïl or Oïl languages
 Langue d'oc or Occitan language

Langue d'oïl (in the singular),  Oïl dialects and Oïl languages (in the plural) refer to all the ancient northern Gallo-Romance languages as well as their modern-day descendants.  The most widely spoken modern Oïl language is French, but others include Norman, Walloon, Picard, Gallo, Poitevin-Saintongeais, and Champenois.

They share many common linguistic features.  One of them is that Oïl (pronounced [wil], or [wi] as in modern French oui), was the ancestor of the word for yes that is used in all of the Oïl languages.  Oc is the word used in territories to the south and so the Occitan language is also called langue d'oc (literal English translation: "language of yes").
Romance languages

Langues d'oïl


Torres Strait is the narrow sea between Australia's Cape York and New Guinea. It is about  wide and filled with islands, coral reefs and sand banks. The first European to sail through the strait Vanessa uis Vaez de Torres in 1606. There are about 240 islands but only 17 of them have people living on them. While there are about 6,800 Torres Strait Islanders living on the islands, about 42,000 islanders now live on the mainland. The islands belong to Australia and are a part of Queensland. They are governed from Thursday Island by the Torres Strait Regional Authority. They are the only part of Australia to share a border with another country, New Guinea.

Geography
It is an important sea lane for ships, but because the water is not deep and is filled with many reefs and islands, it is very difficult to sail through safely.

The islands are a mix of island types. Some of the islands near New Guinea are low lying islands made from soil washed down from the rivers. The hilly and steep  granite islands in the west were once the tops of mountains which became islands when the sea levels rose 8,000 years ago. The islands in the centre are mostly coral cays. The islands in the east of the strait were made by submarine volcanos which grew above the surface of the ocean.

In 2009, the islanders asked the Australian government for AU$ 22 million to build new sea walls. Because some of the islands are quite low, rising sea levels and big tides have meant many areas are now being flooded. This has damaged houses and put salt into the fresh water supplies. People may have to leave two of the mud islands, Boigu and Saibai, unless something can be done about the rising sea.

The people
The islands' people are called the Torres Strait Islanders. They are Melanesian peoples related to the Papuans of New Guinea. The islanders have their own culture and long history. They traded with the Papuans to the north and the Australian Aboriginal people for thousands of years.

The islanders talk two different languages:
Kala Lagaw Ya/Kalaw Kawaw Ya/Kawalgaw Ya/Kulkalgaw Ya,
Meriam Mir

There is also a language called Brokan (Broken), or Torres Strait Creole. This is a mix of different languages and islander words that started when the islanders started working on ships searching for pearls in the 1860's.

History
The level of the sea was much lower up to 8000 years ago. Torres Strait would not have been covered by water which means people and animals could walk between New Guinea and Australia. Some animals and birds can be found in both New Guinea and Queensland, such as the cassowary. Other animals, such as pigs, arrived in New Guinea after the sea levels rose and closed the land bridge and were not able to get to Australia.

There is evidence of people living on the Torres Strait islands for at least 2,500 years. It is likely that people were living there long before that, but rising sea levels will have covered earlier sites.

European discovery
The first known European to sail through the strait was Luis Váez de Torres, a Spanish or Portuguese sailor. He was second-in-command of the Spanish expedition led by the Portuguese Pedro Fernandez de Quirós who sailed from Peru to the South Pacific in 1605. After Quiros's ship went back to Mexico, Torres kept going to the Moluccas and then to Manila. He sailed along the south coast of New Guinea. He may have seen Cape York on the Australian mainland, but there is no evidence to prove this. Torres wrote a letter to the Spanish king about his discoveries but this was kept secret until 1762.

In 1769 the Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, was translating Spanish letters found in the Philippines in 1762. He read Luis Váez de Torres' letter about a passage south of New Guinea. Dalrymple wrote a book, the Historical Collection of the Several Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean in 1770-1771. This book caused a lot of interest in the idea of an unknown continent. Dalrymple named the strait after Torres. This led Captain James Cook to go on another voyage into the South Pacific. Dalrymple was angry that it was Captain Cook and not him who was put in charge of the expedition which led in 1770 to the discovery of the east coast of Australia. In 1770 Cook sailed through the strait after sailing up the east coast of Australia. He landed on Possession Island and claimed all the land of Australia for Britain.

