In English tort law, there can be no liability in negligence unless the claimant establishes both that they were owed a duty of care by the defendant, and that there has been a breach of that duty. The defendant is in breach of duty towards the claimant if their conduct fell short of the standard expected under the circumstances.

General standard of care is as follows
For a defendant to be deemed negligent, he must have breached his duty of care towards the plaintiff. In order to be deemed as breaching the duty of care, his actions must be proven to fall below the standard of care likely to be taken by the reasonable man. Establishing a breach of duty and ascertaining the standard of care is complex and before establishing that the duty of care has been breached the plaintiff must first prove that the defendant owed him a duty of care.

The standard of care is defined as the measures that a reasonable person (in the circumstances of the defendant) take to reduce the risk of harm. This is an objective standard where the 'reasonable person' test is applied to determine if the defendant has breached their duty of care. In other words, it is the response of a reasonable person to a foreseeable risk. The standard of care naturally varies over time, and is affected by circumstantial factors. Thus, when a standard of care is established in one case, it will not automatically become a precedent for another - each case is judged on its own facts.

Special standards
The standard of "the man on the Clapham omnibus" is not applied in all cases, since this might lead to unfairness. There are defendants for whom this standard is much too low and would exonerate an obvious wrongdoing. In other cases, the standard may be seen as too demanding of the defendant in the circumstances. The most common examples are the cases of specialist defendants, inexperienced defendants and child defendants.

Skilled defendants (specialists)

The test of an ordinary average person would not be appropriate for defendants that profess or hold themselves out as professing a certain skill. The "man on the Clapham omnibus" does not have that skill and the conduct expected from a skilled professional is not the same as could be expected of an ordinary man in the same circumstances. The general standard applied to professionals is therefore that of a "reasonable professional", e.g. car mechanic, doctor etc.

Breach of the duty owed, Sabol v. Richmond Heights General Hospital (1996)

The court stated that the nurses' actions were consistent with basic professional standards of practice for medical-surgical nurses in an acute care hospital. They did not have nor were they expected to have specialized psychiatric nursing training and would not be judged as though they did.<ref>See Yoder-Wise, Patricia. Leading and Managing in Nursing, Revised Reprint, 5th Edition. Mosby, 2011.</ref>

Novices (imperitia culpae adnumerator)

Novices in a certain area of skill must show the same standard of care as a reasonable person with that particular skill. No allowance is given for the defendant's lack of experience.Nettleship v Weston (1971) 3 All ER 581 requires a novice driver to show the same standard of care as a reasonably competent driver.Wilsher v Essex Area Health Authority (1986) 3 All ER 801 expects a junior doctor to perform compliant to the standard of a competent and skilled doctor working in the same post.Wells v Cooper (1958) 2 All ER 527 states that someone who does DIY jobs repairing their own house is expected to show the same standard of care as a reasonably skilled amateur in the particular trade involved. However, they are not required to reach the standard of a professional.

It is important to note that the claimant's knowledge of the defendant's lack of experience in the skill he is exercising does not result in the standard being lowered. In Nettleship v Weston, a driving instructor was injured due to a mistake of his student. The student argued that the instructor was aware of her lack of experience, but the Court of Appeal refused to accommodate this fact in their decision on the standard of care expected from her. At the same time, the teacher's award of damages was reduced due to his contributory negligence.

Children
While no allowance is made for novices, the courts are prepared to lower the standard of care expected of children, on account of their age. A child defendant is expected to meet the standard of a reasonable child of the same age.

 Gough v Thorne (1966) 3 All ER 398: a 13½ year old girl was not contributorily negligent when she crossed the road without looking after being beckoned by a lorry driver and was hit by a car driving at excessive speed.
 Mullin v Richards [1998] 1 All ER 920: a fifteen-year-old girl was not negligent when she was play fighting with a friend and a ruler she was fencing with shattered, a splinter flying into the other girl's eye.
 OLL Ltd v Secretary of State for Transport [1997] 3 All E.R. 897: with particular regard to the duty of care owed by the emergency services.

Conduct expected of a reasonable person
In the usual case, having established that there is a duty of care, the claimant must prove that the defendant failed to do what the reasonable person ("reasonable professional", "reasonable child") would have done in the same situation. If the defendant fails to come up to the standard, this will be a breach of the duty of care. This is judged by reference to the following factors:

What did the defendant know? According to Denning LJ. in Roe v Minister of Health (1954) 2 AER 131, the defendant will only be liable if the reasonable person would have foreseen the loss or damage in the circumstances prevailing at the time of the alleged breach of duty.
What was the degree of risk? The greater the risk that serious harm can be inflicted, the greater the precautions that the defendant will be required to take. In Bolton v Stone[1951] A.C. 850, [1951] 1 All E.R. 1078, a cricket club was not negligent when a ball was hit out of the ground and injured the plaintiff, because the likelihood of this occurring was so small that the defendant could not be expected to have taken precautions. In Miller v. Jackson ([1977] QB 966, [1977] 3 WLR 20, [1977] 3 All ER 338 however, the ball was hit out of the ground several times every season. In these circumstances, the club was expected to take precautions.
How practical were these precautions? In Wilson v Governor of Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Primary School (1997) EWCA Civ 2644 it was held that a primary school was not negligent in not employing someone to supervise the playground after the close of school hours and until all the children had left. In Haley v London Electricity Board [1964] 3 All ER 185, a blind man fell into a hole in the ground that was indicated by a visual sign. He became deaf as a result. It was held that it was foreseeable that a blind man would be walking on the street and the risk of him injuring himself justified the precautions of putting up a barrier. The test is a balance of reasonableness of precautions against the likelihood of injury being sustained.
What is the social importance of the defendant's activity? If the defendant's actions serve a socially useful purpose then they may have been justified in taking greater risks. Thus, in Watt v Hertfordshire CC (1954) 2 AER 368, the fire brigade was not negligent in getting the wrong vehicle to the scene of an accident because valuable time would have been lost in getting the best vehicle there to help. Since 26 July 2006, this consideration has had a statutory basis under section 1 of the Compensation Act 2006.
Common practice. A defendant complying with a common practice in his area of activity will usually be considered to have met the standard of a reasonable man, unless the court judges the practice itself to be negligent. In Paris v Stepney Borough Council (1951) 1 AER 42 although there was a practice of not providing employees with safety goggles, the Council owed a special duty to protect the claimant because he had already lost the sight of one eye.

Sporting events
The conduct expected from a participant in a sports event towards his competitors or spectators differs from the conduct of a reasonable person outside such events. It has been held that in the "heat and flurry" of a competition, a participant will only be in breach of duty towards other participants and spectators if he shows "reckless disregard for their safety". At the same time, in another case,
the standard of care expected from one player towards another is the usual standard of taking "all reasonable care in the circumstances in which they were placed", although in that case the defendant was also found to be acting recklessly. It is not clear at present if and how the two approaches can be reconciled.

Burden of proof
THE OBLIGATION TO PROVE ONE'S ASSERTION is burden of proof.
Whether or not the defendant in a given case has conducted himself below the standard of "a reasonable person" is a question of fact and it is for the claimant to prove this fact. However, in certain situations it is unlikely that a certain event could take place without the defendant's negligence, for example if a surgeon left a scalpel in the patient's body. In such cases, it is said that "the thing speaks for itself" (res ipsa loquitur), and it is for the defendant to show that the fact causing the damage was not attributable to his negligence.

The claimant may raise res ipsa loquitur to shift the evidential burden to the defendant. To do so, following criteria must be satisfied:

1. The incident occurred in an unexplainable fashion;
2. The incident would not have occurred in the ordinary course of events if not defendant's negligence; and
3. The defendant or defendants had control of the injury causing object.

See also
 Damages
 Bolam Test

Notes

References
 Thomas Beven, "Principles of the Law of Negligence", London: Stevens & Haynes (1889).
 Wenham, David. (1998). "Negligent Children". 4 WebJCLI''

English tort law

Breach of duty in English law


In Unix computing, Fluxbox is an X window manager based on Blackbox 0.61.1. It tries to be lightweight and customizable, and has very little support for graphical icons. Its user interface has only a taskbar and a menu that can be used by right-clicking on the desktop. All basic settings are controlled by text files.

Fluxbox can show some eye candy such as: colors, gradients, borders, and several other basic appearance settings can be changed. Effects managers such as Xcompmgr and transset-df can add true transparency to desktop elements and windows. Enhancements can also be provided by using iDesk or fbdesk , or the ROX Desktop.
Fluxbox also has several features Blackbox does not have, including tabbed windows and a configurable titlebar.

Because of its small memory use and quick loading time, Fluxbox is popular in many Live CDs such as Knoppix STD and GParted. It was the default window manager of Damn Small Linux, but was replaced with JWM after the release of Damn Small Linux 4.0.  It is currently the default window manager of antiX , a linux distribution based on MEPIS and designed for old computers, PCFluxboxOS, a remaster of PCLinuxOS, and LinguasOS, a Live CD distribution for professional translators.  Fluxbuntu, Ubuntu with Fluxbox and lightweight applications, was released in October 2007.

Related pages
 Blackbox
 Openbox
 Fluxbuntu
 LinguasOS
 PCFluxboxOS

References

Other websites
 Official website
 Fluxbox official wiki
 #fluxbox on freenode
 LinguasOS
 PCFluxboxOS

Desktop Environments

Fluxbox


North Omaha é uma comunidade em Omaha, Nebraska, Estados Unidos da América.

Bibliografia
 Alexander, C. (1981) Rebirth of the Inner City: The North Omaha Plan. Center for Environmental Structure.
 (1992) The North Omaha Renaissance 2000 Plan. Ciaccio Dennell Group Inc. - A community-based and locally initiated plan that provided initial analysis and visions for the redevelopment of Northeast Omaha.
 (2004) Housing Study: Omaha Housing Authority—Population & Housing Demand Profile. - The Omaha Housing Authority plays an important role in Northeast Omaha. This OHA study projected housing trends in north Omaha. (The North Omaha Population and Housing Demand statistics can be found in the Appendix.)
 (n.d.) Multiethnic Guide. Greater Omaha Economic Partnership.

