In mathematics, a radial function is a real-valued function defined on a Euclidean space Rn whose value at each point depends only on the distance between that point and the origin. The distance is usually the Euclidean distance.  For example, a radial function Φ in two dimensions has the form

where φ is a function of a single non-negative real variable.  Radial functions are contrasted with spherical functions, and any descent function (e.g., continuous and rapidly decreasing) on Euclidean space can be decomposed into a series consisting of radial and spherical parts: the solid spherical harmonic expansion.

A function is radial if and only if it is invariant under all rotations leaving the origin fixed.  That is, ƒ is radial if and only if

for all , the special orthogonal group in n dimensions.  This characterization of radial functions makes it possible also to define radial distributions.  These are distributions S on Rn such that

for every test function φ and rotation ρ.

Given any (locally integrable) function ƒ, its radial part is given by averaging over spheres centered at the origin.  To wit,

where ωn−1 is the surface area of the (n−1)-sphere Sn−1, and , .  It follows essentially by Fubini's theorem that a locally integrable function has a well-defined radial part at almost every r.

The Fourier transform of a radial function is also radial, and so radial functions play a vital role in Fourier analysis.  Furthermore, the Fourier transform of a radial function typically has stronger decay behavior at infinity than non-radial functions: for radial functions bounded in a neighborhood of the origin, the Fourier transform decays faster than R−(n−1)/2.  The Bessel functions are a special class of radial function that arise naturally in Fourier analysis as the radial eigenfunctions of the Laplacian; as such they appear naturally as the radial portion of the Fourier transform.

See also
 Radial basis function

References

.

Harmonic analysis
Rotational symmetry
Types of functions

Radial function


The Diamond Head Game is an American game show that aired from January 6 to July 4, 1975 in five-day-a-week syndication. Borrowing its name from a long dormant volcano on the island of Oahu, the series was hosted by Bob Eubanks and assistant Jane Nelson, and is the only game show ever to have been taped entirely on location in Hawaii. Alan Thicke composed the theme music.

Premise
The Diamond Head Game had two formats. The first format was used for the first 13 weeks.

Format #1

Front game
The audience was divided into four sections, each representing "one of the islands of Hawaii." Two contestants were selected from each section at a time to compete in a best-of-three faceoff for the right to play the second round. Eubanks asked a series of general knowledge toss-ups that were either true/false or multiple choice. Buzzing in with a correct answer earned a player a point, but answering incorrectly gave the point to the opponent. The first to two points advanced to the next round and the process was repeated with the other three sections of the audience.

In the second round, the four remaining contestants stood at the bottom of a three-step podium referred to as the base of Diamond Head. In this round, the contestants had to recall items from a list of twelve read by Eubanks. One at a time the contestants took turns giving answers, stopping only when either one of them answered incorrectly, failed to answer within three seconds or (in rare cases) completing the list. The first player to miss was eliminated from the game and the other three won $50. If a list was completed without a miss, all four players won $50 and a new list was played.

On the second step, one more player was eliminated, the two survivors won $100 and faced off for a chance to face the money volcano in the bonus round. One last list was played with the last player standing winning the game. All contestants kept their winnings.

Money Volcano
In the bonus round, the contestant was given 15 seconds inside a modified wind tunnel called "The Money Volcano." There were various prize cards and cash in the Volcano and the contestant wore a pouch around his/her waist into which these items were placed as they were plucked out of the air. The contestants were not permitted either to bend down to pick the items up or use their bodies to trap them. Among the dollar amounts in the Money Volcano was a $10,000 bill, and there were several $1 bills as well, which the contestants were told should not be collected.

When time expired, the contestant came out of the Volcano and Eubanks pulled out up to ten of the items from the pouch. One at a time, he revealed them to the contestant and as long as a $1 bill was not one of them, the contestant had an option to stop and take a bailout prize or keep going. Any $1 bills drawn from the pouch would cause the contestant to lose everything.

Format #2
The second format began on April 7, 1975 and continued for the rest of the series.

Front game
Two teams of three contestants competed in three question-and-answer rounds. A category was announced, along with five possible answers. Eubanks read a statement and the teams tried to match one of the answers to the statement. Each contestant had their own buzzer. A correct answer earned their team points (10 in round 1, 20 in round 2, and 30 in round 3), while an incorrect answer or failure to respond allowed the opposing team to answer (conferring was allowed here).

The team with the most points after three rounds advanced to the base of Diamond Head and competed against each other for the right to play the Money Volcano; ties, if any, were broken by sudden-death round. In this part of the game, anything other than a right answer earned a player a strike and two strikes eliminated a player.

Money Volcano
The first half of the game was played as before. However, Eubanks drew a maximum of only five bills and offered opportunities for the contestant to quit and keep their current winnings, or trade for one of five bonus envelopes. Three of the envelopes concealed $100, another $5,000 and the fifth a grand prize. As before, any $1 bill drawn immediately resulted in the contestant losing everything, which ended the bonus round.

Reception
Later in his career, during the period when he was hosting Card Sharks, Eubanks admitted on-camera during the February 19th, 1988 episode that he had not formed any positive memories of having hosted The Diamond Head Game. "It was the worst piece of 'boop boop' that anyone had ever witnessed!" Eubanks said it was the show he was most ashamed of doing. "Didn't hurt my career... I didn't work for years after that," Eubanks joked.

Episode status
All episodes exist. The series was rerun on GSN from October 1997 to April 1998 and again in 2000-2001.

References

External links

First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
1970s American game shows
1975 American television series debuts
1975 American television series endings
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Television shows set in Hawaii
Television shows filmed in Hawaii

The Diamond Head Game


Robert Kapilow (born December 22, 1952) is an American composer, conductor, and music commentator. He is a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Yale University, a graduate of the Eastman School of Music, and a student of Nadia Boulanger. He initially gained recognition for his classical music radio program, What Makes It Great?, which was under the umbrella of National Public Radio's Performance Today; "PT" is now a stablemate of classical programs produced by American Public Media. "What Makes It Great?" is part of NPR's NPR Music website. On the program he presented live full-length concert evenings and series throughout North America. Kapilow's program became a recurring event at New York's Lincoln Center (where Kapilow has the distinction of being the only artist to have his own series), in Boston, Los Angeles and Kansas City among other venues. In 2014 "What Makes It Great?" relocated to Merkin Hall at Kaufman Music Center, where Kapilow was a 2019-20 Artist-in-Residence.

As a G. Schirmer exclusive composer, Kapilow wrote the first musical setting of Dr. Seuss's Green Eggs and Ham, which was premiered and recorded by the New Jersey Chamber Music Society in 1995. It has since achieved great popularity in the children's theater world, prompting Boston Globe music critic Richard Dyer to name it "the most popular children's piece since Peter and the Wolf". A prolific composer of symphonic works, Kapilow has written pieces for the Kansas City Symphony, the National Symphony Orchestra, the Louisiana Philharmonic, the Saint Louis Symphony, the Helena Symphony, and the Minnesota Orchestra, among others. He has also written an opera, Many Moons, based on the James Thurber story, with a libretto by Hilary Blecher. Kapilow was a featured composer on Chicago Public Radio's Composers In America series and is a recipient of an Exxon "Meet-the-Composer" grant and numerous ASCAP awards. His setting of Chris Van Alsburg's Polar Express with Nathan Gunn and the Metamorphosis Chamber Orchestra and Dr. Seuss's Gertrude McFuzz with Isabel Leonard was recorded by Roven Records in 2014

As a conductor, Kapilow has led such orchestras as the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the National Symphony Orchestra, the Minnesota Orchestra, the Toronto Symphony, the Detroit Symphony, the St. Louis Symphony, the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra, and the Hagen Symphony, among others. He has also conducted stage works including performances of a Lukas Foss opera, performances with the American Repertory Theatre, and over 300 performances of the Tony Award-winning musical Nine on Broadway.

Kapilow was also music director of the Yale Symphony Orchestra and Opera New England, as well as assistant conductor of the Opera Company of Boston and the Bridgeport Symphony. He was an assistant professor of music for six years at Yale University and has lectured and taught at universities throughout America. His two books, All You Have to Do Is Listen: Music from the Inside Out, and What Makes it Great?: Short Masterpieces, Great Composers are published by John Wiley & Sons.

External links
 Colbert Artists Management, Inc.
 Official Website

References

1952 births
Living people
American male composers
21st-century American composers
Classical music radio presenters
Place of birth missing (living people)
American male conductors (music)
21st-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American male musicians
20th-century American composers
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
Yale University alumni
Eastman School of Music alumni

Rob Kapilow


Henri Sarolea (18 January 1844, Maastricht – 12 September 1900, Heerlen), was a Dutch railway entrepreneur and contractor who settled in Heerlen after having worked on the railways in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).

His house in Heerlen was located close to where today there is a major railway crossing which did not exist when Henri moved there. Although the big towns surrounding Heerlen had railroad service (to places like Aachen, Liège, and Maastricht), Heerlen did not. At the age of 42 (1886) Henri started to plan a railroad between Herzogenrath, Heerlen, and Sittard.  At first the Dutch government was skeptical about building a railroad in that far corner of the country, but Henri persevered and on 1 January 1896 the railroad was opened.

A few years earlier an industrial and mining family from Aachen, the Honingmann family  bought a concession to mine for coal around Heerlen, but it proved to be impossible to ship the coal over the small roads around Heerlen.  When they found out that Henri Sarolea was planning to build a railroad the brothers Friedrich (1841-1913) and Carl Honingmann (1842-1903) realised that it was time exploit the rich coal veins of Heerlen.

The first mine was dug right next to the railway.  Henri, convinced that the mines would change Heerlen for good, even became a member of the board of directors of the Oranje Nassau Mijnen, the public name of the company.  Unfortunately he did not see how his railroad changed Heerlen, he died of a heart attack in 1900 at the age of 56.

Trivia
One of the most important shopping streets in Heerlen was renamed after Henri Sarolea. The Saroleastraat (Sarolea Street) runs from the train station into the heart of Heerlen's shopping neighbourhood.