With people like James Cook, William Bligh, and Matthew Flinders exploring and making maps of the strait, many more ships started to sail through it on their way from Sydney to India or Asia. It was still hard for ships, and many were wrecked on the reefs. A Scottish woman, Barbara Thompson, was the only person saved when the ship "America" hit a reef in 1842. She was saved by the islanders and lived with them on Prince of Wales Island for five years until another ship came to take her back to Sydney.

Trade
There was an important pearling business in the strait from the 1860s until about 1970. Pearl-shelling brought many experienced divers from many countries, especially Japan.

Missionaries
The London Missionary Society arrived on Erub (Darnley Island) in 1871. The islanders still celebrate the coming of the missionaries as "The Coming of the Light", and it is holiday every year on the islands.

Government
Although some of the Torres Strait islands are just off the coast of New Guinea, they were taken over in 1879 by Queensland, then a British colony. In 1978 an agreement between Australia and Papua New Guinea worked out the correct position of the maritime border in the Torres Strait. The Torres Strait also has its own flag. It was designed by Bernard Namok from Thursday Island. It has a background of five stripes, green for the land, blue for the sea, and black for the people. It has a big white Dari, or headress, and a five pointed star for the five main island groups. In 1995 is was officially made a flag of Australia.

World War II
In World War II, Horn Island in Torres Strait,  north of Cape York, became Australia's most northerly air base. In 1940 two big runways were built. It was used by thousands of Allied aircraft. With eight Japanese air raids in 1942, it was the most attacked place in Queensland. Conditions on the island were hard for the soldiers, with poor food, not enough water, diseases, and attacks from the Japanese. The airport is still working as the main airport for far north Queensland. It is now a tourist resort, especially well-known for its fishing.

Books and music
Jules Verne wrote about Torres Strait in his novel, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. It was a dangerous place where the submarine "Nautilus" was stranded for a short time.

References

Bodies of water of Australia
Geography of Papua New Guinea
Straits

Torres Strait


Gombe Stream National Park is a national park in Kigoma District of Kigoma Region in Tanzania,  north of Kigoma, the capital of Kigoma Region. Established in 1968, it is one of the smallest national parks in Tanzania, with only  of protected land along the hills of the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. The terrain is distinguished by steep valleys, and the vegetation ranges from grassland to woodland to tropical rainforest. Accessible only by boat, the park is most famous as the location where Jane Goodall pioneered her behavioural research on the common chimpanzee populations. The Kasakela chimpanzee community, featured in several books and documentaries, lives in Gombe National Park.

Besides chimpanzees, primates inhabiting Gombe Stream National Park include beachcomber olive baboons, red colobus, red-tailed monkeys, blue monkeys, and vervet monkeys. Red-tailed monkeys and blue monkeys have also been known to hybridize in the area. The park is also home to over 200 bird species and bushpigs. There are also many species of snakes, and occasional hippopotami and African leopards.

Jane Goodall

Jane Goodall first travelled to Tanzania in 1960 at the age of 26 with no formal college training.  At the time, it was accepted  that humans were undoubtedly similar to chimpanzees, sharing over 98% of the same genetic code.  However, little was known about chimpanzee behaviour or community structure. At the time she began her research, she says "it was not permissible, at least not in ethological circles, to talk about an animal's mind. Only humans had minds. Nor was it quite proper to talk about animal personality. Of course, everyone knew that they did have their own unique characters--everyone who had ever owned a dog or other pet was aware of that. But ethologists, striving to make theirs a "hard" science, shied away from the task of trying to explain such things objectively."  However, her research eventually proved just that—the intellectual and emotional sophistication of non-humans, chimpanzees in particular.  With the support of renowned anthropologist Louis Leakey, Goodall set up a small research station in Gombe in hopes of learning more about the behaviour of our closest relatives.  There she spent months tracking the elusive chimpanzee troops, particularly the Kasekela chimpanzee community, and observing their daily habits until she was slowly accepted by one troop and was allowed rare and intimate glimpses into chimpanzee society.