Ligações externas

  website
  website

Cidades de Nebraska

North Omaha


Hemlock is a free Emacs text editor for most POSIX-compliant Unix systems. It follows the tradition of the Lisp Machine editor ZWEI and the ITS/TOPS-20 implementation of Emacs, but differs from XEmacs or GNU Emacs, the most popular Emacs variants, in that it is written in Common Lisp rather than Emacs Lisp and C—although it borrows features from the later editors. Hemlock was originally written by the CMU Spice project in Spice Lisp (later renamed to CMU Common Lisp) for the PERQ computer.

Hemlock is integrated with the Common Lisp compiler, interpreter, and development suite CMU Common Lisp, though it is possible to use it as a standalone editor, or to use GNU Emacs with CMUCL instead—Hemlock integrates better, but has fewer features and addon programs.  One distinctive feature is that Hemlock distinguishes Lisp function names from interactive command names, which are given in a more natural-language-like style derived from the original MIT Lisp Machine editor Zmacs and TECO Emacs. It is able to display to a terminal, or use the CLX (Common Lisp X Library) for X11.

Other variants of Hemlock:

  Clozure CL's Macintosh integrated development environment has an editor, which is based on Hemlock code and uses Apple's Cocoa for display.
 The editor of LispWorks is based on an early version of Hemlock. This version is portable and runs on Windows, Mac OS X, X11/Motif and Gtk+. The editor not only runs in LispWorks, but also in Liquid Common Lisp.
 Lucid Common Lisp provided an editor called Helix, which was based on Hemlock.
 Portable Hemlock is a variant of Hemlock running on multiple versions of Common Lisp.

References

External links

"Hemlock User's Manual", Bill Chiles, Robert A. MacLachlan, February 1992 -(ps file)
Entry on CLiki
Portable Hemlock project

The original "Portable Hemlock" homepage
Quickdocs Hemlock API
LispWorks Editor User Guide Version 7.0

Emacs
Free text editors
Common Lisp (programming language) software
Public-domain software with source code

Hemlock (text editor)


Çoan ki (, also erectus ludus or "The Bottle Game") is a Chinese board game similar to western tables games. It was first described in 1694 by Dr. Thomas Hyde in De Ludis Orientalibus Libri Duo.

Gameplay
On a board divided transversely into eight fields, players take turns to move their sixteen bottle- or vase-shaped pieces around the board according to the roll of two dice. The aim of the game is to get all of a player's pieces to make one full circuit around the board and return them to their starting position.

Dice rolls can be divided between pieces as follows: either one piece moves the total value of the throw, or two pieces move the values shown on each individual die. If a double is thrown, the player may move two pieces the total value of the throw or one piece half the value (such that if a double five is rolled, two pieces may each move ten spaces or one piece may move five spaces). If the two dice show consecutive numbers, the player may move one piece the full value of the throw and one piece the lower value, or he may move one piece the full value and another piece the full value minus one (e.g. a throw of two and three would allow either one piece to move two spaces and another five, or one piece to move five spaces and another four). A player must use the full roll of the dice; if he cannot do so, he loses his turn.

By stationing eight pieces in the same field of the board, a player can create a block, which cannot be passed by the other player. Blocks cannot be created on either of the starting fields.

Players must enter a stake before the game begins. If at any time a player rolls double-one on the dice, he loses a piece and must stake an additional fine worth 10% of the total value of the pot. Under some rule codes, it is possible to avoid losing a piece by paying a larger fine. The winner of the game takes the pot.

References

17th-century board games
Chinese games

Coan ki


Stirling Castle, is a castle in Stirling, Scotland. It is one of the largest and most important castles in the United Kingdom. It guarded an important crossing of the River Forth, which exits to the North Sea in the east.

Location
The castle sits on the top of Castle Hill, an intrusive volcanic crag, part of the Stirling Sill geological formation. It is surrounded on three sides by steep cliffs, giving it a strong defensive position. It guards what was, until the 1890s, the farthest downstream crossing of the River Forth, This made it an important fortification from early times.

Structure
Most of the buildings of the castle date from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. A few structures of the fourteenth century remain, while the outer defences fronting the town date from the early eighteenth century. Several Scottish kings and queens have been crowned at Stirling, including Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1542. There have been at least eight sieges of Stirling Castle, including several during the Wars of Scottish Independence. The last siege was in 1746, when Bonnie Prince Charlie failed to take the castle. Stirling Castle is a scheduled Ancient Monument, and is a tourist attraction managed by Historic Scotland.

Castles in Scotland
15th-century buildings and structures
Stirling

Stirling Castle


Carlo Favetti (30 August 1819 - 1 December 1892) was an Italian politician and lawyer from Gorizia, who also wrote poetry in the Friulian language. He was the founder and leader of Italian irredentism in Gorizia and Gradisca.

He was born in Gorizia, in the Austrian Empire (now in Italy), in a wealthy middle-class family. His father was a lawyer, his mother was the granddaughter of the historian Giuseppe Cipriani. After finishing the classical gymnasium in Gorizia, he enrolled at the University of Vienna, where he studied law. Upon returning to Gorizia, he joined several Italian patriotic associations. In 1850, he founded the newspaper Il Giornale di Gorizia,  which was abolished by the Austrian authorities in 1851.

After the restoration of political liberties in the Austrian Empire in 1861, he was elected mayor of Gorizia. The Austrian government however refused to confirm the nomination. Nevertheless, he remained an influential figure in the local administration; under his supervision, an extensive building program was carried out in Gorizia.

In 1866, during the Third Italian War of Independence, Favetti was arrested by the Austrian authorities, and sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment for subversive activities. Already the following year, he was released. Fearing another arrest, Favetti escaped to Italy in 1868, settling in Venice. After the amnesty of 1871, he returned to Gorizia. In 1877, he was re-elected to the city council of Gorizia, where he remained until his death in 1896.

He wrote several poems and plays in the local version of the Friulian language.

Major works
Doi quadris della vita popolar gurizzana ('Two Sketches of the Folk Life in Gorizia'; 1882).
Fusilir e granatir, un scherz comic ('The Fusilier and the Grenadier: A Satirical Play'; 1891).
Leonardo Papes. Un zittadin gurizzan del 1500 ('Leonardo Papes. A Citizen of Gorizia from 1500; 1892).
Rime e prose in vernacolo goriziano ('Rhimes and Prose in the Vernacular of Gorizia; Udine, 1893).

See also
Friuli
Friulian literature
Austrian Littoral
Julian March
Ethnic and religious composition of Austria–Hungary

1819 births
1892 deaths
People from Gorizia
19th-century Italian politicians
Italian poets
Italian male poets
Politicians from Austria-Hungary
Friulian-language writers
People from Friuli
19th-century Italian poets
19th-century Italian male writers

Carlo Favetti


ASR Nederland is a major Dutch insurance group based in Utrecht.   The company was created in its current form in 2008 when the insurance business was split out of Fortis, after it was acquired by the Dutch government during the Financial crisis of 2007-2010. The Dutch government revived the old name that had been used prior to the acquisition by Fortis in 2000 for the newly structured company.

History
The original ASR insurance company was formed in 1997 after the merger of Stad Rotterdam Verzekeringen (which dates back to 1720) and ETI Amersfoortse insurance companies. The new name ASR was based on a combination of initials of Amersfoort and Stad Rotterdam.

In 2000, Fortis acquired ASR insurance and merged it with its other insurance business to form Fortis ASR.  At that time the other insurances business included the insurers Amev, Ardanta and Falcon (which included Interlloyd en VSB-leven).

In 2008 the insurance component became government owned when the Dutch Government took control of Fortis to prevent the bank and insurer succumbing to the Financial crisis of 2007–2010.

On November 21, 2008, the Dutch Finance Minister, Wouter Bos announced that they would spin off Fortis Insurance Nederland NV using the revived name of ASR Nederland NV.

Fortis Corporate Insurance was sold separately and did not form part of ASR Nederland. The Belgium insurance business of Fortis was not part of this process and that business was split by the Belgium government to create the insurance company Ageas.

Operations
ASR operates from four locations with a headquarters in Utrecht.

See also

ABN AMRO Group

References

External links

ASR Insurance Homepage

Financial services companies established in 1997
Insurance companies of the Netherlands
Companies listed on Euronext Amsterdam

ASR Nederland


Sven Einar Englund (June 17, 1916 – June 27, 1999) was a Finnish composer.

Life
Sven Einar Englund was born at Ljugarn in Gotland, Sweden, on June 17, 1916; he died June 27, 1999, in Visby, Sweden. He married twice: in 1941 to Meri Mirjam Gyllenbögel, who died 1956 (they had one son and two daughters including the ballerina and choreographer Sorella Englund); and in 1958 he married Maynie Sirén, a singer, with whom he had one son.

One of the most important Finnish symphonists since Jean Sibelius, Englund was a native Swedish speaker who often felt that his career was sidelined from the mainstream of Finnish music.

He went to Svenska normallyceum i Helsingfors and was 17 when he began studies at the Helsinki Conservatory (now the Sibelius Academy) in 1933. Already a considerable pianist, he continued his studies with Martti Paavola and Ernst Linko while studying composition with Bengt Carlson and Selim Palmgren.

Following his graduation in 1941, Englund was conscripted into military service. During his time in the Finnish Continuation War he was wounded in his hand, which almost brought to an end his hopes of pursuing a career as a concert pianist. He would often recall the bizarre, though life-threatening incident, with a smile.

Music
Englund's first work for large orchestra was his First Symphony (1946), which became known as the "War Symphony". This was no apprentice piece; the use of counterpoint, dissonance and orchestration of singular clarity reveals a master at work. His Second Symphony, the "Blackbird Symphony", soon followed.

In 1949 Englund was awarded a grant to study in the United States with Aaron Copland, and he also played jazz with Leonard Bernstein. It has been suggested that Englund's study with the American master consisted of discussions about music and composition, Copland having realised that there was little he could teach the younger man.

Throughout the 1950s he produced a series of large-scale works including Sinuhe, a ballet  (1953) originally for piano though later orchestrated, and Odysseus (1959), written for the Swedish dancer and choreographer Birgit Cullberg, a Cello Concerto (1954) and the First Piano Concerto (1955), as well as film scores and incidental music. His score for Erik Blomberg's Valkoinen peura (The White Reindeer), which won a Jussi Award (the Finnish Oscar), and his score for Max Frisch's play The Great Wall of China are particularly notable.

