Strange Defeat () is a book written in the summer of 1940 by French historian Marc Bloch. The book was published in 1946; in the meanwhile, Bloch had been tortured and executed by the Gestapo in June 1944 for his participation in the French resistance. An English translation was published by Oxford University Press in 1949 and by W. W. Norton in 1968.

Background
The book focuses on the causes of the French defeat in the Battle of France in 1940, and in part uses a relatively long-term view similar to that in his history scholarship (see Annales school). The main thesis of the book is that the French leadership failed to recognize that, since World War I, "the whole rhythm of modern warfare had changed its tempo." There are only three chapters: Presentation of the Witness, being a short personal history of a life devoted to historical study and interrupted by World War I; One of the Vanquished Gives Evidence, a factual account of his experience in the battle of France; and A Frenchman Examines His Conscience, a biting analysis of the thinking and actions of the generation in the interwar period.

Contents
Bloch raised most of the issues historians have debated since. He blamed France's leadership:
What drove our armies to disaster was the cumulative effect of a great number of different mistakes. One glaring characteristic is, however, common to all of them. Our leaders...were incapable of thinking in terms of a new war.

Guilt was widespread. Carole Fink argues that Bloch blamed the ruling class, the military and the politicians, the press and the teachers, for a flawed national policy and a weak defense against the Nazi menace, for betraying the real France and abandoning its children. Germany had won because its leaders had better understood the methods and psychology of modern combat.

Bloch reports a harsh and forthright view of the cause of the defeat as he and fellow officers saw it at the time (p. 20 of the printed French edition, p. 45 of the manuscript, written between July and September 1940): "[W]hatever the deep-seated cause of the disaster may have been, the immediate occasion was the utter incompetence of the High Command."Bloch is also critical of the Allies, specifically of the behaviour of British soldiers and of the High Command in the retreat in Belgium.

In a subsequent revision, however, he added a footnote that broadened the blame to non-HQ officers (p. 68 of the printed French edition, p. 145 of the manuscript, footnote dated July 1942): "failures in the troop command were substantially less rare than I had wanted to believe in the aftermath of the defeat. ... Certainly a certain morality crisis in class groups (among reserves as well as active officers) was deeper than one dared imagine." Chapter III then expounded on more general institutional and societal failures that hindered France's response.

See also
 Historiography of the Battle of France

References

Further reading
 Fink, Carole. "Marc Bloch and the drôle de guerre prelude to the 'Strange Defeat'" Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques (1996) 22#1 pp: 33–46. in JSTOR

External links
 Original French text
 Centre Marc Bloch
 Université Marc Bloch

History books about World War II
1946 non-fiction books
France in World War II
1940 in France
History books about France
Battle of France
Historiography of World War II
Works by Marc Bloch

Strange Defeat


St. Bartholomew's () is a Roman Catholic pilgrimage church in the Berchtesgadener Land district of Bavaria in Germany.  It is named after Saint Bartholomew the Apostle (Bartholomäus in German), patron of alpine farmers and dairymen. The church is located at the western shore of the Königssee lake, on the Hirschau peninsula. It can only be reached by ship or after a long hike across the surrounding mountains.
A first chapel at the lake was built in 1134 by the Provosts of Berchtesgaden. In 1697 it was rebuilt in a Baroque style with a floor plan modeled on Salzburg Cathedral, two onion domes and a red domed roof. The church features stucco work by the Salzburg artist Joseph Schmidt and a three-apse choir. The altars in the apses are consecrated to Saint Bartholomew, Saint Catherine, and Saint James respectively.

An annual pilgrimage to St. Bartholomew's is held on the Saturday after 24 August, starting from the Austrian municipality of Maria Alm and crossing the Berchtesgaden Alps.

Near the chapel lies the old hunting lodge of the same name.  The lodge, which was first erected in the 12th century with the church, has been rebuilt several times.  Until 1803, it was a private residence of the Berchtesgaden Prince-provosts; after their territory had been incorporated into the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1810, the building became a favourite hunting lodge of the ruling House of Wittelsbach; today it is an inn.

The church can be seen from a famous scenic viewpoint 743 meters above, which is called Archenkanzel.

Gallery

Panoramic view

References
The information in this article is based on that in its German equivalent.

External links

The Bavarian Palace Department: St. Bartholomew's Church
 Sankt Bartholomä

Roman Catholic churches in Bavaria
Berchtesgaden Alps
Pilgrimage churches in Germany
Registered historic buildings and monuments in Bavaria
Berchtesgadener Land

St. Bartholomew's Church, Berchtesgaden


The Aztec Empire was a large empire in Central America.  It existed between about 1345 AD and 1521 AD.  When the Empire was largest, it spread across most of Mesoamerica.

During that time, the Aztecs built one of the world's most advanced societies.   The Aztec Empire was also very powerful.  Its warriors took over many nearby states and helped spread Aztec culture and religion across Mesoamerica.

However, in 1519, Spanish conquistadors came to the Aztec Empire.  With help from the Aztecs' enemies, the Spanish fought the Aztecs for control of their empire.  On August 13, 1521, the Aztec Empire fell apart and the Spanish took over.  They made the area a Spanish colony and renamed it New Spain. Aztec was 2 feet tall.

History
Before the Aztec Empire existed, the indigenous (native) people in central Mesoamerica lived in many separate city-states.  These were small cities with farmland around them.  Each state had its own ruler.  Around 1100 AD, these city-states started to fight each other for power and control of the area's land.