Research findings

Without college training directing her research, Goodall observed things that strict scientific doctrines may have overlooked. Instead of numbering the chimpanzees she observed, she gave them names such as Fifi and David Greybeard, and observed them to have unique and individual personalities, an unconventional idea at the time. She found that "it isn't only human beings who have personality, who are capable of rational thought [and] emotions like joy and sorrow".  She also observed behaviours such as hugs, kisses, pats on the back, and even tickling, what people consider identifiable human actions. Goodall insists that these gestures are evidence of "the close, supportive, affectionate bonds that develop between family members and other individuals within a community, which can persist throughout a life span of more than 50 years."  These findings suggest similarities between humans and chimpanzees exist in more than genes alone but can be seen in emotion, intelligence, and family and social relationships.

Goodall's research at Gombe is best known to the scientific community for challenging two long-standing beliefs of the day: that only humans could construct and use tools, and that chimpanzees were passive vegetarians. While observing one chimpanzee feeding at a termite mound, she watched him repeatedly place stalks of grass into termite holes, then remove them from the hole covered with clinging termites, effectively "fishing" for termites.  The chimps would also take twigs from trees and strip off the leaves to make the twig more effective, a form of object modification which is the rudimentary beginnings of toolmaking.  Humans had long distinguished ourselves from the rest of the animal kingdom as "Man the Toolmaker". In response to Goodall's revolutionary findings, Louis Leakey wrote, "We must now redefine man, redefine tool, or accept chimpanzees as human!"  Over the course of her study, Goodall found evidence of mental traits in chimpanzees such as reasoned thought, abstraction, generalization, symbolic representation, and even the concept of self, all previously thought to be uniquely human abilities.

In contrast to the peaceful and affectionate behaviours she observed, Goodall also found an aggressive side of chimp nature at Gombe.  She discovered that chimps will systematically hunt and eat smaller primates, such as colobus monkeys. Goodall watched a hunting group isolate a colobus monkey high in a tree and block all possible exits, then one chimpanzee climbed up and captured and killed the colobus.  The others then each took parts of the carcass, sharing with other members of the troop in response to begging behaviours.  The chimps at Gombe kill and eat as much as one-third of the colobus population in the park each year.  This alone was a major scientific find which challenged previous conceptions of chimp diet and behaviour.

But perhaps more startling, and disturbing, was the tendency for aggression and violence within chimpanzee troops.  Goodall observed dominant females deliberately killing the young of other females in the troop in order to maintain their dominance, sometimes going so far as cannibalism.  She says of this revelation, "During the first ten years of the study I had believed […] that the Gombe chimpanzees were, for the most part, rather nicer than human beings. […] Then suddenly we found that chimpanzees could be brutal—that they, like us, had a darker side to their nature." These findings revolutionized contemporary knowledge of chimpanzee diet and feeding behaviours, and were further evidence of the social similarities between humans and chimpanzees, albeit in a much darker manner.

Gombe Stream Research Centre

Goodall lived at Gombe almost full-time for fifteen years and the long-term data she accumulated is still of value to scientists today.  In 1967, the Gombe Stream Research Centre (GSRC) was established to coordinate ongoing chimpanzee research in the park.  Run mostly by a team of trained Tanzanians, the GSRC is the longest-running field study of an animal species in their natural surroundings, now over 60 years.  This long-term data has provided scientists with insight into chimpanzee demographic patterns, male politics, hunting, culture and mother-infant relationships over multiple generations—rare and valuable data.  The ongoing research is also providing information on the current threats to chimpanzees, such as disease, poaching, and habitat disturbance, which affect other species at Gombe as well. The research of Goodall has also drastically changed ethological thinking and how behavioural studies are conducted.  Where once talk of animal emotion was dismissed as anthropomorphism, her observations of animals in their natural habitat show that societies, behaviour, and relationships between animals are quite complex.  Her research of chimpanzee habitat (food and other requirements) also aid in improved design for new protected areas. The GSRC also conducts research on the baboon population, led by the Jane Goodall Center for Primate Studies.  Research from the GSRC has resulted in 35 Ph.D. theses, over 400 papers and 30 books.

