Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (; 27 January 1775 – 20 August 1854), later (after 1812) von Schelling, was a German philosopher. Standard histories of philosophy make him the midpoint in the development of German idealism, situating him between Johann Gottlieb Fichte, his mentor in his early years, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, his one-time university roommate, early friend, and later rival. Interpreting Schelling's philosophy is regarded as difficult because of its evolving nature.

Schelling's thought in the main has been neglected, especially in the English-speaking world. An important factor in this was the ascendancy of Hegel, whose mature works portray Schelling as a mere footnote in the development of idealism. Schelling's Naturphilosophie also has been attacked by scientists for its tendency to analogize and lack of empirical orientation. However, some later philosophers have shown interest in re-examining Schelling's body of work.

Life

Early life
Schelling was born in the town of Leonberg in the Duchy of Württemberg (now Baden-Württemberg), the son of Joseph Friedrich Schelling and Gottliebin Marie. From 1783 to 1784, Schelling attended the Latin school in Nürtingen and knew Friedrich Hölderlin, who was five years his senior. Subsequently Schelling attended the monastic school at Bebenhausen, near Tübingen, where his father was chaplain and an Orientalist professor. On 18 October 1790, at the age of 15, he was granted permission to enroll at the Tübinger Stift (seminary of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg), despite not having yet reached the normal enrollment age of 20. At the Stift, he shared a room with Hegel as well as Hölderlin, and the three became good friends.

Schelling studied the Church fathers and ancient Greek philosophers. His interest gradually shifted from Lutheran theology to philosophy. In 1792, he graduated with his master's thesis, titled Antiquissimi de prima malorum humanorum origine philosophematis Genes. III. explicandi tentamen criticum et philosophicum, and in 1795 he finished his doctoral thesis, titled De Marcione Paulinarum epistolarum emendatore (On Marcion as emendator of the Pauline letters) under Gottlob Christian Storr. Meanwhile, he had begun to study Kant and Fichte, who influenced him greatly. Representative of Schelling´s early period is also a discourse between him and the philosophical writer , who was Fichte´s housemate at that time, in letters and in Fichte´s Journal (1796/97) on interaction, the pragmatic and Leibniz.

In 1797, while tutoring two youths of an aristocratic family, he visited Leipzig as their escort and had a chance to attend lectures at Leipzig University, where he was fascinated by contemporary physical studies including chemistry and biology. He also visited Dresden, where he saw collections of the Elector of Saxony, to which he referred later in his thinking on art. On a personal level, this Dresden visit of six weeks from August 1797 saw Schelling meet the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel and Karl Friedrich Schlegel and his future wife Caroline (then married to August Wilhelm), and Novalis.

Jena period

After two years tutoring, in October 1798, at the age of 23, Schelling was called to University of Jena as an extraordinary (i.e., unpaid) professor of philosophy. His time at Jena (1798–1803) put Schelling at the centre of the intellectual ferment of Romanticism. He was on close terms with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who appreciated the poetic quality of the Naturphilosophie, reading Von der Weltseele. As the prime minister of the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, Goethe invited Schelling to Jena. On the other hand, Schelling was unsympathetic to the ethical idealism that animated the work of Friedrich Schiller, the other pillar of Weimar Classicism. Later, in Schelling's Vorlesung über die Philosophie der Kunst (Lecture on the Philosophy of Art, 1802/03), Schiller's theory on the sublime was closely reviewed.

In Jena, Schelling was on good terms with Fichte at first, but their different conceptions, about nature in particular, led to increasing divergence. Fichte advised him to focus on transcendental philosophy: specifically, Fichte's own Wissenschaftlehre. But Schelling, who was becoming the acknowledged leader of the Romantic school, rejected Fichte's thought as cold and abstract.

Schelling was especially close to August Wilhelm Schlegel and his wife, Caroline. A marriage between Schelling and Caroline's young daughter, Auguste Böhmer, was contemplated by both. Auguste died of dysentery in 1800, prompting many to blame Schelling, who had overseen her treatment. Robert Richards, however, argues in his book The Romantic Conception of Life that Schelling's interventions were most likely irrelevant, as the doctors called to the scene assured everyone involved that Auguste's disease was inevitably fatal. Auguste's death drew Schelling and Caroline closer. Schlegel had moved to Berlin, and a divorce was arranged with Goethe's help. Schelling's time at Jena came to an end, and on 2 June 1803 he and Caroline were married away from Jena. Their marriage ceremony was the last occasion Schelling met his school friend the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, who was already mentally ill at that time.

In his Jena period, Schelling had a closer relationship with Hegel again. With Schelling's help, Hegel became a private lecturer (Privatdozent) at Jena University. Hegel wrote a book titled Differenz des Fichte'schen und Schelling'schen Systems der Philosophie (Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy, 1801), and supported Schelling's position against his idealistic predecessors, Fichte and Karl Leonhard Reinhold. Beginning in January 1802, Hegel and Schelling published the Kritisches Journal der Philosophie (Critical Journal of Philosophy) as co-editors, publishing papers on the philosophy of nature, but Schelling was too busy to stay involved with the editing and the magazine was mainly Hegel's publication, espousing a thought different from Schelling's. The magazine ceased publication in the spring of 1803 when Schelling moved from Jena to Würzburg.

Move to Würzburg and personal conflicts
After Jena, Schelling went to Bamberg for a time, to study the Brunonian system of medicine (the theory of John Brown) with  and Andreas Röschlaub. From September 1803 until April 1806 Schelling was professor at the new University of Würzburg. This period was marked by considerable flux in his views and by a final breach with Fichte and Hegel.

In Würzburg, a conservative Catholic city, Schelling found many enemies among his colleagues and in the government. He moved then to Munich in 1806, where he found a position as a state official, first as associate of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities and secretary of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, afterwards as secretary of the Philosophische Klasse (philosophical section) of the Academy of Sciences. 1806 was also the year Schelling published a book in which he criticized Fichte openly by name. In 1807 Schelling received the manuscript of Hegel's Phaenomenologie des Geistes (Phenomenology of the Spirit or Mind), which Hegel had sent to him, asking Schelling to write the foreword. Surprised to find critical remarks directed at his own philosophical theory, Schelling wrote back, asking Hegel to clarify whether he had intended to mock Schelling's followers who lacked a true understanding of his thought, or Schelling himself. Hegel never replied. In the same year, Schelling gave a speech about the relation between the visual arts and nature at the Academy of Fine Arts; Hegel wrote a severe criticism of it to one of his friends. After that, they criticized each other in lecture rooms and in books publicly until the end of their lives.

Munich period
Without resigning his official position in Munich, he lectured for a short time in Stuttgart (Stuttgarter Privatvorlesungen [Stuttgart private lectures], 1810), and seven years at the University of Erlangen (1820–1827). In 1809 Caroline died, just before he published Freiheitsschrift (Freedom Essay) the last book published during his life. Three years later, Schelling married one of her closest friends, Pauline Gotter, in whom he found a faithful companion.

During the long stay in Munich (1806–1841) Schelling's literary activity came gradually to a standstill. It is possible that it was the overpowering strength and influence of the Hegelian system that constrained Schelling, for it was only in 1834, after the death of Hegel, that, in a preface to a translation by Hubert Beckers of a work by Victor Cousin, he gave public utterance to the antagonism in which he stood to the Hegelian, and to his own earlier, conception of philosophy. The antagonism certainly was not new; the 1822 Erlangen lectures on the history of philosophy expressed the same in a pointed fashion, and Schelling had already begun the treatment of mythology and religion which, in his view, constituted the true positive complements to the negative of logical or speculative philosophy.

Berlin period
Public attention was powerfully attracted by hints of a new system which promised something more positive, especially in its treatment of religion, than the apparent results of Hegel's teaching. The appearance of critical writings by David Friedrich Strauss, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Bruno Bauer, and the disunion in the Hegelian school itself, expressed a growing alienation from the then dominant philosophy. In Berlin, the headquarters of the Hegelians, this found expression in attempts to obtain officially from Schelling a treatment of the new system that he was understood to have in reserve. Its realization did not come about until 1841, when Schelling's appointment as Prussian privy councillor and member of the Berlin Academy, gave him the right, a right he was requested to exercise, to deliver lectures in the university. Among those in attendance at his lectures were Søren Kierkegaard (who said Schelling talked "quite insufferable nonsense" and complained that he did not end his lectures on time), Mikhail Bakunin (who called them "interesting but rather insignificant"), Jacob Burckhardt, Alexander von Humboldt (who never accepted Schelling's natural philosophy), future church historian Philip Schaff and Friedrich Engels (who, as a partisan of Hegel, attended to "shield the great man's grave from abuse"). The opening lecture of his course was attended by a large and appreciative audience. The enmity of his old foe, H. E. G. Paulus, sharpened by Schelling's success, led to surreptitious publication of a verbatim report of the lectures on the philosophy of revelation. Schelling did not succeed in obtaining legal condemnation and suppression of this piracy and he stopped delivering public lectures in 1845.