By about 1400, two city-states had grown into small empires.  In 1428, these two empires fought the Tepanec War for control of the area.  The Texcoco empire made an alliance with some other powerful city-states, including Tenochtitlan, and won the war.  These allies were supposed to share power equally as they started to gain control of more land.  However, by 1430, Tenochtitlan became the most powerful member of the alliance.  It became the capital city of the Aztec Empire, and its ruler became the 'high king' of the entire Empire.

Growth

From 1430 onward, the Aztec Empire grew.  Its military took over most of what is now northern Mexico.  At this point, the Aztec Empire controlled 135,000 square kilometres (almost 84,000 square miles) of Mesoamerica.p.453

When the Aztecs took over a state, they would take prisoners for ritual human sacrifice in Tenochtitlan.  The state would also have to pay the Aztec Empire "tributes" (almost like taxes).  As the Aztecs took over more and more states, these tributes made them very rich.

Sometimes, when the Aztecs took over a state, they would bring that state and its people into the Aztec Empire.  However, if a state was on the edge of the Empire, the Aztecs might let it stay its own state.  They did this so they would have other states around the Empire, protecting them from an invasion by other powerful states.

Tenochtitlan

The Aztecs had built their capital city right on a lake called Lake Texcoco.  As the Empire grew, so did Tenochtitlan.  By the early 1500s, at least 200,000 people lived in the city.  This made Tenochtitlan the largest city in the Americas before Christopher Columbus arrived.

Tenochtitlan was the center of the Aztec government and religion.  It was also a very big trading center.  When the Spanish arrived in 1519, they guessed that 60,000 people came to the market in Tenochtitlan every day.  People bought and sold many things there, including slaves (prisoners of war from states the Aztecs had taken over).  The city had a huge pyramid called the Templo Mayor (Great Temple).  The entire city was decorated with art, architecture, and stone sculptures.

The Aztecs had created canals all across the city.  By bringing water to Aztec crops, these canals made it possible for the Aztecs to grow much more food than they normally could have.  The Aztecs had also made levees to protect the city from flooding, and reservoirs for fresh water.

Society
At its most powerful, the Aztec Empire controlled about 11,000,000 people.  Among these people, there were different social classes with different social statuses.  The most important people were the rulers.  Next were nobles.  These were the Empire's powerful members of the government; great warriors; judges; and priests.  These people enjoyed a high social status.

The next social class was the commoners (common people).  These were the Empire's everyday workers.  Most of them farmed, ran stores, or traded.  Commoners were allowed to own land as a group or a family.  However, a single person was not allowed to own land.

The lowest social classes in Aztec society were serfs and then slaves.  Slaves had no rights at all.  However, if they had the money, they could buy their own freedom and become commoners.

For most of the Aztec Empire's existence, it was very difficult to move between social classes.  Usually, if a person was born in a social class, they would stay in that class for the rest of their life.

Education
By age 15, all children in the Aztec Empire had to go to school, no matter what social class they were in.  This was very unusual for the time.  In other places, like Europe, only boys were allowed to go to school, and only rich people could pay to send their children to school.

Until they were 15, children were taught by their parents.  Once they turned 15, all children had to go to school.  For most boys, the most important part of going to school was to make them the best possible warriors for the Empire.

Children of commoners went to schools called telpochcalli ('youth houses').  Boys got military training, while girls were taught how to do religious ceremonies.  Both boys and girls were also taught about Aztec religion, morals, and history.  They also learned singing, dancing, and public speaking.

The nobles' children went to a school called a calmecac.  Its goal was to get the children ready for jobs as the Empire's leaders.  These included jobs as military or government leaders; priests; scholars; teachers; and healers.  These schools taught about things like astronomy, geometry, mathematics, debate, law, music, poetry, architecture, agriculture, and war.  Boys had to eat and sleep at their schools.  They usually started at age 15 and left around age 20 to get married.  Girls could become priestesses or work in medicine, helping other women give birth.

Marriage
When a young person was ready to get married, their education would end.  This usually happened in their late teenage years or early twenties.  Especially with nobles, marriages were arranged.  This meant children's parents, or possibly other older people in the community, would choose who a person married.  Many marriages among noble youth were arranged as a power strategy (for example, to unite an Aztec with a family from a state that was recently taken over).  Marriage ceremonies lasted four days.

Aztec men were allowed to have other wives as well as concubines.  However, they were also expected to raise their sons, which was unusual for ancient societies (where women usually did all of the child-raising).

Aztec society also gave women rights that few other societies gave at the time.  Even after marrying, an Aztec woman's property and money were still her own; they did not go to her husband.  Women were also allowed to work in medicine, education, religion, and trade.

Morals
The Aztecs had strict rules and punishments for people who broke Aztec morals.  For example, things like disorderly conduct (causing trouble in public), drunkenness, could be punished by execution.

Military
All adult men in the Empire had to be in the Aztec military.  Men from states that had alliances with the Aztecs also fought in the Aztec military.  So did some men from states that the Aztecs had taken over.  Because of this, the Aztec military was large and powerful.

At this time, most battles were fought in big cities.  If an army took over one of a state's biggest cities, it was then allowed to take control over all the land around those cities.

Aztec warriors protected themselves with thick cotton armour.  They also had shields made of wood or reeds, and covered in dried animal skins.

For weapons, warriors had a few choices:
 Macuahuitl: A very sharp sword, with a point made of obsidian, which can be sharpened like glass.  This sword could also be used as a club
 Atlatl: A weapon used to throw spears or darts
 Bows and arrows

Religion

The Aztecs were pantheistic, meaning they believed in many different gods.  Two of the most important gods they worshipped were Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, and Tlaloc, the rain god.  The Aztecs set up temples specifically to honor these gods at the top of the pyramid in Technochtitlan.  However, they also worshipped hundreds of other gods.  Each one controlled some part of human life (like Quetzalcoatl, the god of learning and civilization), or some part of nature (like Zipe Totec, the god of springtime and regrowth).