He composed music for twenty films, as well as works for choir including the Hymnus Sepulcralis (1975).

During the 1950s, with his second wife, the singer Maynie Sirén, he performed a cabaret act; he was music critic of the Swedish-language Hufvudstadsbladet, and he taught at the Sibelius Academy from 1958 until 1982.

His Third Symphony (1971) appeared 23 years after his second and signalled his return to composition; he had written only a few works during the 1960s. There soon followed his Fourth (1976) and Fifth Symphonies (1977) and the Concerto for Twelve Cellos (1981).

Englund's Sixth Symphony (1984), subtitled Aphorisms, is in six movements for chorus and orchestra; his last symphony, the Seventh, was composed in 1988, coinciding with the onset of the heart disease that signalled a decline in health and would ultimately lead to his death. His Clarinet Concerto of 1991 was completed shortly before a stroke rendered further composition physically impossible. Later he suffered from kidney failure, which necessitated dialysis for the remainder of his life.

Englund also composed chamber music, including a suite for solo cello and a sonata for cello and piano; there are also works for violin and piano, solo trombone, and solo piano.

His memoirs, I Skuggan av Sibelius (In the Shadow of Sibelius), were published in 1997. His work was also part of the music event in the art competition at the 1948 Summer Olympics.

Works

Ballets
Sinuhe (1954)
Odysseus (1959) (after Homer)

Orchestral
Symphonies
Symphony No. 1 The War Symphony (1946)
Symphony No. 2 Blackbird (1948)
Symphony No. 3 Barbarossa (1971)
Symphony No. 4 Nostalgic, for strings and percussion (1976)
Symphony No. 5 Sinfonia Fennica (1977)
Symphony No. 6 Aphorisms for choir and orchestra (1984)
Symphony No. 7 (1988)

Concertante

Cello Concerto (1954)
Piano Concerto No. 1 (1955)
Piano Concerto No. 2 (1974)
Violin Concerto (1981)
Flute Concerto (1985)
Clarinet Concerto (1990–1991)

Chamber/Instrumental
Quintet for Piano and Strings (1941)
Introduzione e capriccio for violin and piano (1970)
Divertimento Upsaliensis for wind quintet, string quintet and piano (1978)
Sonata for Violin and Piano (1979)
Concerto for 12 Cellos (1980–1981)
De profundis for 14 brass instruments (4 horns, 4 trumpets, 4 trombones, 2 tubas) (1980)
Sonata for Cello and Piano (1982)
Trio for piano, violin and cello (1982)
Pavane for violin and piano (1983)
String Quartet (1985)
Opening Brass for 15 brass instruments (4 horns, 4 trumpets, 4 trombones, euphonium, 2 tubas) (1988),
Vivat academia (fanfare) for brass orchestra (4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba) or brass quintet (1989)
Wind Quintet for flute, oboe, clarinet, horn and bassoon (1989)

Music for solo instrument
Humoresque for piano (1935)
Introduzione e Toccata for piano (1950)
Preludium for piano (1955)
Sonatina No. 1 (Sonatine in d) (1966)
Notturno (Prelude)  for piano (1967)
Passacaglia for organ (1971)
Marcia Funerale for organ (1976)
Panorama for trombone (1976)
Piano Sonata No. 1 (1978)
Serenata elegiaco for violin (1979)
Pavane e Toccata for piano (1983)
Sonatina No. 2  "Pariisilainen" (The Parisian) for piano (1984)
Preludium & Fughetta for piano (1986)
Suite for solo Cello "Viimeinen saari" (The Last Island) (1986)
Intermezzo for oboe (1987)

Incidental music
The Great Wall of China (1949)

Film music
  Omena putoaa (1952)
Valkoinen peura The White Reindeer  (1952)
 Kaikkien naisten monni (1952)
 ...ja Helena soittaa (1952)
 Yhden yön hinta (1952)
 Kultaa ja kunniaa (1953)
 Näkemiin Helena (1954)
 Muistojen kisakesä 1952 (1954)
 Rakkaus kahleissa (1959)
 Ratkaisun päivät (1956)
 Jokin ihmisessä (1956)
 The Stranger (1957)
 No Tomorrow (1957)
 Verta käsissämme (1958)
 Asessorin naishuolet (1958)
 Äidittömät (1958)
 Pojat (1962)
 Preludes to Ecstasy (1962)
 Ett fat amontillado (1963)

References

Sources
Englund, Einar: I skuggan av Sibelius. Söderström & Co., Helsingfors 1996.
Korhonen, Kimmo: "Finnish Orchestral Music 2." Finnish Music Information Centre 1995.
White, John David (ed.): New Music of the Nordic Countries. Pendragon Press 2002.
Hillila, Ruth-Esther & Blanchard Hong, Barbara: Historical dictionary of the music and musicians of Finland. Greenwood Press 1997.

External links

Englund biography, list of works, etc.
Fennica Gehrman's Englund page (publisher)

1916 births
1999 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Finnish classical composers
Finnish male classical composers
People from Gotland
20th-century male musicians
Olympic competitors in art competitions
20th-century Finnish composers

Einar Englund


Fluoridation is the adding of fluorine compounds (fluorides) to various substances, especially toothpaste and drinking water. Government officials, scientists, and doctors say that Fluoridation helps prevent tooth decay and cavities, but it also has harmful effects in larger doses, creating a controversy over whether water should be fluoridated.

Related pages
Fluoride
Fluorine
Fluorite

Fluorine compounds

Fluoridation


Vodafone Egypt (Arabic: ڤودافون مَصر, Vodafone Maṣr) is the largest mobile network operator in Egypt in terms of active subscribers. It was launched in 1998 under its former name Click GSM (Egyptian: كليك چى اس ام). It covers various voice and data exchange services, as well as 4G, 3G, ADSL and broadband Internet services.

Vodafone Egypt was initially headquartered in Maadi, Cairo since 1998 and until 2003; when Vodafone moved its headquarters to the Sixth of October City. some of the key members of the core network launch team were: Neil Marley, Ian Crawford and Peter Karney. Currently, all of Vodafone's core operations are run from Vodafone's campus at the Smart Village Technology Park.

License and establishment

On 30 November 1998, Vodafone Egypt Telecommunications announced that MisrFone Group (of which Vodafone owned a 30% share) was awarded the second license for GSM operations in Egypt (under the brand name of Click GSM). This decision was part of the move to privatize and liberalize the Egyptian market at the time. The first license had been given to the national incumbent which had launched the first mobile service in 1996 (the company is now Orange Egypt). In 2007, the telecommunications market in Egypt grew further and became more competitive when the third entrant to the market, Etisalat Misr, was awarded the third license for GSM operations.

In January 2007, Egypt's National Telecom Regulatory Agency (NTRA) awarded Vodafone Egypt a 15-year 3G licence.

On October 16, 2016, Vodafone Egypt was awarded the fourth-generation 4G mobile services license for a royalty fee of $335 million from the Egyptian National Telecom Regulatory Authority (NTRA).

In January 2020, Saudi Telecom announced a preliminary agreement to buy Vodafone Group's 55% shareholding in Vodafone Egypt for $2.4 billion.

Market position
In 2011, Vodafone became the market leader in terms of revenue share and with the largest customer base.
Vodafone Egypt provides its services for both individuals and enterprises in Egypt focusing on telecommunication services from Voice to Data and Internet services. As part of that strategy, Vodafone Egypt initially acquired 51% of Raya Telecom in September 2006 which offered a variety of resources that would help Vodafone expand.  It had a geographically dispersed network within Egypt and a solid experience in the fixed-line data communication field.  As Raya Telecom's resources provided an ideal match for Vodafone's growth strategy, the remaining portion of Raya Telecom was acquired and, in June 2007 Vodafone Egypt assumed full ownership.

Subsidiaries
Vodafone International Services (_VOIS)

_VOIS (formerly known as VIS) is a Vodafone Egypt subsidiary dedicated to delivering Business process outsourcing (BPO) and information technology outsourcing (ITO) services for sister Vodafone operators and beyond. Vodafone International Services started to provide services to Vodafone UK with 4 IT professionals in 2002.

Sarmady

In 2008, Vodafone Egypt acquired  Sarmady (formerly Sarcom). Established in 2001, Sarmady led some of Egypt's popular internet content and services including FilGoal.com, FilFan.com, Akhbarak.net, ContactCars.com, DarAlAkhbar.com and Reyada.com, fixed and mobile including sports, film, music, city guides, classifieds and social network.  It became the digital arm, delivering Vodafone's Internet experience in Egypt.

Vodafone Egypt Foundation
Vodafone Egypt Foundation makes long term social investments and was registered in 2003 as a Corporate Donor in the Egyptian Ministry of Social Solidarity. The Foundation is registered as a separate legal entity from Vodafone Egypt, governed by an independent Board of Trustees that includes a number of prominent figures in the area of development and social work in Egypt.

Vodafone Egypt Foundation is among 23 Vodafone Foundations around the world and is part of Vodafone's commitment to be a responsible global citizen and member of society. The Foundation is driven by Vodafone's strategic goal of being a leading responsible business by engaging in various forms of social investment aiming at improving the livelihood for marginalized people in Egypt. Vodafone Egypt Foundation implements all its projects through NGOs by granting funds to implement projects in addition to in-kind and volunteering support by Vodafone Egypt employees.

In February 2011, Vodafone Egypt Foundation launched the literacy initiative, a nationwide program (in cooperation with the UNESCO, and the Life Makers Association, as well as several civil society organization and relevant entities and in coordination with the Egyptian Ministry of Education) to tackle a major problem in Egyptian Society, illiteracy. The initiative aims to eradicate the illiteracy of 17 million Egyptians by 2017.

Market share
As of October, 2017, Vodafone has about 43 million
active subscriptions from almost 110 million mobile subscriptions in Egypt

Criticism during the 2011 Egyptian Revolution
During the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, Vodafone was heavily criticized by the Egyptian republic for switching off services (the other operating networks as of then, Mobinil and Etisalat did the same) when protests against former president Hosni Mubarak began. But the Egyptian authorities then ordered to switch the network back on, in order to send unsolicited text messages under Egypt's, then enacted, emergency laws.