Sources
Translated from the Dutch Wiki, which used:
 Gemeentearchief Heerlen
 De Oranje-Nassau-mijnen op www.ta.tudelft.nl

1844 births
1900 deaths
Dutch mining businesspeople
Dutch people in rail transport
History of Limburg (Netherlands)
People from Heerlen
People from Maastricht

Henri Sarolea


The  (IJA) was the principal ground force of the Empire of Japan. Forming one of the military branches of the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces (IJAF), it was controlled by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office and the Army Ministry, both of which were nominally subordinate to the Emperor of Japan, the supreme commander of IJAF. During the 20th century, an Inspectorate General of Aviation became the third agency with oversight of the IJA. At its height, the IJA was one of the most influential factions in the politics of Japan and was one of the most powerful armies in the world. The IJA was also notorious for committing numerous war crimes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War, such as the Nanjing Massacre and the Bataan Death March.

History

Origins (1868–1871)
In the mid-19th century, Japan had no unified national army and the country was made up of feudal domains (han) with the Tokugawa shogunate (bakufu) in overall control, which had ruled Japan since 1603. The bakufu army, although a large force, was only one among others, and bakufu efforts to control the nation depended upon the cooperation of its vassals' armies. The opening of the country after two centuries of seclusion subsequently led to the Meiji Restoration and the Boshin War in 1868. The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū came to dominate the coalition against the shogunate.

Boshin War

On 27 January 1868, tensions between the shogunate and imperial sides came to a head when Tokugawa Yoshinobu marched on Kyoto, accompanied by a 15,000-strong force, some of which had been trained by French military advisers. They were opposed by 5,000 troops from the Satsuma, Chōshū, and Tosa domains. At the two road junctions of Toba and Fushimi just south of Kyoto, the two forces clashed. On the second day, an Imperial banner was given to the defending troops and a member of the Imperial Family, the Prince Ninnaji, was named nominal commander in chief, in effect making the pro-imperial forces officially an  The bakufu forces eventually retreated to Osaka, with the remaining forces ordered to retreat to Edo. Yoshinobu and his closest advisors left for Edo by ship. The encounter at Toba–Fushimi between the imperial and shogunate forces marked the beginning of the conflict. With the court in Kyoto firmly behind the Satsuma-Chōshū-Tosa coalition, other domains that were sympathetic to the causesuch as Tottori (Inaba), Aki (Hiroshima), and Hizen (Saga)emerged to take a more active role in military operations. Western domains that had either supported the shogunate or remained neutral also quickly announced their support of the restoration movement.

The nascent Meiji state required a new military command for its operations against the shogunate. In 1868, the "Imperial Army" being just a loose amalgam of domain armies, the government created four military divisions: the Tōkaidō, Tōsandō, San'indō, and Hokurikudō, each of which was named for a major highway. Overseeing these four armies was a new high command, the Eastern Expeditionary High Command (Tōsei daisō tokufu), whose nominal head was prince Arisugawa-no-miya, with two court nobles as senior staff officers. This connected the loose assembly of domain forces with the imperial court, which was the only national institution in a still unformed nation-state. The army continually emphasized its link with the imperial court: firstly, to legitimize its cause; secondly, to brand enemies of the imperial government as enemies of the court and traitors; and, lastly, to gain popular support. To supply food, weapons, and other supplies for the campaign, the imperial government established logistical relay stations along three major highways. These small depots held stockpiled material supplied by local pro-government domains, or confiscated from the bakufu and others opposing the imperial government. Local villagers were routinely impressed as porters to move and deliver supplies between the depots and frontline units.

Struggles to form a centralized army
Initially, the new army fought under makeshift arrangements, with unclear channels of command and control and no reliable recruiting base. Although fighting for the imperial cause, many of the units were loyal to their domains rather than the imperial court. In March 1869, the imperial government created various administrative offices, including a military branch; and in the following month organized an imperial bodyguard of 400 to 500, which consisted of Satsuma and Chōshū troops strengthened by veterans of the encounter at Toba–Fushimi, as well as yeoman and masterless samurai from various domains. The imperial court told the domains to restrict the size of their local armies and to contribute to funding a national officers' training school in Kyoto. However, within a few months the government disbanded both the military branch and the imperial bodyguard: the former was ineffective while the latter lacked modern weaponry and equipment. To replace them, two new organizations were created. One was the military affairs directorate which was composed of two bureaus, one for the army and one for the navy. The directorate drafted an army from troop contributions from each domain proportional to each domain's annual rice production (koku). This conscript army (chōheigun) integrated samurai and commoners from various domains into its ranks. As the war continued, the military affairs directorate expected to raise troops from the wealthier domains and, in June, the organization of the army was fixed, where each domain was required to send ten men for each 10,000 koku of rice produced. However, this policy put the imperial government in direct competition with the domains for military recruitment, which was not rectified until April 1868, when the government banned the domains from enlisting troops. Consequently, the quota system never fully worked as intended and was abolished the following year.

The Imperial forces encountered numerous difficulties during the war, especially during the campaign in Eastern Japan. Headquarters in faraway Kyoto often proposed plans at odds with the local conditions, which led to tensions with officers in the field, who in many cases ignored centralized direction in favor of unilateral action. The army lacked a strong central staff that was capable of enforcing orders. Consequently, military units were at the mercy of individual commanders' leadership and direction. This was not helped by the absence of a unified tactical doctrine, which left units to fight according to the tactics favored by their respective commanders. There was increased resentment by many lower ranked commanders as senior army positions were monopolized by the nobility together with samurai from Chōshū and Satsuma. The use of commoners within the new army created resentment among the samurai class. Although the nascent Meiji government achieved military success, the war left a residue of disgruntled warriors and marginalized commoners, together with a torn social fabric.

Foundation of a national army (1871–1873)

After the defeat of the Tokugawa shogunate and operations in Northeastern Honshu and Hokkaido a true national army did not exist. Many in the restoration coalition had recognized the need for a strong centralized authority and although the imperial side was victorious, the early Meiji government was weak and the leaders had to maintain their standing with their domains whose military forces was essential for whatever the government needed to achieve. The leaders of the restoration were divided over the future organization of the army. Ōmura Masujirō who had sought a strong central government at the expense of the domains advocated for the creation of a standing national army along European lines
under the control of the government, the introduction of conscription for commoners and the abolition of the samurai class. Ōkubo Toshimichi preferred a small volunteer force consisting of former samurai. Ōmura's views for modernizing Japan's military led to his assassination in 1869 and his ideas were largely implemented after his death by Yamagata Aritomo. Aritomo has been described as the father of the Imperial Japanese Army. Yamagata had commanded mixed commoner-samurai Chōshū units during the Boshin War and was convinced of the merit of peasant soldiers. Although he himself was part of the samurai class, albeit of insignificant lower status, Yamagata distrusted the warrior class, several members of whom he regarded as clear dangers to the Meiji state.

Establishment of the Imperial Guard and institutional reforms

In March 1871, the War Ministry announced the creation of an Imperial Guard (Goshinpei) of six thousand men, consisting of nine infantry battalions, two artillery batteries and two cavalry squadrons. The emperor donated 100,000 ryō to underwrite the new unit, which was subordinate to the court. It was composed of members of the Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa domains, who had led the restoration. Satsuma provided four battalions of infantry and four artillery batteries; Chōshū provided three battalions of infantry; Tosa two battalions of infantry, two squadrons of cavalry, and two artillery batteries. For the first time, the Meiji government was able to organize a large body of soldiers under a consistent rank and pay scheme with uniforms, which were loyal to the government rather than the domains. The Imperial Guard's principal mission was to protect the throne by suppressing domestic samurai revolts, peasant uprisings and anti-government demonstrations. The possession of this military force was a factor in the government's abolition of the han system.

The military ministry (Hyōbushō) was reorganized in July 1871; on August 29, simultaneously with the decree abolishing the domains, the Dajōkan ordered local daimyos to disband their private armies and turn their weapons over to the government. Although the government played on the foreign threat, especially Russia's southward expansion, to justify a national army, the immediately perceived danger was domestic insurrection. Consequently, on August 31, the country was divided into four military districts, each with its own chindai (garrison) to deal with peasant uprisings or samurai insurrections. The Imperial Guard formed the Tokyo garrison, whereas troops from the former domains filled the ranks of the Osaka, Kumamoto, and Sendai garrisons. The four garrisons had a total of about 8,000 troopsmostly infantry, but also a few hundred artillerymen and engineers. Smaller detachments of troops also guarded outposts at Kagoshima, Fushimi, Nagoya, Hiroshima, and elsewhere. By late December 1871, the army set modernization and coastal defense as priorities; long-term plans were devised for an armed force to maintain internal security, defend strategic coastal areas, train and educate military and naval officers, and build arsenals and supply depots. Despite previous rhetoric about the foreign menace, little substantive planning was directed against Russia. In February 1872, the military ministry was abolished and separate army and navy ministries were established.

Conscription

The conscription ordinance enacted on January 10, 1873, made universal military service compulsory for all male subjects in the country. The law called for a total of seven years of military service: three years in the regular army (jōbigun), two years in the reserve (dai'ichi kōbigun), and an additional two years in the second reserve (daini kōbigun). All able-bodied males between the ages of 17 and 40 were considered members of the national guard (kokumingun), which would only see service in a severe national crisis, such as an attack or invasion of Japan. The conscription examination decided which group of recruits would enter the army, those who failed the exam were excused from all examinations except for the national guard. Recruits who passed entered the draft lottery, where some were selected for active duty. A smaller group would be selected for replacement duty (hojū-eki) should anything happen to any of the active duty soldiers; the rest were dismissed. One of the primary differences between the samurai and the peasant class was the right to bear arms; this ancient privilege was suddenly extended to every male in the nation. There were several exemptions, including criminals, those who could show hardship, the physically unfit, heads of households or heirs, students, government bureaucrats, and teachers. A conscript could also purchase an exemption for ¥270, which was an enormous sum for the time and which restricted this privilege to the wealthy. Under the new 1873 ordinance, the conscript army was composed mainly of second and third sons of impoverished farmers who manned the regional garrisons, while former samurai controlled the Imperial Guard and the Tokyo garrison.