In the Aztecs' religion, the sun was very important.  The Aztecs believed that the world went through five stages, and each had its own sun.  At the end of each stage, the gods would destroy the world and create a new one  but only four times.  They thought they were living in the fifth and last stage, and that the gods could decide to destroy the world at any minute.

Keeping the gods happy
The Aztecs did many things to try to honor the gods and keep them happy.  For example, they threw festivals, had banquets, made statues, and buried valuable items, all as offerings to the gods.  They did penance, like cutting themselves and letting blood run out, to try to get the gods to forgive them for whatever they might have done wrong.  They did ritual sacrifice of animals (killing the animals as part of a religious ritual).

Like many other ancient civilizations, the Aztecs also sacrificed human beings to the gods.

As Mesoamerican scholar Mark Cartwright explains:

The Aztecs sacrificed people in three different ways:
 Taking out their heart
 Cutting off their head
 Making them fight against many of the Aztecs' best warriors until they were killed

Culture
Some historians say the Aztecs had a "culture of war."  This means that everything focuses on making people into good warriors and people who support war.  One textbook says:

However, there were many parts to the Aztec culture.  They studied astrology and used the movements of the planets and the stars to create different calendars.  They understood and taught things like mathematics and poetry.  They had a complex view of religion, the universe, and many other things.

Art and architecture

Aztec culture respected and appreciated art.  They collected pieces of art from all over their Empire to decorate Tenochtitlan.  They also formed guilds of artisans  people who specialized in making certain kinds of art.  They made paintings, pottery, carvings, and many other things.  They used all sorts of materials, including gold, silver, amethyst, wood, and stone.  Huge stone sculptures were a popular type of art.  Aztec artists made their pyramid and other stone buildings into art too, by carving into them.

The Aztecs used symbolism in their art.  They even used art as propaganda.  For example, when they took over a state, they would build temples and statues with Aztec symbols on them.  They also used paintings that showed Aztec rulers as being close to the gods, doing what the gods wanted them to do.  This art spread Aztec religion and culture, and also reminded states that had been taken over just how powerful the Aztec Empire was.

End of the Empire

From 1519-1521, Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, defeated the Aztec Empire.  They made the Empire into a Spanish colony which they called New Spain.

Originally, things between the Spanish and the Aztecs were friendly.

However, soon, while Cortés was away, Spanish soldiers attacked and killed many Aztecs during a festival.  The Aztecs fought back, and they killed two out of every three Spanish soldiers.  The conquistadors left Tenochtitlan.

Ten months later, Cortés came back to Tenochtitlan with more soldiers.  They started a siege of Tenochtitlan, so that no food or supplies could get in.  After 91 days, without any food, and with disease throughout the city, the new emperor Cuauhtemoc finally surrendered to the Spanish on August 13, 1521.  The Spanish destroyed Tenochtitlan.  The Aztec Empire had ended.

Notes

References

14th-century establishments in North America
1521 disestablishments
Aztec
History of Mexico
Former empires
1345 establishments
Former monarchies of North America

Aztec Empire


Fig (genus Ficus) is a soft, sweet fruit. Its skin is very thin and has many small seeds inside of it. There are more than 850 kinds of Ficus, the fig tree.

The fruits can be eaten when rape and when dried. Figs grow in warm climates. Sometimes, figs are made into jam. Figs are also in a popular snack.

Figs are pollinated by fig wasps.

Fig fruit
Many figs are grown for their fruit, though only the common fig is grown to any amount for eating.

The fig is a false fruit or multiple fruit, in which the flowers and seeds grow together to form a single mass. Depending on the type, each fruit can contain up to several hundred to several thousand seeds.

A fig "fruit" is derived from a special type of an arrangement of multiple flowers. In this case, it is a turned inwards, nearly closed, with many small flowers arranged on the inside.

Then the actual flowers of the fig are not seen unless the fig is cut open. It is a fruit without a seen flower.

Contents of the fruit
The fig fruits, important as both food and traditional medicine, contain laxative substances, pigments, sugars, vitamins A and C, acids and enzymes. However, figs are skin allergies, and the sap is a big eye irritant.

Farmed figs
Some 'virgin fruit' farms of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of seedless edible figs without fig wasps. This section explains how this is done.

Pollination and fig wasps
Note: some readers may find this section difficult. That is because the facts of fig pollination are complicated. The facts in short are: figs are pollinated by little wasps. The fig fruit is called a synconium.

The syconium often has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the ostiole) at the outward end used by pollinators. The flowers are pollinated by very small wasps which crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs.

Without this, fig trees cannot reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This has led to a co-evolutionary relationship.

Fig plants can be monoecious (hermaphrodite) or gynodioecious (hermaphrodite and female).  Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and have plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, or have plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers. The long flower styles tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short styled flowers are accessible for egg laying.

The common fig (Ficus carica) is a gynodioecious plant, which means its fruits are either hermaphrodite and "inedible figs" or caprifigs. In traditional culture in the Mediterranean region they were considered food for goats (Capra aegagrus): 'caprifig' means 'goat fig'. In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "edible figs".

Fig wasps grow in caprifigs but not in the female syconiums. The female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes inside the fig. This means you do not eat the wasp because it has been dissolved. The wasp does not transmit any diseases harmful to humans.

Cultivation
The edible fig is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans.

Co-evolution
There is typically only one species of wasp that is able to pollinate the flowers of each type of fig. For example, in Hawaii, some 60 types of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that pollinate them have been introduced, so only four species of figs produce possible seeds there. This is an example of a helping relationship, in which each fig plant and fig wasp benefit each other.