In response to the criticisms regarding those text messages, Vodafone announced that the Egyptian government forced all telecom operators to send pro-Hosni Mubarak text messages to its customers in that country. The company says it protested to the authorities that the current situation regarding these messages is unacceptable.

Vodafone also faced a backlash in Egypt over an advert suggesting it helped inspire this year's revolution in the country. The three-minute commercial featured excerpts from a previous Vodafone ad campaign entitled "Our Power". The video goes on to show images from protest rallies in Cairo's Tahrir Square before claiming: "We didn't send people to the streets, we didn't start the revolution … We only reminded Egyptians how powerful they are."  Vodafone has strongly disassociated itself from the commercial, which was produced by the international marketing firm JWT. "The company does not have any connection to this video and had no prior knowledge of its production or posting on the internet," said Hatem Dowidar.

Ramadan brand advertisements
Vodafone Egypt used to enter the Ramadan media race with dedicated video adverts every year in Egypt as the viewership in the country spikes to the maximum. The company used to bring Egyptian celebrities to star in their Ramadan brand ads, such as Amr Diab, Esaad Younis, Mena Shalaby, Ghada Adel, Mahmoud El-Essily, Yousra, Ahmed El-Sakka, Samir Ghanem, Dalal Abdel Aziz, and many more in the last 10 years.

See also
 Telecom Egypt
 Orange Egypt
 Etisalat Egypt

References

External links

Vodafone
Mobile phone companies of Egypt
Telecommunications companies established in 1998
Joint ventures
Companies based in Cairo
1998 establishments in Egypt

Vodafone Egypt


Trevor H. Cairney  is an adjunct professor of education at the University of New South Wales Australia and president of the NSW Business Chamber. As an author, he has written widely on early learning, training, language acquisition and development. His work includes nine books and over 200 reports, articles, and book chapters collected by libraries. Cairney was awarded an Order of Australia Medal in 2012.

Early life

Cairney was born in Newcastle, New South Wales. He is the son of a Scottish coalminer, who was also one of nine sons of a Scottish coalminer, from  Caldercruix near Glasgow. He commenced a mechanical engineering trainee-ship at the BHP in Newcastle in 1971 but left in his first year to begin training as a teacher.

Career

Education career
Cairney worked as a primary school teacher in New South Wales, Australia in 1972. He taught for 10 years in three schools across all primary grades. This included 3 years as the teacher-in-charge of a one-room rural school.

Cairney worked for three years as a curriculum consultant for the NSW Department of Education. Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s he was enrolled in higher education, undertaking varied degrees, full-time, part-time or by external studies at the University of New England and the University of Newcastle. He completed an arts degree, a master's degree and then a PhD in Cognitive Psychology). Following his completion of his PhD in 1984 he was a postdoctoral fellow at Indiana University.

Postgraduate career
In 1981 he was employed at Charles Sturt University (Bathurst) teaching English Language and special education. He has worked at several other universities conducting research, teaching and filling other posts. These have included positions in universities as professor, head of various research centers, dean of an education faculty and pro vice-chancellor (research) at the University of Western Sydney (1989–2002).

In 2002 he was appointed as the master and CEO of New College, an independent Anglican residential college at the University of New South Wales in Sydney. In the same year Prof Cairney established The Centre for Christian Apologetics, Scholarship and Education (CASE) out of New College. In 2006 he initiated the development of New College Village (NCV), a postgraduate building, which opened in January 2009. He held this role until November 2016. He has held an adjunct professorship in the School of Education at UNSW since 2002, where he conducts research and scholarship and where he supervises postgraduate students. He is also an Honorary Professor in Education at the University of Sydney where he supervises PhD students.

Business career

Cairney was appointed as director of the Sydney Business Chamber in 1997 and then president (2001–2009). He initiated a merger between Sydney Business Chamber and Australian Business Limited (ABL). He was appointed as a director of NSW Business Chamber in 2006 and president in 2015. He was appointed as a director to the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry in 2016 where he also chaired the Employment, Education & Training Committee.

Cairney is currently a Fellow on the World Research, Advisory and Education Team of MindChamps with a focus on education.

Academic research and publications
Cairney's first research area was early language development with a particular interest in how children become literate, how families support this development, and how language and literacy is shaped within social settings and as an extension of relationships.

His second research area is regional development and began with undergraduate and postgraduate studies in urban, regional and economic geography. In the 1990s, while in management positions at the University of Western Sydney, he advocated for the university's involvement in the regional development of Greater Western Sydney (GWS). During this time he continued his language research situated primarily within families focussing on and their educational needs on the urban fringe of Sydney.

References

External links

Members of the Order of Australia
Academic staff of the University of New South Wales
Academic staff of Western Sydney University

1952 births
Living people

Trevor Cairney


The Complete Compleat Enchanter is an omnibus collection of five  fantasy stories by American authors L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt, gathering material previously published in three volumes as The Incomplete Enchanter (1941), The Castle of Iron (1950), and Wall of Serpents (1960), and represents an expansion of the earlier omnibus The Compleat Enchanter, which contained only the material in the first two volumes. The expanded version also differs from the previous omnibus by omitting its afterword, de Camp's essay "Fletcher and I". The omnibus is the first edition of the authors' Harold Shea series to be complete in one volume. It has appeared under three different titles.  It was first published in the UK in paperback by Sphere Books in 1988 under the title The Intrepid Enchanter and with a foreword by Catherine Crook de Camp.  The first US edition appeared under the title The Complete Compleat Enchanter, and replaces the foreword with a preface by David Drake.  That edition was published by Baen Books in 1989, and has been reprinted a number of times since.  Orion Books published an edition in the UK under the title The Compleat Enchanter in 2000 as volume 10 of their Fantasy Masterworks series.  The stories in the collection were originally published in magazine form in the May 1940, August 1940 and April 1941 issues of Unknown, the June 1953 issue of Beyond Fantasy, and the October 1954 issue of Fantasy.

The Harold Shea stories are parallel world tales in which universes where magic works coexist with our own, and in which those based on the mythologies, legends, and literary fantasies of our world and can be reached by aligning one's mind to them by a system of symbolic logic. Psychologist Harold Shea and his colleagues Reed Chalmers, Walter Bayard and Vaclav Polacek (Votsy), travel to several such worlds, joined in the course of their adventures by Belphebe and Florimel of Faerie, who become the wives of Shea and Chalmers, and Pete Brodsky, a policeman who is accidentally swept up into  the chaos. The five stories collected in The Complete Compleat Enchanter explore the worlds of Norse mythology in "The Roaring Trumpet", Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene in "The Mathematics of Magic", Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso (with a brief stop in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Kubla Khan) in "The Castle of Iron", the Kalevala in "The Wall of Serpents", and Irish mythology in "The Green Magician".

Contents
"Foreword" (by Catherine Crook de Camp)
"The Roaring Trumpet"
"The Mathematics of Magic"
"The Castle of Iron"
"The Wall of Serpents"
"The Green Magician"

Sequels
Following publication of The Complete Compleat Enchanter, the Harold Shea series was continued by de Camp in partnership with Christopher Stasheff and other authors in the anthologies The Enchanter Reborn and The Exotic Enchanter.

Sources

1988 short story collections
Fantasy short story collections by L. Sprague de Camp
Works by Fletcher Pratt
Literary collaborations
Sphere Books books

The Complete Compleat Enchanter


The Embassy of Germany () in Prague is located on Vlašská street (formerly Wälsche Spitalgasse), in the Malá Strana district of Prague, Czech Republic.

Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between West Germany and Czechoslovakia in 1973, it has occupied the large Palais Lobkowicz. The Baroque palace with an extensive garden was finished in 1707. It was acquired by the noble House of Lobkowicz in 1753, who in 1927 sold it to the Czechoslovak state.

East German refugees
In the eve of the Revolutions of 1989, the palais became the resort of numerous East German refugees who had reached Prague, climbed over the fence and camped out in the grounds. While there were small groups hiding there occasionally since the embassy was opened in 1974, the number rose to several thousands in September, causing serious problems of supply and hygiene.

Behind the scenes the West German government negotiated with East German authorities and the Soviet Union how to solve these worsening conditions. When Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher in the evening of 30 September stepped on the balcony to announce an agreement on the refugees' voyage to West Germany, the crowd cheered on the keyword Ausreise (departure). This event marked an emotional and significant moment in German history.

Until 3 November when the East German authorities closed the border with Czechoslovakia, many more GDR citizens fled to the embassy in the following weeks, wearing down the patience of the Czechoslovak authorities which gave in eventually, letting all East Germans travel directly to West Germany. Thus, they broke their part of the Iron Curtain, the Czechoslovak border fortifications during the Cold War. On 9 November 1989 the Berlin Wall fell, and the Czechs would succeed in the Velvet Revolution.

These events are commemorated by a golden statue of a Trabant car on four legs in the garden of the embassy.

References

External links

  Official website
 Video: Genscher at the German Embassy in Prague 1989

Czech Republic–Germany relations
Germany
Prague
Czechoslovakia–Germany relations
Houses completed in 1707
Palaces in Prague

Embassy of Germany, Prague


John Adolph of Nassau-Usingen (17 July 1740 in Biebrich – 10 December 1793 in Wiesbaden) was Count of Saarbrücken and Saarwerden and Lord of Lahr, Wiesbaden and Idstein.  He served as a colonel in the French army and later in the royal Prussian army as Major-General and as chief of the Fusilier Regiment No. 47.

Early life
Born into an ancient House of Nassau, he was the younger son of the ruling Prince Charles of Nassau-Usingen and his wife, Princess Christine Wilhelmine of Saxe-Eisenach (1711-1740).

Biography
In 1749 he went to the Netherlands with his older brothers and studied at Utrecht University for three years.

In 1752, he joined the French army.  He achieved the rank of colonel and led the infantry regiment von Fersen.  In 1758, he traded it for the cavalry regiment Nassau-Saarbrücken.  During the Seven Years' War, he spent the years 1757 to 1761 fighting in Germany.  He fought in the battles of Hastenbeck, Sonderhausen, Lutternberg, Bergen and Minden. He also participated in the sieges of Kassel and Wolfenbüttel and he fought at Grüneberg and Armöneburg. During the Battle of Sonderhausen, he was hit in the left shoulder.