Initially, because of the army's small size and numerous exemptions, relatively few young men were actually conscripted for a three-year term on active duty. In 1873, the army numbered approximately 17,900 from a population of 35 million at the time; it doubled to about 33,000 in 1875. The conscription program slowly built up the numbers. Public unrest began in 1874, reaching the apex in the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, which used the slogans, "oppose conscription", "oppose elementary schools", and "fight Korea". It took a year for the new army to crush the uprising, but the victories proved critical in creating and stabilizing the Imperial government and to realize sweeping social, economic and political reforms that enabled Japan to become a modern state that could stand comparison to France, Germany, and other European powers.

Further development and modernization (1873–1894)

Foreign assistance
The early Imperial Japanese Army was developed with the assistance of advisors from France, through the second French military mission to Japan (1872–80), and the third French military mission to Japan (1884–89). However, after France's defeat in 1871 the Japanese government switched to the victorious Germans as a model. From 1886 to April 1890, it hired German military advisors (Major Jakob Meckel, replaced in 1888 by von Wildenbrück and Captain von Blankenbourg) to assist in the training of the Japanese General Staff. In 1878, the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office, based on the German General Staff, was established directly under the Emperor and was given broad powers for military planning and strategy.

Other known foreign military consultants were Major Pompeo Grillo from the Kingdom of Italy, who worked at the Osaka foundry from 1884 to 1888, followed by Major Quaratezi from 1889 to 1890; and Captain Schermbeck from the Netherlands, who worked on improving coastal defenses from 1883 to 1886. Japan did not use foreign military advisors between 1890 and 1918, until the French military mission to Japan (1918–19), headed by Commandant Jacques-Paul Faure, was requested to assist in the development of the Japanese air services.

Taiwan Expedition

The Japanese invasion of Taiwan under Qing rule in 1874 was a punitive expedition by Japanese military forces in response to the Mudan Incident of December 1871. The Paiwan people, who are indigenous peoples of Taiwan, murdered 54 crewmembers of a wrecked merchant vessel from the Ryukyu Kingdom on the southwestern tip of Taiwan. 12 men were rescued by the local Chinese-speaking community and were transferred to Miyako-jima in the Ryukyu Islands. The Empire of Japan used this as an excuse to both assert sovereignty over the Ryukyu Kingdom, which was a tributary state of both Japan and Qing China at the time, and to attempt the same with Taiwan, a Qing territory. It marked the first overseas deployment of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy.

An Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors of 1882 called for unquestioning loyalty to the Emperor by the new armed forces and asserted that commands from superior officers were equivalent to commands from the Emperor himself. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution.

Top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the Emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were drawn mostly from the peasantry, tended to draw the military closer to the people. In time, most people came to look more for guidance in national matters more to military than to political leaders.

By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia: well-trained, well-equipped, and with good morale. However, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. Artillery pieces, which were purchased from America and a variety of European nations, presented two problems: they were scarce, and the relatively small number that were available were of several different calibers, causing problems with ammunition supply.

First Sino-Japanese War

In the early months of 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution broke out in southern Korea and had soon spread throughout the rest of the country, threatening the Korea capital Seoul, itself. The Chinese, since the beginning of May had taken steps to prepare the mobilization of their forces in the provinces of Zhili, Shandong and in Manchuria, as a result of the tense situation on the Korean peninsula. These actions were planned more as an armed demonstration intended to strengthen the Chinese position in Korea, rather than as a preparation for war with Japan. On June 3, the Chinese government accepted the requests from the Korean government to send troops to help quell the rebellion, additionally they also informed the Japanese of the action. It was decided to send 2,500 men to Asan, about 70 km from the capital Seoul. The troops arrived in Asan on June 9 and were additionally reinforced by 400 more on June 25, a total of about 2,900 Chinese soldiers were at Asan.

From the very outset the developments in Korea had been carefully observed in Tokyo. Japanese government had soon become convinced that the Donghak Peasant Revolution would lead to Chinese intervention in Korea. As a result, soon after learning word about the Korean government's request for Chinese military help, immediately ordered all warships in the vicinity to be sent to Pusan and Chemulpo. On June 9, a formation of 420 rikusentai, selected from the crews of the Japanese warships was immediately dispatched to Seoul, where they served temporarily as a counterbalance to the Chinese troops camped at Asan. Simultaneously, the Japanese decided to send a reinforced brigade of approximately 8,000 troops to Korea. The reinforced brigade, included auxiliary units, under the command of General Oshima Yoshimasa was fully transported to Korea by June 27. The Japanese stated to the Chinese that they were willing to withdraw the brigade under General Oshima if the Chinese left Asan prior. However, when on 16 July, 8,000 Chinese troops landed near the entrance of the Taedong River to reinforce Chinese troops garrisoned in Pyongyang, the Japanese delivered Li Hongzhang an ultimatum, threatening to take action if any further troops were sent to Korea. Consequently, General Oshima in Seoul and commanders of the Japanese warships in Korean waters received orders allowing them to initiate military operations if any more Chinese troops were sent to Korea. Despite this ultimatum, Li, considered that Japanese were bluffing and were trying to probe the Chinese readiness to make concessions. He decided, therefore to reinforce Chinese forces in Asan with a further 2,500 troops, 1,300 of which arrived in Asan during the night of July 23–24. At the same time, in the early morning of July 23, the Japanese had taken control of the Royal Palace in Seoul and imprisoned King Gojong, forcing him to renounce ties with China.

During the almost two-month interval prior to the declaration of war, the two service staffs developed a two-stage operational plan against China. The army's 5th Division would land at Chemulpo to prevent a Chinese advance in Korea while the navy would engage the Beiyang fleet in a decisive battle in order to secure control of the seas. If the navy defeated the Chinese fleet decisively and secured command of the seas, the larger part of the army would undertake immediate landings on the coast between Shanhaiguan and Tientsin, and advance to the Zhili plain in order to defeat the main Chinese forces and bring the war to a swift conclusion. If neither side gained control of the sea and supremacy, the army would concentrate on the occupation of Korea and exclude Chinese influence there. Lastly, if the navy was defeated and consequently lost command of the sea, Japanese forces in Korea would be ordered to hang on and fight a rearguard action while the bulk of the army would remain in Japan in preparation to repel a Chinese invasion. This worst-case scenario also foresaw attempts to rescue the beleaguered 5th Division in Korea while simultaneously strengthening homeland defenses. The army's contingency plans which were both offensive and defensive, depended on the outcome of the naval operations.

Clashes between Chinese and Japanese forces at Pungdo and Seongwhan caused irreversible changes to Sino-Japanese relations and meant that a state of war now existed between the two countries. The two governments officially declared war on August 1. Initially, the general staff's objective was to secure the Korean peninsula before the arrival of winter and then land forces near Shanhaiguan. However, as the navy was unable to bring the Beiyang fleet into battle in mid-August, temporarily withdrew from the Yellow Sea to refit and replenish its ships. As a consequence, in late August the general staff ordered an advance overland to the Zhili plain via Korea in order to capture bases on the Liaodong Peninsula to prevent Chinese forces from interfering with the drive on Beijing. The First Army with two divisions was activated on September 1. In mid-September 17, the Chinese forces defeated at Pyongyang and occupied the city, as the remaining Chinese troops retreated northward. The navy's stunning victory in the Yalu on September 17, was crucial to the Japanese as it allowed the Second Army with three divisions and one brigade to land unopposed on the Liaodong Peninsula about 100 miles north of Port Arthur which controlled the entry to the Bohai Gulf, in mid-October. While, the First Army pursued the remaining Chinese forces from Korea across the Yalu River, Second Army occupied the city of Dairen on November 8 and then seized the fortress and harbor at Port Arthur on November 25. Farther north, the First army's offensive stalled and was beset by supply problems and winter weather.

Boxer Rebellion

In 1899–1900, Boxer attacks against foreigners in China intensified, resulting in the siege of the diplomatic legations in Beijing. An international force consisting of British, French, Russian, German, Italian, Austro-Hungarian, American, and Japanese troops was eventually assembled to relieve the legations. The Japanese provided the largest contingent of troops, 20,840, as well as 18 warships.

A small, hastily assembled, vanguard force of about 2,000 troops, under the command of British Admiral Edward Seymour, departed by rail, from Tianjin, for the legations in early June. On June 12, mixed Boxer and Chinese regular army forces halted the advance, some 30 miles from the capital. The road-bound and badly outnumbered allies withdrew to the vicinity of Tianjin, having suffered more than 300 casualties. The army general staff in Tokyo became aware of the worsening conditions in China and had drafted ambitious contingency plans, but the government, in light of the Triple Intervention refused to deploy large forces unless requested by the western powers. However, three days later, the general staff did dispatch a provisional force of 1,300 troops, commanded by Major General Fukushima Yasumasa, to northern China. Fukushima was chosen because his ability to speak fluent English which enabled him to communicate with the British commander. The force landed near Tianjin on July 5.

On June 17, with tensions increasing, naval Rikusentai from Japanese ships had joined British, Russian, and German sailors to seize the Dagu forts near Tianjin. Four days later, the Qing court declared war on the foreign powers. The British, in light of the precarious situation, were compelled to ask Japan for additional reinforcements, as the Japanese had the only readily available forces in the region. Britain at the time was heavily engaged in the Boer War, and, consequently, a large part of the British army was tied down in South Africa. Deploying large numbers of troops from British garrisons in India would take too much time and weaken internal security there. Overriding personal doubts, Foreign Minister Aoki Shūzō calculated that the advantages of participating in an allied coalition were too attractive to ignore. Prime Minister Yamagata likewise concurred, but others in the cabinet demanded that there be guarantees from the British in return for the risks and costs of a major deployment of Japanese troops. On July 6, the 5th Infantry Division was alerted for possible deployment to China, but without a timetable being set. Two days later, on July 8, with more ground troops urgently needed to lift the siege of the foreign legations at Peking, the British ambassador offered the Japanese government one million British pounds in exchange for Japanese participation.