Conservation

The biodiversity of Gombe National Park is primarily threatened by human encroachment. Although 25% of Tanzania is set aside in parks and reserves, wildlife populations are still declining.  This is mainly due to the lack of collaboration between park management, government sectors, and rural communities.  Village lands often lie between parks and become obstacles for animals traveling between protected areas.  Without incentives to protect the animals, rural communities will hunt them for food or kill them for safety reasons. Poverty also increases the demand.

See also
USC Jane Goodall Research Center
List of protected areas of Tanzania
Tanzania National Parks Authority
Gombe Chimpanzee War

Notes and references

External links

Official website
Tanzania tourist board
Ape site at UCSD
Explore - Street View, Google Maps

National parks of Tanzania
Geography of Kigoma Region
Lake Tanganyika
Miombo
Jane Goodall
Protected areas established in 1968
1968 establishments in Tanzania
Tourist attractions in the Kigoma Region
Central Zambezian miombo woodlands

Gombe Stream National Park


In English law, seignory or seigniory, spelled signiory in Early Modern English (; ; ), is the lordship (authority) remaining to a grantor after the grant of an estate in fee simple.

Nulle terre sans seigneur ("No land without a lord") was a feudal legal maxim; where no other lord can be discovered, the Crown is lord as lord paramount. The principal incidents of a seignory were a feudal oath of homage and fealty; a "quit" or "chief" rent; a "relief" of one year's quit rent, and the right of escheat. In return for these privileges the lord was liable to forfeit his rights if he neglected to protect and defend the tenant or did anything injurious to the feudal relation.

Every seignory now existing must have been created before the statute Quia Emptores (1290), which forbade the future creation of estates in fee-simple by subinfeudation. The only seignories of any importance at present are the lordships of manors. They are regarded as incorporeal hereditaments, and are either appendant or in gross. A seignory appendant passes with the grant of the manor; a seignory in gross—that is, a seignory which has been severed from the demesne lands of the manor to which it was originally appendant—must be specially conveyed by deed of grant.

Freehold land may be enfranchised by a conveyance of the seignory to the freehold tenant, but it does not extinguish the tenant's right of common (Baring v. Abingdon, 1892, 2 Ch. 374). By s. 3 (ii.) of the Settled Land Act 1882, the tenant for life of a manor is empowered to sell the seignory of any freehold land within the manor, and by s. 21 (v.) the purchase of the seignory of any part of settled land being freehold land, is an authorized application of capital money arising under the act.

References

See also
 Seigneurial system of New France
 Signoria
 Heerlijkheid
 Herrschaft

Property law
Feudalism in England

Seignory


In classical architecture, a colonnade is a long sequence of columns joined by their entablature, often free-standing, or part of a building. Paired or multiple pairs of columns are normally employed in a colonnade which can be straight or curved. The space enclosed may be covered or open. In St. Peter's Square in Rome, Bernini's great colonnade encloses a vast open elliptical space.

When in front of a building, screening the door (Latin porta), it is called a portico. When enclosing an open court, a peristyle. A portico may be more than one rank of columns deep, as at the Pantheon in Rome or the stoae of Ancient Greece.

When the intercolumniation is alternately wide and narrow, a colonnade may be termed "araeosystyle" (Gr. αραιος, "widely spaced", and συστυλος, "with columns set close together"), as in the case of the western porch of St Paul's Cathedral and the east front of the Louvre.