Works

In 1793, Schelling contributed to Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus's periodical Memorabilien. His 1795 dissertation was De Marcione Paullinarum epistolarum emendatore (On Marcion as emendator of the Pauline letters). In 1794, Schelling published an exposition of Fichte's thought entitled Ueber die Möglichkeit einer Form der Philosophie überhaupt (On the Possibility of a Form of Philosophy in General). This work was acknowledged by Fichte himself and immediately earned Schelling a reputation among philosophers. His more elaborate work, Vom Ich als Prinzip der Philosophie, oder über das Unbedingte im menschlichen Wissen (On the I as Principle of Philosophy, or on the Unconditioned in Human Knowledge, 1795), while still remaining within the limits of the Fichtean idealism, showed a tendency to give the Fichtean method a more objective application, and to amalgamate Spinoza's views with it. He contributed articles and reviews to the Philosophisches Journal of Fichte and Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer, and threw himself into the study of physical and medical science. In 1795 Schelling published Philosophische Briefe über Dogmatismus und Kritizismus (Philosophical Letters on Dogmatism and Criticism), consisting of 10 letters addressed to an unknown interlocutor that presented both a defense and critique of the Kantian system.

Between 1796/97, there was written a seminal manuscript now known as the Das älteste Systemprogramm des deutschen Idealismus ("The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism"). It survives in Hegel's handwriting. First published in 1916 by Franz Rosenzweig, it was attributed to Schelling. It has also been claimed that Hegel or Hölderlin was the author.

In 1797, Schelling published the essay Neue Deduction des Naturrechts ("New Deduction of Natural Law"), which anticipated Fichte's treatment of the topic in Grundlage des Naturrechts (Foundations of Natural Law). His studies of physical science bore fruit in Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur (Ideas Concerning a Philosophy of Nature, 1797), and the treatise Von der Weltseele (On the World-Soul, 1798). In Ideen Schelling referred to Leibniz and quoted from his Monadology. He held Leibniz in high regard because of his view of nature during his natural philosophy period.

In 1800, Schelling published System des transcendentalen Idealismus (System of Transcendental Idealism). In this book Schelling described transcendental philosophy and nature philosophy as complementary to one another. Fichte reacted by stating that Schelling's argument was unsound: in Fichte's theory nature as Not-Self (Nicht-Ich = object) could not be a subject of philosophy, whose essential content is the subjective activity of the human intellect. The breach became unrecoverable in 1801 after Schelling published Darstellung des Systems meiner Philosophie ("Presentation of My System of Philosophy"). Fichte thought this title absurd since, in his opinion, philosophy could not be personalized. Moreover, in this book Schelling publicly expressed his estimation of Spinoza, whose work Fichte had repudiated as dogmatism, and declared that nature and spirit differ only in their quantity, but are essentially identical. According to Schelling, the absolute was the indifference to identity, which he considered to be an essential philosophical subject.

The "Aphorismen über die Naturphilosophie" ("Aphorisms on Nature Philosophy"), published in the Jahrbücher der Medicin als Wissenschaft (1805–1808), are for the most part extracts from the Würzburg lectures, and the Denkmal der Schrift von den göttlichen Dingen des Herrn Jacobi ("Monument to the Scripture of the Divine Things of Mr. Jacobi") was a response to an attack by Jacobi (the two accused each other of atheism). A work of significance is the 1809 Philosophische Untersuchungen über das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit und die damit zusammenhängenden Gegenstände (Philosophical Inquiries into the Essence of Human Freedom), which elaborates, with increasing mysticism, on ideas in the 1804 work Philosophie und Religion (Philosophy and Religion). However, in a change from the Jena period, evil is not an appearance coming from quantitative differences between the real and the ideal, but is something substantial. This work clearly paraphrased Kant's distinction between intelligible and empirical character. Schelling himself called freedom "a capacity for good and evil".

The 1815 essay Ueber die Gottheiten zu Samothrake ("On the Divinities of Samothrace") was ostensibly a part of a larger work, Weltalter ("The Ages of the World"), frequently announced as ready for publication, but of which little was ever written. Schelling planned Weltalter as a book in three parts, describing the past, present, and future of the world; however, he began only the first part, rewriting it several times and at last keeping it unpublished. The other two parts were left only in planning. Christopher John Murray describes the work as follows:Building on the premise that philosophy cannot ultimately explain existence, he merges the earlier philosophies of Nature and identity with his newfound belief in a fundamental conflict between a dark unconscious principle and a conscious principle in God. God makes the universe intelligible by relating to the ground of the real but, insofar as nature is not complete intelligence, the real exists as a lack within the ideal and not as reflective of the ideal itself. The three universal ages – distinct only to us but not in the eternal God – therefore comprise a beginning where the principle of God before God is divine will striving for being, the present age, which is still part of this growth and hence a mediated fulfillment, and a finality where God is consciously and consummately Himself to Himself.

No authentic information on Schelling's new positive philosophy (positive Philosophie) was available until after his death at Bad Ragatz, on 20 August 1854. His sons then issued four volumes of his Berlin lectures: vol. i. Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology (1856); ii. Philosophy of Mythology (1857); iii. and iv. Philosophy of Revelation (1858).

Periodization
Schelling, at all stages of his thought, called to his aid outward forms of some other system. Fichte, Spinoza, Jakob Boehme and the mystics, and finally, major Greek thinkers with their Neoplatonic, Gnostic, and Scholastic commentators, give colouring to particular works. In Schelling's own view, his philosophy fell into three stages. These were:
Transition from Fichte's philosophy to a more objective conception of nature (an advance to Naturphilosophie)
Formulation of the identical, indifferent, absolute substratum of both nature and spirit (Identitätsphilosophie).
Opposition of negative and positive philosophy, which was the theme of his Berlin lectures, though the concepts can be traced back to 1804.

Naturphilosophie

The function of Schelling's Naturphilosophie is to exhibit the ideal as springing from the real. The change which experience brings before us leads to the conception of duality, the polar opposition through which nature expresses itself. The dynamic series of stages in nature are matter as the equilibrium of the fundamental expansive and contractive forces, light (with its subordinate processes of magnetism, electricity, and chemical action) and organism (with its component phases of reproduction, irritability and sensibility).

Schelling initially adopted the concept of self-organization as Kant had developed it in his Critique of Judgment for the reproduction of organisms. However, Schelling extended this concept by the aspect of the original emergence of life as well as the emergence of new species and genera. He intended it to be a comprehensive theory of natural history that bears similarities to modern theories of self-organization.

Reputation and influence
Some scholars characterize Schelling as a protean thinker who, although brilliant, jumped from one subject to another and lacked the synthesizing power needed to arrive at a complete philosophical system. Others challenge the notion that Schelling's thought is marked by profound breaks, instead arguing that his philosophy always focused on a few common themes, especially human freedom, the absolute, and the relationship between spirit and nature. Unlike Hegel, Schelling did not believe that the absolute could be known in its true character through rational inquiry alone.

Schelling is still studied, although his reputation has varied over time. His work impressed the English romantic poet and critic Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who introduced his ideas into English-speaking culture, sometimes without full acknowledgment, as in the Biographia Literaria. Coleridge's critical work was influential, and it was he who introduced into English literature Schelling's concept of the unconscious. Schelling's System of Transcendental Idealism has been seen as a precursor of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams (1899).

The Catholic Tübingen school, a group of Roman Catholic theologians at the University of Tübingen in the nineteenth century, was greatly influenced by Schelling and attempted to reconcile his philosophy of revelation with Catholic theology.

Up to 1950, Schelling was almost a forgotten philosopher even in Germany. In the 1910s and 1920s, philosophers of neo-Kantianism and neo-Hegelianism, like Wilhelm Windelband or Richard Kroner, tended to describe Schelling as an episode connecting Fichte and Hegel. His late period tended to be ignored, and his philosophies of nature and of art in the 1790s and first decade of the 19th century were the main focus. In this context Kuno Fischer characterized Schelling's early philosophy as "aesthetic idealism", focusing on the argument where he ranked art as "the sole document and the eternal organ of philosophy" (das einzige wahre und ewige Organon zugleich und Dokument der Philosophie). From socialist philosophers like György Lukács, he was regarded as anachronistic. Martin Heidegger, during the period when he was involved with the Nazi Party, found in Schelling's On Human Freedom central themes of Western ontology - being, existence, and freedom - and expounded on them in his 1936 lectures.

