The Pacific temperate rainforests of western North America is the largest temperate rain forest region on the planet as defined by the World Wildlife Fund (other definitions exist). The Pacific temperate rainforests lie along the western side of the Pacific Coast Ranges along the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America from the Prince William Sound in Alaska through the British Columbia Coast to Northern California, and are part of the Nearctic realm, as also defined by the World Wildlife Fund. The Pacific temperate rain forests are characterized by a high amount of rainfall, in some areas more than  per year and moderate temperatures in both the summer and winter months ().

This ecoregion is a subregion of the Cascadia bioregion.

These rainforests occur in a number of ecoregions, which vary in their species composition, but are predominantly of conifers, sometimes with an understory of broadleaf trees, ferns and shrubs. In the WWF's system, the ecoregions of the Pacific temperate rainforests are the Northern Pacific coastal forests, Haida Gwaii, British Columbia mainland coastal forests, Central Pacific coastal forests, Central and Southern Cascades forests, Klamath-Siskiyou forests, and Northern California coastal forests ecoregions.

The forests in the north contain predominantly Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), while those in the coastal forests are home to both species mentioned, as well as coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and shore pine (Pinus contorta).  Notably, many of the world's largest and tallest tree species are found in this ecoregion. Dense growths of epiphytes and mosses cover the trees, and lush vegetation is present everywhere.

Hardwood trees such as the bigleaf maple and the alder are also common, especially at lower elevations and along stream banks, and are vital to the ecosystem, in part because of their nitrogen fixing.

History

About 200 million years ago (during the Triassic and Jurassic periods), the landscape was dominated by conifers, which were the most diverse group of trees and constituted the greatest majority of large trees. When flowering plants emerged (in the following Cretaceous period), they quickly prevailed, causing most conifers to become extinct, and those that survived to adapt to harsh conditions. Perhaps the most significant difference in this change is that the primitive conifers invested their energy in the basic food supply for every seed, with no certainty of fertilization; by contrast, flowering plants create the food supply for a seed only after it is triggered by fertilization. The Pacific temperate rainforests now remains the only region on Earth of noteworthy size and significance where, due to unique climatic conditions, the conifers flourish as they did before being displaced by flowering plants. The northern Pacific temperate rain forests are relatively young, emerging in the past few thousand years following the retreat of the ice sheets of the last ice age.

Ecology

The ecosystem of Pacific temperate rainforests is so productive that the biomass on the best sites is at least four times greater than that of any comparable area in the tropics.  In sheer mass of living and decaying material - trees, mosses, shrubs, and soil - these forests are more massive than any other ecosystem on the planet. In part, this is due to the rarity of fire. Unlike drier forests, which burn periodically, temperate rain forests are naturally subject to only small-scale disturbances, such as blow-downs and avalanches.

This rain forest spans a wide range of latitude - from about 40 degrees north to about 60 degrees north. The differences in climate from south to north create several major forest zones, characterized by different species.
 At the southern limit in northern California is the "coast redwood zone".
 Beginning at the California/Oregon border, and extending through the north end of Vancouver Island is the "seasonal rain forest zone". The major tree species here are Douglas fir, western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock.
 Beyond the northern end of Vancouver Island, is the "perhumid rain forest zone". Douglas fir wanes as a dominant species, and the forest is primarily made up of western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock.
 The Gulf of Alaska begins where the fjords of southeast Alaska end, and marks the transition into "sub-polar rain forest". Here the forest occupies only a very narrow strip between the ocean and the icy alpine zone. The cedar trees no longer thrive in this harsher climate, and the dominant trees are limited to Sitka spruce, and western and mountain hemlock.
 The northern limits of the rainforest are scattered in thin bands in the northern Prince William Sound, Kenai Fjords, eastern Kodiak Island, and western Cook Inlet.

Wildlife
The first survey to systematically explore the forest canopy in the Carmanah Valley of Vancouver Island yielded 15,000 new species, a third of all invertebrates known to exist in all of Canada. Among the collection were 500 species previously unknown to science. Common individuals include raccoons, opossums, coyotes, black-tailed deer, ensatinas, red foxes, bullfrogs, banana slugs, Roosevelt elk, black slugs, shrew moles, gulls, mice, and numerous other organisms. Moose rarely set foot into these forests because they prefer colder, drier and snowier biomes which are most common in the inland Western United States compared to the coast, but small sightings of moose have been reported along the British Columbia coast.

The rain forest exists in a complicated landscape of islands and fjords, and many species depend on both the forest and the ocean. Salmon are one of the primary species of the rainforest, spawning in the forest streams. The marbled murrelet nests in old growth trees at night, but feeds in the ocean during the day.

Many of the most iconic photos of these forests include a large bear somewhere in the frame. Grizzly bears and black bears once thrived throughout the rain forest zone and beyond. Black bears can still be found throughout the forest's range, while grizzlies are largely confined to areas north of the Canada–US border. These forests have some of the largest concentrations of grizzly bears in the world, mainly due to the region's rich salmon streams. The Great Bear Rainforest in Canada is home to the rare white variant of the black bear known as the Kermode bear, also known colloquially as the "spirit bear." The endangered spotted owl was at the center of logging controversies in Oregon and Washington.  Other wildlife species of note include the bald eagle, marbled murrelet, wolf, mountain lion and sitka deer.

Logging
Pacific temperate rainforests have been subject to ongoing large-scale industrial logging since the end of World War II, cutting over half of their total area. In California, only 4% of the redwoods have been protected. In Oregon and Washington, less than 10% of the original coastal rainforest area remains.

An even larger percentage of the productive forest has been logged.  Much of the land is rock, ice, muskeg, or less productive forest on steep slopes. The stereotypical old growth is limited to lowland flats and valleys, which have been preferentially targeted for logging. Historically, the most common protocol has been to place protected areas in the mountains, leaving the valleys to the timber industry. So while some very large areas are protected as parks and monuments, very little of the highest-value habitat has been protected, and much of it has already been cut.

In the Tongass National Forest, in the 1950s, in part to aid in Japanese recovery from World War II, the US Forest Service set up long term contracts with two pulp mills: the Ketchikan Pulp Company (KPC) and the Alaska Pulp Company (APC). These contracts were for 50 years, and divided up the forest into areas slated for APC logs and areas slated for KPC logs. These two companies conspired to drive log prices down, conspired to drive smaller logging operations out of business, and were major and recalcitrant polluters of their local areas.  These long term contracts guaranteed low prices to the pulp companies — in some cases resulting in trees being given away for less than the price of a hamburger. Since 1980, the US Forest Service has lost over a billion dollars in Tongass timber sales.

Half a million acres (2,000 km2) of the Tongass was selected by native corporations under the 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. Much of this area has been clearcut.

The most controversial timber sales in the Tongass are in the roadless areas. In September 2006, a landmark court decision overturned President George W. Bush's repeal of the Roadless Rule, reverting to the 2001 roadless area protections established under President Clinton.  However, the Tongass was exempted from that ruling and it is unclear what the fate of its vast roadless areas will be.