The close relationship between fig types and their pollinators, and the one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio are a clear example of coevolution. Recent analyses have shown a close correspondence in the evolution and evolutionary process of these two, figs and wasps.

Other websites
 Early domesticated figs in the Jordan Valley
 Dried fruits: excellent in vitro and in vivo antioxidants

References

Fruits
Moraceae
Evolutionary biology

Fig


Abel Ayerza (21 May 1861 Buenos Aires, Argentina – 14 July 1918) was an Argentine doctor who gave his name to the cardiological condition Ayerza's disease.

Biography
Ayerza was the son of the Basque doctor, Toribio Ayerza. He was a fervent catholic, married to Adela Arning with whom he had 11 children. One of his sons was kidnapped and later killed by Juan Gallifi a local Sicilian gangster which caused a great public outcry.

He undertook his higher education in the Medical Faculty of Salvador College in 1872. In 1882 he was a visiting practitioner to the Hospital de Mujeres (Women's Hospital) and in 1884 was an internal practitioner of the Hospital de Clínicas. In 1885 he completed his practical studies as an intern in this hospital where he presented his thesis titled "Clinical Observations" sponsored by Dr. Ignacio Pirovano. He achieved his doctorate with a Gold Medal in 1886.

Two years later Ayerza travelled to Paris, France, to develop his technique of neurological examination and cardiopulmonary auscultation. Professor Jaccoud introduced him to nosology and Cartesian logical analysis at the Hôpital de la Pitié. He also worked with Jean Martin Charcot and Joseph Babinski at the Hôpital de la Sâltpetrière, with Pierre Carl Edouard Potain at the Hôpital de la Charité.

On his return to Buenos Aires in 1897 Ayerza acquired the position of First Chair of Clinical Medicine in the Medical Faculty of the University of Buenos Aires, the highest teaching level, where his particular educational style quickly found him renown.

President of the Argentine Medical Association between 1900 and 1901. Counselor of the Faculty of Medical Sciences from 1906 to 1912. Full member of the National Academy of Medicine from 24 October 1914.

Author of more than 200 scientific publications, Abel Ayerza was the first Argentinian name to enter world medicine by dint of "Ayerza's disease"

Ayerza's disease

A syndrome of signs and symptoms which include sclerosis of the pulmonary artery, polycythemia, dyspnea and cyanosis. It was first described by Ayerza in a lecture in 1901. Later one of his students, Francisco C. Arrillaga, included the observations into a 1912 thesis and in 1925 published a full description of the disease.

References

1861 births
1918 deaths
Physicians from Buenos Aires
Argentine people of Basque descent
Argentine cardiologists
Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery

Abel Ayerza


Stephanus van Cortlandt (May 7, 1643 – November 25, 1700) was the first native-born mayor of New York City, a position which he held from 1677 to 1678 and from 1686 to 1688. He was the patroon of Van Cortlandt Manor and was on the governor's executive council from 1691 to 1700. He was the first resident of Sagtikos Manor in West Bay Shore on Long Island, which was built around 1697. A number of his descendants married English military leaders and Loyalists active in the American Revolution, and their descendants became prominent members of English society.

Early life
Stephanus van Cortlandt was born on May 7, 1643, the son of Captain Olof Stevense van Cortlandt. His father had been born at Wijk bij Duurstede, in the Dutch Republic, and in 1637 arrived in New Amsterdam. Beginning as a soldier and bookkeeper, Olof Stevense van Cortland rose to high office in the colonial service of the Dutch West India Company, serving many terms as burgomaster and alderman before dying in 1684. His mother, nicknamed "Anna", was Annetje ( Loockermans) van Cortlandt (born Turnhout; March 17, 1618), who may have been the person who began the "Santa Claus" tradition in America.

His parents had four children: Stephanus van Cortlandt (1643–1700); Jacobus van Cortlandt (1658–1739), who married Eva de Vries Philipse (born 1660); Maria van Cortlandt, who married Jeremias van Rensselaer (1632–1674); and Catherine van Cortlandt, who married firstly Johannes Derval and secondly, after his death, Frederick Philipse (1626–1702), the first lord of Philipsborough Manor. Philipse was previously married to Margaret Hardenbroeck (1637–1691) and during that marriage, had adopted her daughter, Eva de Vries (born 1660), who thus took the name of Philipse.  Eva's father and Margaret's first husband was Peter Rudolphus de Vries (died 1661).

Career
In 1668, he was appointed ensign of one of the militia companies of New York City. In 1677, he was appointed by the English Governor of the Province of New York to a two-year term as mayor of New York City, the first who had been born in America. Although of Dutch parentage, he was reportedly appointed due to his intelligence, and social position in the community. In 1685, he joined partners Francis Rombouts and Jacobus Kip in being awarded what became known as the Rombout Patent to lands along the Hudson River in what is today's southern Dutchess County.

During his time in office, van Cortland remained an adherent of the aristocratic Whig party, especially during Leisler's Rebellion from 1689 to 1691. When Delanoy, the Leisler candidate, was elected to the mayoralty, in place of Van Cortland, the latter refused to deliver up the city seal. It has been said that when a committee came to his home, his wife shut the door in their faces.