In the 1950s, the situation began to change. In 1954, the centennial of his death, an international conference on Schelling was held. Several philosophers, including Karl Jaspers, gave presentations about the uniqueness and relevance of his thought, the interest shifting toward his later work on the origin of existence. Schelling was the subject of Jürgen Habermas's 1954 dissertation.

In 1955, Jaspers published Schelling, representing him as a forerunner of the existentialists and Walter Schulz, one of organizers of the 1954 conference, published "Die Vollendung des Deutschen Idealismus in der Spätphilosophie Schellings" ("The Perfection of German Idealism in Schelling's Late Philosophy") claiming that Schelling had made German idealism complete with his late philosophy, particularly with his Berlin lectures in the 1840s. Schulz presented Schelling as the person who resolved the philosophical problems which Hegel had left incomplete, in contrast to the contemporary idea that Schelling had been surpassed by Hegel much earlier. Theologian Paul Tillich wrote: "what I learned from Schelling became determinative of my own philosophical and theological development". Maurice Merleau-Ponty likened his own project of natural ontology to Schelling's in his 1957–58 Course on Nature.

In the 1970s, nature was again of interest to philosophers in relation to environmental issues. Schelling's philosophy of nature, particularly his intention to construct a program which covers both nature and the intellectual life in a single system and method, and restore nature as a central theme of philosophy, has been reevaluated in the contemporary context. His influence and relation to the German art scene, particularly to Romantic literature and visual art, has been an interest since the late 1960s, from Philipp Otto Runge to Gerhard Richter and Joseph Beuys. This interest has been revived in recent years through the work of the environmental philosopher Arran Gare who has identified a tradition of Schellingian science overcoming the opposition between science and the humanities, and offering the basis for an understanding of ecological science and ecological philosophy.

In relation to psychology, Schelling was considered to have coined the term "unconsciousness". Slavoj Žižek has written two books attempting to integrate Schelling's philosophy, mainly his middle period works including Weltalter, with work of Jacques Lacan. The opposition and division in God and the problem of evil in God examined by the later Schelling influenced Luigi Pareyson's thought.

Quotations
"Nature is visible spirit, spirit is invisible nature." ["Natur ist hiernach der sichtbare Geist, Geist die unsichtbare Natur"] (Ideen, "Introduction")
"History as a whole is a progressive, gradually self-disclosing revelation of the Absolute." (System of Transcendental Idealism, 1800)
"Now if the appearance of freedom is necessarily infinite, the total evolution of the Absolute is also an infinite process, and history itself a never wholly completed revelation of that Absolute which, for the sake of consciousness, and thus merely for the sake of appearance, separates itself into conscious and unconscious, the free and the intuitant; but which itself, however, in the inaccessible light wherein it dwells, is Eternal Identity and the everlasting ground of harmony between the two." (System of Transcendental Idealism, 1800)
"Has creation a final goal? And if so, why was it not reached at once? Why was the consummation not realized from the beginning? To these questions there is but one answer: Because God is Life, and not merely Being." (Philosophical Inquiries into the Nature of Human Freedom, 1809)
"Only he who has tasted freedom can feel the desire to make over everything in its image, to spread it throughout the whole universe." (Philosophical Inquiries into the Nature of Human Freedom, 1809)
"As there is nothing before or outside of God he must contain within himself the ground of his existence. All philosophies say this, but they speak of this ground as a mere concept without making it something real and actual." (Philosophical Inquiries into the Nature of Human Freedom, 1809)
"[The Godhead] is not divine nature or substance, but the devouring ferocity of purity that a person is able to approach only with an equal purity. Since all Being goes up in it as if in flames, it is necessarily unapproachable to anyone still embroiled in Being." (The Ages of the World, c. 1815)
"God then has no beginning only insofar as there is no beginning of his beginning. The beginning in God is eternal beginning, that is, such a one as was beginning from all eternity, and still is, and also never ceases to be beginning." (Quoted in Hartshorne & Reese, Philosophers Speak of God, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1953, p. 237.)

Bibliography
Selected works are listed below.
 Ueber Mythen, historische Sagen und Philosopheme der ältesten Welt (On Myths, Historical Legends and Philosophical Themes of Earliest Antiquity, 1793)
 Ueber die Möglichkeit einer Form der Philosophie überhaupt (On the Possibility of an Absolute Form of Philosophy, 1794),
 Vom Ich als Prinzip der Philosophie oder über das Unbedingte im menschlichen Wissen (Of the I as the Principle of Philosophy or on the Unconditional in Human Knowledge, 1795), and
 Philosophische Briefe über Dogmatismus und Kriticismus (Philosophical Letters on Dogmatism and Criticism, 1795).
 1, 2, 3 in The Unconditional in Human Knowledge: Four Early Essays 1794–6, translation and commentary by F. Marti, Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press (1980).
 De Marcione Paulinarum epistolarum emendatore (1795).
 Abhandlung zur Erläuterung des Idealismus der Wissenschaftslehre (1796). Translated as Treatise Explicatory of the Idealism in the 'Science of Knowledge in Thomas Pfau, Idealism and the Endgame of Theory, Albany: SUNY Press (1994).
 Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur als Einleitung in das Studium dieser Wissenschaft (1797) as Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature: as Introduction to the Study of this Science, translated by E. E. Harris and P. Heath, introduction R. Stern, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988).
 Von der Weltseele (1798).
 System des transcendentalen Idealismus (1800) as System of Transcendental Idealism, translated by P. Heath, introduction M. Vater, Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia (1978).
 Ueber den wahren Begriff der Naturphilosophie und die richtige Art ihre Probleme aufzulösen (1801).
 "Darstellung des Systems meiner Philosophie" (1801), also known as "Darstellung meines Systems der Philosophie", as "Presentation of My System of Philosophy," translated by M. Vater, The Philosophical Forum, 32'''(4), Winter 2001, pp. 339–371.
 Bruno oder über das göttliche und natürliche Prinzip der Dinge (1802) as Bruno, or on the Natural and the Divine Principle of Things, translated with an introduction by M. Vater, Albany: State University of New York Press (1984).
 On the Relationship of the Philosophy of Nature to Philosophy in General (1802). Translated by George di Giovanni and H.S. Harris in Between Kant and Hegel, Albany: SUNY Press (1985).
 Philosophie der Kunst (lecture) (delivered 1802–3; published 1859) as The Philosophy of Art (1989) Minnesota: Minnesota University Press.
 Vorlesungen über die Methode des akademischen Studiums (delivered 1802; published 1803) as On University Studies, translated E. S. Morgan, edited N. Guterman, Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press (1966).
 Ideas on a Philosophy of Nature as an Introduction to the Study of This Science (Second edition, 1803). Translated by Priscilla Hayden-Roy in Philosophy of German Idealism, New York: Continuum (1987).
 System der gesamten Philosophie und der Naturphilosophie insbesondere (Nachlass) (1804). Translated as System of Philosophy in General and of the Philosophy of Nature in Particular in Thomas Pfau, Idealism and the Endgame of Theory, Albany: SUNY Press (1994).
 Philosophische Untersuchungen über das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit und die damit zusammenhängenden Gegenstände (1809) as Of Human Freedom, a translation with critical introduction and notes by J. Gutmann, Chicago: Open Court (1936); also as Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom, trans. Jeff Love and Johannes Schmidt, SUNY Press (2006).
 Clara. Oder über den Zusammenhang der Natur- mit der Geisterwelt (Nachlass) (1810) as Clara: or on Nature's Connection to the Spirit World trans. Fiona Steinkamp, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002.
 Stuttgart Seminars (1810), translated by Thomas Pfau in Idealism and the Endgame of Theory, Albany: SUNY Press (1994).
 Weltalter (1811–15) as The Ages of the World, translated with introduction and notes by F. de W. Bolman, jr., New York: Columbia University Press (1967); also in The Abyss of Freedom/Ages of the World, trans. Judith Norman, with an essay by Slavoj Žižek, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press (1997).
 "Ueber die Gottheiten von Samothrake" (1815) as Schelling's Treatise on 'The Deities of Samothrace', a translation and introduction by R. F. Brown, Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press (1977).
 Darstellung des philosophischen Empirismus (Nachlass) (1830).
 Philosophie der Mythologie (lecture) (1842).
 Philosophie der Offenbarung (lecture) (1854).
 Zur Geschichte der neueren Philosophie (probably 1833–4) as On the History of Modern Philosophy, translation and introduction by A. Bowie, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1994).

Collected works in German

See also
 History of aesthetics before the 20th century
 Nondualism
 Perennial philosophy

Notes

References

Further reading

 Ffytche, Matt. The foundation of the unconscious: Schelling, Freud and the birth of the modern psyche (Cambridge University Press, 2011).