In 1760, he received the military Order of Merit.  In 1761, he was promoted to Brigadier and in 1762 to Maréchal de Camp (major general).  In 1763, he received the Palatinate Order of Saint Hubert.

In 1764, he joined the Prussian army under King Frederick II.  He held the rank of Major-General and led the Fusilier Regiment No. 47. at Grabow.  In the War of the Bavarian Succession, his regiment was part of the army of Prince Henry. However, John Adolph was accused of embezzling army money and he left the army in outrage. He returned to the French army. Nevertheless, he received the Prussian Pour le Mérite Order in 1793.

Personal life
He was married to Baroness Carolina Wilhelmina von Reischach zum Reichenstein (1740-1804), who previously served as lady in waiting at the princely court of Nassau-Usingen in Biebrich and princely court of Hesse-Cassel in Hanau.

Death
He died in 1793 in Wiesbaden, childless.

References
 ,

Footnotes

1740 births
1793 deaths
18th-century German people
John Adolph
John Adolph
French military personnel
Military personnel from Wiesbaden
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)
Major generals of Prussia

John Adolph of Nassau-Usingen


Varsity teams are sports teams that compete in university sports events.

North America
In Canada and the United States, varsity teams are the principal athletic teams representing a college, university, technical school, high school, junior high school, or middle school. Such teams compete against similar teams at corresponding educational institutions.  Groups of varsity sports teams are often organized into athletic conferences, which are groups of teams that regularly play each other during a given athletic season. In recognition of their high level of performance, athletes on varsity teams are often given varsity letters. They are in contrast to the institution's club sports.

A major difference between varsity and club sports is the source for allocated funds. Varsity teams receive financial support, equipment, and facilities from college and university athletic department budgets. Universities often allocate club sport budgets through student life departments similar to other clubs on campus. Because club sports cost more than other clubs, many club student-athletes must pay to play and also engage in team fundraising efforts to pay for facilities time, equipment, and other team expenses. At various levels of collegiate sports, varsity student athletes are eligible for scholarships solely or partially based on athletic skills.

Varsity can be compared with the junior varsity (JV) and freshman levels, the former which are typically for less-experienced underclassmen, while the latter which are usually for ninth graders in high school, and also with intramural sports (IM sports), for which the teams are all within the same school (the word intramural means "within the walls"). JV and IM players may be able to go up to varsity level by performing well.

Elsewhere

United Kingdom and Ireland

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, varsity teams compete in varsity matches, usually as part of a varsity competition - a sports tournament between rival universities. The term originally referred strictly to university-sponsored teams, and dates from the 1840s.

Examples of varsity competitions include The Boat Race (sometimes considered the original varsity) and Roses, the largest varsity competition in Europe.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the Varsity is the oldest and most prestigious rowing race. It was held for the first time in 1878, and was started as a Dutch equivalent for the Boat Race between Oxford and Cambridge.

South Africa

Junior varsity
In the United States, Junior varsity (often called "JV") players are the members of a team who are not the main players in a competition, usually at the high school level and formerly at the collegiate level. The main players comprise the varsity team. Although the intensity of the JV team may vary from place to place, most junior varsity teams consist of players who are in their freshman and sophomore years in school, though occasionally upperclassmen may play on JV teams. For this reason, junior varsity teams are also often called freshman/sophomore teams. Skilled freshmen and sophomores may compete at the varsity level.

Junior varsity players
Members of a junior varsity team are underclassmen determined by the coaching staff to have less experience or ability than those on the varsity roster. As such, junior varsity teams are used to prepare these athletes to compete at the varsity level. In other schools, the line between JV and varsity is arbitrary, with all players at a certain grade level at the varsity and all others below that grade level at JV.

Some teams require participation on a junior varsity team before being eligible to try out for a varsity team. These players can provide the varsity team with extra depth, with their service as back-up players. The NCAA previously prohibited true freshmen from playing varsity college football and basketball; as a result, numerous junior-varsity "freshmen teams" appeared on many major college campuses. The NCAA repealed this limitation in 1972; to the extent that junior varsity teams exist at the college level, many are classified as club squads.

Many sports teams have assistant coaches responsible for developing the talent of junior varsity players.

When they play
A coach may call on junior varsity players during a varsity game, such as when a varsity player is unable to play.

A team will have many talented players, but the coach is unable to come up with a rotation that allows everyone to play. The decision of when to play junior varsity players in a one-sided game is often at the coach's discretion. This depends on the coach's strategy, the time remaining in the game, the point margin, and the game situation.

When the winning team is ahead by a substantial margin late in the game, the coaches of both the winning and losing teams may "empty their benches"—that is, they remove the varsity players and play the junior varsity players for the remainder of the game. The junior varsity players can impress coaches during this "garbage time" in hopes of gaining more playing time in subsequent games, while at the same time reducing the risk of serious injury by varsity players by resting them in a game whose outcome has been effectively decided.

Some games have rules which allow unlimited use of junior varsity players, such as basketball. Other sports have different ways of determining junior varsity participants. For instance, in high school wrestling, there can only be one wrestler competing for a team at a particular weight class in a given varsity match. The team's representative is often determined by a "challenge match," in which the top two wrestlers at that weight compete for the right to participate in the varsity match. The loser wrestles that night's junior varsity match.

A similar format is used for golf, tennis, and badminton, with players who lose to varsity opponents participating in the junior varsity part of the meet.

Junior varsity games
Junior varsity games are specially-scheduled events in which junior varsity players play to gain skills and experience. These games may be played immediately before a varsity contest or another night. Records and statistics are kept for the junior varsity team, and some leagues offer a junior varsity championship. An assistant coach acts as the head coach for these games.

In states that use ratings systems to determine playoff participation, junior varsity games do not factor in and are played with considerably less hoopla than varsity games. Attendance is far less, and bands, cheerleaders, and media coverage are usually not present.

In some sports, such as tennis and golf, a junior varsity meet will take place simultaneously with the varsity event; however, the scores are separately tabulated. In track and field, a junior varsity heat of a particular event may take place either before or after the varsity heat.

An underclassman who plays on a junior varsity team one year is expected to gain enough experience to be one of the varsity players the next season. A team's head coach will attend a junior varsity games to evaluate skill and decide if a player is ready to play in the main part of a varsity game.

Junior varsity teams may or may not travel with or take the field/court with the varsity team, or in particularly well-organized hierarchies (especially in sports such as football) may alternate home and away schedules with the varsity squad to ensure at least one of the two teams plays at home each week. This is often dependent on the size of the varsity team, availability of transportation and policies invoked by either the coach, school or league. A JV can sometimes completely replace a varsity team in a game with little to no importance; the Missouri Turkey Day Game, for example, has a provision that if either of the two regular opponents is still in the midst of their playoff tournament by the time the game is held, the JV teams will instead play the game.

See also
Letterman (sports)

References

Etymology
College sports
Sports terminology
Student culture
Sports culture
Sports clubs and teams

Varsity team


William Wallace Brown (April 22, 1836 – November 4, 1926) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania.

Biography
William W. Brown was born in Summerhill, New York.  He moved with his parents to Elk County, Pennsylvania, in 1838.  He attended the common schools and Smethport Academy.  He graduated from Alfred University in Allegany County, New York, in 1861.  He enlisted in the Twenty-third New York Volunteers in 1861, and transferred to the First Pennsylvania Rifles on December 18, 1861.

Brown was appointed recorder of deeds of McKean County, Pennsylvania, in 1864 and its superintendent of schools in 1866.  He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1866 and practiced.  He was elected district attorney of McKean County the same year.  In 1869 he moved to Corry, Pennsylvania, where he served three years as city attorney and two years in the city council.  He was a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from 1872 to 1876.  He was appointed aide-de-camp to Governor John F. Hartranft in 1876 and was associated with the Pennsylvania National Guard.  In 1878 he moved to Bradford, Pennsylvania, and continued the practice of law.

Brown was elected as a Republican to the Forty-eighth and Forty-ninth Congresses.  He was an unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1886.  He resumed the practice of law, and served as city solicitor of Bradford from 1892 to 1897.  He worked as auditor for the War Department from 1897 to 1899 and auditor for the Navy Department from 1899 to 1907.  He was appointed Assistant Attorney General by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1907, and served until 1910.  He was in charge of defense of Spanish treaty claims.  He resumed the practice of law in Bradford where he died 1926. He was interred in Alfred Cemetery in Alfred, New York.

References
 Retrieved on 2008-02-14
The Political Graveyard

Republican Party members of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Pennsylvania city council members
Alfred University alumni
Pennsylvania lawyers
Union Army soldiers
1836 births
1926 deaths
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
County district attorneys in Pennsylvania
People from McKean County, Pennsylvania
People from Corry, Pennsylvania
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
19th-century American lawyers

William Wallace Brown


Peter Brewis is a composer and instrumentalist who has been active in several spheres of music from ballet and modern dance to music theatre and rock music. Although he was classically trained, studying under the famous French music educator Nadia Boulanger, he has also written for comedy shows such as Spitting Image, for which he composed "I've Never Met a Nice South African."

Career
Brewis studied composition at the Royal College of Music where he won the Cobbett Prize for composition. After graduation he took lessons in composition from Nadia Boulanger, studied electronic music with Lawrence Casserly and Javanese Gamelan with Alec Roth.

Brewis spent a period as composer-in-residence with Scottish Ballet's Movable Workshop. He composed the music for the company's joint production with Traverse Theatre of C. P. Taylor's Columba. Stuart Hopps was the choreographer. Other dance projects includes Finale for Charlie composed for Charles Augins and Endangered Species created for the Kosh Theatre Company.

He has composed several musicals. Some of these were for educational projects. However, his Don Quixote was composed for the husband and wife team of Reg Bolton and Annie Stainer and the Traverse Theatre. Mel Smith and Bob Goody were working on a two-man show at the same venue. Brewis teamed up with them and together they created three black comedy musicals, including Irony in Dorking which won a Fringe First Award and The Gambler whose 1986 revival at the Hampstead Theatre was nominated for an Olivier Award and was also recorded by the specialist musical theatre label First Night Records. Brewis's other musicals include Hansel and Gretel, put on at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith in 1999 and Rat's Ahoy, co-written with Ruby Wax but as yet unperformed though Brewis has provided music for other stage shows of hers. Another revue that won the Fringe First Award in which Brewis was involved was White Collar Club.