See also
 Olympic National Park
 Redwood National and State Parks

Notes

References
 Endangered Ecosystems of the United States: A Preliminary Assessment of Loss and Degradation
 Clearcutting Canada's Rainforest: Status Report 2005
 Temperate Rainforests of the Northern Pacific Coast

External links
 British Columbia's Rainforests Essays.
 Southeast Alaska Conservation Council
 Raincoast, B.C.
 http://www.canadianrainforests.org/
 Trust for Sustainable Forestry

Temperate coniferous forests of the United States
Temperate rainforests
Ecoregions of Canada
Ecoregions of the United States
Ecoregions of Alaska
Ecozones and ecoregions of British Columbia
Ecoregions of California
Fauna of the Northwestern United States

.Rainforest

Forests of Alaska
Forests of British Columbia
Forests of California
Forests of Oregon
Forests of Washington (state)
Coast of British Columbia
Plants by habitat
Plant communities of California
Plant communities of the West Coast of the United States
Nearctic ecoregions
Temperate Northern Pacific

Pacific temperate rainforests


Miranda Taylor Cosgrove (born May 14, 1993) is an American actress an sangster. Her career began at the age o three, when she appeared in televeesion commercials. Her film debut came in 2003, when she played Summer Hathaway in School of Rock. She appeared in a nummer o minor televeesion roles ower several years afore comin tae prominence as Megan Parker on the Nickelodeon TV series Drake & Josh. A few years later, she laundit the role o Carly Shay, the lead character in the Nickelodeon TV series iCarly. As o Mey 2010, Cosgrove earned $180,000 per episode o iCarly, makin her the seicont-heichest-paid bairn starn on televeesion. In 2012, she wis leetit in the Guinness World Records as the heichest paid bairn actress, for iCarly. On Februar 15, 2013, it wis annoonced that Cosgrove would be starnin as Evie in Girlfriend in a Coma, a televeesion series for NBC, but the series wis cancelled when Christina Ricci left the production. In 2013, Cosgrove again vyced Margo in Despicable Me 2.  In 2015, she wis cast in the NBC comedy pilot Crowded, creatit bi Suzanne Martin.

References

Miranda Cosgrove
1993 births
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American sangsters
Actresses frae Los Angeles
American bairn actresses
American female pop sangsters
American film actresses
American fowk o Inglis strynd
American fowk o French strynd
American fowk o Erse strynd
American fowk o Mexican strynd
American televeesion actresses
American vyce actresses
Bairn pop muisickers
Columbia Records airtists
Epic Records airtists
Hispanic an Latino American actresses
Livin fowk
Sangsters frae Los Angeles
USC School of Cinematic Arts alumni
Varsity o Soothren Californie alumni

Miranda Cosgrove


In biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is the term for the range of a taxon that extends across all of (or most of) the world, in appropriate habitats; most cosmopolitan species are known to be highly adaptable to a range of climatic and environmental conditions, though this is not always so. Killer whales (orcas) are among the most well-known cosmopolitan species on the planet, as they maintain several different resident and transient (migratory) populations in every major oceanic body on Earth, from the Arctic Circle to Antarctica and every coastal and open-water region in-between. Such a taxon (usually a species) is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution, or exhibit cosmopolitanism, as a species; another example, the rock dove (commonly referred to as a 'pigeon'), in addition to having been bred domestically for centuries, now occurs in most urban areas across the world.

The extreme opposite of a cosmopolitan species is an endemic (native) species, or one that is found only in a single geographical location. Endemism usually results in organisms with specific adaptations to one particular climate or region, and the species would likely face challenges if placed in a different environment. There are far more examples of endemic species than cosmopolitan species; one example being the snow leopard, a rare feline species found only in Central Asian mountain ranges, an environment the cats have adapted to over millennia.

Qualification
The caveat "in appropriate habitat" is used to qualify the term "cosmopolitan distribution", excluding in most instances polar regions, extreme altitudes, oceans, deserts, or small, isolated islands. For example, the housefly is highly cosmopolitan, yet is neither oceanic nor polar in its distribution.

Related terms and concepts
The term pandemism also is in use, but not all authors are consistent in the sense in which they use the term; some speak of pandemism mainly in referring to diseases and pandemics, and some as a term intermediate between endemism and cosmopolitanism, in effect regarding pandemism as subcosmopolitanism. This means near cosmopolitanism, but with major gaps in the distribution, say, complete absence from Australia. Terminology varies, and there is some debate whether the true opposite of endemism is pandemism or cosmopolitanism.

Oceanic and terrestrial

Another concept in biogeography is that of oceanic cosmopolitanism and endemism. Although there is a temptation to regard the World Ocean as a medium without biological boundaries, this is far from reality; many physical and biological barriers interfere with either the spread or continued residence of many species. For example, temperature gradients prevent free migration of tropical species between the Atlantic and Indian-plus-Pacific oceans, even though there is open passage past continental masses such as the Americas and Africa/Eurasia. Again, as far as many species are concerned, the Southern Ocean and the Northern marine regions are completely isolated from each other by the intolerable temperatures of the tropical regions. In the light of such considerations, it is no surprise to find that endemism and cosmopolitanism are quite as marked in the oceans as on land.

Ecological delimitation
Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is that of ecological limitations. A species that is apparently cosmopolitan because it occurs in all oceans might in fact occupy only littoral zones, or only particular ranges of depths, or only estuaries, for example. Analogously, terrestrial species might be present only in forests, or mountainous regions, or sandy arid regions or the like. Such distributions might be patchy, or extended, but narrow. Factors of such a nature are taken widely for granted, so they seldom are mentioned explicitly in mentioning cosmopolitan distributions.

Regional and temporal variation in populations
Cosmopolitanism of a particular species or variety should not be confused with cosmopolitanism of higher taxa.  For example, the family Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan in the sense that every continent except Antarctica is home to some indigenous species within the Myrmeleontidae, but nonetheless no one species, nor even genus, of the Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan. Conversely, partly as a result of human introduction of unnatural apiculture to the New World, Apis mellifera probably is the only cosmopolitan member of its family; the rest of the family Apidae have modest distributions.

Even where a cosmopolitan population is recognised as a single species, such as indeed Apis mellifera, there generally will be variation between regional sub-populations. Such variation commonly is at the level of subspecies, varieties or morphs, whereas some variation is too slight or inconsistent for formal recognition.

For an example of subspecific variation, consider the so-called "African killer bee", which is the subspecies Apis mellifera scutellata, and the Cape bee, which is the subspecies Apis mellifera capensis; both of them are in the same cosmopolitan species Apis mellifera, but their ranges barely overlap.

Other cosmopolitan species, such as the house sparrow and osprey, present similar examples, but in yet other species there are less familiar complications: some migratory birds such as the Arctic tern occur from the Arctic to the Southern Ocean, but at any one season of the year they are likely to be largely in passage or concentrated at only one end of the range. Also, some such species breed only at one end of the range. Seen purely as an aspect of cosmopolitanism, such distributions could be seen as temporal, seasonal variations.

Other complications of cosmopolitanism on a planet too large for local populations to interbreed routinely with each other include genetic effects such as ring species, such as in the Larus gulls, and the formation of clines such as in Drosophila.

Examples
Cosmopolitan distributions can be observed both in extinct and extant species. For example, Lystrosaurus was cosmopolitan in the Early Triassic after the Permian-Triassic extinction event.

In the modern world, the killer whale, the blue whale, and the great white shark all have cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the Earth's oceans. The wasp Copidosoma floridanum is another example, as it is found around the world. Other examples include humans, cats, dogs, the western honey bee, the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata, and the mollusc genus Mytilus. The term can also apply to some diseases. It may result from a broad range of environmental tolerances or from rapid dispersal compared to the time needed for speciation.