 Fenichel, Teresa. Schelling, Freud, and the Philosophical Foundations of Psychoanalysis: Uncanny Belonging (Routledge, 2018).
 Gentile, Andrea (2018), Bewusstsein, Anschauung und das Unendliche bei Fichte, Schelling und Hegel. Über den unbedingten Grundsatz der Erkenntnis, Freiburg, München: Verlag Karl Alber,
 Golan, Zev (2007), God, Man and Nietzsche, NY: iUniverse. (The second chapter, listed as "A dialogue between Schelling, Luria and Maimonides", examines the similarities between Schelling's texts and the Kabbalah; it also offers a religious interpretation of Schelling's identity philosophy.)

 Heuser-Keßler, Marie-Luise (1992), Schelling's Concept of Selforganization. In: R. Friedrich, A. Wunderlin (Ed.): Evolution of dynamical structures in complex systems. Springer Proceedings in Physics, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York (Springer), 395–415, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-84781-3_21.
 Heuser-Keßler, Marie-Luise (1986), Die Produktivität der Natur. Schellings Naturphilosophie und das neue Paradigma der Selbstorganisation in den Naturwissenschaften, Berlin: Duncker&Humblot, ISBN 3-428-06079-2.
 Le, Vincent. "Schelling and The Sixth Extinction: The Environmental Ethics Behind Schelling's Anthropomorphization of Nature." Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy 13.3 (2017): 107-129. online
 Pahman, Dylan. "FWJ Schelling: A philosophical influence on Kuyper's social thought." Kuyper Center Review 5 (2015): 26-43. online
 Stone, Alison. Nature, Ethics and Gender in German Romanticism and Idealism (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018).
 Tilliette, Xavier (1970), Schelling: une philosophie en devenir, two volumes, Paris: Vrin. (Encyclopedic historical account of the development of Schelling's work: stronger on general exposition and on theology than on Schelling's philosophical arguments.)
 Tilliette, Xavier (1999), Schelling, biographie, Calmann-Lévy, collection "La vie des philosophes".
 Yates, Christopher. The Poetic Imagination in Heidegger and Schelling'' (A&C Black, 2013).

External links

 Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling, 1807  (–1914)

 Watson, John, 1847–1939, 1882
 Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling by Saitya Brata Das in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011
 Links to texts

 Schelling's partial translations of Dante's Divine Comedy and two essays about it at academia.edu

1775 births
1854 deaths
18th-century German philosophers
19th-century German philosophers
Academy of Fine Arts, Munich
Christian philosophers
Epistemologists
German idealists
German male non-fiction writers
German untitled nobility
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
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Leipzig University alumni
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Metaphysicians

Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling


The Battle of Kos () was a brief battle in World War II between British/Italian and German forces for control of the Greek island of Kos, in the then Italian-held Dodecanese Islands of the Aegean Sea. The battle was precipitated by the Allied Armistice with Italy. German forces with strong air support quickly overwhelmed the Italian garrison and the recent British reinforcements, denying the Allies a base to attack the German presence in the Balkans and leading to the expulsion and death of the island's Jewish population.

Background

With the capitulation of Italy in September 1943, German forces in the Balkans and the Mediterranean moved to take over the Italian-held areas. At the same time, the Allies, under the instigation of British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, endeavoured to occupy the Dodecanese island chain. The Dodecanese islands, under Italian control since 1912, were strategically located in the southeastern Aegean Sea, and Churchill hoped to use them as a base against German positions in the Balkans, and as a means to pressure neutral Turkey into the war on the Allied side.

British landings
The main prize, the island of Rhodes, fell to a swift attack by a German mechanized brigade. Nevertheless, British forces landed on several islands, most notably Kos and Leros, and together with the Italian forces located there, there were hopes of eventually regaining Rhodes. On 13 September 1943 thirty-eight Liberators from North Africa bombed the three airfields on Rhodes, effectively grounding the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) aircraft, while Special Boat Section (SBS) units landed on Kos, occupying the port and the airfield near the village of Antimachia. On 14 September two Beaufighters and a number of Spitfires from 7 Squadron, SAAF flew on to the airfield. On the night of the 14/15 September, 120 paratroopers from 11th Parachute Battalion were dropped by Dakotas of No. 216 Squadron RAF on the island. The paratroopers were welcomed by the Italian garrison, who laid straw on the landing zone.

At first light on 15 September, a standing patrol of two Spitfires of No. 7 SAAF Squadron was maintained over Kos to give cover to the transport aircraft and ships bringing stores and reinforcements. Among these were the first troops of No 2909 Squadron RAF Regiment who flew from the British Mandate of Palestine with nine Hispano-Suiza HS.404 guns for anti-aircraft defence, followed two days later by a second detachment, which brought up to strength one of the first of the Regiment's Squadrons to be transported to the battlefield by air with all its weapons.

On the ground, the Allied force consisted of the 1st Battalion, Durham Light Infantry, a company from 11th Parachute battalion of 1st Airborne Division, a company of men from the SBS, and Royal Air Force (RAF) personnel under the command of Lt. Col. L.R.F. Kenyon. The force totalled ca. 1,600 British (although only 1,115 were combatants, 880 army and 235 from the RAF Regiment) and about 3,500 Italian servicemen from the original garrison.

Battle

German aerial bombardment

The German counter-attack began on 17 September with heavy air-bombardment.  The Messerschmitt 109s and Junkers 88s involved met at first with varying success, because of the RAF gunners on the ground and the South African Spitfires in the air. However, "Butterfly Bombs" made Antimachia temporarily unserviceable and damaged the Douglas C-47 Skytrains, but the first detachments of the Durham Light Infantry were landed. One Dakota came down in the sea and its occupants were rescued but interned in Turkey.

German bombing and cannon fire attacks continued to harass the garrison over the next few days. The Luftwaffe flew 100 aircraft into the Aegean area bringing their strength up to 360 aircraft.  While the German air cover improved, the Allies could only rely on a limited number of aircraft due to decisions made by General Eisenhower concerning the British involvement in the Balkan theatre:

The limited aircraft cover for the operation on Kos was completely inadequate and would have a serious effect on the British ability to defend the island. Over the weeks from 13 September to 3 October the Allied aircraft defending Kos suffered many losses from bombardment of the airfield and in air combat. By 26 September the No. 7 Squadron SAAF was reduced to four serviceable aircraft. No. 74 Squadron RAF was flown on to Kos on this day. 2909 Squadron's positions were attacked every day and, although enemy aircraft were shot down, casualties mounted.

The defenders' position on Kos, never enviable, soon became serious and, presently, desperate, for the Italian anti-aircraft defence was negligible and their own resources meagre. To add to their troubles, the area round the airfield they had to protect was too rocky to permit digging in, and there was no time to build blast walls before the enemy was upon them. The air attacks were so severe that casualties inflicted on the British paratroopers forced them to be withdrawn on 25 September.

German landings - Operation "Polar Bear"

On 1 October 1943, a concentration of shipping was observed in the ports of Crete, and early on the following morning a convoy steaming in a north-north-easterly direction south-east of Melos was sighted by British aircraft. Urgent supplies were landed on Kos by five Dakotas, and during their unloading the news came that a small German invasion fleet of 10 vessels was at sea. This flotilla carried a task force composed of a battle group ("Kampfgruppe") from the 22nd Infantry Division in Crete, as well as "Brandenburg" special forces from the mainland, namely the 1st Amphibious Battalion and the 5th Paratrooper Battalion, part of the entire Regiment of Brandenburgers assigned to the attack, all under the command of Lt Gen Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller.

At 04.30 hours on 3 October the invasion of Kos began. By mid-day, 1,200 Germans, well-armed with light artillery and armoured cars, were ashore and in action. Dive-bombing by Junker 87s added to the difficulties of the defence, and in the afternoon Antimachia was overrun. The main German convoy, which had been attacked from air was estimated to have consisted of seven transports, seven landing craft, three destroyers and numerous caiques (fishing craft) and other small craft. The principal landings took place at Marmari and Tingachi (in the north central part of the island) and at Camare Bay (south-west) with subsidiary landings at Forbici and Capo Foco (on the north-east and south-east tips of the island).

Paratroops were dropped west and south of Antimachia. By 12.00 hours the Germans were reported as having landed 1,500 men. At about 13.30 hours a further small German paratroop landing of a company from the Brandenburg Division was made in the centre of the island, and more troops arrived by sea. For the British forces the situation was reported as confused, but by 18.00 it was further reported as critical. The Durham Light Infantry, SBS, RAF Regiment, and paratroopers fought gallantly but in the face of superior numbers and heavier equipment were forced to withdraw to positions covering the town and port of Kos and the airfield. That evening the Germans attacked the British positions in strength reducing the British position to a small area around the town of Kos. The German strength had been reinforced to an estimated 4,000 men by the evening of 3 October. The RAF Regiment personnel having expended all their 20mm ammunition and then destroyed their guns took up defend positions with the Durham Light Infantry, withdrawing to the hills when the DLI were beaten back.