History

Colonnades (formerly as colonade) have been built since ancient times and interpretations of the classical model have continued through to modern times, and Neoclassical styles remained popular for centuries. At the British Museum, for example, porticos are continued along the front as a colonnade.  The porch of columns that surrounds the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. (in style a peripteral classical temple) can be termed a colonnade. As well as the traditional use in buildings and monuments, colonnades are used in sports stadiums such as the Harvard Stadium in Boston, where the entire horseshoe-shaped stadium is topped by a colonnade. The longest colonnade in the United States, with 36 Corinthian columns, is the New York State Education Building in Albany, New York.

Notable colonnades

Ancient world

Renaissance and Baroque periods

Neoclassical

Modern interpretations

See also

Arcade
Cloister
Engaged column

References

Columns and entablature
Architectural elements

Colonnade


Mykolaiv (, also referred to as or Mykolayiv, Nikolaev, or Nikolayev; ) is a major city in southern Ukraine.

The city is located 65 kilometers from the Black Sea along the estuary of the Southern Buh river (where it meets the Inhul River) at around . Population 514,000 (as of 2001 Ukrainian Census).

Administrative status

It is the administrative center of the Mykolaiv Oblast (province), as well as of both the Mykolaivsky and Zhovtnevy raions (districts) within the oblast. However, Mykolaiv is a city of oblast subordinance, thus being subject directly to the oblast authorities rather to the raion administration housed in the city itself.

History

The town was founded in 1789 by the Russian Governor General of  Novorossiya Knyaz Potemkin initially as a shipyard called simply a New Shipyard on the Ingul river. Knyaz Potemkin signed an order to construct a shipyard on August 27, 1789, which is considered to be a city birth date. The shipyard was to serve for the repair of the Russian Navy ships in the Russo-Turkish war. Later Potemkin ordered the shipyard to be named Nikolaev to commemorate the date of fall of Ochakov to the Russian troops under his command on December 6, 1788, close to the day of Saint Nicholas (Nikolay) December 19, in the Russian Orthodox Church.

The history of the city has always been closely connected to the ship building.

The only  Russian Navy aircraft carrier currently in commission, Admiral Flota Sovetskogo Soyuza Kuznetsov, was built in Mykolaiv.

Economy

Today Mykolaiv is a major ship building center of Ukraine (as, earlier, of the whole Soviet Union) and an important riverport. The city has 3 major shipyards some of which are capable of building large navy ships.  Other important industries are mechanical engineering, power engineering, metallurgy and cosmetics.

Unlike the city, in the region one of the leading areas is agricultural production. This industry ranks first in the structure of production of the region in terms of employment of labor resources. One of the leading centers of the State Institution "Mykolayiv State Agricultural Research Station " of the Institute of Agrarian Farming of the National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine" founded in 1956

Other websites

 Website
 Wikimapia - Satellite map of Mykolaiv at Wikimapia

Cities in Ukraine
1789 establishments
Establishments in Ukraine
1780s establishments in Europe
Port cities and towns of the Black Sea

Mykolaiv


Memory effect, also known as battery effect, lazy battery effect, or battery memory, is an effect observed in nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries that causes them to hold less charge. It describes the situation in which nickel-cadmium batteries gradually lose their maximum energy capacity if they are repeatedly recharged after being only partially discharged. The battery appears to "remember" the smaller capacity.

True memory effect
The term "memory" came from an aerospace nickel-cadmium application in which the cells were repeatedly discharged to 25% of available capacity (give or take 1%) by exacting computer control, then recharged to 100% capacity without overcharge. This long-term, repetitive cycle régime, with no provision for overcharge, resulted in a loss of capacity beyond the 25% discharge point. True memory cannot exist if any one (or more) of the following conditions holds:
 batteries achieve full overcharge.
 discharge is not exactly the same each cycle, within plus or minus 3%
 discharge is to less than 1.0 volt per cell

True memory-effect is specific to sintered-plate nickel-cadmium cells, and is exceedingly difficult to reproduce, especially in lower ampere-hour cells. In one particular test program designed to induce the effect, none was found after more than 700 precisely-controlled charge/discharge cycles. In the program, spirally-wound one-ampere-hour cells were used. In a follow-up program, 20-ampere-hour aerospace-type cells were used on a similar test régime; memory effects were observed after a few hundred cycles.