See also
 Ecoregion
 Gondwanan distribution
 Holarctic
 Pantropical

References

External links

Biogeography

Cosmopolitan distribution


The Hall of Hewn Stones (Hebrew: לשכת הגזית Lishkat haGazit), also known as the Chamber of Hewn Stone, was the meeting place, or council-chamber, of the Sanhedrin during the Second Temple period (6th century BCE – 1st century CE). The Talmud deduces that it was built into the north wall of the Temple in Jerusalem, half inside the sanctuary and half outside, with doors providing access both to the temple and to the outside. The chamber is said to have resembled a basilica in appearance, having two entrances: one in the east and one in the west. The name presumably arises to distinguish it from the buildings in the temple complex used for ritual purposes, which had to be constructed of unhewn stones. (The Torah prohibits the use of hewn stones or those touched by iron for the altar per Ex 20:22, Deut 27:6. Various reasons have been given for the prohibition, among them: the purpose of the Temple is peace, while iron implements are used in war; the Temple lengthens human life while iron shortens it; the hewing of stones is an invitation to carving images in them, violating the prohibition against idolatry; and the sword references the earthly power of Esau, not the spiritual power of Jacob/Israel.)

According to the Talmud, the Hall of Hewn Stones is the traditional meeting place of the Great Sanhedrin when it functioned as a court with full sovereign powers including the power to impose criminal penalties.

It has been taught; R. Jose said; Originally there were not many disputes in Israel, but one Beth din of seventy-one members sat in the Hall of Hewn Stones, and two courts of twenty-three sat, one at the entrance of the Temple Mount and one at the door of the [Temple] Court, and other courts of twenty-three sat in all Jewish cities. If a matter of inquiry arose, the local Beth din was consulted. If they had a tradition [thereon] they stated it; if not, they went to the nearest Beth din. If they had a tradition thereon, they stated it, if not, they went to the Beth din situated at the entrance to the Temple Mount; if they had a tradition, they stated it; if not, they went to the one situated at the entrance of the Court, and he [who differed from his colleagues] declared, 'Thus have I expounded, and thus have my colleagues expounded; thus have I taught, and thus have they taught.' If they had a tradition thereon, they stated it, and if not, they all proceeded to the Hall of Hewn Stones, where they [i.e., the Great Sanhedrin] sat from the morning tamid until the evening tamid; on Sabbaths and festivals they sat within the hall.

The Sanhedrin stopped meeting in the Hall of Hewn Stones when the Roman Empire restricted Judaea's autonomy and removed the Sanhedrin's power to impose criminal penalties.

Notes

References

 Schiffman, Lawrence H. From Text to Tradition, a History of Judaism in Second Temple and Rabbinic Times. Jerusalem: Ktav, 1991.
 Zeitlin, Solomon. The Rise and Fall of the Judean State: A Political, Social and Religious History of the Second Commonwealth. New York: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1967.
 The Sanhedrin , Aryeh Kaplan

Temple Mount
Jewish courts and civil law
Legislative buildings
Sanhedrin

Hall of Hewn Stones


The Byzantine calendar was a calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from the year 691 A.D. to 1728. It was also used by the Byzantine empire from 988 A.D. to 1453, when the empire fell, and by Russia from 988 A.D. to 1700. The Byzantine calendar is like the Julian calendar, but the year starts on 1 September instead of 1 January. Year one of the Byzantine calendar is from 1 September, 5509 B.C. to 31 August, 5508 B.C.

Background
The Great Schism, dated to 1054, created two religions from what was formerly one. The Western part later became the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern part is known as the Eastern Orthodox Church. At that time the Roman Catholic church used the Julian calendar. In 1453 the Byzantine Empire collapsed ending the use of their calendar. But others still used it, notably Russia. Numbering differences began to appear when the Gregorian calendar was introduced in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.

Other differences
The Roman calendar did not include dates for Old Testament prophets. The Byzantine calendar does.

Russia
Peter the great became tsar of Russia in 1682. At the time the Russians used a form of the Julian calendar with Byzantine influence. The calendar year started on 1 September and not 1 January. The years were numbered from the date given as earth's creation and not from the birth of Christ. Peter changed the calendar to start on January 1 and numbered the years from Christ's birth. But he continued basing the calendar on the Julian system instead of the Gregorian calendar. By the early 1800s the Russian calendar was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar used by western Europe. So dating something between the two systems became a problem. Dating notations such as 1 March O.S. (meaning Old Style, Julian or Russian) were used. Another example is 16 May 1582 N.S. (New Style or Gregorian calendar). Other notations included both: 25 October/6 November 1917, trying to show how the same day appeared in different calendars.

On 1 January 1700, by decree of Peter the Great, the Russian/Byzantine calendar was no longer used.

References

Calendars
Byzantine Empire

Byzantine calendar


Deed from the Five Nations to the King, of their Beaver Hunting Ground, more commonly known as the Nanfan Treaty, was an agreement made between the representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy with John Nanfan, the acting colonial governor of New York, on behalf of The Crown. The treaty was conducted in Albany, New York, on July 19, 1701, and amended by both parties on September 14, 1726.

The Five Nations (which became the 'Six Nations' after 1720) granted "after mature deliberation out of a deep sense of the many Royal favours extended to us by the present great Monarch of England King William the Third" the title to a vast area of land, covering significant portions of the present-day Midwestern United States and southern Ontario that they had claimed as a hunting ground, as far west as 'Quadoge' (now Chicago), by right of conquest during the later Beaver Wars of the 17th century.

As the vast majority of the Beaver Hunting Grounds described in the Nanfan Treaty were also claimed by New France or its Algonquian Indian allies, the French did not recognize the treaty (it did recognize Iroquois suzerainty to the British crown in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht) and the English made no real attempt to settle these parts for the time being. In the amended agreement 25 years later, the strip of land 60 miles wide adjoining Lakes Erie and Ontario, starting at Sandusky Creek, was reserved for continued Six Nations occupation and use, with the permission of its owner under the 1701 agreement, the King of Great Britain.

A copy of the treaty, containing the totem images of more than a dozen Iroquois chiefs, is part of the collections of the British National Archives.