Brewis has collaborated on several of Smith's other projects. These include the television shows, Smith and Goody, Not the Nine O'clock News and Alas Smith and Jones, for the last two of which Brewis provided music and lyrics, the films Morons from Outer Space and The Tall Guy and the stage show Not in Front of the Audience in which the cast of Not the Nine'O'clock News performed Brewis's short musical Laker! as well as material from the television show, including several of Brewis's songs.

Other television shows on which Brewis has worked include the comedy programmes Three of a Kind, A Kick Up the Eighties, The Lenny Henry Show, Carrott's Lib, Lenny Beige and Spitting Image. Although he provided lyrics for all of these shows, Brewis also composed music for other people's lines, for example in the song I've Never Met a Nice South African which was the B-side for the chart-topping The Chicken Song. He has music credits for the shows The Strangerers, The History of the World, Filthy, Rich and Catflap, Hardwicke House, Friday Night Live, The Smell of Reeves and Mortimer, Hale and Pace, Comic Relief, The Young Ones, Angus Deayton's End of the Year Show and Too Much Sun. Brewis has also provided music for documentaries, children's
programmes and commercials.

Film credits include About a Boy, for which Brewis wrote and composed "Santa's Super Sleigh", Staggered and several films by Vera Neubauer, Phil Mulloy and Claire Barwell. Brewis has also composed music for several stage plays, including a production of As You Like It which he himself directed at the Battersea Arts Centre.

Brewis has not only played his own music but he has also performed or recorded with a number of bands. These include;
 Swan Revived, who supported Hawkwind when they toured in 1973 at the height of the latter's success,
 the electronic-folk group Magnet which was formed for and appeared in the original film of The Wicker Man,
 Stomu Yamashta's large touring rock and dance troupe The Man from the East,
 the backing group of The Marvelettes
 and The Peter Straker Band who recorded an album for EMI co-produced by Freddie Mercury.
He has also been musical director for many shows, including:
 the Japanese tour by the original cast of The Rocky Horror Show,
 that show's transfer to the West End
 and the original run of Chorus Girls at the Theatre Royal, Stratford East.

References

Sources
Composer's website: contains biographical and career details as well as musical snippets.

External links

record of plays co-written by Brewis in database of playwrights at doollee.com.

British composers
British musical theatre composers
British film score composers
British male film score composers
British television composers
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Peter Brewis


David Norris Brenner (February 4, 1936 – March 15, 2014) was an American stand-up comedian, actor and author. The most frequent guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in the 1970s and 1980s, Brenner "was a pioneer of observational comedy." His friend, comedian Richard Lewis, described Brenner as "the king of hip, observational comedy."

Early life
Brenner was born to Jewish parents in 1936 and raised in South and West Philadelphia. His father, Louis, was a vaudeville comedian, singer and dancer, performing under the stage name of Lou Murphy, who gave up his career and a film contract to please Brenner's grandfather, a rabbi, who objected to his working on the Sabbath. Once David became successful, he regularly sent his parents on cruises, and both of Brenner's parents would eventually die at advanced ages while on cruises aboard the Queen Elizabeth 2, approximately two years apart.

After high school, Brenner spent two years in the U.S. Army, serving in the 101st Airborne and as a cryptographer of the 595th Signal Corps in Böblingen, Germany. After being discharged, he attended Temple University, where he majored in mass communication and graduated with honors.

Career
Brenner was a writer, director or producer of 115 television documentaries and headed the documentary units of Westinghouse Broadcasting and Metromedia, winning nearly 30 awards including an Emmy, before moving to comedy. His first paid gig was at The Improv in June 1969, and following that he frequently performed at clubs in Greenwich Village.  Brenner was ranked No. 53 on Comedy Central Presents: 100 Greatest Stand-Ups of All Time. At one point, he had appeared more often on major TV talk shows than any other entertainer. He also wrote five books, and starred in four HBO Specials.

Books
Brenner released the comedy album Excuse Me, Are You Reading That Paper? on MCA Records in 1983. The title arose from a gag in the album wherein a fellow passenger on a subway asked Brenner if he was reading a newspaper on which he was sitting. Brenner stood up, turned the page, sat down and said, "Well, yes I am." Brenner also penned five books including Soft Pretzels With Mustard (1983), Revenge is the Best Exercise (1984), Nobody Ever Sees You Eat Tuna Fish (1986), If God Wanted Us to Travel... (1990), and I Think There's a Terrorist in My Soup: How to Survive Personal and World Problems with Laughter—Seriously (2003), which was also released as an audiobook.

Television
After making his national television debut in 1971, on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, he became the show's most frequent guest, with 158 appearances. He guest-hosted for Johnny Carson 75 times between 1975 and 1984, placing him fifth on the list of Carson's most frequent guest hosts.

Brenner was the star of the 1976 TV series Snip, which was inspired by the film Shampoo and set in a hair dressing salon. The situation comedy was shelved by NBC shortly before its broadcast premiere, because network executives became nervous about a supporting character who would have been one of the first gay characters on television in an American sitcom. Years later, Brenner said, "They made up all kinds of excuses, but the reason Snip was pulled is we had an actor who was gay and who played a gay part. They were afraid to have a gay on television."

In 1986, King World Entertainment gave Brenner his own 30-minute syndicated late-night talk show, Nightlife, in an attempt to compete with Carson, but it was cancelled after one season. The show premiered September 8, 1986, on 102 stations and was touted as "alternative". Filmed in Manhattan and featuring a casually dressed Brenner, it was unique among the late night talk genre for not having a monologue. It gave some comedians, such as Bobby Slayton, their national television premieres.

In addition to the Tonight Show, Brenner also appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show, The David Frost Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, Late Night with David Letterman and the Late Show With David Letterman, Real Time With Bill Maher and The Daily Show and was a frequent guest on The Howard Stern Show. In later years he appeared on both MSNBC and Fox News Channel shows commenting on current events.

Film
Brenner portrayed a charity ball auctioneer in the 1989 romantic comedy Worth Winning (with Mark Harmon, Madeleine Stowe, and Lesley Ann Warren, who was also Brenner's co-star on Snip).

Radio
From 1994 to 1996, Brenner hosted a daytime talk-radio program, inheriting the timeslot of the long-running Larry King Show on the Mutual Broadcasting System. He had earlier hosted a syndicated weekly radio show, David Brenner Live, for three months in 1985. The Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia named Brenner their Person of the Year in 1984 and inducted him into their Hall of Fame in 2003.

Personal life
Brenner had three children: Cole, Slade, and Wyatt. He and the mother of Cole, his first son, fought a custody battle for several years. Brenner finally won child custody in 1992. Because family courts would have regarded him as an absentee father if he were away from home more than 50 nights a year, Brenner substantially reduced the number of appearances in his stand-up comedy work, including performances on the Tonight Show, in order to secure and maintain custody of his son.  Brenner married Elizabeth Slater of New York, the mother of his sons Slade and Wyatt, in the closing minutes of his David Brenner: Back with a Vengeance! HBO Special recorded in Las Vegas, on February 19, 2000. They divorced a little over a year later with Brenner claiming their first year of marriage was "the best year I had in my whole life ... I was the happiest man in the world" but then she grew "into this new person" and he didn't fit into her new lifestyle. They fought two custody battles, both of which Brenner won. Brenner was engaged to Tai Babilonia in 2005, but they never married. For a while in the 2000s, Brenner lived in Las Vegas.

Death
Brenner died on March 15, 2014, at age 78, from pancreatic cancer at his Manhattan home.

References

External links

David Brenner on VisitPA.com sharing what he likes to do in Philly
David Brenner at the Comedy Hall of Fame
Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia website
NYTimes obit.

1936 births
2014 deaths
20th-century American comedians
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American comedians
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American male actors
American documentary filmmakers
American male comedians
American stand-up comedians
American television talk show hosts
Comedians from Pennsylvania
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Jewish American comedians
Jewish American male actors
Jewish American male comedians
Jewish American military personnel
Jewish American writers
Male actors from Philadelphia
Temple University alumni
United States Army soldiers

David Brenner


Rada is an unincorporated community in Hampshire County in the U.S. state of West Virginia. Rada is located on U.S. Highway 220/West Virginia Route 28 between Junction and Purgitsville in southwest Hampshire County along Mill Creek. It lies at an intersection of US 220/WV 28 with Rada Road (West Virginia Secondary Route 220/7).

Rada once had its own post office  and school   in operation here until the early 20th century. The community was named after Rada Dany, child of the postmaster during its operation.

References

Unincorporated communities in Hampshire County, West Virginia
Unincorporated communities in West Virginia

Rada, West Virginia


Morphine (INN) (IPA: ) is a strong opiate pain killer drug. It is the principal active agent in opium and the prototypical opiate.  Like other opioids, e.g. diacetylmorphine (heroin), morphine acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain, and at synapses of the nucleus accumbens in particular.  Morphine is highly addictive when compared to other substances, and tolerance and physical and mental dependences develop very rapidly.

Patients on morphine sometimes say they have insomnia, visual hallucinations and nightmares; if these occur then reduction in dosage or switch to an alternative opioid analgesic should be considered.

The word "morphine" is derived from Morpheus, the god of dreams in Greek mythology. He is the son of Hypnos, god of sleep.