Personal life

Van Cortlandt married Gertruj van Schuyler (b. 1654), the daughter of Philip Pieterse Schuyler and the sister of Pieter Schuyler (a colonial governor of New York and mayor of Albany). They lived at the "Waterside," on the present line of Pearl street, near Broad, where he engaged in business as a merchant.  Together, they had:
 Johannes Van Cortlandt (1672–1702), who married Anna Maria Van Schaick.
 Gertrude Van Cortlandt (1697–1766), who married Philip Verplanck, a grandson of Gulian Verplanck.
 Margaretta Van Cortlandt (b. 1674), who married Judge Samuel Bayard, the son of Nicholas Bayard and a descendant of the Stuyvesant family. A number of their descendants were Loyalists who relocated to England.
 Anne van Cortlandt (1676–1724), who married Stephen DeLancey (1663–1741).
 Catherine Van Cortlandt, who married New Jersey politician Andrew Johnston (1694-1762), the son of John Johnstone (1661–1732), the 32nd Mayor of New York City.
 Elizabeth Van Cortlandt, who married the Rev. William Skinner.
 Philip Van Cortlandt (1683–1746), who married Catherine de Peyster (1688-1766), daughter of Abraham de Peyster the 20th Mayor of New York City and his wife Catharine de Peyster. Philip and Catherine had six children:
 Stephen (1714–1756), who married Mary Walton Ricketts in 1738.
 Abraham (1713–1745)
 Philip (1715–1745)
 John (1718–1747)
 Pierre Van Cortlandt (1721–1814), first Lt. Governor of the State of New York, who married his second cousin, Joanna Livingston (1722–1808), daughter of Cornelia Beekman (1693–1742), niece of Gerardus Beekman and granddaughter of Wilhelmus Beekman, and Gilbert Livingston (1690–1746), a son of Robert Livingston the Elder and Alida Schuyler;
 Catherine Van Cortlandt (1725–1735), who died young.

Stephanus Van Cortlandt died in New York on November 25, 1700.

Descendants
His granddaughter, Gertrude Bayard, married Peter Kemble (1704–1789), a prominent New Jersey businessman and politician, and his great-granddaughter, Margaret Kemble (1734–1824), married Thomas Gage (1718/19–1787) who was General of the British Army during the American Revolutionary War. Descendants of this union are found in England, including amongst the Viscount Gages and the noble Bertie family in England (including those holding the title of Earls of Abingdon).

A grandson, James DeLancey (1703–1760) became New York Governor, and granddaughter Susannah DeLancey (1707–1771) married Vice-Admiral Sir Peter Warren (1703–1752). Another grandson, Oliver De Lancey Sr. (1718–1785) married Phila Franks, daughter of a prominent New York Jewish family.

Grandson, Lt. General William Skinner, was an American Revolutionary Loyalist whose son, Brig. Gen. Cortlandt Skinner (1727–1799) was also a Loyalist who married Elizabeth Kearney (1731–1810).  Another grandson, Pierre Van Cortlandt (1721–1814) was the 1st Lieutenant Governor of New York who married to Joanna Livingston (granddaughter of Robert Livingston). Their descendants include Philip Van Cortlandt (1749-1831) and Pierre Van Cortlandt, Jr. (1762–1848).

References

1643 births
1700 deaths
17th-century American politicians
American people of Dutch descent
Mayors of New York City
People of the Province of New York
People from New Netherland
Stephanus
Politicians from New York City

Stephanus Van Cortlandt


The Bobby Fuller Four (sometimes stylized as Bobby Fuller 4) was a popular mid-1960s American rock & roll band started by Bobby Fuller. First formed in 1962 in Fuller's hometown of El Paso, Texas, the group went on to produce some of its most memorable hits under the Mustang Records label in Hollywood, California. The band's most successful songs include "Let Her Dance", "I Fought the Law" and "Love's Made a Fool of You".

History
Fuller recorded his first single, "You're in Love", in 1961. Recorded in his parents' living room with The Embers, a local band he played in, it became a regional hit. Fuller started a new band in 1962, backed by his brother Randy on bass and Gaylord Grimes on drums. They had their single, "Gently My Love", professionally recorded at Norman Petty Recording Studios in Clovis, New Mexico. Although they achieved another regional hit, Fuller was not satisfied.

Disengaging from Yucca Records in Alamogordo, which had released his first two records, Fuller and his band began releasing their records through Fuller's own various independent labels, with the recordings done in Fuller's home recording studio. The group never had a definite name and recordings were credited to either "Bobby Fuller", or "Bobby Fuller and the Fanatics". Various additional members played in the band, the most significant being Jim Reese (formerly of the Embers) on guitar, and Dalton Powell (who had played piano for the Embers) on drums.

By 1963, the band pursued a record deal with a major label in Hollywood, California. While they were neglected by most labels, Bob Keane of Del-Fi Records showed particular interest in the group. While he saw potential, he didn't think the band had hit material yet. Fuller and his band returned to El Paso and continued to release regional hits, the most popular being "I Fought the Law", originally by the Crickets. By the end of 1964, Fuller saw branching out to a major label as their only option, thus Bobby Fuller, Randy Fuller, and Jim Reese prepared to move to California to revisit Del-Fi Records. Current drummer Dalton Powell could not make the move due to family commitments, and was replaced by another drummer, DeWayne Quirico, instructed by Fuller in person.

The band appeared as "themselves" in the 1966 film "The Ghost in the Invisible Bikini"—a comedy combining the ubiquitous beach, horror, and biker themes of the day. They back Nancy Sinatra on the song "Geronimo" and perform "Make The Music Pretty" and other incidental music.

Del-Fi Records

With the group's new hit records, Keane signed them to Del-Fi this time around. The band's first Del-Fi release, "Those Memories of You" was under the sister label, Donna Records (credited to Bobby Fuller and the Fanatics). With the band's increasing local popularity, Keane created a sister label just for Fuller's band, Mustang Records. The first release on Mustang was "Thunder Reef" in 1965. This time, the band was credited as The Shindigs to capitalize on the new ABC show, Shindig! Seeking a more permanent name, Keane decided upon The Bobby Fuller Four (as he favored Fuller), which was first used on the band's next single, "Take My Word". The new name received mixed reactions with the rest of the group, claiming that it put too much emphasis on Fuller, as opposed to the rest of the band, but the name stuck.