See also
 Ohio Country

References

Other sources
"Deed from the Five Nations to the King, of their Beaver Hunting Ground," in A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875
Copy of the Nanfan Treaty

Iroquois
Treaties of indigenous peoples of North America
Treaties of the Kingdom of Great Britain
1701 treaties
1701 in New France
1701 in the Thirteen Colonies
Native American history of Illinois
Native American history of Indiana
Native American history of Michigan
Native American history of New York (state)
Native American history of Ohio
Native American history of Pennsylvania
First Nations history in Ontario
First Nations history in Quebec
Louisiana (New France)
Northwest Territory
History of the Midwestern United States
Collection of The National Archives (United Kingdom)

Nanfan Treaty


निरपेक्ष मान (Absolute value) : संख्या रेखा पर किसी संख्या की शून्य से दूरी (जैसे, २ का निरपेक्ष मान २ होता है, तथा -२ का निरपेक्ष मान भी २ होता है। अर्थात, |2| = 2 एवं |-2| = 2)

additive inverse: two numbers are additive inverses of each other if their sum is 0 (e.g., since -4 + 4 = 0, then -4 and 4 are additive inverses of each other)

बीजीय व्यंजक (algebraic expression) : numeral and/or variable joined by any combination of the four basic operations (+, -, x, /) and involving any power(s) of numeral and/or variable (e.g., 3-8, 7x4, 4+x, y/2, n-2, 3(4+8)-7, y 2 -2)

कोण की माप (angle measure) : the measure in degrees or radians of the radial distance between two rays that meet at a point

क्षेत्रफल (area) : the size of a region measured in number of square units

समान्तर श्रेणी (arithmetic sequence) : a sequence with a constant difference between consecutive terms (e.g., 2, 5, 8, 11,... is an arithmetic sequence with a constant difference of 3)

associative property: a property of addition or multiplication in which the regrouping of the addends or factors does not change the outcome of the operations [i.e., (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc)]

attribute: a characteristic of an object, such as color, shape, or size

bar graph: a graphical display representing data in different categories or groups. The length of a
rectangle or bar is used to represent the numerical amount

bionomial: a polynomial which is the sum of two terms

box and whisker plot: a graphical display that shows the median, quartiles, and extremes of a set of data, the spread of the data and the concentration of the data. the display does not show any other specific data values

capacity (धारिता) : the maximum amount that can be contained by an object. Often refers to measurement of liquid

cardinal numbers: the counting numbers (1, 2, 3...)

केन्द्रक (centroid) : the point of intersection of the medians of a triangle

circle graph: a graphical display that shows data as parts of a whole circle

circumcenter (परिकेन्द्र) : the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of a triangle

परिधी (circumference) :वृत्त के परिणाम को वृत्त की परिधि कहते है [the distance around a circle]; the formula for circumference of a circle is pi times the diameter (c = pd)

बन्द आकृति (closed figure) : the boundary of a simple 2-dimensional region, including shapes with straight and curved sides

एकरेखीय बिन्दु (collinear points) : a set of points lying on the same line

संचय (combinations) : a set of items selected, without regard to order, from a given set of items

क्रम विनिमेय गुण (commutative property) :a property of addition or multiplication in which the sum or product stays the same when the order of the addends or factors is changed (i.e., a + b = b + a and ab = ba)

concrete: physical objects used to represent mathematical situations

सर्वांगसमता'' (congruency) : geometric figures having the same size and shape; all corresponding parts of congruent figures have the same measureएकबिन्दुगामी रेखाएं (concurrent lines) : lines that have a common pointनिर्देशांक तल (coordinate plane) : a 2-dimensional system in which the coordinates of a point are its distances from two intersecting perpendicular lines called axes. The formal name for this system is cartesian coordinate system

counting technique: methods to determine the number of possible outcomes of an event. Some of the
methods are tree diagram, list, rules for multiplication, combinations, and permutations

curve fitting: the sketching of a line or curve to best describe a relationship between two variables on a scatter plot

deductive reasoning: a series of logical steps in which a conclusion is drawn directly from a set of statements that are known or assumed to be true. (e.g., if 5 + 4 = 9 and 6 + 3 = 9, then
5 + 4 = 6 + 3)

diagonal (विकर्ण) : for a polygon in the plane, any line segment joining non-adjacent vertices. For a polyhedron in space, a line segment joining two vertices not in the same face

dilation: a transformation which produces a figure similar to the original by proportionally shrinking or stretching the figureविमीय विश्लेषण (dimensional analysis) : a method of converting units within a measurement systemअनुक्रमानुपाती सम्बन्ध (direct variation): a relationship in which the ratio of two variables is constantविवर्त गणित (discrete mathematics) : the study of mathematical properties of sets and systems that have only a finite number of elements.

distributive property: a property which establishes a relationship between multiplication and addition such that multiplication distributes across the addition [i.e., a(b+c) = ab + ac]विभाजन के नियम (rules of divisibility) : special tests to determine if a particular integer is a factor of a given number, (e.g., a number is divisible by 10 if it ends in a 0)

domain: the set of input values for a function

elapsed time: the amount of time between a beginning time and an ending time

equally likely outcomes: events in a sample space that have the same probability of occurringसमीकरण (equation) : a mathematical sentence of equality between two expressions (e.g., n + 50 = 75 or 75 = n + 50 means that n + 50 must have the same value as 75)तुल्य (equivalent) : numbers or expressions that have the same value

estimation: the process of finding a number close to an exact amount

euclidean geometry: the geometry (plane and solid) based on Euclid's postulatesघटना(event) : one of the many occurrences that can take place during a probability activity

expanded notation: the sum of terms representing a quantity

explicit relationship: a sequence rule using the number of the term to define the function [e.g., in the sequence 3, 6, 9,..., the explicit rule is f(n) = 3n where n is the number of the term and f(n) is the value of the term]प्रायोगिक प्रायिकता (experimental probability) : a probability calculated from the results of an experimentघातांक (exponent) : a number which is placed to the right of and above another number (base). the value of the exponent determines how many times the base is used as a factor (e.g., 3 4 = 3 x 3 x 3 x3; {3 is the base and is used as a factor 4 times} the exponent is 4)चरघातांकी फलन (exponential function) : a function whose general equation is a y=ab x or y=ab kx, where a, b, and k stand for constants.व्यंजक (expression) : a mathematical phrase with no equal sign such as 6, 3n, or + 4फलक (face) : a plane surface of a three-dimensional figureगुणक (factors) : the numbers or terms multiplied in an expressionसूत्र (formula) : an equation that states a fact or rule (e.g., a=l w)बारंबारता सारणी (frequency table) : a display to show how often items, numbers, or a range of numbers occurफलन (function) : a relationship in which every value of x has a unique value of y (e.g., the relation y = 2x + 1 is a function because for every different x, there is one and only one y)फलन का निरूपण (function notation) : a notation that describes a function. for a function ƒ, when x is a member of the domain, the symbol ƒ(x) denotes the corresponding member of the range [e.g., an equation of a function might be ƒ(x) = x+3]गुणोत्तर श्रेणी (geometric sequence) : a sequence with a constant ratio between two consecutive terms. Each successive term is found by multiplying the preceding term by the preceding term by the ratio. (e.g., 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …is a geometric sequence with a ratio of 2.)

graph: a pictorial representation of information or relationships between numbers

histogram: a graphical display representing continuous data in different categories or groupsअन्तः केन्द्र (incenter) : the point of intersection of the angle bisectors of a triangleपरोक्ष मापन (indirect measurement) : a measurement which is found by using a formula or other strategy and not actually measuring something (e.g., finding the height of a tree without actually holding a ruler next to it)

inductive reasoning: a type of type of mathematical reasoning which involves observing patterns and using those observations to make generalizationsअसमता (inequality) : a mathematical sentence in which the value of the expressions on either side of the relation symbol are unequal. relation symbols include > (greater than), < (less than), ³greater than or equal to), < (less than or equal to), (e.g., x < y, 7 > 3, n =4).

inference: a conclusion drawn from dataपूर्णांक (integer) : a set of whole numbers and its opposites (i.e. …..-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ….)