The Italian and British forces had ceased organised resistance by 06.00 on 4 October. 1,388 British and 3,145 Italians were taken prisoners, while the captured Italian commander of the island, Col. Felice Leggio, and nearly 100 of his officers were shot in a major warcrime by the Germans. A German communiqué of 5 October reporting the cessation of hostilities on Kos gave the number of prisoners taken as 600 British and 2,500 Italians, with more Italians coming in. A number of the British force escaped to neighbouring islands and were rescued by the Special Boat Service operating at night. The last elements of 2909 Squadron RAF Regiment surrendered on the morning of 8th October. Of the 124 members of the Squadron, only 5 left the island unwounded.

Aftermath
The capture of Kos would have disastrous consequences for British operations in the Dodecanese Islands. Deprived of air cover, the Allies were in the long run unable to hold the other islands, while the Germans pressed their advantage, capturing Leros a month later and completing their conquest of the Dodecanese by the end of November. In the conclusion of the official despatch covering these operations, it is remarked that:

A further consequence of the German occupation of Kos was the deportation of the small long established Jewish congregation to the European death camps. None of the Jews survived the war.

References

Sources

 Ανδρουλάκης, Γεώργιος, Ημέρες πολέμου στην Κω, Το χρονικό της στρατιωτικής καταιγίδας - 1943, Ιωλκός, Αθήνα 2013, ()

External links

 The South African Military Society

Dodecanese campaign
Battles of World War II involving Italy
Battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Kos
Battles and operations of World War II involving Greece
Conflicts in 1943
1943 in Greece
Kos
Airborne operations of World War II
Amphibious operations of World War II
October 1943 events

Battle of Kos


Tribalistas (Brazilian Portuguese: /tɾibaˈlistɐs, -ˈliʃtɐʃ/) is a Brazilian supergroup consisting of Arnaldo Antunes (ex-Titãs), Marisa Monte and Carlinhos Brown (Timbalada). Their debut collaboration resulted in the popular album Tribalistas, released in Brazil in late 2002 by EMI and in international territories in 2003. The album attained considerable popularity despite the group never performing any song on TV or giving any radio interviews.

A DVD release featuring the 'making of' and all the tracks on the album was also released internationally. The song "Já Sei Namorar" was featured in the video game FIFA Football 2004 and FIFA 23 and the song "Velha Infancia" was used as part of the soundtrack of the Brazilian soap opera Mulheres Apaixonadas.

In May 2013, it was announced that the three members would release a song called "Joga Arroz" (Throw Rice), in order to express their support of same-sex marriage, though it was not referred to as a revival of the band.

In April 2017, a column of newspaper O Globo'' announced that the trio had reunited in the previous month to compose new songs. In August of the same year, the band officially announced their reunion and released a new album.

Discography

Albums

Video albums

Singles

Promotional singles

References

Musical groups established in 2002
Musical groups disestablished in 2003
Supergroups (music)
Avant-garde music groups
Brazilian pop rock music groups
Brazilian experimental rock groups
Música popular brasileira musical groups
Latin Grammy Award winners
2002 establishments in Brazil
2003 disestablishments in Brazil
Musical groups reestablished in 2017

Tribalistas


Carl J Schramm is an American economist, entrepreneur, author, former President of the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, and University Professor at Syracuse University. He is the author of the book Burn the Business Plan: What Great Entrepreneurs Really Do, published by Simon & Schuster. The Economist named Schramm the "evangelist of entrepreneurship".

Education
Schramm graduated from Le Moyne College with a B.S. in Economics.  He holds an M.S. (1969) and Ph.D. (1973) in economics from the University of Wisconsin and a J.D. from the Georgetown University Law Center (1978).

Career
He was a Ford Foundation Doctoral Fellow and New York State Regents Graduate Fellow at Wisconsin. Schramm began his career as staff economist at the National Commission on State Workmen's Compensation Laws. He later served as Special Advisor to the Assistant Secretary for Policy at the US Department of Labor and Staff Economist to U.S. Senate Committee on Human Resources. He was a Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Health Policy Fellow at the Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences. Schramm received two consecutive Career Scientist Awards from the U.S. Public Health Service.

Schramm taught for fifteen years at the Johns Hopkins University, becoming associate professor of health policy and management. While there, he founded the Johns Hopkins Center for Hospital Finance and Management where he oversaw a postdoctoral program, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Faculty Fellowships in Health Care Finance. During this time, Schramm also served as Commissioner of the Maryland Health Services Cost Review Commission.

After co-founding HCIA, an aggregator of hospital data, Schramm became president of the Health Insurance Association of America (today called America's Health Insurance Plans). He also served as executive vice president of Fortis (formerly Time Insurance Company, now Assurant) and as president of its health insurance operations. While there, he developed several innovations, including transition coverage for recent college graduates. He also founded Greenspring Advisors, a consulting and merchant banking firm in the health information and risk management industries. He is a founding member and a board member of the International IP Commercialization Council (IIPCC.org), a global NPO NGO.

After leaving the Kauffman Foundation, Schramm returned to teaching in August 2012, after being appointed University Professor at Syracuse University. He teaches classes in entrepreneurship and innovation at the Syracuse University School of Information Studies.

Schramm became the Director of MoviePass's parent company Helios and Matheson Analytics on November 9, 2016. He resigned on August 31, 2018, claiming management had withheld financial information, while making important decisions without the board's approval.

In 2019, Schramm became the chairman of the board for Lumeon, a leader in Care Pathway Management (CPM) solutions for healthcare organizations.

Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation
In 2002, Schramm was recruited to head the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation. Under his leadership, the Kauffman Foundation has developed innovative programs that expose students to the power of entrepreneurship, open new pathways to effectively move university innovations into the marketplace, create better-qualified angel investors as a critical source of seed capital for entrepreneurs, and engage economists of the highest caliber to study the impact of entrepreneurship. Schramm has been instrumental in the development of a partnership with the U.S. Department of Commerce to create an international entrepreneurship resource at www.entrepreneurship.gov and also spearheaded the Foundation's sponsorship of the first-ever Global Entrepreneurship Week, which he announced in November 2007 with UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown. Schramm has also led Kauffman in the development of an international fellowship program (Kauffman Global Scholars Program), which is funded by other governments, including the United Kingdom and Denmark, for aspiring entrepreneurs.

Schramm stepped down at the end of 2011 after nearly ten years at the helm of Kauffman. The Kansas City Star observed: "Under Schramm's tenure, the foundation laid a geographically bigger entrepreneurship footprint, launching Global Entrepreneurship Week and becoming the nation's leading funder for entrepreneurship research." When Schramm came to the Kauffman Foundation, most of its grant-making went to local nonprofits, but he was recruited to make Kauffman a national and global institution. Schramm also made the Kauffman Foundation a pioneer in education—it became the first grant-making foundation to own and operate its own charter school.

Published works
A prolific writer and speaker, Schramm has authored or coauthored scores of articles, testified before Congress on numerous occasions, and speaks frequently on entrepreneurship, innovation, and the economic future. He introduced the field of "expeditionary economics" in a 2010 essay in Foreign Affairs. His 2004 Foreign Affairs article, "Building Entrepreneurial Economies", is one of the journal's most requested reprints. Schramm is the author of The Entrepreneurial Imperative, co-author of Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism, and editor of the American Assembly's Health Care and Its Costs. His other work has appeared in many academic journals, as well as The Wall Street Journal, USA Today, and Newsweek. The National Chamber Foundation named Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism one of the "Top Ten Books That Drive the Debate" in 2008.