While their next release, "Never to be Forgotten" brought a regional hit, the band's next single, "Let Her Dance" brought the band's first national hit, barely missing the Billboard Hot 100 at 133, though bringing in a Top 40 hit. At the suggestion of Randy Fuller, the El Paso hit, "I Fought the Law" was re-recorded. It quickly gained national popularity, and by 1966, it rose to its peak position at No. 9 on the national charts. Meanwhile, the band was starting to experience internal troubles after touring, and drummer DeWayne Quirico abruptly left the group. John Barbata was asked to take his place, while negotiations were underway to get Dalton Powell back in the band. While performing at L.A. venue "P.J." the band produced a memorable performance of "I fought the law" featuring the go-go dancer Lada St. Edmund into the NBC television show Hullaballoo, and also participated in another TV show, Shivaree.

With Powell reinstated, the group went on to release "Love's Made a Fool of You", another Crickets cover (written by Buddy Holly and Bob Montgomery and recorded by Holly as a demo, reportedly intended for the Everly Brothers, though never recorded by that duo). This went on to become another national hit for the band. The next single was taken from the sessions where Barbata sat in, "The Magic Touch". While being popular locally, it did not match the success of the previous singles. In addition to the already existing internal problems, the band began to fall apart in July after Reese had received a draft notice in the mail (and arranged to sell his Jaguar XKE to Fuller), Powell also planned to announce his plans to leave the band to support his family back home.

Aftermath
Bobby Fuller died under mysterious circumstances on July 18, 1966. His body was found beaten inside his car parked just outside of his Hollywood home. Evidence suggests that he had ingested gasoline. Initially, these details were not released to the public. Although many of his friends suspected he might have been murdered by mobsters, Fuller's death was officially ruled a suicide by police.

After the death of Fuller, the band abruptly disbanded. The group's final single, "It's Love, Come What May" was only released in limited quantities as a promotional recording. Months later, Keane arranged the formation of the Randy Fuller Four in an attempt to capitalize on the previous success of the Bobby Fuller Four, complete with Randy Fuller on bass and rhythm guitar, DeWayne Quirico returning on drums, and Mike Ciccarelli and Howard Steele (other former El Paso musicians) on lead guitar and bass, respectively. The group released a few singles (including overdubbing the Bobby Fuller Four's "It's Love, Come What May"), but disbanded less than a year later in 1967 without any chart success.

Most former members of the Bobby Fuller Four remained active in the music industry after the group disbanded. Jim Reese died in 1991 after suffering a fatal heart attack whilst playing a round of golf.

Bobby has been the subject of 2 books: " I Fought The Law: The Life and Strange Death of Bobby Fuller" by Miriam Linna & Randell Fuller (2015); and "Rock & Roll Mustangs" by Stephen J. McParland (2009 and with an updated edition released in 2021).

Discography

Singles

ATracks from the first Mustang album also featured on the follow-up album "I Fought the Law"
1 Singles released as by Bobby Fuller
2 Released as by Bobby Fuller and The Fanatics
3 Released as by The Shindigs
4 Released as by Randy Fuller, but actually recorded by The Bobby Fuller Four with Randy's vocals overdubbed on A-side

Original US albums
 KRLA King of the Wheels (Mustang M-900 [mono] / MS-900 [stereo], 1965)
 I Fought The Law (Mustang M-901 [mono] / MS-901 [stereo], 1966)
 Celebrity Night At PJ's (cancelled — originally to be released as Mustang M-902 [mono] / MS-902 [stereo]; finally issued in the Never To Be Forgotten: The Mustang Years box set, 1997)

Compilations and reissues
 The Bobby Fuller Memorial Album (LP, President 1003, 1968)
 The Best of the Bobby Fuller Four (LP, Rhino RNDF-201, 1981)
 KRLA King of the Wheels (LP, Line LP-5146, 1981)
 I Fought the Law (LP, Line LP-5133, 1981)
 The Bobby Fuller Memorial Album (LP, Strand 6.24885, 1982)
 Let Them Dance (The Rare Sides) (LP, OutLine OLLP-5272, 1983)
 Live on Stage (LP, OutLine OLLP-5302, 1983)
 I Fought the Law (LP, Eva 12032, 1983)
 Live Again (LP, Eva 12046, 1984)
 The Best of The Bobby Fuller Four (CD, Rhino 70174, 1990)
 The Bobby Fuller Four (CD, Ace CDCHD-956, 1990)
 Live at PJ's...Plus! (CD, Ace CDCHD-314, 1991)
 The Best of The Bobby Fuller Four (CD, Ace CDCHD-388, 1992)
 The Bobby Fuller Four (CD, Del-Fi DFCD-70174, 1994)
 Never to Be Forgotten: The Mustang Years (3-CD box set, Mustang/Del-Fi DFBX-3903, 1997)
 The Mustang Years (2LP, Munster MR-184, 2000)
 I Fought the Law and Others (7-inch EP, Munster 7141, 2000)
 I Fought the Law: The Best of The Bobby Fuller Four (CD, Del-Fi/Rhino 71904, 2001)
 I Fought the Law and Other Hits (CD, Flashback/Rhino 78170, 2004)
 Rhino Hi-Five: The Bobby Fuller Four (CD, Rhino 7????, 2006)
 Magic Touch: The Complete Mustang Singles Collection (CD, Now Sounds [UK] WCRNOW-57, 2018)