inverse operations: two operations that "undo" each other (e.g., addition and subtraction)व्युत्क्रमानुपाती सम्बन्ध (inverse variation) : a relationship in which the product of two variables is constantअपरिमेय संख्या (irrational numbers) : numbers which cannot be represented by an exact ratio of two integers. (e.g., the square root of 2)

line graph: a graphical representation using points connected by line segments to show how something changes over time

line of best fit: a line drawn on a scatter plot to estimate the relationship between two sets of data

line plot: a graph using marks (e.g., x, ·) above a number on a number line to show the frequency of dataरेखीय फलन (linear function) : a function with no exponents other than one and with no products of the variables (e.g., y=x+4, y= -4, and 3x-4y = 1/2 are linear functions); in a rectangular coordinate system, the graph of a linear function is a line

manipulatives: tools, models, blocks, tiles, and other objects which are used to explore mathematical ideas and solve mathematical problems

matrices: rectangular arrays of numbers arranged in rows and columnsउच्चिष्ट (maxima) : the greatest value in a data set or the greatest value of a functionमाध्य या औसत (mean) : in a collection of data, the sum of all the data divided by the number of data measures of central tendency: numbers which tend to cluster around the "middle" of a set of values. three such numbers are mean, median, and modeमाध्यिका (median) : the middle number (or the mean of the two middle numbers when necessary) in a collection of numbers that is arranged in order from least to greatestनिम्निष्ट (minima) : the least value in a data set or the least value of a functionबहुलक (mode) : the number(s) that occur(s) most often in a collection of data

model: to represent or show mathematical ideas and relationships and real-world situations using objects, pictures, graphs, tables, functions, and other methodsएकपदी (monomial) : a polynomial with only one termअपवर्त्य (multiple) : the product of a whole number and any other whole number

multiplicative inverse: two numbers are multiplicative inverses of each other if their product is 1 (e.g., since 4 x 1/4 = 1, 1/4 and 4 are multiplicative inverses)एकविमीय (one-dimensional) : a figure that has length but no width or height

ordinal numbers: numbers used to express order (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd)

orthocenter (लम्बकेन्‍द्र) : the point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle

outcome of an event: one of the possible occurrances in a probability situationसमान्तर parallel(ism) : lines that lie in the same plane and never meet. also, planes lying in space that never meet

patterns: regularities in situations such as those in nature, events, shapes, designs, and sets of numbers (e.g., spirals on pineapples, geometric designs in quilts, the number sequence 3, 6, 9, 12, . . .)प्रतिशत (percent) : ऐसी भिन्न संख्याओ के अंश को जिसका हर १०० हो प्रतिशत कहते हैं [a special ratio that compares a number to 100 and uses the % sign (e.g., 1/2 = 50% and 2/3 = 66 2/3%)]परिमाप (perimeter) : the distance around a geometric shapeलम्ब perpendicular(ity): lines in the same plane which intersect to form a right angle

pictograph: a graphical representation that shows numerical information by using picture symbolsस्थानीय मान (place value) : the value of a digit as determined by its position in a number (e.g., in the number "11" the one is worth either 10 or 1, depending on the position)बहुपद (polynomial) : a mathematical expression consisting of a sum of terms each of which is a product of a constant and one or more variables

polynomial degree: the highest power or sum of powers in any term of a given polynomial

polynomial term: an algebraic expression that is an addend in a polynomial expression

pop ulation: a group of people, objects, or events that fit a particular description

power: a number expressed using an exponent (e.g., the number 5 3 is read five to the third power or five cubed)

precision: the smallest place value to which an approximate number or measurement is expressed (e.g., if pi is represented as 3.14, then its precision is .01)प्रिज्म या समफलकी (prism) : a three-dimensional figure with parallelogram faces and two parallel, congruent basesकिसी घटना की प्रायिकता (probability of an event) : a number that represents the likelihood that the event will occur properties of operations: mathematical principals that are always true (e.g., commutative, associative, distributive, inverses)समानुपात (proportion) : an equation of the form a/b=c/d which states that the two ratios are equivalentपाइठागोरस का प्रमेय (pythagorean theorem) : the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs (a, b) of a right triangle is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse (c). The formula is a 2 + b 2 = c 2द्विघात फलन (quadratic function) : a function of the second degree [i.e., a function of the form f(x) = ax 2 + bx + c]; in a rectangular coordinate system, the graph of a quadratic function is a parabolaकर्णी (radical) : another name for the roots of numbers, such as the square root of 5परास (range) : the set of output values for a function
range (of data set): the difference between the greatest and the smallest numbers in a set of data (e.g., the range of 2, 7, 13, and 17 is 15)दर (rate) : a ratio comparing two different units (e.g., miles per hour)अनुपात (ratio) : a comparison of two whole numbers by divisionपरिमेय सख्या (rational number) : a real number that can be written as a quotient/ratio of two integers a/b, where b does not equal 0; a repeating or terminating decimal, integer, fraction, or whole numberवास्तविक संख्या (real number) : any number that is either rational or irrational

recursive relationship: a function rule which uses the value of the preceding term in the definition

reflection (flip) : a transformation which produces the mirror image of a figure (i.e., flipping a figure across a line)

rotation (turn): a transformation obtained by rotating a figure around a fixed point (i.e., turning a figure about a point)

sample space: the set or collection of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment

scale: choice of increments and range of numbers on an axis

scale drawing: a scaled representation of physical objects or drawings

scatter plot: a graphical representation consisting of ordered pairs possibly showing a relationship between two variable quantitiesवैज्ञानिक निरूपण (scientific notation) : representation of a number as the product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10; used especially for very small or very large numbers (e.g., 6,900,000 = 6.9 x 10 6 or .00069 = 6.9 x10 -4)समरूपता (similarity) : two or more figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size

simulation: a representation of a situation or problem with a similar but simpler model or a more easily manipulated model in order to determine experimental results

slides: a transformation in which the figures moves in a linear directionप्रवणता (slope / gradient) : the ratio of the rise to the run of any two distinct points on a lineहल (solutions) : the values of a variable that make an equation or inequality a true statement

statistical investigation: a procedure for obtaining data and drawing conclusions or making decisions on the basis of available data

stem and leaf plot: a method of organizing data for the purpose of comparison where the "leaf" is the number in the smallest place value and the "stem" includes the numbers in the larger place valuesपृष्ट क्षेत्र (surface area) : the sum of the areas of the faces of a solid figureसममिति (symmetry) : a figure has symmetry if there exists some line or point through which all points of the figure can be reflected to generate another point on the figure
theoretical probability: a probability of a given event calculated from mathematical counting techniques. (e.g., the chance of getting heads when flipping a coin is 1 out of 2.)त्रि-विमीय (three-dimensional) : an object that has length, width, and height

transformation: a rule for moving every point in a plane figure to a new location.

translation (slide): a transformation that slides a figure a given distance in a given direction

trend: the general drift, tendency, or direction of a set of dataत्रिकोणमितीय अनुपात (trigonometric ratio) : a comparison of the measures of the lengths of two sides of a right triangle expressed in fractional or decimal form; there are six trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant) associated with any angle

trigonometry: the study of right triangle measurements and ratios, useful for calculating indirect
measurementsद्वि-विमीय (two-dimensional) : a figure that has length and width but not height (i.e., a plane figure such as a rectangle or circle)

valid argument: an explicit demonstration or proof that has been shown to be true

validate: to give evidence that a solution or process is correctचर (variable) : a letter or symbol which represents one or more numbers

variability: numbers that describe how spread out a set of data is. (e.g., range and quartile)शीर्ष (vertex (vertices)) : the points where two line segments come together (corners)आयतन'''' (volume) : the amount of space enclosed in a three-dimensional figure, measured in cubic units whole numbers: the numbers in the set {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

y-intercept. The point at which a line crosses the y-axis.