Shortly afterward, advance units of the 5th Division departed for China, bringing Japanese strength to 3,800 personnel, of the then-17,000 allied force. The commander of the 5th Division, Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi, had taken operational control from Fukushima. A second, stronger allied expeditionary army stormed Tianjin, on July 14, and occupied the city. The allies then consolidated and awaited the remainder of the 5th Division and other coalition reinforcements. In early August, the expedition pushed towards the capital where on August 14, it lifted the Boxer siege. By that time, the 13,000-strong Japanese force was the largest single contingent, making up about 40 percent of the approximately 33,000 strong allied expeditionary force. Japanese troops involved in the fighting had acquitted themselves well, although a British military observer felt their aggressiveness, densely packed formations, and over-willingness to attack cost them excessive casualties. For example, during the Tianjin fighting, the Japanese, while comprising less than one quarter (3,800) of the total allied force of 17,000, suffered more than half of the casualties, 400 out of 730. Similarly at Beijing, the Japanese, constituting slightly less than half of the assault force, accounted for almost two-thirds of the losses, 280 of 453.

Russo-Japanese War

The Russo–Japanese War (1904–1905) was the result of tensions between Russia and Japan, grown largely out of rival imperialist ambitions toward Manchuria and Korea. The Japanese army inflicted severe losses against the Russians; however, they were not able to deal a decisive blow to the Russian armies. Over-reliance on infantry led to large casualties among Japanese forces, especially during the siege of Port Arthur.

World War I

The Empire of Japan entered the war on the Entente side. Although tentative plans were made to send an expeditionary force of between 100,000 and 500,000 men to fight in France on the Western Front, ultimately among the few actions in which the Imperial Japanese Army was involved was the careful and well executed attack on the German concession of Qingdao in 1914 and the seizure of various other small German islands and colonies.

Inter-war years

Siberian intervention

During 1917–18, Japan continued to extend its influence and privileges in China via the Nishihara Loans.
During the Siberian Intervention, following the collapse of the Russian Empire after the Bolshevik Revolution, the Imperial Japanese Army initially planned to send more than 70,000 troops to occupy Siberia as far west as Lake Baikal. The army general staff came to view the Tsarist collapse as an opportunity to free Japan from any future threat from Russia by detaching Siberia and forming an independent buffer state. The plan was scaled back considerably due to opposition from the United States.

In July 1918, the U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, asked the Japanese government to supply 7,000 troops as part of an international coalition of 24,000 troops to support the American Expeditionary Force Siberia. After a heated debate in the Diet, the government of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake agreed to send 12,000 troops, but under the command of Japan, rather than as part of an international coalition. Japan and the United States sent forces to Siberia to bolster the armies of the White movement leader Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak against the Bolshevik Red Army.

Once the political decision had been reached, the Imperial Japanese Army took over full control under Chief of Staff General Yui Mitsue; and by November 1918, more than 70,000 Japanese troops had occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian Maritime Provinces and eastern Siberia.

In June 1920, the United States and its allied coalition partners withdrew from Vladivostok, after the capture and execution of the White Army leader, Admiral Kolchak, by the Red Army. However, the Japanese decided to stay, primarily due to fears of the spread of communism so close to Japan and Japanese-controlled Korea. The Japanese Army provided military support to the Japanese-backed Provisional Priamurye Government, based in Vladivostok, against the Moscow-backed Far Eastern Republic.

The continued Japanese presence concerned the United States, which suspected that Japan had territorial designs on Siberia and the Russian Far East. Subjected to intense diplomatic pressure by the United States and Great Britain, and facing increasing domestic opposition due to the economic and human cost, the administration of Prime Minister Katō Tomosaburō withdrew the Japanese forces in October 1922.

Rise of militarism

In the 1920s the Imperial Japanese Army expanded rapidly and by 1927 had a force of 300,000 men. Unlike western countries, the Army enjoyed a great deal of independence from government. Under the provisions of the Meiji Constitution, the War Minister was held accountable only to the Emperor (Hirohito) himself, and not to the elected civilian government. In fact, Japanese civilian administrations needed the support of the Army in order to survive. The Army controlled the appointment of the War Minister, and in 1936 a law was passed that stipulated that only an active duty general or lieutenant-general could hold the post. As a result, military spending as a proportion of the national budget rose disproportionately in the 1920s and 1930s, and various factions within the military exerted disproportionate influence on Japanese foreign policy.

The Imperial Japanese Army was originally known simply as the Army (rikugun) but after 1928, as part of the Army's turn toward romantic nationalism and also in the service of its political ambitions, it re-titled itself the Imperial Army (kōgun).

In 1923, the army consisted of 21 divisions, but in accordance with the 1924 reform it was reduced to 17 divisions. Two leaps in the development of the military industry (1906–1910 and 1931–1934) made it possible to re-equip the armed forces.

Invasion of China

In 1931, the Imperial Japanese Army had an overall strength of 198,880 officers and men, organized into 17 divisions.
The Manchurian incident, as it became known in Japan, was a pretended sabotage of a local Japanese-owned railway, an attack staged by Japan but blamed on Chinese dissidents. Action by the military, largely independent of the civilian leadership, led to the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and, later, to the Second Sino-Japanese War, in 1937. As war approached, the Imperial Army's influence with the Emperor waned and the influence of the Imperial Japanese Navy increased. Nevertheless, by 1938 the Army had been expanded to 34 divisions.

Conflict with the Soviet Union
From 1932 to 1945 the Empire of Japan and the Soviet Union had a series of conflicts. Japan had set its military sights on Soviet territory as a result of the Hokushin-ron doctrine, and the Japanese establishment of a puppet state in Manchuria brought the two countries into conflict. The war lasted on and off with the last battles of the 1930s (the Battle of Lake Khasan and the Battles of Khalkhin Gol) ending in a decisive victory for the Soviets. The conflicts stopped with the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on April 13, 1941. However, later, at the Yalta Conference, Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan; and on August 5, 1945, the Soviet Union voided their neutrality agreement with Japan.

World War II

In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army had 51 divisions and various special-purpose artillery, cavalry, anti-aircraft, and armored units with a total of 1,700,000 people. At the beginning of the Second World War, most of the Japanese Army (27 divisions) was stationed in China. A further 13 divisions defended the Mongolian border, due to concerns about a possible attack by the Soviet Union. From 1942, soldiers were sent to Hong Kong (23rd Army), the Philippines (14th Army), Thailand (15th Army), Burma (15th Army), Dutch East Indies (16th Army), and Malaya (25th Army). By 1945, there were 6 million soldiers in the Imperial Japanese Army.

From 1943, Japanese troops suffered from a shortage of supplies, especially food, medicine, munitions, and armaments, largely due to submarine interdiction of supplies, and losses to Japanese shipping, which was worsened by a longstanding rivalry with the Imperial Japanese Navy. The lack of supplies caused large numbers of fighter aircraft to become unserviceable for lack of spare parts, and "as many as two-thirds of Japan's total military deaths [to result] from illness or starvation".

Salary
Compared to respective armies in Europe or America, soldiers in the Imperial Japanese Army received a rather meagre salary; however, the cost of living in Japan was also cheaper than in most Western nations. The below table gives figures from December 1941, when one Japanese yen was worth approximately $0.23.

For comparison, in 1942, an American private was paid approximately $50 per month (or 204 yen), meaning the lowest ranking soldier in the United States military was earning equivalent to the maximum salary of an Imperial Japanese major, or the base salary of an Imperial Japanese lieutenant colonel, and about 25 times as much as an Imperial Japanese soldier of the same rank. While disproportionate salary ranges were not uncommon between military's during World War II, for example Australian enlistees could expect to receive roughly triple as much in pay as their counterparts fighting for the United Kingdom, by any standards, despite being widely considered a "first rate" or professional fighting force, men serving in the IJA were very poorly compensated.

Complicating matters further was that, by 1942, most Japanese soldiers were paid using the Japanese military yen (JMY), an unsupported currency that could not be redeemed for the regular Japanese yen. In territories under Japanese occupation, the military yenor "Japanese invasion money", as it came to be known by the localswas the only legal tender in circulation. The Japanese authorities seized or ordered surrendered all other bank notes in territories under their occupation and provided compensation at an "exchange rate" as they saw fit, in the form of JMYs. This had the effect of affording Japanese soldiers in many occupied territories a higher degree of return for their low pay than they otherwise would have received. However, at the end of the war, the Imperial Japanese ministry of finance cancelled all military bank notes, rendering the military yen worthless.

War crimes

Throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army had shown immense brutality and engaged in numerous atrocities against civilians, as well as prisoners of war – with the Nanking Massacre being the most well known example. Other war crimes committed by the Imperial Japanese Army included rape and forced prostitution, death marches, using biological warfare against civilians, and the execution of prisoners of war. Such atrocities throughout the war caused many millions of deaths.

Post-World War II

Ground Self-Defense Force

Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution renounced the right to use force as a means of resolving disputes. This was enacted by the Japanese in order to prevent militarism, which had led to conflict. However, in 1947 the Public Security Force was formed; later in 1954, in the early stages of the Cold War, the Public Security Force formed the basis of the newly created Ground Self-Defense Force. Although significantly smaller than the former Imperial Japanese Army and nominally for defensive purposes only, this force constitutes the modern army of Japan.

Continued resistance

Separately, some soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army continued to fight on isolated Pacific islands until at least the 1970s, with the last known Japanese soldier surrendering in 1974. Intelligence officer Hiroo Onoda, who surrendered on Lubang Island in the Philippines in March 1974, and Teruo Nakamura, who surrendered on the Indonesian island of Morotai in December 1974, appear to have been the last holdouts but there are reports of other Japanese holdout later then December 1974.