Members

Timeline

References

External links

Rock music groups from Texas
Garage rock groups from Texas
Musical groups established in 1962
Musical groups disestablished in 1966
American musical quartets
Del-Fi Records artists
Musical groups from El Paso, Texas
1962 establishments in Texas
1966 disestablishments in California

The Bobby Fuller Four


Dekhmeye Rawansar or Koshk (دخمه روانسر) is a rock-cut  tomb located near the town of Ravansar, about 57 km northwest of Kermanshah in western Iran. This tomb was known to Ernst Herzfeld but he never visited it. The first archaeologist who visited the tomb was Massoud Golzari, an Iranian archaeologist who attributed it to Medes. It was re-visited and examined by Peter Calmeyer, German archaeologist (birth. 5 September 1930 in Halle, death. 22 November 1995 in Berlin) in the 1970s, who according to his observations related the tomb to the Achaemenid period.

The old part of the town is built at the foot of the isolated rock of Qola, into its northeastern face the tomb is cut, looking out over the plain and the Weshkaro seasonal river. An area was smoothed to form a vertical facade with a narrow ledge at its foot; and at one side of this facade a rectangular doorway was made, probably to be closed by a single slab of stone. This leads directly into the tomb chamber, which is roughly square and quite plain, there is nothing to indicate how the dead were disposed of in it, but it is large enough to have held several coffins or numerous receptacles for bones. Outside there are carvings in the smoothed area, but are badly weathered. These reliefs consist of a weathered human figure that standing close to the door and his face is toward right. Above is a man on a winged disk that faces left.  Under this winged figure there is a parallelogram diagonally laid and divided by 12 longitudinal lines which interpreted by Calmeyer as wood fuel. Above the tomb the cliff is almost sheer, but from below it is accessible. No attempt has been made to smooth away the rock; and this may indicate that it was a family tomb, used repeatedly. Based on its architecture it can be dated to the Achaemenid period, probably after the reign of Darius I.The tomb has been damaged by fire and graffiti during recent years.

A column base with probable same age have been found close to the Goni Khani spring that emerge at the western slope of Qola rock. Recently two other column bases were found in the town and moved to Rawansar Municipality. Some Sherds dating to first mill. bc. also have been collected around the Qola rock indicating its importance during Late Iron Age to early Achaemenid period.

References
Calmeyer, Peter 1978, "Das Grabrelief von Ravansar," AMI N.S. 11, pp. 73–85.

Golzari, Massoud., 1994 The Ravansar rock-cut tomb, and three Islamic tombstones. Proceedings of the First Archaeological Symposium in Iran after the Islamic Revolution, Susa, 14–17 April 1994.

Achaemenid Empire
Iron Age Asia
Iron Age sites in Asia
Archaeological sites in Iran
Ravansar County
Buildings and structures in Kermanshah Province
Rock-cut tombs
Burial sites of the Achaemenid dynasty
Medes

Dekhmeh Rawansar


As I Lay Dying is a 1930 Southern Gothic novel by American author William Faulkner.  Faulkner's fifth novel, it is consistently ranked among the best novels of 20th-century literature. The title is derived from William Marris's 1925 translation of Homer's Odyssey, referencing the similar themes of both works.

The novel uses a stream-of-consciousness writing technique, multiple narrators, and varying chapter lengths.

Plot summary
The book is narrated by 15 different characters over 59 chapters. It is the story of the death of Addie Bundren and her poor, rural family's quest and motivations—noble or selfish—to honor her wish to be buried in her hometown of Jefferson, Mississippi.

In the novel's first chapters, Addie is alive but in ill health. She expects to die soon and sits at a window watching as her firstborn child, Cash, builds her coffin. Anse, Addie's husband, waits on the porch, while their daughter, Dewey Dell, fans her mother in the July heat. The night after Addie dies a heavy rainstorm sets in; rivers rise and wash out bridges that the family will need to cross to get to Jefferson.

The family's trek by wagon begins, with Addie's non-embalmed body in the coffin. Along the way, Anse and the five children encounter various difficulties. Stubborn Anse frequently rejects any offers of assistance, including meals or lodging, so at times the family goes hungry and sleeps in barns. At other times he refuses to accept loans from people, claiming he wishes to "be beholden to no man," thus manipulating the would-be lender into giving him charity as a gift not to be repaid.

Jewel, Addie's middle child, tries to leave his dysfunctional family after Anse sells Jewel's most prized possession, his horse, yet Jewel cannot turn his back on them through the tribulations of the journey to Jefferson. Cash breaks a leg and winds up riding atop the coffin. He stoically refuses to admit to any discomfort, but the family eventually puts a makeshift cast of concrete on his leg. Twice, the family almost loses Addie's coffin—first, while crossing a river on a washed-out bridge (two mules are lost), and second, when a fire of suspicious origin starts in the barn where the coffin is being stored for a night.

After nine days, the family finally arrives in Jefferson, where the stench from the coffin is quickly smelled by the townspeople. In town, family members have different items of business to take care of. Cash's broken leg needs attention. Dewey Dell, for the second time in the novel, goes to a pharmacy, in an effort to obtain an abortion that she does not know how to ask for; clerk Skeet MacGowan coerces her into sex in the cellar in exchange for "abortion pills" which are just talcum powder. First, though, Anse wants to borrow some shovels to bury Addie, because that was the purpose of the trip and the family should be together for that. After that happens, Darl, the second eldest and thoughtful, poetic observer of the family, is seized for the arson of the barn and sent to the Mississippi State Insane Asylum in Jackson. With Addie only just buried, Anse forces Dewey Dell to give up her money given to her by Lafe (the man who got her pregnant) for an abortion, which he spends on getting "new teeth," and quickly marries the woman from whom he borrowed the shovels.