बाहरी कड़ियाँ
 Quick Reference GLOSSARY OF MATHEMATICAL TERMS
 Multilingual eGlossary from Mc Graw Hill Education - for grade1 to 5 and for grade 6 to 12.
 Harcourt Maths Glossary - for KG to standard VI.
 Maths Dictionary for Kids
 Mathematics glossary of Terms

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Clarence John Brown (January 15, 1895 – August 28, 1973) was a Vice Admiral in the United States Navy.

Biography
Brown was born January 15, 1895, in Plum City, Wisconsin. He would graduate from the University of Wisconsin-Madison and marry Augusta Duwe.

He died on August 28, 1973. He is buried with Augusta at Arlington National Cemetery.

Career
Brown was commissioned in the Medical Corps in 1917. His assignments included serving at Naval Base Guam. During World War II he would serve at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Naval Hospital Philadelphia, and with the United States Twelfth Fleet. Following the war he was named Deputy Chief of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery.

Awards he received include the Navy Distinguished Service Medal and the Legion of Merit.

References

People from Pierce County, Wisconsin
Military personnel from Wisconsin
United States Navy vice admirals
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Navy personnel of World War II
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
1895 births
1973 deaths

Clarence John Brown


In particle physics, wave mechanics, and optics, momentum transfer is the amount of momentum that one particle gives to another particle. It is also called the scattering vector as it describes the transfer of wavevector in wave mechanics.

In the simplest example of scattering of two colliding particles with initial momenta , resulting in final momenta , the momentum transfer is given by

where the last identity expresses momentum conservation. Momentum transfer is an important quantity because  is a better measure for the typical distance resolution of the reaction than the momenta themselves.

Wave mechanics and optics
A wave has a momentum  and is a vectorial quantity. The difference of the momentum of the scattered wave to the incident wave is called momentum transfer. The wave number k is the absolute of the wave vector  and is related to the wavelength . Momentum transfer is given in wavenumber units in reciprocal space

Diffraction
The momentum transfer plays an important role in the evaluation of neutron, X-ray, and electron diffraction for the investigation of condensed matter. Laue-Bragg diffraction occurs on the atomic crystal lattice, conserves the wave energy and thus is called elastic scattering, where the wave numbers final and incident particles,  and , respectively, are equal and just the direction changes by a reciprocal lattice vector  with the relation to the lattice spacing . As momentum is conserved, the transfer of momentum occurs to crystal momentum.

The presentation in reciprocal space is generic and does not depend on the type of radiation and wavelength used but only on the sample system, which allows to compare results obtained from many different methods. Some established communities such as powder diffraction employ the diffraction angle  as the independent variable, which worked fine in the early years when only a few characteristic wavelengths such as Cu-K were available. The relationship to -space is

with  and basically states that larger  corresponds to larger .

See also
 Atomic form factor
 Mandelstam variables
 Momentum-transfer cross section
 Impulse (physics)

Diffraction
Momentum
Neutron-related techniques
Synchrotron-related techniques

Momentum transfer


The Saudi Arabian coat of arms () is a coat of arms that was adopted in 1950. According to the Saudi Constitution it is made of of two crossed swords with a palm tree in the open upper space between the blades. Each of the swords represents the two kingdoms which founded modern day Saudi Arabia, the Kingdom of Hejaz and the Sultanate of Najd.

The date palm tree represents vitality and growth.
The crossed scimitars symbolize justice and strength rooted in faith.

References

Saudi Arabia
National symbols of Saudi Arabia

Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia


Cuyuni-Mazaruni (Region 7)  is a region of Esequiban Guyana, a territory in dispute by Guyana and Venezuela. Venezuela claims the territory as part of Delta Amacuro state north of the Cuyuni river and as a part of Bolívar state south of the same river. The regional capital is Bartica.

The region is in the west of the country. It has an area of 47,213 km². As of the 2012 census, 20,280 people lived there. It borders the regions of Barima-Waini, Essequibo Islands-West Demerara and Pomeroon-Supenaam to the north, the region of Upper Demerara-Berbice to the east, the region of Potaro-Siparuni, Brazil to the south and Venezuela to the west.

Other towns include: Issano, Isseneru, Kartuni, Peters Mine, Arimu Mine, Kamarang, Keweigek, Imbaimadai, Tumereng and Kamikusa.

Regions of Guyana

Cuyuni-Mazaruni


Pietro Parente (16 February 1891 in Casalnuovo Monterotaro, Italy – 29 December 1986 in Vatican City) was a long-serving theologian in the Holy Office of the Roman Catholic Church, and was made a cardinal on 26 June 1967. At his peak he was regarded as one of the foremost Italian theologians.

Life

Parente began his education at the Metropolitan seminary of Benevento in the 1900s and soon moved to Rome to study. His ability as a theologian was very well known even before he was ordained in 1916, and immediately after ordination he became a seminary rector in Naples, a role he was to hold for a decade, after which Parente transferred to the prestigious Pontifical Lateran University and briefly from 1934 to 1938 to the Pontifical Urbanian Athenaeum. Parente then went back to Naples to found the Faculty of Theology and Canon Law in his former seminary, and he was again rector from 1940 to 1955.

During this period of seminary teaching, Parente wrote frequently for the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano. He gained a reputation for his strongly worded, almost blunt, style of communicating official Church doctrine - something for which he is remembered by almost all those who studied under him. He was the first writer to use the term New Theology to describe the writings of Marie-Dominique Chenu and Louis Charlier in that paper in 1942, and was influential behind the encyclical Humani generis that condemned those theologians eight years later. He was the assessor of most of the cases done by the Holy Office during these years and knew Pope Pius XII personally.

Bishop
Parente was archbishop of Perugia from 1955 to 1959, when Pope John XXIII made him one of the highest-ranking officials of the Holy Office. When this was renamed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith in 1965, Parente became secretary, but he was viewed by Paul VI as too outspoken in personality to be given the job of prefect - which was given to the lesser-known but friendly and tactful Yugoslav Franjo Šeper. Parente was elevated to the cardinalate on 26 June 1967, ceasing thereupon to be Secretary of the Congregation, since that post, subordinate to that of Prefect, could not be held by a cardinal.

Although his knowledge and ability was still seen as very valuable in later years, Parente's days as one of the foremost theologians in the Vatican had largely gone by the time he became a cardinal. He was originally highly dubious about the Vatican rehabilitating Galileo during the Vatican Council, but was less opposed to it by the time Pope John Paul II officially did so in 1979, and he spoke at the age of 91 on the 1700th anniversary of the conversion of Armenia to Christianity in an effort to unite the Roman and Armenian Churches.

His age disqualified him from participating in the papal conclaves of 1978.

When he died in 1986, he was the oldest living cardinal, seven weeks shy of his ninety-sixth birthday.