Awards
Schramm received the George Eastman Medal from the University of Rochester in 2005. In 2007, Schramm chaired the Secretary of Commerce's Measuring Innovation in the 21st Century Economy Advisory Committee, which produced the report, "Innovation Measurement: Tracking the State of Innovation in the American Economy." On May 17, 2009, Schramm gave the commencement address at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Selected bibliography
Schramm, Carl J., "Expeditionary Economics: Spurring Growth After Conflicts and Disasters," Foreign Affairs (May/June 2010)
Schramm, Carl J., "Made in America," The National Interest (May/June 2010)
Schramm, Carl J., "All Entrepreneurship is Social," Stanford Social Innovation Review (Spring 2010)
Schramm, Carl J., "Managing Foundations Toward the Goal of Expanding Human Welfare," presented at the Distinguished Speakers Series of the University of Southern California's Center on Philanthropy and Public Policy (Los Angeles, Calif., February 21, 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., Presidential address, "The Future of Entrepreneurship in a World Twenty Years From Now," TiE Entrepreneurial Summit 2008 (Bangalore, India, December 16, 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., and Giovannini, Enrico, "Where Companies Grow," The Wall Street Journal, Real Clear Politics, Real Clear Markets (December 3, 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., "The Future of the University and Public Research for the Entrepreneurial Age," Preface to The Future of the Research University: Meeting the Global Challenges of the 21st Century, a book of scholarly papers presented at the Kauffman-Planck Summit on Entrepreneurship Research and Policy (November 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., "Why We Need Joe the Plumber's Dream," CNN.com (October 21, 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., "Crisis of Democracy," Stanford Social Innovation Review (Fall 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., "Economics And The Entrepreneur," Claremont Review of Books (Spring 2008)
Schramm, Carl J., "The High Cost of Low Ethics," Journal of Markets and Morality (January 2007)
Schramm, Carl J., "Law Outside the Market," Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy (February 2007)
Schramm, Carl J. and Litan, Robert, "Immigrants and Laureates," The Washington Post (October 12, 2007)
Schramm, Carl J. and Litan, Robert E., "Can Europe Compete," Commentary (September 2007)
Schramm, Carl J. and Amar Bhide, "Phelp's Prize," Wall Street Journal (January 29, 2007)
Schramm, Carl J., The Entrepreneurial Imperative (2006), Harper Collins.

References

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20081219223008/http://www.innovationmetrics.gov/
 https://web.archive.org/web/20090419072528/http://www.innovationmetrics.gov/Innovation%20Measurement%2001-08%20rev%20040908.pdf
 https://web.archive.org/web/20090129205642/http://www.uschamber.com/ncf/booklist2008.htm
 Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation
 Entrepreneurship.org
 Videos of Carl Schramm on DrChrono.com
 Carl Schramm's faculty profile at Syracuse University
 Video of Carl Schramm's University of Illinois Commencement Address, May 17, 2009
 Transcript of Carl Schramm's University of Illinois Commencement Address, May 17, 2009

Le Moyne College alumni
 University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
American economists
American philanthropists
American non-fiction writers
American business executives
Living people
1946 births

Carl Schramm


Audra McDonald (born July 3, 1970) is an American actress and singer.

She played Professor Carla Bonatelle in the television series The Bedford Diaries, Dr. Naomi Bennett in Private Practice, and Jackie Brock in Mister Sterling. She was nominated for Emmy Awards for playing Susie Monahan in the TV movie Wit and Ruth Younger in the TV movie A Raisin in the Sun. She won an Emmy in 2015 for her part as Lucy in Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, a musical that was filmed for Live From Lincoln Center. She was also in the Live From Lincoln Center filmed musical Passion as Clara and played Grace Farrell in the TV movie Annie and Mother Abbess in The Sound of Music Live!. Her show Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill.

On Broadway she played Ayah in The Secret Garden, Carrie Pipperidge in Carousel, Sharon Graham in Master Class, Sarah in Ragtime, Marie Christine L'Adrese in Marie Christine, Lady Percy in Henry IV, Ruth Younger in A Raisin in the Sun, Lizzie Curry in 110 in the Shade, Olivia in Twelfth Night, Bess in Porgy and Bess, Billie Holiday in Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill, and Lottie Gee in Shuffle Along: Or the Making of the Musical Sensation of 1921 and All That Followed. She won Tony Awards for Carousel, Master Class, Ragtime, A Raisin in the Sun, Porgy and Bess, and Lady Day at Emerson's Bar and Grill, and was nominated for Marie Christine and 110 in the Shade. She was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Porgy and Bess.

She also performed in the Broadway concert Something Wonderful and played Deena Jones in the Actor's Fund concert of Dreamgirls. She played Jenny in Rise and Fall of the City of Mahoganny at the Los Angeles Opera, and won two Grammy Awards for the cast album.

McDonald has also been in movies. She played Maureen in Ricki and the Flash, Sally in Hello Again, and Garderobe in Beauty and the Beast.

She has her own concert DVD, Audra McDonald- Live at the Donmar London, and has done lots of shows at Carnegie Hall. She tours frequently. She also has five CDs- Way Back to Paradise, How Glory Goes, Happy Songs, Build a Bridge, and Go Back Home.

McDonald was born in Berlin, Germany to American parents. She was raised in Fresno, California.

References

Actors from Berlin
Actors from Fresno, California
African American actors
African-American singers
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
Singers from Berlin
Singers from Fresno, California
1970 births
Living people
Emmy Award winning actors
Grammy Award winners
Tony Award winning actors

Audra McDonald


Eric Joseph Langill (born April 9, 1979), is a bullpen catcher for the New York Mets of Major League Baseball (MLB). Previously, he had played as a catcher in the minor league organizations of the Montreal Expos and Los Angeles Dodgers.

Early life
Langill was born on April 9, 1979, in Kirkland, Quebec. He attended St. Thomas High School in Pointe-Claire, Quebec, where he graduated in 1997. As a child, he played hockey, where he was a second-line Center who was used as a face-off specialist. He grew up idolizing hockey players such as Patrick Roy. In an interview, he attributed his passion for baseball to the Montreal Expos.

Amateur career
Langill, who was always a catcher, played baseball in his youth, ending up on the same junior team as Russell Martin, who was at the time the third baseman. Langill and Martin would later be minor league teammates. Langill did not have the opportunity to play high school baseball, but played during the summer, although his focus on it was secondary to his on hockey. After beginning school at Des Moines Area Community College, Langill now found more opportunities to play baseball instead of hockey.

Professional career
Langill was chosen by the Expos in the 34th round of the 1999 Major League Baseball draft with the 1020th overall pick. Langill began his professional career in the Expos system, making his debut with the Vermont Expos in 2000. He was promoted to Single-A Clinton LumberKings in 2001, before being traded in the offseason to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Langill would play from 2002 to 2006 in the Dodgers system, mostly in AA and AAA. In 2002, Langill pitched the last third of an inning of a game for the South Georgia Waves, getting an out against the one batter he faced. At the request of Grady Little, Langill was invited to major-league Spring Training with the Dodgers in 2006, mainly to act as an extra catcher. He was sent to minor-league camp on March 8. Considered by scouts a career minor-leaguer, Langill, aside from acting as the backup catcher for the Las Vegas 51s, served largely as a mentor to Edwin Bellorín. Langill became known as somewhat of a fan favorite due to his perceived lack of athletic ability combined with his strong passion for the game. In June 2011, Langill joined the New York Mets as a bullpen catcher. On March 30, 2017, Langill started for the Mets' Triple-A affiliate, the Las Vegas 51s, in a game against the major-league team; he led off as designated hitter but went hitless in the game.

Personal life

Langill has been a hockey fan since his youth. His favorite team is the Montreal Canadiens.

During 2012 Spring Training, Langill was charged with driving under the influence of alcohol after failing tests conducted after a car crash he was involved in near the Mets Spring Training camp in Port St. Lucie, Florida. Langill had been out after a team bowling night and had told officers he had consumed two or three drinks. Langill had attempted to escape the scene of the collision on foot but was unable to get out of the car, a white Honda Accord, which had flipped upside-down. Langill was eventually helped out of the car through the passenger door. Langill initially told police that the incident had happened when he was cut off by another car while on the way back home from the team bowling event, which according to Mets General Manager Sandy Alderson occurred approximately three hours previously. Langill was held in prison for the night by local authorities. Afterward, Langill was suspended by the team for a week and was required to seek help from the Mets Employee Assistance Program.

Notes

External links

1979 births
Living people
People from Kirkland, Quebec
Canadian expatriate baseball players in the United States
Las Vegas 51s players
Major League Baseball bullpen catchers
New York Mets coaches
Clinton LumberKings players
Great Falls Dodgers players
Jacksonville Suns players
South Georgia Waves players
Vermont Expos players
Vero Beach Dodgers players
Canadian baseball coaches

Eric Langill


The Old St. Charles Bridge once connected St. Louis County to the city of St. Charles.

History
Construction on the bridge began in August, 1902 with the sinking of the piers. Workers who worked inside the piers were called sandhogs. They worked one hour at a time twice a day inside the piers. One worker died as a result of the bends.

Progress on the bridge was slow for several reasons. Shipments of raw materials including lumber and steel were delayed. Inclement weather threatened work stoppages on several occasions. A dispute developed over the right-of-way needed for construction that had to be settled in court. And finally, raw materials had to be stored on the St. Louis County side due to the lack of available space in St. Charles. This forced workers to ferry materials and supplies across the river when needed on the St. Charles side.