Medical uses
Morphine is used legally:
 As a pain killer in hospital settings for
 treating pain after surgery
 relieving pain associated with trauma
 In the relief of severe chronic pain, e.g.
 Cancer pain
 Pain from kidney stones
 Back pain
 As an adjunct to general pain killers
 In epidural anesthesia or intrathecal analgesia
 For palliative care (i.e. to lessen pain without curing the underlying reason for it. This is often done for patients with incurable diseases)
 As a medication for severe cough
 In nebulised form, for treatment of dyspnoea.  The evidence for efficacy is slim . Evidence is better for other routes .
 As an antidiarrheal in chronic conditions (e.g., for diarrhea associated with AIDS), although loperamide (a non-absorbed opioid acting only on the gut) is the most commonly used opioid for diarrhea.
 Morphine was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, which is generally believed to be the first ever isolation of a natural plant alkaloid in history. Sertürner began distributing it in 1817, and Merck began marketing it commercially in 1827. At the time, Merck was a single small chemists' shop. Morphine was more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic syringe in 1857. Sertürner originally named the substance morphium after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus (Greek: Μορφεύς), for its tendency to cause sleep.[2] It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, a list of the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[3]

References

Opioids
Analgesics
Organonitrogen compounds

Morphine


A nuclear war is a war in which countries fight with nuclear weapons. Because nuclear weapons are extremely powerful and could cause destruction throughout the world, the possibility of nuclear war has had a great effect on international politics.

So far, two nuclear weapons have been used during warfare. They were used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and resulted in the deaths of approximately 120,000 people. Thousands of much more powerful bombs were made in later years.  They have not yet been used in war.

History
Nuclear bombs were invented by the United States with Canadian and British help during World War II to help make that war stop.  The destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria caused Japan to surrender.  They are still the only nuclear weapons that have ever been used in fighting a war.  At that time only the United States had the technology needed to make the bomb, but within a few years the Soviet Union had developed it too. In the new Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union were enemies and each had many nuclear weapons, but they did not dare to use them against each other, either directly or by attacking the other country's allies. Since either country could be completely destroyed by the other's weapons, nuclear war could no longer be limited to the use of only one or two bombs; if they were used anywhere by one side, the other would attack with its own nuclear weapons, and the fighting would almost certainly become greater. This situation came to be known as the "balance of terror," or Mutually Assured Destruction, and stopped conflicts between the two superpowers from leading to a third world war.

Since the end of Communist rule in Russia and Eastern Europe, tensions between America and Russia have eased and war has become less likely. However, today there is more worry about nuclear proliferation. Countries around the world who already have their own bombs include Britain, France, China, Israel, India, Pakistan and North Korea; as all kinds of technology tend to become cheaper and easier to get and use, there is a fear that nuclear weapons could become available to countries with unstable governments. There is also the possibility that terrorists might be able to capture or build nuclear weapons and use them.

Nuclear war in fiction

Ever since the end of World War II, writers, film-makers, and artists have created works of fiction imagining how a nuclear war might happen and what life would be like afterwards. Most have pictured widespread death and destruction, and a grim post-armageddon world where a few survivors struggle to live without power, medicine, or food. Some have pictured civilization breaking down completely, and primitive societies developing; with the past world becoming forgotten.

Related pages
World War III

War
Nuclear weapons

Nuclear war


Desert climate or Arid climate (in the Köppen climate classification: BWh "hot desert climate" and BWk "cold desert climate") is a type of climate where precipitation is generally less than  a year. Low rainfall is a feature of deserts such as the Arabian, central Australia and the Sahara. It is a feature of continental interiors, the western sides of continents, and the leeward side of tall mountain ranges. Parts of the Arctic and Antarctic have arid climates even though they are cold.

Defining a desert
A "true desert" is one where plant cover is very sparse and rainfall is rare or infrequent. Because desert air is dry there is little moisture to hold onto the heat of the day. Desert nights are usually very cold. This wide temperature variation can make a desert climate difficult to live in.

Some deserts get more than 250mm of rainfall yearly but are still arid areas. For example, the Kalahari Desert gets up to  a year. It has great sand dunes like the Sahara, but they do not shift in the winds. They have plants that anchor the sand and help to keep their shape. Other areas can also have more than 250mm of precipitation but lose more water via evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. Tuscon and Alice Springs are good examples of this. Tucson gets an average of  of rainfall a year. Alice Springs receives about  yearly. Some scientists do not consider these as true deserts.

Types
There are three types of desert climates in the Köppen climate classification: a hot desert climate (BWh), a cold desert climate (BWk) and a mild desert climate (BWh/BWn). Hot deserts have very hot summers that have temperatures that can even reach 45 °C (113 °F). Temperatures can even be very warm during winter. Cold deserts can have hot summers as well, but the winters are usually very cold. They are usually at high altitudes and can be drier than hot deserts.

Adaptations
Desert plants and animals have adapted to living in desert climates. Some animals can get by on less water. Some plants are able to store water. Some animals, like snakes, lizards and scorpions use poisonous venoms to kill for food. This saves valuable energy: they do not need to chase, fight or catch their prey. Many animals are nocturnal. They sleep in cool caves or burrows during the day and hunt at night. Plants likewise have adapted to saving water. Some have waterproof coverings that prevent the plant or seeds from drying out. Some, like the giant Saguaro cactus, store water. They have adapted so well that they can live for more than 150 years and can average over 40 ft tall. Many types have thorns and protective spines that keep animals from getting at their stores of water.

Related pages
 Desert
 List of deserts

References

Other websites

Köppen climate classifications
Climate
Deserts

Desert climate


The Ottoboni were an aristocratic Venetian family, who gained prominence in Rome after the 17th century, mainly due to the papacy of Alexander VIII and his cardinal nephew, Pietro Ottoboni, known for his patronage of musicians and painters. Cardinal Ottoboni's acceptance of a role representing France at the Holy See was objected to by the Serene Republic, whose senate had not been consulted first. A recent infraction of the rule that no Venetian citizen should serve a foreign power without the express leave of the Serenissima rankled at Venice: Cardinal Vincenzo Grimani had moved to Vienna in 1699 and was appointed viceroy of Naples in 1708. Cardinal Ottoboni did not placate the Senate, and the Ottoboni were ceremonially erased from the Libro d'Oro and their properties confiscated. The diplomatic rupture between France and Venice was soon smoothed over, but the Ottoboni remained in disgrace.

 Pope Alexander VIII (born Pietro Vito Ottoboni; 1610–1691)
 Antonio Ottoboni (1646–1720), Captain General of the Church, nephew of Alexander VIII
 Pietro Ottoboni (cardinal) (1667–1740), grandnephew of Alexander VIII

Notes

Republic of Venice families
Families of post-ancient Rome

Ottoboni family


Robert Gordon of Straloch (14 September 1580 – 18 August 1661) was a Scottish cartographer, noted as a poet, mathematician, antiquary, and geographer, and for his collection of music for the lute.

Life

The younger son of Sir John Gordon of Pitlurg, Knight, (died 1600) by his spouse Isabel, daughter of William Forbes, 7th Lord Forbes, Robert Gordon was educated at the Marischal College, University of Aberdeen, of which he was the first graduate, and afterwards at the University of Paris. Sometime after 1608 he acquired the estate of Straloch, north of Aberdeen. After the death of his elder brother John Gordon without issue in 1619, Robert inherited his estate of Pitlurg.

The original manuscript of Robert's collection of lute music, known as the Straloch Manuscript, is lost, but transcriptions survive. His book, which included a tune for Greysteil was titled, 'Ane playing booke for the Lute, wherein are contained many currents and other musical things, Musica mentis medicina moestae, At Aberdeen, collected by Robert Gordon, February 1627.'

Works

In 1641, Charles I wrote a letter, in which he entreated Gordon "to reveis the saidis cairtiss", to complete the publication of an atlas of Scotland, which had been projected by Timothy Pont. By two Acts of the Scottish Parliament he was exempted from any form of military service, while the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland published a request to the clergy, to afford him assistance. The undertaking was completed in 1648 and was published by Joan Blaeu of Amsterdam, under the title of Theatrum Scotiae. A second edition was published in 1655 and a third in 1662. This atlas was said to be the first delineation of Scotland made from actual survey and measurement.

Gordon made other maps, and revised many others, adding geographical descriptions, and prefixing an introduction in Blaeu, in which a comprehensive view is given of the constitution and antiquities of the country. These dissertations were one of the first attempts to settle the ancient history of Scotland.

He contributed other essays, many of which are still in manuscript form, some mentioned with much approbation by Bishop Nicolson in his Scottish Historical Library; the principal of which is a Latin manuscript History of the Family of Gordon from the earliest period to the year 1595, bearing the Latin title: Origo et Progressus Familiae illustrissimae Gordoniorum in Scotia.

He also wrote a preface to Archbishop Spottiswoode's History of the Church of Scotland, and translated into Latin the controversy between John Knox and Wolfram, sub-prior of St. Andrews. A critical letter of his on Scottish historians, which he addressed to the antiquarian David Buchanan, is inserted in Leyland's Collectanea; some of his poems have been printed in Bishop Forbes' Funerales (Aberdeen, 1635).

Marriage and death

Robert Gordon married in 1608, Catherine, daughter of Alexander Irvine of Lenturk, by whom he had nine sons and six daughters.

He died in 1661, and was interred in the family burial place at New Machar on 6 September.  A portrait of him, by Jameson, the Scottish van Dyck, hangs in the great hall of Marischal College. He was the grandfather of another Robert Gordon, the founder of Robert Gordon's Hospital which later became Robert Gordon's College and The Robert Gordon University.

References

 Burke, John, History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland, vol.iv, London, 1838, pp. 47–8.
 Anderson, William, The Scottish Nation, Edinburgh, 1867, vol.v, p. 332.

1580 births
1661 deaths
People from Aberdeenshire
Scottish cartographers
Scottish explorers
Scottish scholars and academics
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
University of Paris alumni
17th-century Scottish people
Scottish poets
Scottish antiquarians
Scottish mathematicians
Scottish geographers
Scottish collectors
17th-century cartographers
17th-century Scottish mathematicians
17th-century Scottish writers
Scottish expatriates in France

Robert Gordon of Straloch


The Little Red Schoolbook (; ) is a book written by two Danish schoolteachers, Søren Hansen and Jesper Jensen, first published in 1969. It was subject to much controversy upon its publication and was translated into many languages in the early 1970s.

Synopsis
The book encourages young people to question societal norms and instructs them on how to do this. Out of 200 pages, it includes 20 pages on sex and 30 on drugs, including alcohol and tobacco. Other topics included adults as "paper tigers", the duties of teachers, discipline, examinations, intelligence, and different schools.