Parente and Pius XII

Parente, who is rumored to have assisted Pope Pius XII in preparing the encyclical Humani generis, wrote in Filosofia e teologia di Pio XII (Vaticano 1967) about the magisterium of Pius XII, which he characterized as firm without any bending of eternal truth in favour of popular beliefs in his days. Pius XII demands respects for he achievements of the past, but also openness for the questions of our time. He rejects theological relativism, which would reduce the Christian faith to grass, bent by the winds of time. At the same time, he demands adaptation of existing teachings to the language of the time. The magisterium of the papacy is according to Parente, of divine and not human origin. He used the papacy not only to teach the truth but also to bring together all Christians separated from the Holy Roman Catholic Church, but not by reducing basic the truth entrusted to the Church.

Pius XII according to Parente, set firm pointers in mariology  (Munificentissimus Deus and Fulgens corona), liturgy (Mediator Dei), the definition of the Church, (Mystici corporis), biblical exegesis (Divino afflante Spiritu), and, the application of papal infallibility  (with the Dogma of the Assumption). But, according to Parente, Pope Pius added to all these firm positions caveats, which allow adaptations at a later time, modifications but never radical deviations. Thus, the theology is both conservative and progressive. Parente states that Pius XII predicted the crisis of theology which did follow his pontificate after Vatican II. This crisis, so Parente, cannot be overcome, by going back to the theology or Canon Law of 1918. It will be overcome with a compromise between conservativism and progressivism, maintaining the doctrinal basics and utilizing new language and culture. According to him, Pope Pius XII created the methodological apparatus for such a synthesis.

References

External links
 Biography

Parente, Pietro Cardinal
Parente, Pietro Cardinal
Parente, Pietro Cardinal
Pope Pius XII advisers
Participants in the Second Vatican Council
20th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians
Italian male writers
Members of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
Cardinals created by Pope Paul VI
Rectors of the Pontificio Collegio Urbano de Propaganda Fide

Pietro Parente


Men at Arms is a 1952 novel by the British novelist Evelyn Waugh.

Sword of Honour
Men at Arms is the first novel in Waugh's Sword of Honour series, the author's look at the Second World War. The novels loosely parallel Waugh's wartime experiences.

Plot summary
The protagonist is Guy Crouchback, heir of a declining aristocratic English Roman Catholic family. Guy has spent his thirties at the family villa in Italy (based on the Earl of Carnarvon's 1885 villa Altachiara in Portofino). Crouchback has been shunning the world after the failure of his marriage and has decided to return to England at the very beginning of the Second World War, in the belief that the creeping evils of modernity, gradually apparent in the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany, have become all too clearly displayed as a real and embodied enemy.

He attempts to join the Army, finally succeeding with the (fictitious) Royal Corps of Halberdiers, an old but not too fashionable regiment. He trains as an officer and is posted to various centres around Britain. One of the themes is recurring "flaps" or chaos — embarking and disembarking from ships and railway carriages that go nowhere. Crouchback meets Brigadier Ben Ritchie-Hook, a fire eater (probably based on Lieutenant General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart, a college friend of Waugh's father-in-law whom Waugh knew somewhat from his club) and Apthorpe, a very eccentric fellow officer; in an episode of high farce, the two have a battle of wits and military discipline over an Edwardian thunder-box (portable toilet) which Crouchback observes, amused and detached. Before being sent on active service, he attempts to seduce Virginia, secure in the knowledge that the Catholic Church still regards her as his wife; she refuses him. He and Ben Ritchie-Hook share an adventure during the Dakar Expedition in 1940. Apthorpe dies in Freetown, supposedly of a tropical disease; when it is discovered that Guy gave him a bottle of whisky when visiting him in hospital (there is an implication that Apthorpe's disease, unknown to Guy, was really alcoholic liver failure), Guy is sent home, having blotted his copybook.

Awards
Waugh received the 1952 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Men at Arms.

Dramatisations
Men At Arms was dramatised for television in 2001 along with the two other novels in the Sword of Honour trilogy, featuring Daniel Craig.

References

External links

1952 British novels
British novels adapted into films
Novels by Evelyn Waugh
Catholic novels
Novels set during World War II
Chapman & Hall books

Men at Arms (Waugh novel)


The M1917 Browning machine gun is a .30-06 Springfield machine gun created by John Browning. It was used in World War I and in World War II. It is a heavy machine gun that weighed around 100 pounds with the tripod and 42 pounds without it.

It is a water-cooled machine gun, which allowed it to fire for a long period of time without it overheating. The water-cooling tank made it much heavier. During World War II, M1917 was mostly replaced by the M1919 because it was lighter and let soldiers move more quickly, but the M1917 was still used often.

Heavy machine guns

M1917 Browning machine gun


Philip Hagreen (12 July 1890 – 5 February 1988) was a wood engraver who was active at the beginning of the twentieth century. He was a founder member of the Society of Wood Engravers. He was closely associated with Eric Gill and was a member of the Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic at Ditchling.

Biography

Henry Philip Alban Hagreen was the only child of Henry Hagreen, the drawing master at Wellington College, Berkshire. He studied at the college, but his education was disrupted by ill-health. He studied art in Cornwall, under Norman Garstin and then Harold and Laura Knight, and then entered the New Cross Art School. He enlisted in the army at the beginning of the First World War. He was a reluctant soldier, but felt that it was his duty. In 1918 he married Aileen Clegg; they had three children, John, Mary Bernadette and Mary Joan.

In 1923 the family joined Eric Gill at Ditchling, and moved with him to Capel-y-ffin in 1924. The climate proved too harsh for Hagreen and he moved to Lourdes with his family, where he stayed until 1932. He returned to Ditchling until 1959, when the Hagreens moved to Lingfield in Surrey. In 1973 they moved to a nursing home at Ifield Green, which is where he died in 1988 aged 97.

Wood engravings and book illustrations

Hagreen was a founder member of the Society of Wood Engravers in 1920, and exhibited with them from 1920 to 1922. It was Hagreen who suggested that a society be formed, and the first meeting was held in his studio. He was at his most active in the early 1920s and virtually all his wood engravings proper, as opposed to woodcuts, date from this period. In 1921 he showed five works at the first annual exhibition of the Society of Graphic Art.

He contributed seven wood engravings, the most by any engraver, to Change I and Change II (1919), a short-lived review that set out to capture the developments of the moment.

In 1922 he contributed a wood engraving to Contemporary English Woodcuts, an anthology of wood engravings produced by Thomas Balston, a director at Duckworth and an enthusiast for the new style of wood engravings. Campbell Dodgson, Keeper of Prints and Drawings at the British Museum, wrote about him in his introduction to the book: Mr. Hagreen and Mr. Dickey are among the engravers who rely very much upon the effective use of white lines and spaces.

Salaman reproduced The Dawn in his Studio anthology, and wrote Mr. Philip Hagreen's woodcuts interpret light and landscape with an emotional simplicity that gives them poetic distinction.

In 1922 he illustrated Nursery Lyrics & other verses for Children by Lady Jane Strachey. He went on to illustrate The Golden Ass of Lucius Apuleius (1924) and The Devil On Two Sticks (1927) by Rene Le Sage; he also produced a poster for London Underground in 1923.