Growth and organization of the IJA

 1870: consisted of 12,000 men.
 1873: Seven divisions of c. 36,000 men (c. 46,250 including reserves)
 1885: consisted of seven divisions including the Imperial Guard Division.
 In the early 1900s, the IJA consisted of 12 divisions, the Imperial Guard Division, and numerous other units. These contained the following:
 380,000 active duty and 1st Reserve personnel: former Class A and B(1) conscripts after two-year active tour with 17 and 1/2 year commitment
 50,000 Second line Reserve: Same as above but former Class B(2) conscripts
 220,000 National Army
 1st National Army: 37- to 40-year-old men from end of 1st Reserve to 40 years old.
 2nd National Army: untrained 20-year-olds and over-40-year-old trained reserves.
 4,250,000 men available for service and mobilization.
 1922: 21 divisions and 308,000 men
 1924: Post-WW1 reductions to 16 divisions and 250,800 men
 1925: Reduction to 12 divisions
 1934: army increased to 17 divisions
 1936: 250,000 active.
 1940: 376,000 active with 2 million reserves in 31 divisions
 2 divisions in Japan (Imperial Guard plus one other)
 2 divisions in Korea
 27 divisions in China and Manchuria
 In late 1941: 460,000 active in
 41 divisions
 2 in Japan and Korea
 12 in Manchuria
 27  in China
 plus 59 brigade equivalents.
 Independent brigades, Independent Mixed Brigades, Cavalry Brigades, Amphibious Brigades, Independent Mixed regiments, Independent Regiments.
 1945: 5 million active in 145 divisions (includes three Imperial Guard), plus numerous individual units, with a large Volunteer Fighting Corps.
 includes 650,000 Imperial Japanese Army Air Service.
 Japan Defense Army in 1945 had 55 divisions (53 Infantry and two armor) and 32 brigades (25 infantry and seven armor) with 2.35 million men.
 2.25 million Army Labor Troops
 1.3 million Navy Labor Troops
 250,000 Special Garrison Force
 20,000 Kempetai
Total military in August 1945 was 6,095,000 including 676,863 Army Air Service.

Casualties
Over the course of the Imperial Japanese Army's existence, millions of its soldiers were either killed, wounded or listed as missing in action.
 Taiwan Expedition of 1874: 543 (12 killed in battle and 531 by disease)
 First Sino-Japanese War: The IJA suffered 1,132 dead and 3,758 wounded
 Russo-Japanese War: The number of total Japanese dead in combat is put at around 47,000, with around 80,000 if disease is included
 World War I: 1,455 Japanese were killed, mostly at the Battle of Tsingtao
 World War II:
 Deaths
 Between 2,120,000 and 2,190,000 Imperial Armed Forces dead including non-combat deaths (includes 1,760,955 killed in action),
 KIA Breakdown by Theater:
 Army 1931–1945: 1,569,661  [China: 435,600 KIA, Against U.S. Forces: 659,650 KIA, Burma Campaign: 163,000 KIA, Australian Combat Zone: 199,511 KIA, French Indochina: 7,900 KIA, U.S.S.R/Manchuria: 45,900 KIA, Others/Japan: 58,100 KIA]
 Navy: 473,800 KIA All Theaters.
 672,000 known civilian dead,
 810,000 missing in action and presumed dead

Equipment used

 Type 38 rifle
 Type 99 rifle
 Type 44 carbine
 Nambu pistol
 Type 97 grenade
 Type 97 heavy tank machine gun
 Type 99 light machine gun
 Type 11 light machine gun
 Type 100 submachine gun
 MP 28 SMG
 MP 34
 Type 30 rifle
 Type I rifle
 Type 91 grenade
 Type 4 70 mm AT rocket launcher
 Type 93 flamethrower
 Type 100 flamethrower
 Type 89 machine gun
 Type 92 heavy machine gun
 Type 1 heavy machine gun
 Type 26 revolver
 Murata rifle
 Type 35 rifle
 Type 3 heavy machine gun
 Type 30 bayonet
 Guntō
 Hino–Komuro pistol
 Sugiura pistol
 Type 97 sniper rifle
 Type 38 carbine
 Type 99 sniper rifle
 Karabiner 98k
 Vz. 24
 Type 10 grenade
 Type 98 grenade
 Type 99 grenade
 Type 3 grenade
 Type 4 grenade

See also

 Artillery of Japan
 Double Leaf Society
 Ethnic Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman
 Imperial Japanese rations
 Imperial Way Faction or Kodô-Ha
 Japanese army and diplomatic codes
 Japanese Army Railways and Shipping Section
 Japanese Army and Navy Strategies for South Seas areas (1942)
 Japanese holdouts ("stragglers") who surrendered after 1945
 Kokuryū-kaiThe Black Dragon Society
 List of Bombs in use by Imperial Japanese Army
 List of Japanese military equipment of World War II
 List of Japanese Army military engineer vehicles of World War II
 List of Japanese government and military commanders of World War II
 List of Japanese Infantry divisions
 List of Radars in use by Imperial Japanese Army
 Military Medal of Honor (Japan)
 Nanshin-ron or Strike South Group
 Ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army
 Rikugun Shikan Gakko
 Tosei-Ha
 Uniforms of the Imperial Japanese Army
 Yokusan Sonendan

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Barker, A.J. (1979) Japanese Army Handbook, 1939–1945 (London: Ian Allan, 1979)
 Best, Antony. (2002) British intelligence and the Japanese challenge in Asia, 1914–1941 (Palgrave/Macmillan, 2002).

 Denfeld, D. Colt. (1997) Hold the Marianas: The Japanese Defense of the Mariana Islands (White Mane Publishing Company, 1997).
 Coox, A.D. (1985) Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939 (Stanford UP, 1985)
 Coox, A.D. (1988) "The Effectiveness of the Japanese Military Establishment in the Second World War", in A.R. Millett and W. Murray, eds, Military Effectiveness, Volume III: the Second World War (Allen & Unwin, 1988), pp. 1–44

 Ford, Douglas. (2008) "'The best equipped army in Asia'?: US military intelligence and the Imperial Japanese Army before the Pacific War, 1919–1941." International journal of intelligence and counterintelligence 21.1 (2008): 86–121.
 Ford, Douglas. (2009) "Dismantling the 'Lesser Men'and 'Supermen' myths: US intelligence on the imperial Japanese army after the fall of the Philippines, winter 1942 to spring 1943." Intelligence and National Security 24.4 (2009): 542–573.  online
 Frühstück, Sabine. (2007) Uneasy warriors: Gender, memory, and popular culture in the Japanese army (Univ of California Press, 2007).
 Gruhl, Werner. (2010) Imperial Japan's World War Two: 1931–1945 (Transaction Publishers).

 Kublin, Hyman. "The 'Modern' Army of Early Meiji Japan". The Far Eastern Quarterly, 9#1 (1949), pp. 20–41.
 Kuehn, John T.  (2014) A Military History of Japan: From the Age of the Samurai to the 21st Century (ABC-CLIO, 2014).
 Norman, E. Herbert. "Soldier and Peasant in Japan: The Origins of Conscription." Pacific Affairs 16#1 (1943), pp. 47–64.
 Rottman, Gordon L. (2013) Japanese Army in World War II: Conquest of the Pacific 1941–42 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013).
 Rottman, Gordon L. (2012) Japanese Infantryman 1937–45: Sword of the Empire (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2012).
 Sisemore, Major James D. (2015) The Russo-Japanese War, Lessons Not Learned (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2015).
 Storry, Richard. (1956) "Fascism in Japan: The Army Mutiny of February 1936" History Today (Nov 1956) 6#11 pp 717–726.
 Wood, James B. (2007) Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable? (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007).
 Yenne, Bill. (2014) The Imperial Japanese Army: The Invincible Years 1941–42 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).

Primary sources
 United States War Department. TM 30–480 Handbook On Japanese Military Forces, 1942 (1942) online; 384pp; highly detailed description of wartime IJA by U.S. Army Intelligence.

External links

 Overview of Imperial Japanese Army weapons and armaments in World War II
 Army of the Land of the Rising Sun 100 years ago. Part 1. Leap from the Middle Ages into the XX century  (part 1 of 4)
 Japanese war posters
 The PBS program Victory in the Pacific
 Imperial Japanese Army 3rd Platoon reenactor's resource

1868 establishments in Japan
1945 disestablishments in Japan
Japan
Empire of Japan
Japan in World War II
Japanese Army
Military history of Japan
Military of the Empire of Japan
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
Military units and formations established in 1868

Imperial Japanese Army


A smoothbore weapon is one that has a barrel without rifling.  Smoothbores range from handheld firearms to powerful tank guns and large artillery mortars. The majority of shotguns are smoothbores and the terms "shotgun" and "smoothbore" can be synonymous.

History
The earliest mention of a smoothbore weapon was about the year 1000 in Dunhuang. The weapon was called a fire lance. The basic parts that make up a gun are a barrel, a charge and a projectile. The gun must also have a way to ignite the black powder charge. The earliest guns were made of bamboo, later replaced with metal barrels. The first mass produced guns were the matchlocks.

Matchlock

The classic European matchlock gun was a smoothbore weapon that held a burning slow match in a clamp at the end of a small curved lever called a "serpentine". When the lever (or in later models a trigger) was pulled, it lowered the smoldering match into the flash pan. This ignited the priming powder. The flash from the primer travelled through the touch hole igniting the main charge of propellant in the gun barrel.
One problem with the matchlock was that the match had to be constantly lit. The match was soaked in potassium nitrate to keep the match lit for longer periods of time. If the match was not lit when the gun needed to be fired, the mechanism was useless. This was a real problem in wet weather. Another drawback was the burning match itself. At night, the match would glow in the darkness showing the matchlock holder's position. The smell of burning match-cord also gave away a musketeer's position. The main advantage of the matchlock was that it allowed the shooter to hold the weapon at eye level so as to better aim the weapon.

Flintlock

After about 200 years, the next major development was the flintlock. It used a flint striking mechanism. Another improvement replaced the flashpan with a smaller "priming pan" that held a smaller amount of black powder. It also contained an opening into the breach to ignite the main powder charge. A small piece of steel (called a "frizzen") was mounted to the top of the priming pan. When the trigger was pulled the mechanism created a spark igniting the powder in barrel. When the powder and ball were loaded into the barrel, it was then tamped (pushed) down with the ramrod. The hammer was pulled back to the first click, called "half-cocked". To make the weapon ready to fire, the hammer was pulled back to the "full-cocked" position. When the trigger was pulled, a spring caused the hammer to fall igniting the charge. Flintlocks were the main firearm for the next 200 to 300 years before being replaced by percussion cap guns.

Percussion cap

The percussion cap mechanism was the next great improvement in firearms. It was also called a caplock. The percussion cap was based on the discovery of fulminate of mercury in about 1800. When struck with a sharp blow, mercury fulminate detonates. In 1816, Joshua Shaw, an artist living in Philadelphia, painted fulminate of mercury on the inside of copper caps. He fitted it over a small nipple on the firing hole over the bore. When the hammer struck the percussion cap, the gun fired.  By 1826 they were widely used and had replaced the flintlock.