Construction was completed in the spring of 1904 in time for the world's fair in St. Louis. The bridge was a combination highway and streetcar bridge. The streetcar station at the western terminus of the bridge still stands at 2nd and Adams in St. Charles. It was operated as toll by the St. Charles and St. Louis County Bridge Company until December 1931. At that time it was incorporated in the state highway system as part of U.S. Route 40. Tolls and trolleys ceased in January 1932.

In June 1959, the bridge was redesignated as part of Route 115 after a new U.S. Route 40 bridge opened that would later become part of Interstate 70. The bridge remained part of SR-115 until it was replaced by the Discovery Bridge. It was documented for the Historic American Engineering Record in 1989, prior to being closed to traffic in 1992 and demolished in 1998.

See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Missouri
List of crossings of the Missouri River

References

External links

Bridges of the United States Numbered Highway System
Bridges in Greater St. Louis
Bridges in St. Louis County, Missouri
Bridges in St. Charles County, Missouri
Bridges completed in 1904
Demolished bridges in the United States
Buildings and structures demolished in 1998
Road bridges in Missouri
U.S. Route 40
Former toll bridges in Missouri
Historic American Engineering Record in Missouri
Steel bridges in the United States

Old St. Charles Bridge


Deer Island is an island off the coast of Biloxi, Mississippi that was once part of the mainland and is not a barrier island. It is the closest island to the Mississippi Gulf Coast, and consists of approximately . In 2011, TITANTubes, sometimes referred to as geotubes, were utilized as low profile dune cores to protect the island.

Debate

For several years, local casinos tried to develop the island. However, the majority of the island was acquired by the State of Mississippi on May 24, 2002, which intends to preserve its current undeveloped state.

Wildlife

Deer island is home to 10 endangered species of plants and animals.

References

Further reading
Deer Island becomes Coastal Preserve  Retrieved 2-2-2009.

Islands of Mississippi
Barrier islands of Mississippi
Landforms of Harrison County, Mississippi
Protected areas of Harrison County, Mississippi

Deer Island (Mississippi)


Demarchy is a political system based on many decision-making groups that deal with specific functions in a given area (transport, parks, land use, etc.) The members that make up each group are chosen randomly every year. Democracy in Athens used this method to appoint officials.

This system is advantageous because it can not be influenced by pressure groups, media and others. In demarchy "political machines" or special preparation of candidates are not important because nobody can predict who will be in government next.

Political systems

Demarchy


Nathan Orr Hatch is an American academic administrator. He most recently served as the President of Wake Forest University in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, having been officially installed on October 20, 2005. Before coming to Wake Forest, Hatch was a professor and later dean and provost at the University of Notre Dame. Prior to his career in academic administration, he was a historian who was a leading scholar on issues related to the history of religion in the United States.

Biography
Born and raised in Columbia, South Carolina, Hatch graduated summa cum laude from Wheaton College (1968) in Illinois and earned his master's and doctoral degrees from Washington University in St. Louis. He has held postdoctoral fellowships at Harvard and Johns Hopkins universities and has been awarded research grants by the NEH, the American Council of Learned Societies, and the American Antiquarian Society.

He served as associate dean of University of Notre Dame's College of Arts and Letters, its largest college, from 1983 to 1988, and from 1988 to 1989 was the college's acting dean. During that time he founded and directed the Institute of Scholarship in the Liberal Arts (ISLA), which fostered a sixfold increase in external funding of faculty in the humanities and social sciences and assisted Notre Dame faculty members in winning 21 National Endowment for the Humanities fellowships from 1985 to 1991. In 1999 Hatch was appointed the Andrew V. Tackes Professor of History at Notre Dame.

In 1989 Hatch was appointed Notre Dame's vice president for graduate studies and research. In 1996, he became the university's provost, the third person to hold the position since its establishment in 1970. As provost he was Notre Dame's second-ranking academic officer and, under the direction of the president, exercised overall responsibility for the academic enterprise. He held this office until 2005, at which time he became president of Wake Forest University.

Hatch is regularly cited as one of the most influential scholars in the study of the history of religion in America. His book The Democratization of American Christianity, published by Yale University Press in 1989, garnered three awards, including the 1989 Albert Outler Prize in Ecumenical Church History and the 1990 John Hope Franklin Prize as the best book in American studies.  Professor Gordon Wood of Brown University called it "the best book on religion in the early Republic that has ever been written"; it was also chosen in a survey of 2,000 historians and sociologists as one of the two most important books in the study of American religion.

Earlier Hatch had published The Sacred Cause of Liberty: Republican Thought and the Millennium in Revolutionary New England, also with Yale University Press, and with historians George Marsden and Mark Noll co-authored the 1983 volume The Search for Christian America (Crossway Books). He has co-edited two books with (Oxford University Press), The Bible in America (with Mark Noll, 1981) and Jonathan Edwards and the American Experience (with Harry Stout, 1989). In 2001 he co-edited Methodism and the Shaping of American Culture (Abingdon Press) with John Wigger. He has also edited a volume with the University of Notre Dame Press, The Professions in American History [1988]. In 1982, along with Mark Noll, he co-founded the Institute for the Study of American Evangelicals (ISAE) at his undergraduate alma mater, Wheaton College. In 1990, Hatch secured funding from the Pew Charitable Trusts to establish the Evangelical Scholarship Initiative at Notre Dame which provided grants for senior evangelical scholars, sabbatical funding, and scholarships for evangelical graduate students across a wide swath of disciplines. In 1993 he served as president of the American Society of Church History.

At Wake Forest, students often refer to him as "Natty O." Hatch's middle name is "Orr."

References

External links
 Wake Forest biography

Washington University in St. Louis alumni
University of Notre Dame faculty
Presidents of Wake Forest University
Wheaton College (Illinois) alumni
Harvard Fellows
Johns Hopkins University people
Living people
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Presidents of the American Society of Church History
American male non-fiction writers
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers

Nathan O. Hatch


Alfred John North (11 June 1855 – 6 May 1917) was an Australian ornithologist.

North was born in Melbourne and was educated at Melbourne Grammar School. He was appointed to the Australian Museum, Sydney in 1886 and was given a permanent position there five years later.
He wrote a List of the Insectivorous Birds of New South Wales (1897) and a Descriptive Catalogue of the Nests and Eggs of Birds Found Breeding in Australia and Tasmania (1889) with George Barnard as co-author. He described a number of birds for the first time, many in the Victorian Naturalist, the magazine of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria of which he was a founding member.

References
North, Alfred John (1855 - 1917) at Bright Sparcs,  University of Melbourne

1855 births
1917 deaths
People educated at Melbourne Grammar School
Australian ornithologists
Australian curators

Alfred John North


A catacomb is an underground tunnel that is used to hold and bury dead bodies. Many of them were made in the Roman Empire.

Use in music
The Catacombs is the eighth movement from Pictures at an Exhibition by Modest Mussorgsky. It describes of loud and soft sounds of echoes in catacombs.

Related pages
Cemetery
Crypt
Tomb

Cemeteries

Catacomb


The Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21, is a piano concerto composed by Frédéric Chopin in fall 1829.  Chopin composed the piece before he had finished his formal education, at around 20 years of age.  It was first performed on 17 March 1830, in Warsaw, Poland, with the composer as soloist.  It was the second of his piano concertos to be published (after the Piano Concerto No. 1), and so was designated as "No. 2", even though it was written first.

Structure

The work contains the three movements typical of instrumental concertos of the period:

A typical performance lasts around 30 to 35 minutes.

Orchestration
Chopin's fellow composers and Prof. Elsner's former students, Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński (1807-1867) and Tomasz Nidecki (1807-1852), are believed to have helped him orchestrate his piano concertos.  This gave an excuse for other musicians to make slight alterations in the score.
Alfred Cortot created his own orchestration of the F minor concerto and recorded it with the London Philharmonic Orchestra under John Barbirolli in 1935. Ingolf Wunder recorded Alfred Cortot's orchestration with minor changes done by himself in 2015. More recently (in 2017), Mikhail Pletnev recorded his arrangements of both of Chopin's piano concertos, conducting the Mahler Chamber Orchestra, with pianist Daniil Trifonov.

References

 Ledbetter, Steven (1994). Pro Arte: Piano Concerto #2 in F minor.
 Bazzana, Kevin "Programme Notes".