Eric Gill, the Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic, and Ditchling

Hagreen had become a Roman Catholic in 1915. When he met Eric Gill and moved to Ditchling to join the Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic his life was completely changed. He later moved to Capel-y-ffin with Gill, and virtually gave up his own work. He said that he had everything to unlearn. He learnt the art of lettering from Gill and helped him carve the Stations of the Cross for Saint Cuthbert's Church, Bradford. He shared a workshop with David Jones and played a full part in the communal life of the guild, where a great deal of time was spent in the chapel.

When the family moved to France Hagreen began to produce ivory and wood carvings. He also began to produce woodcuts, using pearwood blocks and knives and special tools that he invented himself; most of his print production was of bookplates and cuts for practical purposes.

In 1932 he was offered a workshop and cottage at Ditchling and returned there for the rest of his working life. This period saw the blossoming of his gifts as a woodcutter; most of his 170 bookplates were produced here. He engraved inscriptions on ecclesiastical vessels produced by the silversmith Dunstan Pruden. His lettering continued the tradition of simplicity and clarity in lettering established by Johnston and Gill.

He was also a committed distributist.

An overview of Hagreen's work

Hagreen's time at Ditchling, where he lived out his beliefs in his daily life, was the most important part of his life for him. He said, "All that matters to me is that I did my best with each job. It was a way of life as a man and a Christian. Work done rightly is wholesome and I have found it jolly good fun."

One consequence of withdrawing from the artistic life followed by most artists at the time was that he disappeared from view. Edgar Holloway says of him, "Considering his great skills in lettering and engraving and comparing him to well-known contemporaries who received official commissions, Hagreen had been probably the most unappreciated engraver of the century."

References

British illustrators
English wood engravers
1890 births
1988 deaths
People from Ditchling
20th-century engravers

Philip Hagreen


A high-frequency approximation (or "high energy approximation") for scattering or other wave propagation problems, in physics or engineering, is an approximation whose accuracy increases with the size of features on the scatterer or medium relative to the wavelength of the scattered particles.

Classical mechanics and geometric optics are the most common and extreme high frequency approximation, where the wave or field properties of, respectively, quantum mechanics and electromagnetism are neglected entirely.

Less extreme approximations include, the WKB approximation, physical optics, the geometric theory of diffraction, the uniform theory of diffraction, and the physical theory of diffraction. When these are used to approximate quantum mechanics, they are called semiclassical approximations.

See also
 Electromagnetic modeling

Scattering
Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)

High-frequency approximation


Michiel Baldur Maximiliaan van der Klis (born 9 June 1953) is a Dutch astronomer best known for his work on extreme 'pairings' of stars called X-ray binaries, more particularly his explanation of the occurrence of quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) in these systems and his co-discovery of the first millisecond X-ray pulsar. In the 1980s he gained worldwide fame with his investigation of QPOs. His revolutionary discoveries have had an enormous impact in his field of research; in effect, they have made it what it is today. Van der Klis pioneered special mathematical analysis techniques that are now regarded as the "gold standard" within his discipline.

Research
Van der Klis's research focuses on X-ray binaries, pairs of stars orbiting each other that emit X-ray radiation. Some binary star systems contain a compact object like a neutron star or a black hole. By studying the dynamics of materials in the vicinity of such objects one can learn about their mass, radius and rotational speed. Moreover, this kind of research provides a testing ground for cosmology and general relativity.

Van der Klis made a number of breakthrough discoveries. In 1984 he discovered the first type of QPOs (quasi-periodic oscillations of the X-ray emission) of compact stars while he was working with ESA's EXOSAT satellite to study the strongest X-ray sources near the centre of the Milky Way. One of his achievements is the explanation in 1985 why X-rays emitted from binary systems do not come in steady pulses (like the radiowaves emitted by pulsars), but in short irregular bursts. His studies in the years 1984-1987 clarified the principles for classifying the several hundreds of strong X-ray sources known to exist in our Galaxy. In the 1990s, he and his research group, including Rudy Wijnands, discovered the first millisecond X-ray pulsar in a binary system, SAX J1808.4-3658, a neutron star spinning around its axis more than 400 times per second. The discovery of this superfast spinning neutron star attracted great international attention.

Academic career
Van der Klis obtained his PhD at University of Amsterdam in 1983 working on observations of X-ray binaries. For a while he worked at the ESA lab ESTEC in Noordwijk. In 1989 he returned to the University of Amsterdam as an associate professor and was made full professor of Astronomy in 1993. Since 2002 he is an elected member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) and since 2003 also of the Koninklijke Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen (KHMW). Since 2005 he is Director of the Astronomical Institute Anton Pannekoek of the University of Amsterdam and Chair of the Netherlands Research School for Astronomy (NOVA).

Honors and awards
Van der Klis received a number of awards for his pioneering research, including the Bruno Rossi Prize (1987), the most important international distinction awarded in high-energy astrophysics, and the Spinoza Prize (2004). On April 27, 2010, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) awarded an Academy Professorship to him. The international review committee noted: "He is a world leader in the X-ray radiation of compact objects and has formulated an intriguing connection between black holes and neutron stars, the two most extreme objects in the universe. He and his research group also discovered the first X-ray pulsar with a rotation speed of four hundred revolutions per second."

He was elected a Legacy Fellow of the American Astronomical Society in 2020.

Awards
1987 Bruno Rossi Prize
1990 COSPAR Zel'dovich Medal
1991 NWO Pionier grant
1998 Visiting Miller Professorship Award, University of California Berkeley
2004 Spinoza Prize
2010 KNAW Academy Professorship

References

 Jury report for his 2004 Spinozapremie.

 Jury report for his 2010 KNAW nomination.

External links
Link to all papers by Michiel van der Klis on the ArXiv
Link to the NARCIS scientific portal

1953 births
Living people
20th-century Dutch astronomers
University of Amsterdam alumni
Academic staff of the University of Amsterdam
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Scientists from The Hague
Spinoza Prize winners
Fellows of the American Astronomical Society
21st-century Dutch astronomers

Michiel van der Klis


Frederick Nash (February 9, 1781 – December 5, 1858) was an American lawyer and jurist from Hillsborough, North Carolina. He served on the North Carolina Supreme Court and was its chief justice from 1852 until his death.

Frederick was the son of Governor Abner Nash and Mary Jones Nash, Abner's second wife. He was born in New Bern, and attended Princeton University, graduating in 1799. He returned home to read law, and to set up a law practice in New Bern.

Nash moved to Hillsborough in 1807, and was elected to the North Carolina General Assembly, serving from 1813 to 1817. He was a judge of Superior Court from 1818 to 1824 and again from 1836 until his election as an associate judge of the state's Supreme Court in 1844. When Justice Thomas Ruffin resigned in 1852, Nash was raised to Chief Justice and held that post until his death.

He died at home in Hillsborough. Nash was married twice: first to Mary Kollock, then after her death to Anna Maria MacLean. After Frederick died, his daughters, Sally (1811–1893) and Maria (1819–1907), opened a school for young ladies in the family home at Hillsborough. His grandson, Francis "Frank" Nash (1855–1932), was for many years an assistant attorney general for North Carolina and clerk of the state Supreme Court.

His office at Hillsborough was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971. It is located in the Hillsborough Historic District.

References

Frank Nash Papers

1781 births
1858 deaths
North Carolina lawyers
Chief Justices of the North Carolina Supreme Court
Politicians from New Bern, North Carolina
Princeton University alumni
U.S. state supreme court judges admitted to the practice of law by reading law
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers

Frederick Nash