As are many of Faulkner's works, the story is set in Yoknapatawpha County, Mississippi, which Faulkner referred to as "my apocryphal county," a fictional rendition of the writer's home of Lafayette County in the same state.

Characters
 Addie Bundren – Addie is the wife of Anse and the mother of Cash, Darl, Jewel, Dewey Dell, and Vardaman.
 Anse Bundren – Anse is Addie's husband, later widower. He is the father of all the children but Jewel.
 Cash Bundren – Cash is a skilled and helpful carpenter and the eldest son of the family. In his late twenties, he builds Addie's coffin. Throughout the novel, he builds an attachment to his tools and proves to be heroic, but to a fault.
 Darl Bundren – The second eldest of Addie's children, Darl is about two years younger than Cash. Darl is the most articulate character in the book; he narrates 19 of the 59 chapters. Much of the plot is fueled and narrated by Darl as, throughout the book, he descends into insanity.
 Jewel Bundren – Jewel is the third of the Bundren children, most likely around nineteen years of age. A half-brother to the other children and the favorite of Addie, he is the illegitimate son of Addie and Reverend Whitfield. No one, other than Addie, seems to know this.
 Dewey Dell Bundren – Dewey Dell is the only daughter of Anse and Addie Bundren; at seventeen years old, she is the second youngest of the Bundren children. She was impregnated by Lafe and, as the family journeys to Jefferson, she unsuccessfully seeks an abortion.
 Vardaman Bundren – Vardaman is the youngest Bundren child, somewhere between seven and ten years old.
 Vernon Tull – Vernon is a good friend of the Bundrens, who appears in the book as a good farmer, less religious than his wife.
 Cora Tull – Cora is the wife of Vernon Tull. She is very religious and judgmental.
 Eula Tull – Cora and Vernon's daughter.
 Kate Tull – Cora and Vernon's other daughter.
 Peabody – Peabody is the Bundrens' doctor; he narrates two chapters of the book. Anse sends for him shortly before Addie's death, too late for Peabody to do anything more than to watch Addie die. Toward the end of the book, when he is working on Cash's leg, Peabody candidly assesses Anse and the entire Bundren family from the perspective of the community at large. Dr. Peabody is also a recurring character in the Yoknapatawpha County universe.
 Lafe – Lafe is a farmer who has impregnated Dewey Dell and given her $10 to get an abortion.
 Reverend Whitfield – Whitfield is the local minister with whom Addie had an affair, resulting in the birth of Jewel.
 Samson – Samson is a local farmer who lets the Bundren family stay with him the first night on their journey to Jefferson. Samson's wife, Rachel, is disgusted with the way the family is treating Addie by dragging her coffin through the countryside.
 Other narrators: MacGowan, Moseley, and Armstid

Background and literary techniques
Faulkner said that he wrote the novel from midnight to 4:00 a.m. over the course of six weeks and that he did not change a word of it. Faulkner spent the first eight hours of his twelve-hour shift at the University of Mississippi Power House shoveling coal or directing other works and the remaining four hours handwriting his manuscript on unlined onionskin paper.

Throughout the novel, Faulkner presents 15 different points of view, each chapter narrated by one character, including Addie, who expresses her thoughts after she has already died. In 59 chapters titled only by their narrators' names, the characters are developed gradually through each other's perceptions and opinions, with Darl's predominating.

As I Lay Dying helped to solidify Faulkner's reputation as a pioneer, like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, of stream of consciousness. He first used the technique in The Sound and the Fury, and it gives As I Lay Dying its distinctly intimate tone, through the monologues of the Bundrens and the passers-by whom they encounter. Faulkner manipulates conventional differences between stream of consciousness and interior monologue. For example, Faulkner has a character such as Darl speak in an interior monologue with far more intellectual diction (and knowledge of his physical environment) than he realistically possesses. This represents an innovation on conventions of interior monologues; as Dorrit Cohn states in Transparent Minds: Narrative Modes for Presenting Consciousness in Fiction, the language in an interior monologue is "like the language a character speaks to others ... it accords with his time, his place, his social station, level of intelligence ..."  The novel represents an early progenitor of the Southern Renaissance, reflecting on being,  existence, and other existential metaphysics of everyday life.

Significance

As I Lay Dying is consistently ranked among the best novels of 20th-century literature. The novel has been reprinted by the Modern Library, the Library of America, and numerous publishers, including Chatto and Windus in 1970, Random House in 1990, Tandem Library in 1991, Vintage Books in 1996, and the Folio Society in 2013.  Faulkner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949 for his novels prior to that date, with this book being among them.

The novel has also directly influenced a number of other critically acclaimed books, including British author Graham Swift's 1996 Booker Prize-winning novel Last Orders, Suzan-Lori Parks's Getting Mother's Body, and Jesmyn Ward's Sing, Unburied, Sing.

The Grammy-nominated metalcore band As I Lay Dying derived its name from the novel.

The character of Darl Bundren later appeared in Faulkner's 1935 short story "Uncle Willy".

Theatre adaptation
An adaptation of the novel by Edward Kemp was staged by the Young Vic company in May 1998.

References

External links

As I Lay Dying at Digital Yoknapatawpha
 Full text of As I Lay Dying as an encrypted DAISY Digital Talking Book, from the Internet Archive and bundled with The Sound and the Fury
 Literapedia

1930 American novels
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into plays
Existentialist novels
Modernist novels
Novels by William Faulkner
Novels set in Mississippi
Southern Gothic novels
Stream of consciousness novels

As I Lay Dying