Other problems perceived as memory effect
Phenomena which are not true memory effects may also occur in battery types other than sintered-plate nickel-cadmium cells. In particular, lithium-based cells, not normally subject to the memory effect, may change their voltage levels so that a virtual decrease of capacity may be perceived by the battery control system.

Temporary effects

Voltage depression due to long-term over-charging
A common process often ascribed to memory effect is voltage depression. In this case, the output voltage of the battery drops more quickly than normal as it is used, even though the total capacity remains almost the same. In modern electronic equipment that monitors the voltage to indicate battery charge, the battery appears to be draining very quickly. To the user, it appears the battery is not holding its full charge, which seems similar to memory effect. This is a common problem with high-load devices such as digital cameras and cell phones.

Voltage depression is caused by repeated over-charging of a battery, which causes the formation of small crystals of electrolyte on the plates.  These can clog the plates, increasing resistance and lowering the voltage of some individual cells in the battery. This causes the battery as a whole to seem to discharge rapidly as those individual cells discharge quickly and the voltage of the battery as a whole suddenly falls.  This effect is very common,  as consumer trickle chargers typically overcharge. Nickel–metal hydride batteries, for example, are known to experience this form of capacity loss  often mistakenly attributed to memory effect.

Repair
The effect can be overcome by subjecting each cell of the battery to one or more deep charge/discharge cycles. This must be done to the individual cells, not a multi-cell battery; in a battery, some cells may discharge before others, resulting in those cells being subjected to a reverse charging current by the remaining cells, potentially leading to irreversible damage.

High temperatures
High temperatures can also reduce the charged voltage and the charge accepted by the cells.

Other causes
 Operation below 32 °F (0 °C)
 High discharge rates (above 5C) in a battery not specifically designed for such use
 Inadequate charging time
 Defective charger

Permanent loss of capacity

Deep discharge
Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will "reverse charge" as the other cells continue to force current through it.  The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.

Battery users may attempt to avoid the memory effect proper by fully discharging their battery packs. This practice is likely to cause more damage as one of the cells will be deep discharged. The damage is focused on the weakest cell, so that each additional full discharge will cause more and more damage to that cell.

Age and use—normal end-of-life
All rechargeable batteries have a finite lifespan and will slowly lose storage capacity as they age due to secondary chemical reactions within the battery whether it is used or not.  Some cells may fail sooner than others, but the effect is to reduce the voltage of the battery. Lithium-based batteries have one of the longest idle lives of any construction.  Unfortunately the number of operational cycles is still quite low at approximately 400–1200 complete charge/discharge cycles. The lifetime of lithium batteries decreases at higher temperature and states of charge (SoC), whether used or not; maximum life of lithium cells when not in use(storage) is achieved by refrigerating (without freezing) charged to 30%–50% SoC. To prevent overdischarge, battery should be brought back to room temperature and recharged to 50% SoC once every six months or once per year.

References

Further reading
 Rechargeable Batteries Applications Handbook from Gates Energy Products, published since 1992 April 10.

Battery charging
Rechargeable batteries

Memory effect


Felix Ludwig Johann Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg (; ; 2 October 1800 – 5 April 1852) was a Bohemian nobleman and an Austrian statesman who restored the Austrian Empire as a European great power following the Revolutions of 1848. He served as Minister-President of the Austrian Empire and Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire from 1848 to 1852.

Life
Felix was born at Český Krumlov Castle () in Bohemia, the second son of Prince Joseph of Schwarzenberg (1769–1833) and his wife Pauline of Arenberg. The House of Schwarzenberg was one of the most influential Bohemian noble families; his elder brother Prince Johann Adolf II of Schwarzenberg later initiated the building of the Emperor Franz Joseph Railway line from Vienna to Plzeň (Pilsen), while Felix' younger brother Frederick became Archbishop of Salzburg in 1835 and Archbishop of Prague in 1849.