Reception
As a result of its subject matter and its targeted audience of schoolchildren, politicians in many countries criticised the book, fearing it would erode the moral fabric of society and be an invitation for anarchy in schools. The LRSB was banned in France and Italy.

In Switzerland, the Bernese cantonal politician Hans Martin Sutermeister led a campaign against the book. He was initially successful in temporarily blocking the introduction of the book into the country. The subsequent controversy, however, ended his political career, costing him his job as director of the schools of the Swiss capital and contributed to a split in his party, the Ring of Independents, which led to its mid-term decline.

The book was banned in the Australian state of Queensland by the Queensland Literature Board of Review in 1972. Much of the moral outrage centred around statements such as "Some girls, and a very few boys, don't masturbate. This is quite normal. It is also normal to do it." and "Sex may or may not involve strong feelings.  Strong feelings may or may not involve sex.  You don't have to go to bed with someone just because you are fond of him or her." Beatrice Faust contributed to the Australian edition of The Little Red Schoolbook. It was not banned in New Zealand despite some "moral outrage".

United Kingdom
The book was translated into English by Berit Moore a Norwegian living in England in 1970.

In the UK, Christian morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse pressed for the book to be prosecuted in a letter to the Director of Public Prosecutions, although action was already being taken. She was quoted in a Daily Telegraph article published on 29 March 1971 asserting the book "had caused 'incalculable harm' to children" in Denmark"; it "normalises the most licentious behaviour", she believed. Ross McWhirter, in a letter to The Guardian, thought "the real issue" about the book was its seditious nature.

The offices of the book's British publisher, Richard Handyside, were raided by the police and the eventual prosecution under the Obscene Publications Act was successful. Headmistress Elizabeth Manners, a witness for the prosecution at the trial, said: "It is not true to say that masturbation for girls is harmless, since a girl who has become accustomed to the shallow satisfactions of masturbation may find it very difficult to adjust to complete intercourse. This should be checked, but I believe it to be a fact". The court's decision was upheld on appeal on the basis that Handyside had not shown the public interest was served by issuing the book. It reached the European Court of Human Rights in the case known as Handyside v United Kingdom. The government however allowed a second, censored edition to be published, in which some of the passages criticised in court were amended or cut.

It was the subject of a BBC Radio 4 documentary in 2008 presented and produced by Jolyon Jenkins. It was also discussed critically by Peter Hitchens in his 2009 book The Broken Compass: How British Politics Lost its Way.

An unexpurgated edition of the book, bar one minor cut, was published in the UK in July 2014.

See also
Handyside v United Kingdom

References

External links
Documentary about the book's effect in Australia:
Prosecution of the book in the UK (with further references):
 In Living Memory: The Little Red Schoolbook – BBC Radio 4 documentary episode

1969 non-fiction books
Counterculture of the 1960s
Danish non-fiction books
Educational materials
Sex education
Social sciences books

The Little Red Schoolbook


Pío Baroja y Nessi (December 28 1872, San Sebastián–October 30 1956, Madrid) was a Spanish writer. He was one of the main novelists of the Generation of '98. He was a member of an well known family. One of his relatives was a painter and engraver. His nephew Julio Caro Baroja was a well known anthropologist.

Spanish writers
1872 births
1956 deaths

Pio Baroja


Trinidad (Spanish for "Trinity") was the flagship () of Ferdinand Magellan's voyage of circumnavigation.  Unlike Elcano's Victoria, which returned to Spain sailing across the Indian Ocean, Trinidad tried and failed to sail east across the Pacific to New Spain or modern-day Mexico. Trinidad was a nao (ship) of 100 or 110 tonels with square sails on the fore and main masts and a lateen mizzen. Its original crew was 61.  After Magellan's death and the burning of the Concepcion, Victoria and Trinidad (the San Antonio and the Santiago being lost earlier) reached Tidore on 8 November 1521. In mid-December both ships attempted to depart loaded with cloves, but Trinidad almost immediately began to leak badly.  Inspection showed that the problem was serious. It was agreed that Victoria would leave for Spain and Trinidad would remain for repairs.

On 6 April 1522, Trinidad left Tidore loaded with 50 tonels of cloves.  Her commander was Gonzalo Gomez de Espinosa, Magellan's alguacil (master-at-arms), a good soldier, but no sailor. After ten days Trinidad put in at one of the Marianas, where three men deserted, and then headed northeast. Espinosa was apparently trying to reach the Westerlies, but did not find them, probably because of the summer monsoon. He reached 42 or 43 degrees north in increasingly bad weather. Scurvy set in, ultimately killing 30 men and leaving only 20 to sail the ship. Five months after leaving, he turned back and two months later reached the Moluccas.

The previous May a fleet of seven Portuguese ships under António de Brito reached Tidore, seeking to arrest Magellan. Espinosa sent Brito a letter begging for supplies. Brito sent an armed party to capture Trinidad, but, instead of armed resistance, they found only a ship on the verge of sinking and a crew near death.  Trinidad was sailed back to Ternate where her sails and rigging were removed. The ship was caught in a storm and smashed to pieces.

Only four of the survivors got back to Europe. Juan Rodriguez escaped in a Portuguese ship.  The remaining three — commander Espinosa, seaman and expedition diarist Ginés de Mafra, and Norwegian gunner Hans Vargue (or Bergen) — spent two years at hard labor before being shipped to Lisbon and more prison.  Vargue died in the Portuguese prison. Espinosa is last heard of in 1543 as a Spanish inspector of ships.

De Mafra, the last to be released because of the many documents he possessed, in time did become a pilot  in part because of the experience he gained with Magellan's expedition.  In 1541 he was named pilot of the  under Ruy López de Villalobos; two years later, wrecked on a Philippine island, he wrote about the Magellan expedition while waiting on ship repairs.  Here the Magellan expedition was remembered favorably by royalty, and ultimately he with 29 other men chose to remain in the Philippines rather than resume with the failing Villalobos expedition. De Mafra's notes from his wait remained unpublished until found in 1920.

Notes

Citations

References

 .

Exploration ships
Age of Discovery ships
16th-century maritime incidents
Magellan expedition
Age of Sail ships of Spain

Trinidad (ship)


Léo Malet (7 March 1909 – 3 March 1996) was a French crime novelist and surrealist.

Biography
Leo Malet was born in Montpellier. He had little formal education and began work as a cabaret singer at "La Vache Enragee" in Montmartre, Paris in 1925.

In the 1930s, he was closely aligned with the Surrealists, and was close friends with André Breton, René Magritte and Yves Tanguy, amongst others. During this time, he published several volumes of poetry.

He died in Châtillon, a little town just south of Paris where he had lived for most of his life, four days before his 87th birthday.

Works
Though he dabbled in many genres, Malet is most famous for Nestor Burma, the anti-hero of Les Nouveaux Mystères de Paris. Burma, a cynical private detective, is an astute speaker of argot (French slang), an ex-Anarchist, a serial monogamist and an inveterate pipe smoker. Of the 33 novels detailing his adventures, eighteen each take place in a sole arrondissement of Paris, in a sub-series of his exploits that Malet dubbed the "New Mysteries of Paris" quoting Eugène Sue's seminal "feuilleton". However, Malet never completed the full 20 arrondissements as he originally planned. Apart from the novels, five short stories were also published, bringing the total of Burma's adventures to 38.

The comic artist Jacques Tardi adapted some of Malet's books, much to the author's approval. Malet claimed that Tardi was the sole person to have visually understood his books. Tardi also provided cover illustrations for the Fleuve Noir editions of the novels, which were published from the 1980s onward.

Selected bibliography
 120, rue de la Gare (1943)
 Le cinquième procédé (1948)
 Le soleil naît derrière le Louvre (1954) (First of the "New Mysteries of Paris" series)
 Des kilomètres de linceuls (1955)
 Fièvre au Marais (1955)
 La nuit de Saint-Germain-des-Prés (1955)
 M'as-tu vu en cadavre (1956)
 Brouillard au pont de Tolbiac (1956)
 Casse-pipe à la Nation (1957)
 Micmac moche au Boul' Mich'  (1957)
 Nestor Burma court la poupée (1971)
 Poste restante (1983)

Comic book adaptations
 Brouillard au pont de Tolbiac (Casterman, 1982); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
 120, rue de la Gare (Casterman, 1988); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
 Une gueule de bois en plomb (Casterman, 1990); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
 Casse-pipe à la Nation (Casterman, 1996); drawn by: Jacques Tardi
 M'as-tu vu en cadavre ? (Casterman, 2000); drawn by: Jacques Tardi

Filmography
120, rue de la Gare, directed by Jacques Daniel-Norman (1946), with René Dary (as Nestor Burma)
La Nuit d'Austerlitz, directed by Stellio Lorenzi (TV film, 1954), with Daniel Sorano (as Nestor Burma)
The Enigma of the Folies-Bergere, directed by Jean Mitry (1959), with Bella Darvi, Frank Villard, Dora Doll
La Nuit de Saint-Germain-des-Prés, directed by Bob Swaim (1977), with Michel Galabru (as Nestor Burma)
Nestor Burma, détective de choc, directed by Jean-Luc Miesch (1982), with Michel Serrault (as Nestor Burma), Jane Birkin
Les Rats de Montsouris, directed by Maurice Frydland (TV film, 1988), with Gérard Desarthe (as Nestor Burma)
Nestor Burma (TV series, 39 episodes, 1991–2003), with Guy Marchand (as Nestor Burma)

References

External links
Short biography in Italian

1909 births
1996 deaths
Writers from Montpellier
French crime fiction writers
French surrealist writers
20th-century French novelists
French male novelists
20th-century French male writers

Léo Malet


Bose gas is a concept in quantum mechanics.

Classical mechanics has a concept called ideal gas. This concept describes how a gas usually behaves, in different settings. A bose gas is the analogous concept in quantum mechanics.

A bose gas is made of bosons with a positive spin value. These bosons also follow the Bose-Einstein statistics. The statistical mechanics of bosons were developed by Satyendra Nath Bose for photons.  Albert Einstein extended the theory, when he realized that an ideal gas of bosons would form a condensate at a low enough temperature. This condensate is known as a Bose–Einstein condensate. This is not the case with  a classical ideal gas.

Quantum mechanics

Bose gas