The percussion cap eliminated the flash pan, flint and frizzen. It added the step of placing a cap on the nipple cone, but it was a real advantage to troops in battle. Percussion caps were quick to load and worked in nearly all weather conditions.

Smoothbore cannon

Crude cannons existed in China from about the 12th century, possibly earlier. One of the first weapons used in Europe was the bombard. They were built in different diameter barrels to fire anything from a small rock to a  cast iron ball. By the 16th century cannons began to replace bombards. Casting had greatly improved in Europe after about 1570. In the early 1500s, French cannons were used to break up masses of men in their campaigns in Italy. The Germans had some of the best gunners in Europe and developed cannon that could hit targets at up to . Next, the Swedish under Gustavus Adolphus developed lightweight cannons that could easily move around the battlefield. He used a cast 4-pounder that weighed about  and could be pulled by just two horses.

In 1742, Englishman Benjamin Robins wrote New Principles of Gunnery where he added science to the field of ballistics. He developed carronades which were short, lightweight smoothbore cannons that could be used on the decks of ships. During the American Revolutionary War, the British had a number of different cannons as well as mortars. Many of the American weapons were captured British cannon.

In 1853 France introduced the Canon-obusier de 12, a 12-pounder capable of firing both shot and shell. The U.S. Army adopted the Napoleon 12-pounder in 1857 as the Model 1857 12-Pounder Napoleon Field Gun. It became the most popular field gun on both sides during the American Civil War. They were ultimately replaced by rifled barrel cannons beginning after the Civil War.

References

Other websites
 Gunsmithing: Versatility of Smoothbore Muskets (Gunworks)

Firearms
Weapons

Smoothbore


"Let's keep the Goan tradition and culture alive, worldwide"

Ai Dispidir Corunc Tuka Anjea

While wishing you farewell

Type: Mando

Source: J.A.A. Fernandes, vulgo: André Xett (1884-1980).

Literary form: Monologue

Translated by António Vicente de Noronha (1895-1982), Pandavaddo, Chorão

Ai dispidir corunc tuka anjea,

While wishing you farewell, my angel,

Sangu nozo calzac bocta tem mojea.

I cannot tell you what I feel in my heart.

Soglem vid betoilem mogac tujea,

I have devoted my whole life for your love,

Punn atin podlim môg naslolêachea.

But now I have fallen into the hands of a loveless person.

Chusmo/ Refrain:

Borvanso dovôr tum mojeam utrancho,

Have confidence in my words,

Novean êcôtt zatolo mun amcho.

There will be a fresh union of ours.

Tum moga zaloloi zalear concordar,

If you have had agreed with me,

Tujea vinem kedinch zatim nam cazar.

I would not have married anyone except you.

Paen mojo jiu passun cad'lolo zalear,

Even if my father would have had even killed me,

Punn atam soglench zalem rê mudar. (Chusmo)

But now everything has changed. (Refrain)

Amchim calzam mogan godsololim,

Our hearts are joined together in love,

Dongrar khodpam godsotta tôxim.

Like rocks which have clung to one another on the hill.

Aiz con'nem dusmananim kêlim dôxim,

Today some enemy has cast us apart,

Surumgam gallum khodpam foddtat tôxim. (Chusmo)

Like dynamite which burst the rocks. (Refrain)

Fôxe bair Sacramento avem zoddun,

Reluctantly I agreed to the (marriage) Sacrament,

Vetam moga aichean tuka aum soddun.

I am going away, my love, leaving you alone from today onwards.

Coslem zait amchem nostem furtun,

How unfortunate has been our broken luck,

Juramento dilolo uddonc moddun. (Chusmo)

To have broken the promise (oath) we had given. (Refrain)

Ful tum mojea mogan ugormoulolem,

You are the flower which blossomed in my love,

Decun rogtan mojea avem ximplelem,

Therefore I had sprinkled it with my blood,

Vóch munn tondd corun anstem,

Leave with a smiling face,

Gué ho beiju caliz corun ugtem. (Chusmo)

Take this kiss with an open heart. (Refrain)

The Mando

The mando is a dance song from Goa in Konkani. Although it is popular among all the social stratas of the Konkani-speaking peoples and many of the composers have remained anonymous, it should not be classified as a folk song. It is an art song composed for particular occasions. There have been many attempts to explain the origin of the word mando. One of them refers to the mand which was traditionally an open space of about 100 sq.m. where religious ceremonies were held and folk dances were performed. The text form of the mando is based on that of the traditional Konkani song ovi, which was usually sung at weddings

Most of the the traditional mandos, which gained the term "classical", were composed in the 19th century. The polka and the valsavina (Vienna Waltz) with its three-four rhythm seem to have found their way to Goa. The mando was originally composed and danced by the Brahmin aristocracy of Goa, mainly of Salcete, whose spacious mansions had a big hall for festive occasions. A memorable moment in the history of the family was the
bridal mando. The mando reflects the tranquil and leisurely character of this aristocracy. The Goan woman in the mando reflects the ideals and virtues then ascribed to her, namely self-sacrifice, piety and motherhood.

As a dance the mando is a square type (double file), men facing the women. When the partners come face to face in the centre, they retreat to the starting point, then move forward again crossing to the opposite side. The men then flick their handkerchiefs while the women open their fans. All in all, it is a stately and leisurely dance. The melody of the mando is slow in movement, with a soft and languishing atmosphere.

Polleiat

Goemche Mandde

Sondorbh

Konknni
Mandde
Romi panam

Ai Dispidir Corunc Tuka Anjea - Mando


H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB (H&M), is a Swedish clothing company. It sells fast fashion at cheaper prices. The company was created in Västerås, Sweden, in 1947 by Erling Persson. At first, the company only sold women's clothing. At that time, it was called Hennes, Swedish for "hers." In 1968, Persson got the building and inventory of a Stockholm hunting equipment store named Mauritz Widforss. A supply of men's clothing was part of the inventory. This caused Persson to decide to also sell men's clothing. He renamed the store Hennes & Mauritz, later shortened to H&M.

H&M has more than 1500 stores in 28 different countries. It has more than 60,000 employees.

References

Other websites
 www.hm.com

1947 establishments in Sweden

Swedish clothing companies

Hennes & Mauritz


Orcik candy () is a confection made of walnuts and a slightly fermented juice called şıra that is made with grapes or blackberries. It is a regional specialty of Elazığ. It is similar to churchkhela (called cevizli sucuk in Turkish), but the walnut and grape mixture is stuffed into hand pulled candy.

References

Elazığ
Candy
Turkish desserts

Orcik candy


The Adventures of Smilin' Jack (1943) is a Universal movie serial based on the popular comic strip The Adventures of Smilin' Jack by Zack Mosley. It was directed by Lewis D. Collins and Ray Taylor.

Plot
In 1941, an American aviator, 'Smilin' Jack' Martin wishes to resign as an advisor to the Nationalist Chinese Army in order to return to the United States to enlist as an aviator in America's military buildup prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor.  He is delayed when the Chinese discover that the neutral Tibetan like Mandon "Province" contains a secret road from India to China crucial for the Allied war effort.  Determined to obtain the secret for themselves, or equally determined to have the secret destroyed is the Japanese espionage organisation "The Black Samurai" and the German intelligence agent Fräulein von Teufel who masquerades as an American newspaper reporter.

Cast

Production
The serial was based on the comic strip by Zack Moseley but it was not in the spirit of the strip as would normally be expected from a Universal production. Very little of the original comic strip was used and a new character, Tommy Thompson, was created by Universal. The similarity to Tommy Tomkins, of the Tailspin Tommy stories, may imply a crossover of sorts. Cline suggests that it was "a quick attempt to get a story on screen about a topical subject, and could have had almost any flyer with any name as a hero."

Chapter titles
 The High Road to Doom
 The Rising Sun Strikes
 Attacked by Bombers
 Knives of Vengeance
 A Watery Grave
 Escape by Clipper
 Fifteen Fathoms Below
 Treachery at Sea
 The Bridge of Peril
 Blackout in the Islands
 Held for Treason
 The Torture Fire Test
 Sinking the Rising Sun
Source:

Quotes
United Nations means united friends-Capt. Wing

References

External links

Download or view online
 Complete serial at The Internet Archive

1943 films
1943 adventure films
American aviation films
World War II films made in wartime
Films set in Asia
American black-and-white films
War adventure films
1940s English-language films
Universal Pictures film serials
Films based on American comics
Films directed by Ray Taylor
Films directed by Lewis D. Collins
American adventure films

The Adventures of Smilin' Jack (serial)


An annular solar eclipse occurred on June 10, 2021. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, covering the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like a ring. An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide.

This eclipse is notable for the fact that the path of annularity passed over the North Pole, the only such eclipse in the 21st century.

While the eclipse is visible primarily in northern Canada, in Greenland and in north of Russian Far East, in the northeastern United States and Canada, the sun was partially eclipsed at sunrise, which will be between 5 and 6 A.M. (EDT)

References

Eclipses
June 2021 events

Solar eclipse of June 10, 2021


Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević (; 17 February 1865 – 29 October 1908) was a Croatian poet. His reflexive poetry, reaching its zenith in the 1890s, was a turning point that ushered modern themes in Croatian poetry.

Early life

Kranjčević was born in Senj. Rebellious as a teenager, he completed his secondary education in a Gymnasium, but did not graduate from it. Soon after joining the elite Germanico- Hungaricum Institute in Rome, where he was supposed to become a priest, he changed his mind and left. The short stay in the Eternal City would show through in his poetry years later.

He attended the one-year course for language and history teachers in Zagreb. With the diploma for a teacher in "citizen schools", he left to work in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mostar, Livno, Bijeljina, Sarajevo: those were the cities where he taught and wrote poetry.

Kranjčević made contributions to Albanian culture: while Albanian writer Gjergj Fishta attended Franciscan schools in Bosnia, he met Bosnian Grga Martić and Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević who at that time lived in Bosnia. Martić and Kranjčević awakened literary instinct in Fishta.

He published his first poem, Zavjet (The Pledge) in 1883, a couple of months before leaving for Rome. The magazine where it was published, Hrvatska vila, was led by Eugen Kumičić, a famous writer and politician of the time, who enthusiastically welcomed the fighting spirit in the verses of the unknown young poet. Kranjčević sent another two poems from Rome in 1884, Pozdrav (Salute) and Senju-gradu (Poem for Senj), to Sloboda, a magazine in Sušak. When he came back from Rome, he published Noć na Foru (A Night at the Forum) in Vijenac.

Politically, he was a follower of Starčević and the Croatian Party of Rights. The dark moods of his poems are related to the Hungarian oppression of Croatia.

Bugarkinje

His first poetry book, Bugarkinje (1885), was published in his native Senj. It already announced his three main themes: Homeland, Man and Universe. Kranjčević would never change them, just make them deeper. Bugarkinje is a traditional name given to elegiac folk songs in the Balkans. The first criticism on the book was written by the classical philologist and literary critic  in Vijenac. Šrepel noted Kranjčević's "vivid imagination" and "true poetic enthusiasm", but deplored the uneven quality of his poems. Nevertheless, he concluded that "a new and talented hand has appeared in the Croatian Parnassus".

Later literary figures heaped even more praise on Bugarkinje. The great writer Miroslav Krleža said they presented Kranjčević as a genuine "standard-bearer of freedom". More recently, the literary historian  said that the prophetic and bitter energy of its poems, although occasionally falling into pathos and rhetoric, embraced universal and cosmic themes, which made the young Kranjčević stand out among his contemporaries, such as August Harambašić, whose main themes were declamatory patriotism or romantic love.

Bugarkinje tried to formulate a poetic and political program, with the dedicatory poem to August Šenoa expressing the poetic credo of Kranjčević, while the poems to Croatia, the People and the Worker stood as three pillars of the poet's national and political beliefs.

Kranjčević used Biblical and classical parables, as well as symbols from the history of Christianity and Judaism; their allegorical nature suited his poems about the fundamental human issues.

Later life

His next poetry book, Selected Poems, came more than a decade later, in 1898. The 1890s marked the zenith of his poetic work. It would be followed by two more books: Trzaji (Quivers) in 1902 and Poems in 1908.

In Sarajevo, he was the editor of Nada, a literary magazine published by the Bosnian government, for eight years (1895–1903). The nominal editor was the government adviser Kosta Hörmann, a man of wide horizons and the benefactor of Antun Gustav Matoš, but he trusted Kranjčević with the editorial policy. Because of such freedom, "Nada" attracted the greatest Croatian writers of the time, becoming the most important literary magazine of the Croatian pre-modernist movement, Moderna. It was there that Kranjčević published most of his literary essays and criticisms.

References

External links

 Kapitalno djelo o Kranjčeviću
 Bugarkinje

1865 births
1908 deaths
People from Senj
20th-century Croatian poets
19th-century Croatian poets
Croatian male poets
19th-century male writers
20th-century male writers

Silvije Strahimir Kranjčević


D'Anjou (also known as the poire d'Anjou or Beurré d'Anjou) is a type fruit in the family Rosaceae. It is a type of pear that first came from Anjou,France. D'Anjou pears usually cost less than other types of pears, but are not as sweet. There are two main varieties of D'Anjou:

Green Anjou has a green skin that may turn yellow as the pear ripens.
Red Anjou has a red skin that darkens as it ripens.

Pears

D'Anjou


Warner Music Group is a record label from New York City. It is one of the "big three" record labels; the others are Sony and Universal. It started as Warner Music Group in 2003, but several Time Warner companies had existed before then.

Warner Music owns a few record labels, including Atlantic Records, Elektra Records, Parlophone, Roadrunner Records, Warner Bros. Records, and Reprise Records.

Legal troubles with Youtube
In late 2008, Warner Music group had big legal troubles with video site YouTube. They had wanted more money for the music videos they had on the site, but YouTube said no, and Warner Music Group took off all their music videos. In September 2009, both Warner Music Group and YouTube decided on a new amount of money.

American record labels
Companies based in New York City

Warner Music Group


Kristina Ann Kowal (born October 9, 1978) is an American former competition swimmer, Olympic medalist, and former world record-holder.  Kowal represented the United States at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, winning the silver medal in the 200-meter breaststroke. She was the first American woman to win a world championship title in the 100-meter breaststroke.

Kowal helped her college team, the Georgia Bulldogs swimming and diving team of the University of Georgia (UGA), win two NCAA Division I Women's Swimming and Diving Championships.  She was the NCAA swimmer of the year in 1999 and 2000.  Kowal was the first American woman to break the one-minute barrier in the 100-yard breaststroke. She won eight NCAA titles and 10 U.S. Swimming national titles. During her college career she held 8 American and one world record.  In 2000, she was named NCAA Woman of the Year and she was recipient of the Today's Top VIII Award as a member of the Class of 2001, which honors eight senior student-athletes each year. She graduated from UGA in 2002 with a Bachelor of Science in Education (B.S.Ed).

Kowal became a member of the United States Swimming Team in 1995 at the age of 16. Kowal was an also alternate on the 1996 Olympic team in the 100 meter breaststroke, the 2000 Olympic team in the 100 meter breaststroke, and the 2004 Olympic team in the 200 meter breaststroke. She is now an Elementary School Teacher.

She was inducted into the Pennsylvania Swimming Hall of Fame in 2009, the National Polish-American Sports Hall of Fame in 2010, University of Georgia's Circle of Honor in 2012 and the Georgia Aquatic Hall of Fame in 2013.

See also
 List of Olympic medalists in swimming (women)
 List of University of Georgia people
 List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (women)
 World record progression 4 × 100 metres medley relay

References

External links

 Official webpage

National Polish-American Sports HOF profile

1978 births
Living people
American female breaststroke swimmers
American people of Polish descent
World record setters in swimming
Georgia Bulldogs women's swimmers
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in swimming
Sportspeople from Reading, Pennsylvania
Swimmers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics

Kristy Kowal


Étienne de La Boétie, is a French writer and poet.  He was a humanist. He was born November 1, 1530 in Sarlat-la-Canéda, a city in the south-east of Périgord, and he died August 18, 1563 in Germignan, in the town of Taillan-Médoc, near Bordeaux. La Boétie is famous for his Discourse on Voluntary Servitude. From 1558 he was a close friend of Montaigne, who paid him posthumous homage in his Essays.

References

French poets
Humanists
1530 births
1563 deaths

Étienne de La Boétie


The McIntosh Sugarworks, near St. Marys, Georgia, was built in the late 1820s by John Houstoun McIntosh. They are a significant example of tabby concrete architecture and represent an industrial component of southeastern plantation agriculture. The Tabby Ruins, as they are also known, are at 3600 Charlie Smith Sr. Highway at Georgia Spur 40, six miles north of St. Marys.  The entrance is approximately across the street from the entrance to the Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, on Charlie Smith Highway, at .

The historic sugar mill site outside of St. Marys, Georgia in Camden County, Georgia was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 2, 1992.

History

John Houstoun McIntosh began planting in Camden County, Georgia after the War of 1812, when he established a permanent residence at Mariana Plantation on the St. Marys River. In 1819 he purchased two smaller plantations and renamed his holdings New Canaan. Thomas Spalding recommended a sugar mill design to McIntosh in 1825, and John Hamilton Couper stated the McIntosh mill was already in production by 1829.

After McIntosh's death in 1836, New Canaan was sold to one Caroline  Hallowes in 1840. The Hallowes changed the name of the plantation to Bollingbrook and lived there until after the Civil War. During the war, Colonel Hallowes planted cane and made sugar, and also used the tabby sugar works as a starch factory, producing arrowroot starch in large quantities.

For many years it was believed that the "tabby ruins" were the site of an old Spanish mission. Other tabby sugarhouses in the area include that at Elizafield Plantation on St. Simons Island.

Sugar production at the McIntosh Sugarworks
Attempts to grow sugar in North America likely began during the early 1700s. Sugar became an economically successful crop in the southern United States by the end of the eighteenth century. Sugarcane was a lucrative crop, especially for large plantations. At that time in the Georgia lowcountry large-scale planting focused on rice, and comparatively sugar required "a different growing regimen, but not a different kind of plantation." For John Houstoun McIntosh, sugar added an additional cash crop to his plantations without adding much additional cost.

The processing of the sugar was another story, as the large sugarhouse attests. The construction of the sugarhouse alone required a large amount of materials and labor. Thomas Spalding estimated that one enslaved laborer could take cane from two acres in two months. The enslaved people cut the cane, stripped the leaves, and placed it on flat carts which hauled it to the mills.

The standing tabby walls of the sugarhouse define a rectangular building with three rooms aligned in a row, and two porches off the central room. The McIntosh sugar mill's three rooms were each used for a separate step of the process, making sugar production there a streamlined operation. The central room had a packed earth floor, while the two end rooms had wooden floors built off the ground supported by the tabby walls.

The eastern room contained the mill used to crush the cane to extract the sweet juice, according to Thomas Spalding "the first horizontal cane mill worked by cattle power." Horizontal mills were a relatively new innovation in sugar production in the 1820s, and McIntosh's was purchased from the West Point Foundry in New York. The mill room is the only two-story room at the sugarhouse, with the mill being on the second story while the animals which powered it were below.

In the middle room, the extracted juice was boiled and clarified into a syrup. The syrup was then allowed to crystallize into granules and the molasses was drained off. The middle room had an earthen instead of wooden floor due to the high temperatures and open flame used to boil the syrup. The boiling operation there involved multiple kettles that allowed for the different stages of condensing the juice into syrup.

In the last room, the syrup was poured into containers where it was allowed to crystallize into granular sugar. The molasses was then poured out of the finished sugar. Both the sugar crystals and molasses were salable goods and the bagasse could be dried and used to fuel the boiling room or used for animal feed.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Camden County, Georgia
Republic of East Florida

References

External links

 Tabby Sugar Works of John Houston McIntosh historical marker

Sugar refineries
Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Georgia (U.S. state)
Buildings and structures in Camden County, Georgia
Tabby buildings
National Register of Historic Places in Camden County, Georgia
Ruins on the National Register of Historic Places

McIntosh Sugarworks


Sarayaku (Quechuan: "The River of Corn"; also transcribed Sarayacu) is a territory and a village situated by the Bobonaza River in the province of Pastaza in the southern part of el Oriente, the Amazonic region of Ecuador. The territory incorporates a number of villages.

It has a total population figure of between 1,000 and 2,000 Kichwa-speaking people, who call themselves the Runa people of Sarayaku, or the Sarayaku people. The leader of the Sarayaku people is Tupak Viteri (2022).

Since the early 21st century, the Sarayaku have engaged in a decade-long effort to resist efforts to drill for oil in their community, putting them at cross purposes with the Ecuadorian government and various multinational oil companies. The Sarayaku have used protests and legal challenges, successfully pursuing a suit in court.

Ecotourism

The village of Sarayaku is situated in tropical rainforest; it is approximately 25 minutes by plane or one day by canoe in the southeast direction from the nearest city, Puyo. Puyo is 50 kilometres east of the better known city of Baños. The Bobonaza River drains into the Amazon River at Iquitos in Peru, via the Pastaza and the Marañón  rivers.

Since the late 20th century, the Sarayaku people have emphasized ecotourism as a means to make a sustainable living while preserving their culture and lands. They work to preserve the distinctive character and ecology of their delicate rainforest.

In the fall of 2003, university studies were established in Sarayaku. The program was developed through the  cooperation of the universities of Cuenca, Ecuador, and Lleida, Spain. The main goal of the university program is to raise the quality of multicultural and multilingual education among the indigenous communities in the province of Pastaza. The people will be able to develop their own educational resources, and have an opportunity to learn at the university level about cultural identity and cultural traditions, other philosophies, and the Indian cosmo vision.

Conflict with government and multi-national petroleum companies

In the early 21st century, the Argentine oil company CGC moved into Sarayaku territory to conduct seismic surveys in search of petroleum. The Ecuadorian government has been eager to develop new resources, as the  state economy is highly dependent on income from crude oil export to pay national debt. Neither the government nor the company had consulted with the indigenous community before starting these activities.

The Sarayaku protested and resisted CGC activities, as they believed that petroleum development would threaten the fragile nature of the Amazonian rainforest and their subsistence society. To stop the resistance, the government sent federal soldiers to Sarayaku and closed the Bobonaza River as traffic artery.

The Sarayaku people have accused the oil companies of ethnocide, as they believe oil development would destroy their subsistence economy and the unique rainforest habitat of their territory. Oil development can adversely affect the cultural, nutritive, ecological, and spiritual resources on this place. The Sarayaku believe it will undermine the social balance in the community. They claim that the oil industry is also the biggest threat to the recently founded university program in Sarayaku.

Among the activist leaders is Franco Viteri, former president of the Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon (CONFENIAE). Made up of peoples of the Amazon Basin in Ecuador, this group "has been involved in nationwide protests for more than 30 years."

The Sarayaku filed suit against the government in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, based in Costa Rica, saying it had failed to consult fully with the indigenous community before undertaking disruptive activities on their lands and threatening their environment. In 2011 Sarayaku activists and their attorneys traveled to Costa Rica to appear in court, when some had never been to the capital of Ecuador. The court directed "the [Ecuadorian] government to abide by international law and consult with the community regarding any project."

Representation in other media

The Kichwa de Sarayaku Indigenous community, in cooperation with Amnesty International, co-produced a documentary titled Children of the Jaguar (2012). Directed by Eriberto Benedicto Gualinga Montalvo, the film tells the story of a Sarayaku 2011 victory in the Court of Human Rights in Costa Rica. The court ruled that the Ecuadorian government had to abide by international law and consult with the Sarayaku regarding any projects in their territory.

Released at film festivals, Children of the Jaguar was awarded "Best Documentary" by the All Roads Film Project of the National Geographic Society. The film also received Colombia's Indigenous Festival prize for best depiction of a struggle by an indigenous people. In December 2012 Eriberto Gualinga received the Award for International Recognition, by Ecuador's Ministry of Culture for his film.

In 2003, two french Friends made a documentary about the story of oil exploitation in Ecuador. The last part is about Sarayaku where we can see Nina Gualinga as a child.

References

External links
Sarayaku official net site
Sarayaku: In defense of territory story map
 "FR - SP - IN  Boundary of life project", Frontiére de Vie; the Kichwa call this Sisa Nampi in their language, meaning "Great living way of flowers"

Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples
Populated places in Pastaza Province
Indigenous peoples in Ecuador
Indigenous peoples and the environment

Sarayaku


Maj. Frederic McLaughlin (27 June 1877 – 17 December 1944) was an American businessman and soldier. He was the first owner of the Chicago Black Hawks National Hockey League (NHL) ice hockey team.

Born in Chicago, Illinois, McLaughlin inherited the successful "McLaughlin's Manor House" coffee business from his father, who died in 1905. McLaughlin was a graduate of Harvard University and served in the United States Army during World War I. McLaughlin achieved the rank of Major and was often referred to as Major McLaughlin for the rest of his life.

Chicago Black Hawks
In May 1926, the NHL had granted an expansion franchise to former football star Huntington Hardwick and his syndicate of investors. On 1 June, McLaughlin, who had no experience in the ice hockey business, purchased the Chicago expansion franchise from Hardwick. He named the team the Black Hawks after the nickname of his army unit, the 86th Infantry "Blackhawk" Division, where he had served in the 333rd Machine Gun Battalion. Most of the Hawks players were from the Portland Rosebuds of the Western Hockey League purchased from WHL owner Frank Patrick for $100,000. During his 18 years as owner, McLaughlin would lead the franchise to two Stanley Cup wins, in 1934 and 1938.

At the time McLaughlin acquired the Black Hawks, he was married to Irene Castle, a famous dancer and film actress. She is credited with creating the "Indian head" design of the first Black Hawks sweater. McLaughlin was a "hands on" owner and he made 13 coaching changes in 18 years. One Hawk coach was Godfrey Matheson, who got the job when he met McLaughlin on the train and impressed McLaughlin with his hockey knowledge. Matheson lost the job after two games.

McLaughlin was fiercely patriotic, and at various times during his ownership would try to fill his roster with as many Americans as possible, during a time when very few American-born players played in the NHL. The 1938 Stanley Cup win was done with eight Americans on the roster and Bostonian Bill Stewart was coach. Stewart was fired early the next season.

As an owner, McLaughlin also feuded with other owners. James Norris, the Detroit owner, set up a competing Chicago team in the American Association, locking the Hawks out of the Chicago Stadium. The Norris family would eventually purchase the Hawks after McLaughlin's death. Conn Smythe, manager of Toronto supplies the following quote on McLaughlin:
Where hockey was concerned, Major McLaughlin was the strangest bird and, yes, perhaps the biggest nut I met in my entire life.

McLaughlin died of heart disease in Lake Forest at age 67. He was interred at Calvary Cemetery in Evanston. In 1963, he was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as a builder.

Notes

References

External links

1877 births
1944 deaths
Burials at Calvary Cemetery (Evanston, Illinois)
Chicago Blackhawks executives
Harvard University alumni
National Hockey League executives
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Chicago
Stanley Cup champions
Military personnel from Chicago
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army officers

Frederic McLaughlin


Shaun Murphy (born May 6, 1948) is an American blues and R&B singer songwriter, best known for her powerhouse singing style. Sometimes credited as Stoney, her recording career started in 1971 with Motown Records.

Career
Murphy shared the stage with many Detroit-based bands, including Wilson Mower Pursuit and Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers, in venues such as Detroit's Grande Ballroom, as well as the first Ann Arbor Blues Festival in 1969, along with various large state fairground music venues. She was soon noticed by an employee of Motown in a touring theater production along with Texas native Meat Loaf.  The two were signed by Rare Earth Records, a division of Motown Records, as Stoney and Meatloaf in 1971. That pairing was short-lived and became defunct, although they had previously also been fellow cast members of the Detroit production of Hair. Only Murphy was retained under contract after the breakup of the duo.

After a period of inactivity with the new division of Motown in Los Angeles, she left Motown and contacted Detroit music producer Punch Andrews for possible opportunities. Murphy then relocated back to Detroit in 1973 to work with Bob Seger. She has continued to work with Seger in the studio since 1973, in addition to performing on all of his tours since 1978.

She returned again to live in Los Angeles in 1985 while working with Eric Clapton on his Behind the Sun album. Murphy joined Clapton's band for the ensuing tour, which included Live Aid.

Murphy's career in vocals has been both as band lead singer and session singer. She has sung, toured, and recorded with such acts as the Moody Blues, Bob Seger, Herbie Hancock, Phil Collins, Glenn Frey, Joe Walsh, Maria Muldaur, Bruce Hornsby, Michael Bolton, Coco Montoya, Alice Cooper, Little Feat and rock musicals, Hair and Sgt. Pepper's, etc.

In 1993, she became a full-time member of the Los Angeles-based band Little Feat. She stayed on for the next fifteen years, recording and touring with them until 2009.

In September 2009 the Shaun Murphy Band released the album Livin' The Blues. A second album, The Trouble With Lovin''', followed in 2010. Late in 2011, Murphy released a DVD and live album both titled Shaun Murphy Live at Callahan's, recorded at Callahan's Music Hall, Auburn Hills, Michigan.

Her album Ask for the Moon, released in 2012, was nominated for three Grammy Awards and won two Blues Blast music awards. She released Cry Of Love in 2013. Loretta was released in February 2015. Mighty Gates was released in October 2017 on Vision Wall Records.

Murphy was nominated for the 2020 Independent Blues Award in five categories: Contemporary Blues CD, Female Artist, Traditional Blues Song, RNB Song, and Road Warrior.

Murphy's latest album, entitled I'm Coming Home'', was released on June 5, 2023.

References

Other sources
 Interview with Shaun Murphy at digitalinterviews.com

External links

 Shaun Murphy Bio at Little Feat

Living people
Motown artists
American blues singers
American rock singers
American session musicians
Writers from Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Musicians from Omaha, Nebraska
Musicians from Detroit
American soul musicians
Little Feat members
Musicians from Cedar Rapids, Iowa
1948 births

Shaun Murphy (singer)