The nephew of Prince Karl Philipp of Schwarzenberg (1771–1820), commander of the Austrian armies in the last phases of the Napoleonic wars, Schwarzenberg after a short military interlude entered the diplomatic service, where he became a protégé of State Chancellor Prince Klemens von Metternich and served in several Austrian embassies at Saint Petersburg, London, Paris, Turin, and Naples. During his time as a London attaché in 1828 he had an affair with Jane Digby, whom he deserted after causing her then-husband – Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough – to divorce her, and making her pregnant. This episode led to the nickname of "Prince of Cadland" being applied to him in London.

Upon the outbreak of the 1848 Revolutions, he rushed to the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia to join Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky defeating the Italian rebel forces of King Charles Albert of Sardinia in Milan. For his role as a close advisor to Radetzky, as well as his status as brother-in-law to Marshal Prince Alfred of Windisch-Grätz, who had suppressed the Czech "Whitsun Riot" in Prague and the Vienna Uprising in October, Schwarzenberg was appointed Austrian minister-president—the sixth within a year—and foreign minister on 21 November 1848. In these offices, which he both held until his premature death, his first step was to secure the replacement of incapacitated Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria by his nephew Francis Joseph. After heir presumptive Archduke Franz Karl had renounced the succession, Ferdinand abdicated in Olomouc on December 2.

Schwarzenberg formed a new government with conservative politicians like Interior Minister Count Franz von Stadion but also liberal allies like Baron Alexander von Bach, Karl Ludwig von Bruck and Anton von Schmerling as well as the Bohemian federalist Education Minister Count Leopold von Thun und Hohenstein. Learning from Metternich's fate, Schwarzenberg was determined not only to fight, but overcome revolution. Against the perceptions in the Frankfurt Parliament concerning the German question, he advocated the idea of an Austrian-German federation, including all Austrian crown lands in and outside the German Confederation. He delegitimized the Frankfurt assembly by recalling the Austrian delegates and preempted the federalist ideas of the Austrian Kremsier Parliament with the promulgation of the March Constitution in 1849.

Together with the new Emperor, Schwarzenberg called in the Imperial Russian Army to help suppress the Hungarian revolt, and thus give Austria free rein to attempt to thwart Prussia's drive to dominate Germany. He undid democratic reforms and re-established monarchist control in Austria, with the 1849 March Constitution that transformed the Habsburg Empire into a unitary, centralized state. In matters of German dualism, he was able to impose the Punctation of Olmütz on Prussia, forcing it to abandon, for the moment, its plan of unifying Germany under its own auspices, and to acquiesce in the reformation of the old German Confederation. At the same time his government initiated substantial administrative, juridical, and educational reforms.

Schwarzenberg died in office at Vienna, suffering a stroke in the early evening of Monday, April 5, 1852.

Legacy
Schwarzenberg achieved substantial respect in Europe as an able statesman (some called him the "Austrian Bismarck"), although he was not much trusted, even by his emperor. His own statement (or alleged statement: according to historian Edward Crankshaw, it is apocryphal) following the Russian intervention in Hungary, that Austria would "shock the world by the depth of its ingratitude" was bitterly remembered in the Crimean War, a war which had the effect of marring his posthumous reputation. Varying between the ideas of constitutionalism and the revival of an absolute monarchy, Schwarzenberg managed to disappoint both liberal and conservative circles. Nevertheless, his intelligence and powers of application were great; and his sudden death has generally been seen by historians as a grave setback to Austria, given that none of his successors in the emperor's reign possessed his European renown or political skill.

The honorary citizenship of Budapest bestowed on Schwarzenberg during his lifetime was officially revoked in 2011 by the local government under Mayor István Tarlós.

See also
 House of Schwarzenberg

Bibliography
 Edward Crankshaw, The Fall of the House of Habsburg, 1963.

References

Attribution

External links

1800 births
1852 deaths
19th-century Ministers-President of Austria
People from Český Krumlov
19th-century Austrian people
Politicians from the Austrian Empire
Foreign ministers of Austria
Austrian diplomats
People of the Revolutions of 1848
Felix
German Bohemian people
Austrian people of German Bohemian descent
Knights Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa

Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg