Unit 731 was a biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army. It engaged in lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes committed by the armed forces of Imperial Japan. Unit 731 was based in the Pingfang district of Harbin, the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo until 1945 when the Soviet Union invaded it what would be known as The Soviet Invasion Of Manchuria Of 1945 . It was active throughout China and Southeast Asia. Estimates of those killed by Unit 731 and its related programs range up to half a million people killed on the orders of the camp's director Shirō Ishii.

Establishment
It was officially known as the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army. Originally set up by the military police of the Empire of Japan, Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the end of the war by General Shirō Ishii, a combat medic officer in the Kwantung Army. The program received generous support from the Japanese government until the end of the war in 1945. Unit 731 and other units operated biological weapon production, testing, deployment, and storage facilities. They routinely conducted tests on human beings (who were internally referred to as "logs"). Additionally, biological weapons were tested in the field on cities and towns in China.

Disestablishment
While Unit 731 researchers arrested by Soviet forces were put on trial, those captured by the United States were secretly given immunity in exchange for the data gathered during their experiments. The Americans coopted the researchers' bioweapons information and experience for use in their own biological warfare program, much as they had done with German researchers in Operation Paperclip.

References

Chemical warfare
Military of Japan
20th century in Japan
World War II
Second Sino-Japanese war
War crimes
Crimes against humanity

Unit 731


Sir Patrick Henry Bligh Wall,  (14 October 1916 – 15 May 1998) was a British commando in the Royal Marines during the Second World War and later a Conservative Party politician. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Haltemprice in the East Riding of Yorkshire and subsequently for Beverley, over a period spanning 33 years. He was a leading figure in the Conservative Monday Club, and a parliamentary consultant to the Western Goals Institute. In the last decade of his life, he was President of the British UFO Research Association (BUFORA).

Education and military career
The son of Henry Benedict Wall, Patrick Wall was educated at Downside School. He was commissioned into the Royal Marines in 1935 and qualified as a naval gunnery instructor. During the Second World War, he served onboard Iron Duke, Valiant, and Malaya, followed by a spell at HMS Turtle, the landing craft base. In 1945, he was patrol officer and second-in-command 48 Commando RM in the British Army on the Rhine, where he was wounded. Wall's exploits in action drew the highest commendation: "An outstanding character whose industry and devotion to duty are beyond praise. He is a very devout man, and draws real inspiration from his Roman Catholic religion. In battle and behind the line, he is an example of energy and the aggressive spirit. His aim appears to be to do as much as possible", stated his report.

He was awarded the Military Cross in the North-West Europe campaign, and was awarded the US Legion of Merit the same year, for his services during the invasion operations in northern Italy and the south of France. He taught at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich in 1946, and the Joint Services Staff College from 1947 to 1948. He spent a further two years on the staff of the Commandant-General, RM. He was promoted to the rank of major in 1949, and decided to leave the Royal Marines the following year in order to enter politics.

He continued his naval connection as Commander of 47 Commando Royal Marines Voluntary Reserve from 1951 to 1957, and from 1950 to 1966, was Commissioner of the Sea Scouts for London.

In 1953, Wall married Sheila Elizabeth, daughter of James Putnam, of Broadstone, Dorset.

Political career
Wall was a councillor on the City of Westminster Council from 1953 to 1963. In the 1951 General Election and a subsequent by-election in 1952, he stood unsuccessfully for the parliamentary seat of Cleveland, Yorkshire. He was later elected Conservative Party Member of Parliament for Haltemprice 1954–1983, and for Beverley, Yorkshire 1983–1987. He was Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1955–57, and to the Chancellor of the Exchequer 1958–59. He was UK delegate to the United Nations General Assembly in 1962, Vice-Chairman of the Parliamentary Select Committee on Defence 1965–1977, Chairman of the British-South Africa Parliamentary Group 1970–1987, on the British-Portuguese Parliamentary Group 1979–1987, and leader of the British delegation to the North Atlantic Assembly 1979–1987, of which he was president, 1983–1985.

In February 1972, in the House of Commons he called for government intervention in the miners' strike, saying that "initimidation and even violence by picketing miners has given rise to widespread anxiety".

During the Thatcher years, Wall reflected that Britain had "moved rapidly to the Left under Labour governments, and more slowly to the Left under successive Conservative governments".

During this period, he sat on numerous parliamentary committees, one of which recommended building a strategic airfield in the Falkland Islands after the war.

Views on Africa and communism
Wall chaired several party committees concerned with Africa. He defended the British colonial record and was convinced of the benefits of white rule in Rhodesia and South Africa.  In 1960, he claimed that the colonial problem arose not from differences in colour, but from differences in standards. "What we have to do is to work as hard as we can by raising the standards of the black Africans to ensure that we level up and do not take the easy way out by levelling down. Progress in Central Africa depends on the maintenance of standards and I believe we owe it, not only to our kith and kin, but to the vast mass of as yet uneducated black Africans for whom we are trustees, to see that the existing standards in Central Africa are not debased." (cf. Reeves, p. 116).

He was a friend of the Rhodesian Prime Minister, Ian Smith, and fully supported him. After Rhodesia's UDI in 1965, he joined forces with Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury, to lead the Tory revolt against their party's support for the Labour administration's sanctions policy.

Wall believed that white rule in Southern Africa was the last bulwark against the spread of communism in the region, which he described as "this evil virus".  He argued that this, in turn, would mean that the West would lose vital mineral supplies and that the oil route round the Cape would come under threat.

In 1974, Wall attacked the Labour government's pull-out from the Simonstown naval base in South Africa, and stated in the House of Commons that "they" (the government) "must be insane. This is the only link NATO has with the Cape. British interests in Africa as a strategic part of the world should be maintained."  In 1975, writing in the journal To The Point, Patrick Wall said "the basic philosophy of the Communist powers is to detach Southern Africa from the Western World."

A committed supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), he was leader of the British delegation to the North Atlantic Assembly from 1979 to 1987. Wall was especially suspicious of the Foreign Office, which he believed had contributed to Britain's decline. He would quote an African minister's remark: "We never trust you British because you never protect your own tribe."

Monday Club
Wall was an early member (1963) of the Conservative Monday Club, sat on several of its committees, served on its Executive Council, and was National Club Chairman 1978–80. He collaborated on many papers and publications for the club, and spoke for club policies and concerns in the House of Commons.

On May Day 1970, the club held a 'Law and Liberty' rally in Trafalgar Square where he, and several other of the club's MPs were principal speakers. In November 1971, he and John Biggs-Davison, joined, as observers, British troops in action in Northern Ireland against the Irish Republican Army (IRA).

As University Groups Parliamentary Liaison Officer, he was active in supporting the 55 Monday Club groups formed in universities and colleges. He became a target for the Left and was denounced by the Marxist-led National Union of Students. In 1968, he was attacked at Leeds University and Mrs. Wall was knocked to the ground and kicked. Speaking at Portsmouth Polytechnic in December 1972, his meeting was broken up by a shouting group of students who pelted Wall with missiles.

In May 1974, Wall, John Biggs-Davison, and Robert Taylor tabled a motion in the House of Commons deploring the Labour government's decision to cancel the visit of the Royal Yacht Britannia to Cape Town, describing it as "vindictive and selective spite." In August Commander Anthony Courtney and Wall issued a Monday Club Paper attacking the "high proportion of official Communist representatives in London, who are known to be engaged in 'legal' espionage under diplomatic cover." They warned also that Britain would become increasingly vulnerable following the opening of a Soviet Embassy in Dublin as the IRA was Marxist.

In a letter published in the Daily Telegraph in November 1974, Patrick Wall wrote "Conservatism has lost millions of votes because the man in the street no longer believes that they stand primarily for Britain's interests." He added: "to the man in the street the Conservative leadership has been more intent on crushing the Rhodesians than the IRA; more interested in the Ugandan Asians than in maintaining the rights of Britons living abroad; more worried about Enoch Powell than Messrs. Hugh Scanlon and Arthur Scargill".

Wall was presented with a Fellowship Certificate of the Chartered Institute of Journalists at a formal reception for the occasion, held at the National Liberal Club, London, on Wednesday 12 July 1989.

Connection to offshore and citizens' band (CB) radio
Wall was one of a number of Tory MPs associated with Radio 270, an offshore radio station broadcasting off the Yorkshire coast in the 1960s.  On 11 May 1967 the station gave Conservative candidates in local elections at Scarborough airtime which the candidates had paid for themselves, and on 14 May it broadcast a programme made by the York University branch of the Monday Club, in which Wall spoke on Rhodesia.  Labour MP Andrew Faulds called (perhaps not entirely seriously) for the results of some municipal elections to be declared invalid because an "illegal broadcast" had been made, and Postmaster-General Edward Short stated that "It is the first time in peacetime that this country has been subjected to a stream of misleading propaganda from outside our territorial waters and I do not think this is a matter for joking". (ref. The Times, 12 and 15 May 1967)

Shortly before the Marine Broadcasting Offences Act became law later that year, Radio 270 carried a broadcast, also sponsored by the University of York Monday Club, attacking the government for closing down the pirate stations.  Wall, Ronald Bell and John Biggs-Davison, all prominent members of the Monday Club, took part.  John Biggs-Davison stated that he felt that many Labour supporters would also regret the Act, claiming that "concern for freedom is not confined to one party and a voice of freedom will have been silenced when Radio 270 goes off the air".  Wall said that "I think it is monstrous that private enterprise radio stations are being closed, and even more monstrous that the Government are not setting up an adequate alternative to cater for the amusement that many people want to hear.  Indeed, I have had more letters on this subject than on any other in the 13 years I have been MP for Haltemprice". (ref. The Times, 11 August 1967)

Eventually, the Tory party would bring about deregulation of the media (through the Broadcasting Act 1990) such as was being called for.

From 1976 until its success in 1981, Wall was also a strong supporter of the campaign for the legalisation of Citizens' Band Radio in the UK, and was one of the most influential members of the House of Commons ad hoc Committee on CB.

Publications
Wall, Patrick, Soviet Maritime Thrust Monday Club, London (P/B).
Wall, Patrick, Southern Ocean and the Security of the Free World.
Wall, Patrick, M. C., V. R. D., M. P., with John P. P. Smith, Student Power Monday Club, London, 1968, (P/B).
Wall, Patrick, M. C.,M. P., with John Biggs-Davison, M. P., Julian Amery, M. P., Stephen Hastings, M. C.,M. P., Harold Soref, M. P., Rhodesia and the Threat to the West, Monday Club, London, 1976, (P/B).
Wall, Patrick, The Royal Marine Pocket Book, with Lt G A M Ritson RM

Archives
Wall, Sir Patrick: Papers held at the Hull History Centre Archives.

References
Copping, Robert, The Story of The Monday Club – The First Decade, Current Affairs Information Service, April 1972, (P/B).
Copping, Robert, The Monday Club – Crisis and After (Foreword by John Biggs-Davison, M. P.), CAIS, May 1975, (P/B).
Reeves, Frank, British Racial Discourse – A Study of British Political Discourse about Race and Race-related Matters, Cambridge University Press, 1983,
Williamson, David, with Patricia Ellis, Debrett's Distinguished People of Today, London, 1988, p. 1058,
The Daily Telegraph, 19 May 1998, Obituary – Major Sir Patrick Wall

1916 births
1998 deaths
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Councillors in Greater London
Foreign recipients of the Legion of Merit
Academics of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich
Knights Bachelor
People educated at Downside School
Recipients of the Military Cross
Royal Marines Commando officers
Royal Marines personnel of World War II
Ufologists
UK MPs 1951–1955
UK MPs 1955–1959
UK MPs 1959–1964
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987

Patrick Wall


A flamethrower is a device used to shoot fire. They have been used by the military since the days of Greek fire. Most modern military flamethrowers project flaming liquids.

Flamethrowers became rare in the 19th century, due to improvements in other weapons.  Trench warfare made them more useful again, and the German army began using them in 1915.  Flamethrowers were used during World War 2 as a bunker clearing device.  Many Axis troops used pillboxes and other small fortifications in Northern France, Germany, and on Pacific Ocean islands.  Small fire squads used these weapons to draw them out.  Although flamethrowers project flames, burning was not the most common form of death associated with these weapons.  Rather, smoke released as a byproduct of combustion presented soldiers with the grim ultimatum between death by smoke inhalation or leaving the trench and facing enemy gunfire.

Due to advancements in ballistic technologies and modern warfare tactics, flamethrowers are much less common in modern theatres. Presently, these weapons have been converted for civilian use for clearing old crops, domestic defense and even landscaping. In 2018, the Boring Company headed by Elon Musk developed a civilian flamethrower in a limited production of 20,000 units. With the prominence of Musk in contemporary culture, these flamethrowers were sold quickly yielding 10 million dollars for the Boring Company in gross revenue.

Weapons

Flamethrower


Originally, Fondue was a dish where pieces of bread, potatoes, or other vegetables were dipped into hot, molten cheese. Fondue is common in Switzerland, Piedmont, and Savoie. With the time, the meaning of fondue was extended: With Fondue bourguinonne, pieces of meat (usually beef) are dipped into hot oil. Fondue chinoise uses stripes of meat which are cooked.

Fondue chinoise and Fondue bouriginonne are served with different sauces or dips. The cheese-based variety uses a mixture of cheese, white wine, and starch to prepare the molten cheese.

History

A great number of people believe that fondue is a very old country way to make food of hard cheese and hard bread. Both Swiss and French people make fondue from the old time. It is most likely first made in the Jura mountains.

The oldest certain directions for making fondue used eggs and came from Vaud in the early 19th century. A great number of Swiss places and towns came up with very special directions for making fondue based on cheeses, wines and other substances of the town.

Fondue became pleasing to a great number of people in the United States through the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Preparation

In addition to the bread and cheese, there are side plates of garlic, pickled cucumber, onions and olives.

To give a special quality of taste, the caquelon is first rubbed with a cut garlic. Wine and cheese are added and heated and moved till they are warm and liquid. A small amount of starch is added to join the substances. Some strong alcohol from cherries is added just before bringing it to the table.

The most common directions use 1 decilitre of dry white wine and 200 grams of cheese for every person. The cheese is a mix of hard cheese (such as Gruyère) and semi-hard (such as Emmental cheese).

Temperature and La Religieuse

A cheese fondue would be kept at a temperature warm enough to keep the fondue smooth and liquid but not at a great heat to cause burning.

If the temperature is good, there will be a thin hard cover of toasted (not burnt) cheese at the lowest part of the caquelon.

This is the la religieuse (French for the nun). It has the structure of a thin cracker and is lifted out and every person is given a bit. In Switzerland sometimes boys and girls fight over the burnt cheese at the lowest part of the caquelon.

Other fondues

Fondue Bourguignonne is named after Burgundy in France. Fondue Bourguignonne uses a pot of heated oil to cook. Bits of meat are put into the oil to quickly cook them. A number of sauces are made ready on the side. The earliest statements of this dish seem to have been made in the 1950s.

Fondue Chinoise uses a pot of heated liquid to cook. Thin bits of meat (often beef) are put into a very warm thin meat soup. As with a Fondue Bourguignonne, a number of sauces are made ready on the side. At the end of the meal, the liquid from the pot is drunk as a thick soup.

Chocolate Fondue was first made in the 1960s. Slices of fruit or cake are put in a pot of warm, liquid chocolate.

Good behavior

It would not be good to touch the fork with the tongue, because the fork will go back into the common pot. At a meat fondue, one uses a second fork to take meat off the fork that goes into the common pot.

In Switzerland what has been done for a long time, is that if a bit of bread is lost in the cheese by a man, he gives money for a bottle of wine. If it is lost by a woman, she kisses the man at her left.

References and notes

Other websites

French food
Swiss food

Fondue


A preparatory school (or prep school) is a term in school education. Its use varies in different parts of the world.
In the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries, it is a fee-paying private school which prepares students for the entrance exam to public schools. Such schools take children at 11, who may go to public schools at 14 years of age. This is in contrast to the state school system, where children go from primary school to secondary school at 11 years of age. Many public schools now run their own prep schools, and some have entry at 11 rather than 14.
In the United States it is a private school which prepares students for college.  For example, Village School (Great Neck, New York) is a preparatory school.

Types of educational institutions

Preparatory school


The Ladder of Divine Ascent is a late-12th-century Christian icon at Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai.

Description
The icon represents the theological teachings of John Climacus, also known as John of the Ladder, as represented in the ascetical treatise The Ladder of Divine Ascent, written c. AD 600. The treatise has been influential in Eastern Christianity.

The icon depicts monks ascending the ladder towards Jesus in Heaven, at the top right of the image with John Climacus at the top of the ladder, being welcomed by Jesus. The ladder has 30 rungs representing the 30 stages of ascetic life.

The ascent of the monks is assisted by the prayers of angels, saints and the community, while demons attack and try to make monks fall from the ladder by pulling them down or striking them with arrows. The depiction of the ladder reflects the importance of angels and demons in Eastern Orthodox spirituality. The icon also shows a gaping maw, representing the Devil himself who is devouring a monk who has fallen from the ladder.

The ladder shows some monks who have almost reached the summit as being tempted by demons and falling. The depiction of the monks falling off is a reflection of what John Climacus expressed as "what never ceased to amaze him" namely why some monks still gave in to worldly passions when God, the angels and the saints were encouraging them towards virtue.

References

Further reading
Evans, Helen C. & Wixom, William D., The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843-1261, no. 247, 1997, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries

Byzantine icons
12th-century paintings
Saint Catherine's Monastery
Angels in art
Demons in art
Paintings depicting Jesus
Paintings in Egypt

Ladder of Divine Ascent (icon)


A depression is a long period of time in which the economy of a country is not working well. It is usually marked by a large number of people being without jobs. A depression is a more severe kind of recession. A depression can last for several years. In addition to high unemployment, depressions hurt banks, trade and manufacturing. Prices fall, credit is harder to get and there is an increase in bankruptcies.

A depression in one country can quickly spread to other countries. For example the Panic of 1873 started in Vienna and spread to other parts of Europe and to America, bringing what was called "the Great Depression" until a worse one came in 1929.

The Great Depression
The Great Depression (1929-39) was the longest lasting and deepest economic depression in the history of the modern industrial world. It started after the U.S. stock market crash in 1929. The prices on the Wall Street stock market fell from October 24 to October 29, 1929. It sent Wall Street into a panic. Millions of investors were financially ruined. By 1933 nearly half the banks in the United States had failed and between 13 and 15 million Americans were unemployed. The beginnings of World War II in Europe ended the depression. The Great Depression affected countries worldwide. Unlike previous depressions in which a few countries were hurt, the Great Depression was felt by nearly all industrialized countries. Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and North and South America all suffered. Countries tried to protect their own economies by raising tariffs on goods they imported into their countries. This caused world trade to fall by some 30 percent. An estimated 30 million people were unemployed worldwide by 1932.

The Great Depression had far-reaching political consequences. As economies failed some people looked to military dictators to save their countries. For example, countries like Argentina and several in Central America had dictators. In Germany, Italy and Japan, Fascism took hold which directly led to World War II. In the Soviet Union the depression allowed Joseph Stalin to come to power. He exiled millions to labor camps and began a reign of terror called the Great Purge. As many as 20 million Soviets died in the 1930s alone. In the west, one response was Welfare Capitalism. This took hold in countries such as Canada, France and Great Britain.

Signs of a depression
As of 2013, some countries in Europe were suffering greater unemployment than they did during the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Gross domestic product has been shrinking faster than some European nations can cut spending. Europe's financial crisis shows every sign of getting worse, not better. While called a recession by some government officials, economists are already calling it a depression. As European countries are locked into the Euro they cannot devalue their own currency to adjust their economies. This means they cannot lower the price of their exports to make them more attractive and so cannot achieve a balance of trade.

References

Other websites
 Financial Panics of the 19th Century
 The 13 Worst Recessions, Depressions, and Panics In American History
 Global Financial and Economic Crises

Economics
Financial crises

Depression (economics)


A myrmecophile is an animal that lives with ants. A myrmecophile may help the ants, or it may be a parasite of the ants by eating them or their food.

Many myrmecophiles eat waste in ant nests, such as dead ants or fungi growing in the nest. Some myrmecophiles make food that the ants can eat. Aphids do this when they make honeydew. Ants may even farm or tend some insects, such as aphids, that make food for them. Other myrmecophiles eat the food supplies of ants, and a few eat ant eggs, larvae, or pupae.

One family (group) of butterflies lives with ants and sometimes makes food for the ants. The ants help the butterfly caterpillars by keeping away other animals that want to eat or hurt the caterpillars.

Other animals that live with ants include some beetles, flies, mites, and spiders. Flies in the genus (group) called Microdon live in ant nests and eat waste or eat larval ants.

Insects

Myrmecophile


Victory at Entebbe is a 1976 American made-for-television action-drama film for broadcast on ABC, directed by Marvin J. Chomsky. The film starred Helmut Berger, Linda Blair, Anthony Hopkins, Burt Lancaster, Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Dreyfuss, and Kirk Douglas. Julius Harris portrayed Idi Amin, following the fatal heart attack suffered by the actor originally cast in the role, Godfrey Cambridge.  The film was theatrically released in Europe.

Victory at Entebbe is based on the actual event Operation Entebbe, the raid on Entebbe Airport (now Entebbe International Airport) in Uganda and the freeing of Israeli hostages on July 4, 1976. It was the first of three films made in the 1970s based on the Entebbe Raid. The other two, Raid on Entebbe (1977) and Operation Thunderbolt (1977, Israel) soon followed. A fourth film, Entebbe (titled 7 Days in Entebbe in the U.S.) was released over four decades later in 2018.

Plot
On June 27, 1976, four terrorists belonging to a splinter group of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine under the orders of Wadie Haddad boarded and hijacked an Air France Airbus A300 in Athens, Greece.

With the permission of President Idi Amin (Julius Harris), the terrorists divert the airliner and its hostages to Entebbe Airport in Uganda.  After identifying Israeli passengers, the non-Jewish passengers are freed while a series of demands are made, including the release of 40 Palestinian militants held in Israel, in exchange for the hostages.

The Cabinet of Israel, led by Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (Anthony Hopkins), unwilling to give in to terrorist demands, plans a top-secret military raid. This commando operation, military code name: "Operation Thunderbolt", will be carried out over  from home and will take place on the Jewish Sabbath.

While still negotiating with the terrorists, who now numbered seven individuals, the Israeli military prepared two Lockheed C-130 Hercules transports for the raid. The transports refuelled in Kenya before landing at Entebbe Airport under the cover of darkness. The commandos led by Brigadier General Dan Shomron (Harris Yulin) had to contend with a large armed Ugandan military detachment and used a ruse to overcome the defenses. A black Mercedes limousine had been carried on board and was used to fool sentries that it was the official car which President Amin used on an impromptu visit to the airport.

Nearly complete surprise was achieved but a firefight resulted, ending with all seven terrorists and 45 Ugandan soldiers killed. The hostages were gathered together and most were quickly put on the idling C-130 aircraft. During the raid, one commando (the breach unit commander Yonatan Netanyahu (Richard Dreyfuss), brother of future Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu), and three of the hostages died.

With 102 hostages aboard and on their way to freedom, a group of Israeli commandos remained behind to destroy the Ugandan Air Force MiG-17 and MiG-21 fighters to prevent a retaliation. All the survivors of the attack force then joined in flying back to Israel via Nairobi and Sharm El Sheikh.

Cast

In alphabetical order:
 Helmut Berger as Wilfried Böse
 Linda Blair as Chana Vilnofsky
 Kirk Douglas as Hershel Vilnofsky
 Richard Dreyfuss as Col. Yoni Netanyahu
 Helen Hayes as Etta Grossman Wise
 David Groh as Benjamin Wise
 Anthony Hopkins as Yitzhak Rabin
 Burt Lancaster as Shimon Peres
 Elizabeth Taylor as Edra Vilnofsky
 Julius Harris as Idi Amin
 Theodore Bikel as Yakov Shlomo
 Harris Yulin as Gen. Dan Shomron
 Christian Marquand as Captain Dukas
 Jessica Walter as Nomi Haroun
 Stefan Gierasch as Gen. Gur
 David Sheiner as Aaron Olav
 Severn Darden as Moshe Meyer
 Allan Miller as Nathan Haroun
 Bibi Besch as Brigitte Kuhlmann

Production
Victory at Entebbe was filmed on videotape at Burbank Studios in California and later transferred to film for distribution around the world, giving the film the slightly stilted visual style of a studio-bound TV drama, but with a film-like look, and big Hollywood names in the cast. Shooting on video shortened the production time, allowing the film to be ready for television less than six months after the event that inspired it.

Reception
Although both telefilms Victory at Entebbe and Raid on Entebbe relied on their star-studded casts, neither were able to make much of an impact with audiences (Victory is generally considered the weaker of the two). The portrayal of the heroic Israeli military in Victory at Entebbe, however, led to radical pro-Palestinian terrorists placing bombs in Germany and Italy, alleging that the film was Zionist propaganda.

Victory at Entebbe was recognized at the 29th Primetime Emmy Awards, where screenwriter Ernest Kinoy received an Emmy Award nomination for his teleplay.

See also
 Raid on Entebbe
 Operation Thunderbolt
 7 Days in Entebbe

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Barron, Colin N. Planes on Film: Ten Favourite Aviation Films. Stirling, UK: Extremis Publishing, 2016. .
 Buford, Kate. Burt Lancaster: An American Life. London: Aurum Press, 2008. .
 Shaw, Tony. Cinematic Terror: A Global History of Terrorism on Film. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014. .

External links

1976 television films
1976 films
ABC network original films
Films about aircraft hijackings
American television films
Films set in Uganda
Films directed by Marvin J. Chomsky
American aviation films
Operation Entebbe
Films about the Israel Defense Forces
Films set in 1976
The Wolper Organization films
Films shot in the United States
American docudrama films
Cultural depictions of Idi Amin
Films about battles and military operations
Films scored by Charles Fox
1970s American films

Victory at Entebbe


John Anthony Bailey  (June 4, 1947 – November 13, 1994), also known as Jack Baker, was an American actor.

Life
John Anthony Bailey was born on June 4, 1947, in Ohio, U.S. Bailey lived in San Francisco, California, during the early 1970s, where he attended Merritt College in Oakland and performed in numerous stage and film productions. His performances included Richard Wesley's The Black Terror, for John Cochran's Black Repertory West, J. E. Franklin's Black Girl with Adilah Barnes, work with the improvisational theatre group, The Pitschel Players, and appearances with other San Francisco Bay Area theater companies. Bailey also appeared in the Sun Ra film Space Is the Place (made in 1972 and released in 1974).

Career
Bailey is best known for the role of C.C. McNamara on the Sid and Marty Krofft children's television program Wonderbug (1976). He also appeared in two episodes of Happy Days as "Sticks", the drummer of Richie's band; M*A*S*H (1972), Good Times (1975) and in the feature film, The Kentucky Fried Movie (1977).

During the 1980s, Bailey began a career in pornographic films under the pseudonym Jack Baker. In 1984, he appeared in Let Me Tell Ya 'bout White Chicks, produced and directed by Gregory Dark. His other collaborations with Dark include New Wave Hookers (1985), The Devil in Miss Jones 3: A New Beginning and The Devil in Miss Jones 4: The Final Outrage (both 1986).

Although his pornographic career initially had often called on him to participate in the explicit sex scenes, somewhere around the time of the "Miss Jones" movies, he had largely, for the most part, ceased performing hardcore sex on-screen, and became known as a "non-sex" actor in the business. His adult roles (particularly for the Dark Brothers) often were comedic in nature, and poked fun at racial stereotypes.

According to the Internet Adult Film Database, Bailey appeared in more than 140 films and produced one movie.

Death
Bailey died of bladder cancer in 1994, at the age of 47, in Los Angeles, California. He was buried in The Los Angeles County Cemetery.

References

External links

1947 births
1994 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century African-American people
Male actors from Ohio
Pornographic film actors from Ohio
African-American male actors
African-American pornographic film actors
African-American writers
American male writers
American male film actors
American male television actors
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from bladder cancer
American male pornographic film actors
Male actors from Los Angeles
Merritt College alumni

John Bailey (American actor)


Ruzena Bajcsy (born 1933 in Bratislava, now Slovakia) is an American engineer and computer scientist who specializes in robotics. She is professor of electrical engineering and computer sciences at the University of California, Berkeley, where she is also director emerita of CITRIS (the Center for Information Technology Research in the Interest of Society).

She was previously professor and chair of computer science and engineering at the University of Pennsylvania, where she was the founding director of the University of Pennsylvania's General Robotics and Active Sensory Perception (GRASP) Laboratory, and a member of the Neurosciences Institute in the School of Medicine. She has also been head of the National Science Foundation's Computer and Information Science and Engineering Directorate, with authority over a $500 million budget. She supervised at least 26 doctoral students who received the Ph.D. at Pennsylvania.

She was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 2005.

She is the mother of computer-science professor Klara Nahrstedt.

Early life

Bajcsy was born in 1933 in Bratislava, now Slovakia to a Jewish family. Although her family was initially spared from Nazi concentration camps due to her father's work as a civil engineer, most of her adult relatives were killed by the Nazis in late 1944. Bajcsy and her sister, the only survivors in the immediate family, were supported as war orphans by the Red Cross; Bajcsy was later raised in orphanages and in foster care. A strong student in mathematics, she has said that she chose instead to study electrical engineering as a university student because the career prospects for mathematics students at the time led to teaching, which in Communist Eastern Europe required a commitment to Marxist-Leninist ideology that she was unwilling to provide.

Education

She obtained Master's and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Slovak Technical University in 1957 and 1967, and an additional Ph.D. in computer science in 1972 from Stanford University. Her thesis was "Computer Identification of Textured Visual Scenes", and her advisor was John McCarthy.

In 2001, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Ljubljana in Slovenia. From 2003 to 2005, she was a member of the President's Information Technology Advisory Committee. The November 2002 issue of Discover named her to its list of the 50 most important women in science. In 2012, she received honorary doctorate degrees from the University of Pennsylvania and KTH, The Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden.

Writings

She has written over 225 articles in journals and conference proceedings, 25 book chapters, and 66 technical reports and has been on many editorial boards.

Current research

Her current research centers on artificial intelligence; biosystems and computational biology; control, intelligent systems, and robotics; graphics and human-computer interaction, computer vision; and security.

Memberships

Bajcsy is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Sciences Institute of Medicine as well as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the American Association for Artificial Intelligence, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Awards
Bajcsy received the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)/Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Allen Newell Award in 2001, the ACM Distinguished Service Award in 2003, and the Computing Research Association Distinguished Service Award in 2003.

Bajcsy's most current research has helped her gain recognition from The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia.  Ruzena Bajcsy received the 2009 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science for her innovations in robotics and computer vision, specifically the development of improved robotic perception and the creation of better methods to analyze medical images. Additionally, she was the winner of the 2009 ABIE Award for Technical Leadership from the Anita Borg Institute.

Bajcsy has been named by the IEEE Board of Directors the recipient of the 2013 IEEE Robotics and Automation Award for her contributions in the field of robotics and automation with the following citation: "For contributions to computer vision, the active perception paradigm, and medical robotics".

Bajcsy is featured in the Notable Women in Computing cards.

Bajcsy received the Order of the White Double Cross, Second Class, on 20 September 2022.

References

External links
Ruzena Bajcsy homepage, EECS, UC Berkeley
CV at Robot Hall of Fame
Dr. Ruzena Bajcsy , Visiting Committee for Advanced Technology, NIST, USA

1933 births
Living people
Czechoslovak emigrants to the United States

Stanford University School of Engineering alumni
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Slovak women computer scientists
American electrical engineers
Artificial intelligence researchers
American roboticists
Women roboticists
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Fellow Members of the IEEE
Fellows of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American women computer scientists
Women systems scientists
UC Berkeley College of Engineering faculty
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava alumni
21st-century American women scientists
20th-century American women scientists
Scientists from Bratislava
American computer scientists
Slovak computer scientists
21st-century American scientists
20th-century American scientists
American women academics
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Members of the National Academy of Medicine
The Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science laureates

Ruzena Bajcsy


Ewido Networks was a software company based in Germany  known for creating Ewido Anti-Spyware. Ewido Anti-Spyware was software used to remove malware such as spyware, trojan horses, adware, dialers, and worms. It also featured real-time protection, automatic updates, and other privacy features. Ewido had both a free version, and a paid version which added realtime protection, and automatic updates.

History
Ewido networks was founded in Germany in 2004 by Andreas Rudyk, Peter Klapprodt and Tobias Graf. Their first product was Ewido Security Suite. Ewido was given Digital River's ICE award for "Best newcomer of the year".

Grisoft Acquisition
On April 19, 2006 it was announced that Czech Grisoft had acquired the German Anti-Malware company Ewido Networks. This was the birth of Grisoft's AVG Anti Spyware, an anti spyware based on Ewido's engine. Grisoft now includes ewido in many security suites and bundles and antivirus products.

Ewido Anti-Spyware
This software began life as Ewido Security Suite and the name was changed to Ewido Anti-malware in December 2005. With the release of 4.0, it was later changed again to Ewido Anti-Spyware.

Ewido Anti-Spyware included new features such as scheduled scans, file shredder, running process manager, and a new interface. It also included an LSP and BHO viewer. There was a free version with no realtime protection and automatic updates (Users could update manually). The last known price was $29.99.

After Grisoft's acquisition, however, Ewido's Anti-Spyware development has not stopped. It continues to exist as Ewido Online Scanner or Ewido Micro Scanner, using the full Ewido engine and signatures, without excluding heuristic detection options. As of AVG 8.0, AVG Anti-Spyware is integrated into AVG Anti-Virus and is no longer available as a standalone product. That means that AVG Anti-Spyware will no longer receive updates.

Ewido works with many popular antivirus and other spyware products such as:
 AVG Anti-Virus
 Ad-Aware
 Avast! Antivirus
 Avira Security Software
 Comodo Internet Security
 CounterSpy
 Kaspersky Anti-Virus
 McAfee
 Norton AntiVirus
 Sophos
 Spybot Search & Destroy
 Spyware Doctor
 ZoneAlarm Security Suite

See also
 Grisoft
 Malware
 Spyware

References

External links
 Ewido's Official site

Software companies of Germany
Antivirus software
Spyware removal
Windows security software
Windows-only proprietary software

Ewido Networks


José de Santiago Concha y Salvatierra (Lima, Peru, December 1, 1667 –  Lima, Peru, March 11, 1741) was a Spanish politician and Royal Governor of Chile.

He studied in Salamanca, and received the title of Knight of the Order of Calatrava due to his noble lineage.  He later served as a magistrate in Lima, later serving in a somewhat similar capacity as an oidor in the Real Audiencia of Chile from 1709 to 1710.  He then returned to Lima to perform his old duties, until the King named him interim governor of Chile.

Rule in Chile
Santiago Concha arrived in Chile on March 5, 1717, and officially took power on the 20th of the same month.  He took up a long-standing royal order to found settlements, with the goal of grouping inhabitants in determined areas.  Thus, in November he went to the Aconcagua River valley and personally founded the city of Quillota.

In December 1717, he left his temporary post and returned to Lima, where he died a few years later. Philip V granted him the title of Marquis of Casa Concha in 1718 in honor of his service to the crown.

Royal Governors of Chile
Spanish generals
Spanish military personnel
1667 births
1741 deaths

José de Santiago Concha


Blackburn Lake Sanctuary is an example of regenerated and remnant bushland in suburban Melbourne, Australia. It is located in the suburb of Blackburn. It is the most significant of the many parks in the City of Whitehorse, featuring areas of regenerated bushland and various walking tracks.

In 1889 the Kooyongkoot Creek was dammed forming Blackburn Lake, at the centre of the sanctuary. The park has a diverse history revolving around the human usage of the lake and surrounding bushland, which by the 1960s left the lake in particular, very polluted. Although still polluted today, the late 20th century saw much regenerative planting and protection measures by local residents and community groups which has halted and in some places reduced pollution. Today, the park is home to a variety of local wildlife, including Pacific black ducks and herons. The sanctuary also features a variety of other birds, as well as possums and sugar gliders.

History
In 1889 the lake itself was formed when Gardiners Creek was dammed to provide water for local fruit growers. The lake grew in popularity as a tourist destination, with visitors from Melbourne travelling two hours by steam train to reach it. During the 1890s, artist Frederick McCubbin of the famed Heidelberg School lived briefly near the lake, where he painted works including "Down on His Luck", "The Bush Burial" and "Bush Idyll".

In 1909 the Adult Deaf Society purchased the land surrounding the lake, where they established a hospice and a flower farm. In 1964 the Society sold the lake and the land around it to the Melbourne Water board, and in 1965 the area was declared a sanctuary. Later public purchases increased the size of the sanctuary until it reached its current size in 1992. The Visitor Centre was refurbished in 1991 to accommodate an expanded education programme.

Much of the history of the park revolves around the damming of Kooyongkoot Creek and its use over time. See below for history of Blackburn Lake.

Geography

The park sits on around  of land in the middle of Blackburn, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria to which it is located about  east of the central business district of Melbourne.

Blackburn Lake
In the early days before the lake was formed, Kooyongkoot Creek wound its way down the valley from Mitcham to Blackburn on its way to the Yarra River. It would have been joined along the way, particularly in winter, by many little rivulets and streams; some of these gullies can still be seen as you walk around the lake today. In summer, the creek is suspected to have dried up at times.

The lake was dammed in 1889 initially to provide water for local fruit growers, but was later used and misused for various reasons and activities until the late 1970s. Today, activities on the lake are limited to protect the surrounding environment. The lake is fed by a number of small creeks to its east and many small surrounding gullies. The dam wall is located in lake's west reaches, Lake Road runs along the top of this wall. Kooyongkoot Creek heads west from the wall, through the beginnings of its course to the Yarra River.

It was initially about  deep where the creek had been mined for antimony, but recent studies show that it is not that deep today, having silted up over the intervening years. In the 1920s, diving towers were erected and swimming lessons were held at the lake, the water quality was as yet unaffected by surrounding land clearing, agriculture and development. The Blackburn Swimming Club was forced to close in 1931 due to vandalism of the facilities.

During the 1950s and 1960s, the lake became a dumping ground for rubbish, and there are supposed to be old car bodies and other rubbish at the bottom. These would have leached acids, lead and hydrocarbons into the water over the years. Pollution in the lake renders it unusable as a source of water for the surrounding human population or agriculture. In 1962 the dam wall in Lake Rd was built by the MMBW to form a retarding basin to prevent flooding further down Kooyongkoot Creek, and the Lake Rd Bridge was demolished in 1965.

The bridges that cross the lake and its creeks and gullies include:
Friends Bridge (early 1900s, rebuilt 1981)
Billabong Bridge (built 1980s)
Lake Road Bridge (built 1888, demolished 1965, rebuilt 2002)

Recreation

Throughout the park's history, much of the recreation in the park revolved around the lake, however today recreation revolves around the appreciation of the Australian native flora, much of which has been regenerated over time. The park is popular with bushwalkers. Cycling is also popular but is usually only partaken locally as the park does not host a cycling through-route trail.

Access information
Central Road
Gwenda Avenue (Main entrance and carpark)
Fulview Court
Cromwell Court

Lake Road
Jeffery Street
Naughton Grove (dam wall)
Halley Street (dam wall)
Ottawa Avenue

Clifton Street
Via Playground

References

External links
Blackburn Lake Sanctuary Advisory Committee site
Archive of previous Blackburn Lake Sanctuary Advisory Committee site

Parks in Melbourne
Wildlife sanctuaries of Australia
Lakes of Melbourne
City of Whitehorse

Blackburn Lake Sanctuary


ma3bar (معبر) is the Arab Support Center for Free and Open Source Software (المركز العربي لدعم البرمجيات الحرة والمفتوحة المصدر) initiated by UNESCO and UNDP-ICTDAR and hosted by The University of Balamand.  The center's main goals are to develop FOSS awareness and to encourage FOSS use and development in the Arab Region.  The target groups for the Center are Universities, Research Centers and Governmental Institutions all over the Arab Region, as well as Arab FOSS communities and interested agencies.

Objectives
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the United Nations Development Program – Information and Communication Technology for Development in the Arab Region (UNDP–ICTDAR) have come together to initiate Ma3bar, the Arab Support Center for Free and Open Source Software. The objectives of Ma3bar are three-fold:
Capacity building by providing the necessary training and assistance in developing the necessary skills and competences in the public and the private sectors, as well as in non-government organizations, and encouraging the inclusion of Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) courses as part of the standard course offerings in universities as well as networking the various FOSS communities that exist in the Arab Region.
Support the creation of applications (or toolkits) that will meet the needs of the local market and lead to the strengthening of local and regional expertise.
Raise awareness at the government and business levels on the potential and viability of open source solutions and applications as solid alternatives to proprietary software.

The University of Balamand(UOB), with existing initiatives and active FOSS development, has joined the consortium as a first partner. UOB is proposing to participate actively by supporting and hosting the center. This effort is to be conducted in cooperation with a wider possible set of partners comprising other leading academic institutions throughout the Arab region.

References

External links
 ma3bar.org Official Website
 UNESCO.org UNESCO
 UNESCO.org/beirut UNESCO office in Beirut
 University of Balamand
 UNDP.org UNDP
 ICTDAR.org ICTDAR

Free and open-source software organizations
Free Software Foundation
Free software websites
Intellectual property activism
Non-profit technology
International organisations based in Lebanon
Information technology organizations based in Asia
Organizations established in 2009

Ma3bar


Rev II () was a prince of Iberia of the Chosroid Dynasty (natively known as Kartli, eastern Georgia) who functioned as a co-king to his father Mirian III, the first Christian Georgian ruler and his mother was Nana of Iberia. Professor Cyril Toumanoff suggests the years 345–361 as the period of their joint reign.

According to the medieval Georgian chronicles, Rev had an appanage at Ujarma in the eastern province of Kakheti. He married Salome, daughter of King Tiridates III of Armenia and his wife, Queen Ashkhen. Salome played a role in the conversion of Iberia c. 337. Rev died before his father and probably in the same year as he. Rev's purported first son Saurmag, unknown to the Georgian historical tradition, then succeeded Mirian in 361. His second son, Trdat, known from the Georgian chronicles, reigned in Iberia from c. 394 to 406.

References

Chosroid kings of Iberia
4th-century monarchs in Asia
4th-century monarchs in Europe
Georgians from the Sasanian Empire

Rev II of Iberia


Aladdin is a 1992 animated fantasy film. It is based on the classic Arabian Nights story Aladdin, translated by Antoine Galland. Aladdin was produced by Golden Films and the American Film Investment Corporation. Like all other Golden Films productions, the film featured a single song, "Rub the Lamp", written and composed by Richard Hurwitz and John Arrias. It was released directly to video on April 27, 1992 by GoodTimes Home Video (7 months before Disney's version was released) and was reissued on DVD in 2002 as part of the distributor's "Collectible Classics" line of products.

Plot
A young boy named Aladdin lives a poor life with his mother. A shifty man named Hassim approaches Aladdin claiming to be his long lost uncle and persuades him to come on a journey promising riches. Once in the desert amid some ruins, Hassim performs an incantation to open a cave and Aladdin realizes that Hassim is not his uncle. Hassim only brought him here because he is the only one who can enter the cave interior. Aladdin reluctantly enters the cave and finds what Hassim was looking for: an old lamp. Fearing that Hassim will kill him after he gets what he wants, Aladdin refuses to hand over the lamp and Hassim closes the cave trapping Aladdin. Unwittingly Aladdin rubs the lamp and releases a powerful genie who can grant any wish. Aladdin makes a wish to return to his home. After his safe return, Aladdin's mother disregards the lamp and Aladdin keeps it hidden and remains silent about it.

Four years later, Aladdin is captivated by the Sultan's daughter Layla and sneaks into the bathing house to see her. Aladdin escapes the guards and returns home to tell his mother his wish to marry the princess. The next day, Aladdin's mother presents a sack of jewels he obtained from the cave before the sultan. The sultan's conniving vizier (who has plans to marry the princess himself) convinces the sultan that his daughter is worth more than the jewels and that Aladdin should bring bigger riches and many servants. With the aid of the lamp, Aladdin accomplishes this. The sultan allows Aladdin to marry Layla and Aladdin has the genie build a palace by the city for the married couple to live in peacefully.

Hassim hears about Aladdin's success with the lamp from the medicine woman Fatima. Hassim travels to Aladdin's palace. With Aladdin out on a hunt, Hassim tricks Layla into swapping the genie's lamp for a new one and makes a wish for the palace and princess to be transported to Marrakesh. Hearing about his daughter's disappearance, the sultan has Aladdin arrested. Before Aladdin can be sentenced, Fatima (who did not get her end of the bargain with Hassim) approaches and reveals the whereabouts of Layla. With his mother in the sultan's custody and one month to put things right, Aladdin travels to Marrakesh, sneaks into his palace and swipes the lamp from a sleeping Hassim. With the lamp back in his possession, Aladdin wishes his wife and palace to be returned to his homeland.

Hassim notices Aladdin's liberation and swears revenge. He holds Fatima at knifepoint and steals her clothes to disguise himself as her, then beckons the princess to have Aladdin wish for the egg of the fabled Roc to bring them good luck. The genie is not able to grant this wish as the Roc is superior to him and reveals that Fatima is actually Hassim. Aladdin feigns illness to bring Hassim right where he wants him. Aladdin and Hassim duel, ending up with Hassim tripping on his robe and is accidentally impaled by his own sword, killing himself. Aladdin and the princess then live happily ever after without the fear of anyone stealing the lamp again.

Cast
 Jeff Bennett – The Genie, Hassim, Additional Voices
Maurice LaMarche - Sultan, Additional Voices
Corey Burton – Ali, Additional Voices
 Cam Clarke – Aladdin, Additional Voices
 Candi Milo – Fatima, Aladdin's Mother, Additional Voices
Nancy Cartwright - Princess Layla
Gary Gandmill – Vizier
Rob Paulsen – Vizier's Son

Disney lawsuit
Shortly after its appearance as a VHS by GoodTimes, the Disney Company brought an unfair competition and infringement lawsuit, claiming that the GoodTimes packaging deliberately imitated the style of the images used by Disney to promote its own Aladdin theatrical film thereby deceiving consumers into thinking they were buying the Disney film (which had not yet been issued on VHS). However, a federal court dismissed the suit on the grounds that Aladdin was a public domain work and the GoodTimes packaging (with an enormous, mustached, genie with gold or orange coloring) was sufficiently distinct from the Disney images (with an enormous, non-mustached, blue genie).

References

External links

 Aladdin at the Big Cartoon DataBase
 Aladdin at YouTube

1990s American animated films
1990s fantasy adventure films
1992 animated films
1992 direct-to-video films
1992 films
American children's animated fantasy films
American fantasy adventure films
Direct-to-video adventure films
Direct-to-video fantasy films
Animated films based on Aladdin
Films directed by Chinami Namba
Films directed by Masakazu Higuchi
Animated films set in the Middle East
Genies in film
Golden Films animated films
GoodTimes Entertainment
Roc (mythology)
1990s English-language films

Aladdin (1992 Golden Films film)


An atlas is a collection of maps or manifolds, traditionally bound into book form, but also found in multimedia formats.

It may show geographic features and political boundaries, but often social, religious and economic statistics as well.

History
The earliest atlases were not called by that name at the time of their publication. The first book that could be called an atlas was constructed from the calculations of Claudius Ptolemy, a geographer who worked in Alexandria circa A.D. 150.  The first edition was published in Bologna in 1477 and was illustrated with a set of 27 maps, though scholars say that it is not known whether the printed maps were engraved versions of original maps made by Ptolemy, or whether they were constructed by medieval Greek scholars from Ptolemy's text.

From about 1544, many maps were produced, especially in the important trading centers of Rome and Venice. Each publisher worked independently. They produced maps based upon their own needs.  The maps often varied dramatically in size. Over time, it became common to bind the maps together into one book.  Although the term atlas was not in use in 1544, these works are now called "IATO" atlases - (Italian, Assembled to Order) or more frequently "Lafreri atlases" after one of the leading publishers of the period.

Modern atlases
With the coming of the global market, publishers in different countries can reprint maps from plates made elsewhere. This means that the place names on the maps often use the designations or abbreviations of the language of the country in which the feature is located, to serve the widest market. For example, islands near Russia have the abbreviation "O." for "ostrov", not "I." for "island". This practise differs from what is standard for any given language.

Selected general atlases
Some cartographically or commercially important atlases include the following:

17th century and earlier
Piri Reis Map (Ottoman Empire, 1570-1612)
Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (Netherlands, 1570-1612)
Dell'Arcano del Mare (England/Italy, 1645-1661)

18th century
Cartes générales de toutes les parties du monde (France, 1658-1676)
Britannia Depicta (London, 1720)
Atlas Nouveau (Amsterdam, 1742)
Cary's New and Correct English Atlas (London, 1787)

19th century
Stielers Handatlas (Germany, 1817-1944)
Andrees Allgemeiner Handatlas (Germany, 1881-1939; in the UK as Times Atlas of the World, 1895)
Rand McNally Atlas (United States, 1881-present)

20th century
Times Atlas of the World (United Kingdom, 1895-present)
Atlante Internazionale del Touring Club Italiano (Italy, 1927-1978)
Atlas Mira (Russia, 1937-present)
Gran Atlas Aguilar (Spain, 1969/1970)
Pergamon World Atlas (1962/1968)
  National Geographic Atlas of the World (United States, 1963-present)
Historical Atlas of China (China)

See Other websites below for online modern atlases and digitized historical atlases.  The collection of digitized world atlases at DavidRumsey.com lists many significant atlases of the 18th-20th centuries.

Related pages
 Cartography
 Geography
 Google Maps
 Manifold
 Atlas Shrugged

Other websites

Sources
On the origin of the term "Atlas"

Online atlases
 Gheos Worldguide, world atlas with maps and statistical information from all countries of the world.
 Microsoft/Encarta/Expedia World atlas, world atlas, plus atlas for North America and Europe to street level.
 MapChart EarthAtlas, free online atlas with interactive maps about topics like demography, economy, health and environment.
 Multimap World atlas: on UK, US, Canada, Australia and Western Europe more detailed than the rest of the world
 world atlas by country
 Atlas of the World  A world atlas with hundreds of very detailed and elaborate maps
 AtlasPhysical of the World Online world atlas with physical maps
 National Atlas of the United States
 Geospatial One-Stop  geodata.gov
 Geography Network
 National Geographic MapMachine
 Tirolatlas An online atlas of North-, South- and Eastern-Tyrol (Austria), requires SVG capabilities in the browser.

History of atlases
 Atlases, at the US Library of Congress site - a discussion of many significant atlases, with some illustrations.  Part of  Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide.

Historical atlases online
 Atlases at DavidRumsey.com includes many important atlases from the 18th-20th centuries, primarily from France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States.  The site also presents maps from several centuries.  About 13,600 high resolution images can be viewed and downloaded.
 Ryhiner Collection  Composite atlas with maps, plans and views from the 16th to the 18th century, covering the whole globe, with about 16,000 images in total, including title pages of atlases
 1645 Latin edition of Blaeu's Atlas  at UCLA (partial copy)
 Historical map web sites list, Perry-Castañeda Library, University of Texas
 Charting North America, maps and atlases in the New York Public Library Digital Collection
 maphistory.info links
 A historical atlas from 1815 till today, in French
 Historical Atlas of Europe from AD 1 to 2000
  Centennia Historical Atlas
 World History Maps at KMLA
 Historical and Political Maps of the Modern Age

Other websites
 Live Maps: 2D and 3D interactive maps on live.com.
 Google Earth: a visual 3D interactive atlas.
 World Atlas
 Atlas World:  a directory of atlases currently in print.
 NASA's World Wind software
 One Planet, Many People  UN Atlas of the Human impact on the Environment
 Malaria Atlas Project
  InstantAtlas Create your own interactive atlas for any area

Cartography

Atlas


Norma Cole (born May 12, 1945) is a Canadian poet, visual artist, translator, and curator. An Anglophone Canadian by birth, Cole learned French at an early age, and went on to translate the works of French poets Emmanuel Hocquard, Danielle Collobert, , Jean Daive, and others with whom she is intellectually allied. In the late 1970s and 1980s Cole was a member of the San Francisco-based circle of poets congregating around Robert Duncan. Her papers are collected at the Archive for New Poetry at the Mandeville Special Collections Library, University of California San Diego.

Early life and career
She was born in Toronto, Canada to an Anglophone family, Norma Cole began learning French in middle school. Cole studied at the University of Toronto, where she received a B.A. in Modern Languages and Literature (French and Italian) in 1967 and an M.A. in French Language and Literature in 1969.

After university, Cole moved to France in time to absorb the revolutionary atmosphere of the aftermath of the May '68 general strike. She spent several years living in a small village in the foothills of the Alpes-Maritimes near Nice. During this period in France, Cole began drawing, sculpting, and establishing relationships with many contemporary French poets.

In the early 1970s Cole returned to Toronto, before migrating to San Francisco in 1977, where she has lived ever since. Upon her arrival to the Bay Area, Cole got a job in the public school system, but it was through her association with New College of California that she met her core community of poets, including Robert Duncan, Michael Palmer, David Levi Strauss, Susan Thackrey, Aaron Shurin, and Laura Moriarty. However she continued to spend time in France, and her association with French poets has been crucial to her work. Important French connections have included Claude Royet-Journoud, Emmanuel Hocquard, and Joseph Simas, who published her first book, Mace Hill Remap.

Norma Cole is the recipient of the Gerbode Poetry Prize and a grant from the Fund for Poetry. In 2006 she was awarded a grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award. "The Poetics of Vertigo" — delivered as the 1998 "George Oppen Memorial Lecture" for The Poetry Center, SFSU — won the Robert D. Richardson Non-Fiction Award. With Boston photographer Ben E. Watkins she won the Purchase Award for their photo/text collaboration, "They Flatter Almost Recognize."

Recent projects
Norma Cole's work has received great acclaim for her: "openness to traditions and practices, artists and writings, radically divergent from her own".  Recently, she collaborated with The Poetry Center & American Poetry Archives at SFSU in honor of their fiftieth anniversary. There she helped to create a site-specific gallery installation titled Collective Memory which opened on December 11, 2004  and ran through April 16, 2005. The project was described as:

"...a departure from her earlier work, extending what has been primarily a written, literary practice to the expanded dimensions of a public space.... Aimed at exploring and embodying the creative process involved in making poetry, Cole...worked both on site and off, inviting, responding to, and incorporating into her text the comments, perceptions, and contributions of visitors...opening the possibilities for more active exchange with others.... Aspects of the installation [were changed] over time, providing an evolving and adaptable creative space, altered by the objects and people moving through it.... [T]he project...openly demonstrate[s] that poetry making is not an insular and isolated activity, acceptable as long as it's on the perimeter of society, but an integrated art form based in communal exchange, from which we need to learn."

Selected works

Poetry, prose, books, and chapbooks
Mace Hill Remap (Paris: Moving Letters, 1988). [ e-text version available: see External links below ]
Metamorphopsia (Poets & Poets, 1988).
My Bird Book (Littoral, 1991).
Mars (Listening Chamber, Berkeley, California  1994).
Moira (O Books, 1995).
Contrafact (Poets & Poets, 1996).
Quotable Gestures, (CREAPHIS/un bureau sur l'Atlantique, France, 1998)
Desire & its Double (Instress, 1998).
The Vulgar Tongue (a+bend, 2000).
Spinoza in Her Youth (Omnidawn Publishing, Richmond, CA, 2002) .
A little a & a (Seeing Eye Books, Los Angeles, 2002).
Burns (Belladonna Books, 2002).
Do the Monkey (Zasterle, 2006) .
Natural Light (Libellum, 2009)
Where Shadows Will: Selected Poems 1988-2008 (City Lights Books, San Francisco, 2009) .
14000 Facts (A+Bend Press, 2009)
To Be At Music: Essays & Talks (Omnidawn Publishing, Richmond, CA, 2010)
 Win These Posters and Other Unrelated Prizes Inside .  (Omnidawn Publishing, Richmond, CA, 2010)

Text and image
Scout, text/image work in CD ROM format, (Krupskaya, 2004).
At All: Tom Raworth & His Collages (Hooke Press, 2006).
Collective Memory (Granary Books, 2006), poetry/photos, with book design by Emily McVarish; based on Cole's extended installation/performance for the exhibition "Poetry and its Arts: Bay Area Interactions 1954-2004" (California Historical Society, San Francisco, CA, 2004–05).

Translations
It Then by Danielle Collobert (O Books, 1989).
The Surrealists Look at Art, essays by Aragon, Breton, Eluard, Soupault, Tzara, edited and translated with Michael Palmer, (Lapis Press, Venice, California, 1990).
This Story is Mine: Little Autobiographical Dictionary of Elegy by Emmanuel Hocquard, (Instress, 1999).
A Discursive Space: Interviews with Jean Daive by Anne-Marie Albiach, (Duration Press, Sausalito, California, 1999.
(editor and translator) Crosscut Universe, an anthology of poetry / poetics by contemporary French writers, (Burning Deck, 2000).
Nude by Anne Portugal [Le Plus simple appareil], (Kelsey Street Press, Berkeley, California, 2001)
Distant Noise by Jean Frémon, (with Lydia Davis, Serge Gavronsky, Cole Swensen), (Avec Books, Penngrove, California, 2003).
Notebooks 1956-1978 by Danielle Collobert, (Litmus Press, 2003)
The Spirit God and the Properties of Nitrogen by Fouad Gabriel Naffah (Post-Apollo Press, Sausalito, California, 2004).

References

External links
Norma Cole Papers MSS 0766. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.
Norma Cole @durationpress.com includes e-book text of Cole's Mace Hill Remap archived here
Collective Memory Cole's site-specific installation for "The Poetry Center"
Correspondence between Wendy Tronrud and Norma Cole
"Speech Production: Themes and Variations" poem by Cole at Shampoo website
"Yellow and...: A Response to the Poetry of Marjorie Welish.": talk on the U.S. poet and painter Marjorie Welish, recorded 5 April 2002; Slought Foundation Online Content; access/download recorded audio
Contemplating Table(t)s Marjorie Welish reviews Spinoza in Her Youth by Norma Cole on-line at Jacket Magazine
Norma Cole, Writing as Luminousness (Part 1) essay by poet and publisher Laura Hinton

1945 births
Living people
Canadian women poets
University of Toronto alumni
Canadian expatriate academics in the United States
Canadian expatriate writers in the United States
20th-century Canadian poets
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian poets
21st-century Canadian women writers
Canadian translators

Norma Cole


Real school (, ) is a type of secondary school in Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. It has also existed in Croatia (realna gimnazija), the Austrian Empire, the German Empire, Denmark and Norway (realskole), Sweden (realskola), Finland (reaalikoulu), Hungary (reáliskola), Latvia (reālskola), Slovenia (realka), Serbia (realna gimnazija/realka), and the Russian Empire (реальное училище), including partitioned Poland (szkoła realna).

Germany

Situation of the school
In the German secondary school system, Realschule is ranked between Hauptschule (lowest) and Gymnasium (highest). After completing the Realschule, good students are allowed to attend a professional Gymnasium or a general-education Gymnasium. They can also attend a Berufsschule or do an apprenticeship.

In most states of Germany, students start the Realschule at the age of ten or eleven and typically finish school at the age of 16–17. In some states, Realschulen have recently been replaced by Oberschulen or Sekundarschulen.
In 2006 1.32 million German students attended a Realschule.

At Realschule, a student gets an extended education and learns at least one foreign language, usually English. In the state of Baden-Württemberg, after the sixth grade, the student has to choose among technology, home economics, and a second foreign language, usually French. The new subject becomes the student's fifth main subject, after German, maths, science and English; and it is also possible to learn other foreign languages in free workshops.
Other subjects are geography, social sciences, economics, history, religious education, and physical education. After the 8th grade a student has to choose between arts and music.

High school diplomas obtained in Canada or the United States are usually acknowledged as a Mittlere Reife (graduation from a Realschule). In some cases however students may apply for certain subjects at a university. All students holding an American high school diploma may apply for the Studienkolleg, and after successfully graduating from this they may attend a German university. Those holding a high school diploma can choose from a wider range of possible major subjects at a German university if they did well on the SAT or ACT. Those who scored higher than 1300 on the SAT or higher than 28 on the ACT may apply for any subject at a German university.

Gymnasia and Realgymnasia are the classical higher or secondary schools of Germany.

Abolition of the Realschule in Berlin and Hamburg

Starting in 2010/2011, Realschulen were formally abolished in Berlin and merged with Hauptschulen and the old Gesamtschulen to form a new type of comprehensive school, called Stadtteilschule in Hamburg and Sekundarschule in Berlin.

Performance of students attending the Realschule

According to the PISA examination the students attending a Realschule were outperformed by those attending a Gymnasium. However, they did better than those attending a Hauptschule or a Gesamtschule school.

Criticism

The German tripartite system of education has been widely criticized for separating children along class lines at a very early age. For instance, in some German states, a decision is made in the sixth or even the fourth grade about whether a child is to continue in the Gymnasium, the Realschule, or the Hauptschule. Only the Gymnasium is a university-preparatory school, so critics argue that a decision is made as early as the fourth grade about whether a child will be allowed to attend college.

The system is considered so onerous outside Germany that the OECD even sent a special envoy to Germany to condemn current German practice. Specifically, the Brazilian expert found that German schools separate children according to social class, with children of academics and professionals more often being sent on to a Gymnasium, and working-class children being sent to a Realschule or a Hauptschule.

According to critics, the system is widely considered within Germany to be socially useful in the sense that the upper class is able to reserve the best schools for itself without having to resort to private schools. Finally, no democratic society outside the German-speaking world has tripartite school systems that separate children largely according to background; this finding was the main complaint about Germany in the recent PISA study.

Proponents of the tripartite system consider the arguments brought forward by the critics to be invalid. They point to the fact that not only Gymnasium, but also comprehensive schools and schools serving mature students such as the Kolleg or the Berufsoberschule offer the possibility for the Abitur. Also it is possible to attend college without holding the Abitur. They also hold the opinion that state-funded Realschulen and Gymnasiums offered many working-class children the possibility to move up the social ladder. Also, proponents of the tripartite system fear the abolishing Gymnasia and Realschulen will lead to the growth of a private school sector.

Proponents of the Realschule also hold the opinion that it aids students' personality development. According to a study those attending a Realschule became more altruistic and more likely to care for others over time.

The "Erweiterte Realschule" and "Realschule Plus"

The "Erweiterte Realschule" (expanded Realschule) is a school that exists in the German State of the Saarland. It is not to be confused with the Realschule. While the Realschule is a selective school, the Erweiterte Realschule is a school that does not select its students on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. It streams students by perceived ability after 7th grade. The "Realschule Plus" is a non-selective school that exists in the State of Rhineland-Palatinate. It offers general education classes (that resemble normal Realschule classes) as well as remedial classes.
The Erweiterte Realschule and the Realschule Plus are not the school of first choice for many students and often are attended by students who have been turned down by or have been expelled from other schools.

Austria-Hungary
The first in the empire was established in Vienna, 1771. Systematically they were founded by Habsburg Monarchy after 1804: e.g. 1811 in Brno (German-language), 1815 in Brody (Galicia), 1817 in Lviv and Trieste etc.

In the Czech lands, in the school year 1917/1918 there existed 43 Czech-language reálka, namely 30 in Bohemia and 13 in Moravia. There existed also German-language Realschulen. After World War I, many Realschulen became transformed to Realgymnasien. Realschulen were abolished in 1948 in Czechoslovakia.

The Realgymnasium was a compromise type between the Realschule and Gymnasium. In the Czech lands, Realgymnasien were established between 1862 (the first one in Tábor) and 1913 (the last one in Jilemnice). In the Czech lands, in the school year 1917/1918 there existed 35 Czech-language Realgymnasien; namely 24 in Bohemia, 10 in Moravia, and one in Czech Silesia.

In 1908, the Reformrealgymnasium was created as a new type of school in Austria-Hungary. Up to 1918, just seven such schools were established, two of them in the Czech lands (1909 Vrchlabí, 1911 Bohumín), both of them German-language.

Norway
The realskole existed in Norway between 1935 and 1970. It replaced the former middelskole, and was the level between folkeskole (primary school) and gymnasium. The majority historically left school after folkeskole, and the realskole was meant as preparation for the gymnasium, itself a preparation for university studies. Only a small minority attended gymnasium in those times.

See also
 Realgymnasium

References

Further reading

External links

School types
Education in Germany
Secondary education

Real school


St Lawrence's Church is in the village of Crosby Ravensworth, Cumbria, England.  It is an active Anglican parish church in the deanery of Appleby, the archdeaconry of Carlisle, and the diocese of Carlisle.   Its benefice is united with those of five local churches to form The Leith-Lyvennet Group of Parishes.  The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building.

History

The oldest part of the church is to be found at the crossing, and this dates from about 1190–1200.  The south doorway and arcades are from the 13th century.  It is thought that there was originally a tower at the crossing, but this was dismantled towards the end of the 15th century, and replaced by the west tower, and transepts were also removed.  The northeast chapel (the Threlkeld Chapel) does date from this time.  The church was remodelled twice during the 19th century.  The first took place in 1811–12.  This was carried out either by Robert Smirke, or by George Gibson advised by Smirke.  Remaining from this remodelling are the south porch and the south doorway of the chancel.  The second remodelling took place over a period extending from 1848 to 1887.  It was commissioned by the incumbent Revd George F. Weston, and carried out by J. S. Crowther.  New furnishings were introduced in 1850, and the whitewash was removed. In 1854 the chancel arch was installed, and a vestry was added.  An additional stage was added to the tower in 1866–68, and in 1868 the clerestory was built.  The former south transept was rebuilt in 1870–71, followed by the north transept in 1872–73.  Finally the chancel was rebuilt, this being completed in 1886.

Architecture

Exterior
The church is constructed in stone with slate roofs.  Its plan consists of a four-bay nave with north and south aisles, a clerestory, and a south porch, north and south transepts, a three-bay chancel with a south porch, and a west tower.  The tower has three stages with a battlemented parapet.  The windows in the aisles and chancel are in Decorated style, and the windows in the clerestory are small and round.  In the gable end of the south transept are two lancet windows, above which is a rose window.  Dormers have been inserted into both transepts to improve the internal lighting.  Both porches are ornately decorated.

Interior
Inside the church are arcades with pointed arches in Early English style.  Between the chancel and the chapel is an arcaded wooden screen. The chapel is floored with Minton encaustic tiles.  The carved wooden reredos depicts the Last Supper.  The stone pulpit dates from about 1850, and is elaborately carved.  Dating from the same period are the much simpler altar, communion rail, and choir stalls.  The font consists of a plain octagonal bowl dated 1662.  Its cover has been removed from another font dating from 1818, which stands in the northwest corner of the church.  The stained glass in most of the windows was made by Clayton and Bell, with other windows by Shrigley and Hunt, and the west window by William Warrington.  In the chapel are monuments, the oldest of which dates from the 16th century or later, and another from 1835 to George Gibson.  The two-manual pipe organ was built in 1852–53 by Wilkinson, and rebuilt by the same business in 1903.  There is a ring of three bells, all cast in 1823 by Thomas Mears II of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, but these are no longer ringable.

External features

In the churchyard is a memorial to the family of George Gibson bearing dates including 1779 and 1811.  It consists of a stone crocketed pinnacle on a square stone plinth, with cast iron urns on the corners.  This is surrounded by railings  high.  The whole memorial stands  high, and is listed at Grade II.  Also in the churchyard are the remains of a medieval cross consisting of three chamfered stone fragments standing on a socket stone.  It is also listed at Grade II, and is a scheduled monument.

See also

Grade I listed churches in Cumbria
Grade I listed buildings in Cumbria
Listed buildings in Crosby Ravensworth

References

External links

Photographs at Visit Cumbria

Church of England church buildings in Cumbria
Grade I listed churches in Cumbria
English churches with Norman architecture
English Gothic architecture in Cumbria
Gothic Revival architecture in Cumbria
Diocese of Carlisle
St Lawrence's Church

St Lawrence's Church, Crosby Ravensworth


Padula Charterhouse, in Italian Certosa di Padula (or Certosa di San Lorenzo di Padula), is a large  Carthusian monastery, or charterhouse, located in the town of Padula, in the Cilento National Park, in Southern Italy. It is a World Heritage Site.

The monastery is the largest in Italy. Its  building history covers 450 years, but the principal parts of the buildings are in Baroque style. It is a very large monastery, comprising 51,500 m2 (12.7 acres), with 320 rooms and halls.

History
Padula Charterhouse was founded by Tommaso di San Severino on 27 April 1306 on the site of an earlier monastery. It is dedicated to Saint Lawrence, and its architectural structure supposedly recalls the griddle-iron upon which the saint was burnt alive.

The monastery has the biggest cloister in the world, covering 12,000 m2 (2.97 acres) and surrounded by 84 columns. A famous spiral staircase of white marble inside an annex leads to the large library.

According to the strict Carthusian distinction between contemplation and work, there are two distinct places for these practices: on the one hand the peaceful cloisters, the library with its fine Vietri ceramic tiled floor, the chapels decorated with fine inlaid marble works. The altar frontals in most of the chapels are inlaid, not with marble, but with some of the most spectacular 18th. century scagliola work ever created. This is the highest concentration of such work in one place. One of the centres of production was in Naples.  the cloister orchards; and on the other hand the large kitchen, the cellars with their enormous wine vats, the laundries, and the huge external yards, where there were people working in the stables, ovens, stores, and at the olive oil mill. The yards were used for productive activities and for trade between the charterhouse and the external world.

The monastery also houses the archaeological museum of Western Lucania, which preserves a collection of all the finds unearthed in the excavations at the necropolis of Sala Consilina and Padula. This museum represents a period of time ranging from protohistory to the Hellenistic Age.

The building has also played a role in the military history of Italy.   It served as French headquarters during the Napoleonic Wars, then as a base of Garibaldi's Southern Army during the Risorgimento, finally, as an internment camp for prisoners during the World War 1 and World War 2. It was here that the Czechoslovak Legion in Italy was established in 1917.

References

External links
Villaprato

1306 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Italy
Christian organizations established in the 14th century
World Heritage Sites in Italy
Carthusian monasteries in Italy
Monasteries in Campania
Buildings and structures in the Province of Salerno

Certosa di Padula


The Reverend William Jackson (1737 – 30 April 1795) was a noted Irish preacher, journalist, playwright, and radical. He was arrested in Dublin in 1794 following meetings with the United Irish leaders Theobald Wolfe Tone and Archibald Hamilton Rowan. Charged with being an agent of the French Directory he was tried for treason, however, he committed suicide before he could be executed.

Early life
William Jackson was born in Newtownards, County Down, in 1737. He studied at Oxford and became an Anglican curate. Much is unclear about Jackson's early life. He was evidently an attractive young man, notable for his popular preaching style and his outspoken opposition politics. He married, but lost his first wife to breast cancer in the early1770s. In the 1760s, Jackson served briefly in some capacity in the household of Augustus John Hervey, later the third Earl of Bristol. He claims to have travelled to Ireland when Hervey's older brother, George, was made Lord Lieutenant in 1766 (although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biographies entries on both Herveys insist that neither ever travelled to Ireland at this time). In that same decade, Jackson moved to London, where he preached at the Tavistock Chapel and St Mary-le-Strand. Although Jackson gained some popularity as a preacher, he remained unbeneficed and eventually turned to journalism to support himself.

Editor of The Public Ledger
In 1766, Jackson became the editor of The Public Ledger. Under his editorship, this London paper became increasingly strident and oppositional in its politics. Jackson gained notoriety for his bold style of writing and harsh criticisms of public figures. It was in his capacity as the editor of ''The Public Ledger'' that he was introduced to Elizabeth Chudleigh (the self-styled Duchess of Kingston, who was facing trial for bigamy) by one of her lawyers, John Cockayne. Even if Jackson had not met Chudleigh before, he was certainly familiar with her history, for her first (and true) husband was his former employer, Augustus Hervey. Embroiled in scandal over her trial for bigamy, Chudleigh hired Jackson to provide sympathetic press coverage. Jackson soon became a trusted confidante and advisor.

Jackson's chief contribution to Chudleigh's cause came in the form of a smear campaign against the popular actor and playwright, Samuel Foote. A mimic and satirist, Foote earned Chudleigh's enmity by writing a play that capitalised on her legal troubles.  Chudleigh exerted enough influence to have the play, A Trip to Calais, suppressed by the Lord Chamberlain in 1775. When Foote threatened to publish the banned play, Jackson spearheaded a newspaper campaign that accused Foote of being a sodomite (a capital crime). Foote responded by vilifying Jackson in a play called The Capuchin (1776). Jackson was the model for the character, Dr. Viper, the unscrupulous editor of the fictional Scandalous Chronicle. To make the association perfectly clear, the actor playing Viper wore a copy of Jackson's well-known silk coat embroidered with frogs. Jackson carried on the literary dispute by publishing two anti-Foote poems, Asmodeus and Sodom and Onan (both 1776). In the end, Jackson was forced to flee to France in April 1777 to avoid a trial for libel that Foote had initiated. Jackson did not have to stay long in exile because Foote died on 21 October of that same year.

Return to England
After Foote's death, Jackson returned to England. He resumed his political activities by publishing The Constitutions of the Several Independent States of America in 1783, with a dedication to the opposition leader, the Duke of Portland. But the following year, he was secretly hired by the Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, to support the government in The Morning Post. Publishing anonymously, Jackson attacked his former allies with his usual vehemence until he was found out and was soundly damned for his apostasy. As a result of this episode, he found himself generally excluded from English politics. Jackson's next appearance in public resulted in yet another scandal. In 1787 he joined forces with "Gentleman" John Palmer—the actor who had ridiculed him as Dr. Viper in Foote's play a decade earlier. Their goal was to build from the ground up a new theatre in the City of London.  Jackson and Palmer persuaded investors to sink more than eighteen thousand pounds into the construction of the Royalty Theatre; however, while there was no law against building a theatre in London, there was a law against operating one without the Lord Chamberlain's authorisation. Jackson and Palmer had no such authorisation, and so the theatre was shut down after just one night. The duped investors initiated legal action, and so Jackson again fled to France, where he arrived on the eve of the revolution.

Radicalism and treason
During his stay in Paris, Jackson was swept up in the revolutionary fervour and became involved with the radical British expatriate set there. He was in attendance at the famous meeting at White's Hotel in November 1792, a gathering that included Lord Edward Fitzgerald and Thomas Paine. Jackson became allied politically with the Jacobins and in response to the English declaration of war against France, he published An Answer to the Declaration of the King of England Respecting his Motives for Carrying on the Present War (1793). Swept up in the general arrest of British subjects in 1793, Jackson was released from prison on the strength of his radical commitments, including the publication of the anti-English pamphlet. Upon his release from prison, Jackson became inspector of horses for Meaux and later in 1793 was commissioned as a spy for the French. Nicholas Madgett, an Irishman who worked in the Marine Ministry, recruited Jackson to go to England and Ireland to assess the public's inclination towards armed revolution. Jackson arrived in London in early 1794 and became reacquainted with John Cockayne, the lawyer who had introduced him to Elizabeth Chudleigh two decades earlier. Jackson revealed his mission to Cockayne, who promptly revealed it to the Prime Minister out of fear of being tried for treason himself. When Jackson left London for Dublin, he was accompanied by Cockayne. In Ireland, they met with several radical United Irish leaders, including Theobald Wolfe Tone, James Reynolds and Archibald Hamilton Rowan. Hamilton Rowan, in particular, was tempted by Jackson's talk of French assistance, and persuaded Tone to write up a report for the French, indicating Irish willingness to rise up. Jackson made the fatal mistake of placing Tone's report and other letters in the public mail, where they were seized by the authorities. This seizure led to Jackson's arrest on 28 April 1794.

Trial and death
Jackson remained in prison for a year before his trial took place. The delays were at his request, allowing him time to assemble a defence and procure witnesses. During his imprisonment, he wrote his last work, Observations in Answer to Mr. Paine's Age of Reason (1795), which took issue with Thomas Paine's Deism. The work is notable for the way Jackson promotes Anglican orthodoxy while also praising Paine for his politics and betraying no remorse for his own treason. His trial took place on 23 April 1795, in Dublin  and he was found guilty. One week later, on the morning of his sentencing hearing, Jackson stepped into the dock looking terribly ill. He reportedly vomited out of the carriage window on his ride from prison to the courtroom, and when he removed his hat, one observer noted that steam rose from his head. As his lawyers made drawn-out speeches, hoping to avoid judgment on the technicality of an improperly filed indictment, Jackson's condition steadily worsened. He gripped his sides, shuddering and grimacing in pain. The judges ordered that a chair be provided for him and asked that a doctor attend to him. He then collapsed and died. An autopsy found that Jackson had ingested a large quantity of a "metallic poison."  This was likely administered by his (then pregnant) second wife, but the inquest pointedly refused to assign blame. The effect of his suicide was that he had not actually been pronounced guilty of treason by the court, so his family could inherit his goods and a pension. No such clemency was shown to Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who died of his wounds before trial but was found posthumously guilty of high treason. Jackson was survived by his wife, one son, and one daughter.

References

1737 births
1795 deaths
United Irishmen
Irish journalists

William Jackson (journalist)


The Musée du Luxembourg () is a museum at 19 rue de Vaugirard in the 6th arrondissement of Paris. Established in 1750, it was initially an art museum located in the east wing of the Luxembourg Palace (the matching west wing housed the Marie de' Medici cycle by Peter Paul Rubens) and in 1818 became the first museum of contemporary art. In 1884 the museum moved into its current building, the former orangery of the Palace. The museum was taken over by the French Ministry of Culture and the French Senate in 2000, when it began to be used for temporary exhibitions, and became part of the Réunion des Musées Nationaux in 2010.

History

From 1750 to 1780 it was the first public painting gallery in Paris, displaying the King's collection which included Titian's The Madonna of the Rabbit, Da Vinci's Holy Family (either The Virgin and Child with St. Anne or Virgin of the Rocks) and nearly a hundred other Old Master works now forming the nucleus of the Louvre. In 1803, the Musée du Luxembourg reopened showing paintings by a range of artists from Nicolas Poussin to Jacques-Louis David. It was then devoted to living artists from 1818 to 1937. Much of the work first shown here has found its way into other museums of Paris including the Jeu de Paume, the Orangerie, and ultimately the Musée National d'Art Moderne and the Musée d'Orsay.

Other notable events

In 1861, James Tissot showed The Meeting of Faust and Marguerite, which was purchased by the state for the Luxembourg Gallery.
The illustrator André Gill (1840–1885) was named curator of the Musée du Luxembourg on 15 May 1871, in which capacity he reassembled the scattered collections of art and reestablished the museum of sculpture.  He had scarcely begun his work when it was interrupted by the upheaval associated with the Paris Commune.
When Ernest Hemingway visited Gertrude Stein at the nearby Rue de Fleurus, he stopped to see the work of the Impressionists which in 1921 were still in the Musée du Luxembourg.

References

Sources
  Les Grands du Dessin de Press: André Gill (1840-1885) "Quand ouvrira-t-on des maisons pour imbeciles?"
 Ochterbeck, Cynthia Clayton, editor (2009). The Green Guide Paris. Greenville, South Carolina: Michelin Maps and Guides. .

External links

 Official site

Luxembourg, Musee du
Art museums established in 1750
1750 establishments in France
Buildings and structures in the 6th arrondissement of Paris
Réunion des Musées Nationaux

Musée du Luxembourg


The Wild Bunch were a sound system based in the St Pauls area of Bristol, England from 1983 to 1986.  The group was known for playing sets that drew large crowds on the club scene and had performed shows as far away as London. They performed in soundclashes against other Bristol sound systems. The Wild Bunch's sound used a lot of different musical styles - an unusual thing at the time. Their shows included parts of punk, R&B and reggae, with a use on slower rhythms and ambient electronic music that would become a start of the Bristol sound, more popularly known as trip-hop. They were a key member of what became the Bristol underground scene.

The Wild Bunch is perhaps best known for having been the first group of several notable British DJs and performers:
 Robert Del Naja, Grant Marshall and Andrew Vowles, went on to form Massive Attack in 1987.
 Tricky, also a part-time member of the outfit, performed with Massive Attack on their first and second full-length releases, Blue Lines and Protection respectively, before pursuing a successful solo career.
 Nellee Hooper, who moved to London after the group's dissolution and worked as a producer and remixer for a number of major artists, including Madonna, U2, No Doubt, Björk and Massive Attack themselves.  He won the 1995 BRIT Award for Best Producer.  He was also a member of Soul II Soul.

References

Musical groups

The Wild Bunch (sound system)