External links

Concertos by Frédéric Chopin
Chopin 2
1830 compositions
Compositions in F minor

Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin)


In Tiwi mythology, Papinijuwaris are one-eyed giants who live in a large hut where the sky ends. Shooting stars are said to be Papinijuwaris stalking across the heavens with a burning firestick in one hand and a fighting club in the other. Papinijuwaris feed on the bodies of the dead and the blood of the sick. They are able to locate sick people by smell, and upon finding a victim will make themselves invisible and suck the person's blood without leaving a wound. As the sick person weakens, the Papinijuwari makes itself small enough to enter the body through the mouth and drinks up the rest of the blood from the inside.

Footnotes

Australian Aboriginal legendary creatures
Mythological hematophages
Cyclopes

Papinijuwari


The Jargon File is a glossary and usage dictionary of slang used by computer programmers. The original Jargon File was a collection of terms from technical cultures such as the MIT AI Lab, the Stanford AI Lab (SAIL) and others of the old ARPANET AI/LISP/PDP-10 communities. It included Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Carnegie Mellon University, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute. It was published in paperback form in 1983 as The Hacker's Dictionary (edited by Guy Steele), revised in 1991 as The New Hacker's Dictionary (ed. Eric S. Raymond; third edition published 1996).

The concept of the file began with the Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) that came out of early PDP-1 and TX-0 hackers in the 1950s, where the term hacker emerged and the ethic, philosophies and some of the nomenclature emerged.

Computing

Jargon File


Robert Duane Beckel (born January 2, 1937) is a retired lieutenant general in the United States Air Force. He was the commander of the 15th Air Force at March Air Force Base, California.

Beckel was born in Walla Walla, Washington, in 1937. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree from the U.S. Air Force Academy in 1959 as a member of its first class, and a Master of Science degree in international affairs from The George Washington University in 1971. He completed the Naval Command and Staff Course in 1971, and National War College in 1975. Upon graduation from the academy, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant. He received pilot wings in June 1960 at Vance Air Force Base, Okla., where he was the outstanding graduate of his class. He then completed jet fighter training at Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, and Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. In August 1961 General Beckel was assigned to the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing, Spangdahlem Air Base, West Germany, where he flew F-100s and F-105s.

He next became a member of the U.S. Air Force Aerial Demonstration Squadron, the Thunderbirds. From December 1965 to December 1967 he flew the solo position for the "Ambassadors in Blue" in demonstrations throughout the world. While serving as flight commander of the 614th Tactical Fighter Squadron, South Vietnam, he flew 313 combat missions in the F-100 from December 1967 until January 1969. He returned to Nellis Air Force Base and joined the 4525th Fighter Weapons Wing as an F-100 instructor. Beckel served as executive officer for the wing commander and then moved to the 66th Fighter Weapons Squadron as an operational test and evaluation officer, flying the F-105. Beckel attended the Command and Staff Course at the Naval War College from August 1970 to June 1971. He then was assigned to the Office of Legislative Liaison, Secretary of the Air Force, Washington, D.C., where he worked in the House of Representatives. In 1972 he became chief aide to Admiral Thomas H. Moorer, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

He entered the National War College in August 1974. Upon graduation in July 1975, he served as vice commander of the 9th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing, Beale Air Force Base, Calif., and flew SR-71s and T-38s. There he became commander of the 100th Combat Support Group in October 1976 and, later, the 100th Air Refueling Wing. In August 1978 Beckel transferred to K.I. Sawyer Air Force Base, Mich., as commander of the 410th Bombardment Wing. In June 1979 he became commander of 7th Air Division, Strategic Air Command, Ramstein Air Base, West Germany.

Beckel returned to the Air Force Academy in February 1981 as commandant of cadets. In June 1982 he became director of operations, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff, Plans and Operations, Headquarters U.S. Air Force, Washington, D.C. He transferred to Headquarters Strategic Air Command, Offutt Air Force Base, Neb., In September 1984 as deputy chief of staff for operations, and in October 1985 became chief of staff. Beckel was assigned to Europe in July 1987 as deputy chairman, NATO Military Committee, Headquarters North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Brussels, Belgium.

He is a command pilot with more than 4,400 flying hours. His military awards and decorations include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, Distinguished Service Medal, Silver Star, Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster, Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters, Bronze Star Medal, Meritorious Service Medal and Air Medal with 15 oak leaf clusters. He was named to the Helms All-American basketball team in 1959, and was on the U.S. Air Forces in Europe and all-Air Force basketball teams in 1961.

He was promoted to lieutenant general Aug. 1, 1987, with same date of rank and retired on June 1, 1992.

References

1937 births
Living people
United States Air Force generals

Robert D. Beckel


In chemistry, yield (also called chemical yield or reaction yield) is the amount of product resulting from a chemical reaction.<ref name=vogel>Vogel, A.I., Tatchell, A.R., Furnis, B.S., Hannaford, A.J. and P.W.G. Smith. Vogel's Textbook of Practical OrganicHall, 19936-3.</ref> The absolute yield gives the weight in grams, and the molar yield gives the number of moles.

The fractional yield, relative yield, or percentage yield shows how completely a synthetic procedure worked. It is calculated by dividing the amount of product by the theoretical yield (the unit of measurement for both must be the same):

To get the percentage yield'', one must multiply the fractional yield by 100% (e.g., 0.673 × 100% = 67.3%).

The ideal percentage yield of a chemical reaction is 100%, but it cannot be achieved because measurements are never completely accurate. Yields around 100% are "quantitative", yields above 90% are "excellent", yields above 80% are "very good", yields above 70% are "good", yields above 50% are "fair", and yields below 40% are "poor".

References

Chemistry

Yield (chemistry)


A black knight is a character fictional stories. They are soldiers or knights who do not have a lord, or the lord is secret. They do not have any heraldic standards or have painted them over with black paint. In these stories, black knights are usually evil knights that are good at fighting and usually work alone.

In Arthurian legend Black Knight was a magical knight summoned by Sir Calogrenant. The Black Knight never told his name. He defeated Sir Calogrenant. Later The Black Knight was killed unfairly by Yvain in a act of revenge for his cousin, Sir Calogrenant.

Knights

Black knight


Janette Hales Beckham, commonly known as Janette C. Hales and later, Janette Hales Beckham ( Callister; June 7, 1933 – March 4, 2022), was the tenth general president of the Young Women organization of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1992 to 1997. She was also a member of the Utah State Legislature from 1988 to 1991.

Biography

Janette Callister was born in Springville, Utah, and raised in Spanish Fork, Utah. She is the daughter of Thomas Leonard Callister (1899–1966) and Hannah Carrick (1904–93). She attended Brigham Young University (BYU) on scholarship and graduated in 1969. While at BYU, she met her future husband, Robert H. Hales. They were married in 1955 in the Salt Lake Temple. The couple lived in San Antonio, Texas, New York City, and San Francisco and raised five children.

Robert Hales was an ophthalmologist. He was a professor of medicine at the University of Utah and a professor of nursing at BYU. Robert Hales died of cancer in March 1988.

Shortly after her husband's death, Hales was appointed by Utah Governor Norman H. Bangerter to fill a vacancy in the Utah House of Representatives. In the November 1988 election, Hales was elected to the House as a Republican. Hales served in the 48th Utah State Legislature. She decided not to run for re-election in 1990 and stepped down after one term in January 1991.

In March 1990, when Elaine L. Jack was released as a counselor in the general presidency of the LDS Church's Young Women organization to become general president of the church's Relief Society, Young Women president Ardeth G. Kapp selected Hales as her new counselor. Hales served in this capacity until 1992, when Kapp was released and Hales was selected as her successor.

During her tenure as general president of the Young Women, Hales was assisted by four counselors: Virginia H. Pearce, Patricia P. Pinegar, Bonnie D. Parkin, and Carol B. Thomas. Pinegar went on to serve as general president of the church's Primary and Parkin went on to serve as the general president of the Relief Society. Hales was released in 1997 and succeeded by Margaret D. Nadauld.

In 1995, while serving as general Young Women president, Hales married Raymond E. Beckham and changed her surname to Beckham. He was a BYU professor of communication who was heavily involved in fundraising and supervising extension work, including the operations of BYU's short-lived Las Vegas center.

Beckham was a member of the LDS Church's Olympic Coordinating Committee for the Salt Lake City Winter Olympics from 1998 to 2002. In 2004, Beckham became a member of the Utah Valley State College (later Utah Valley University (UVU)) Board of Trustees and later served as the chair of the board. She left the UVU board in 2011.

Beckham has also served on the board of directors of Deseret Book Company.

Notes

References
 Janet Peterson and LaRene Gaunt (1993). Keepers of the Flame: Presidents of the Young Women (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book)
"New Young Women General Presidency Called," Ensign, May 1992, pp. 106–07
"Robert H. Hales, Ophthalmologist and Community Leader, Dies at 57", Deseret News, March 27, 1992
"Provo Couple put Service First", Deseret News, July 26, 2007
"Janette C. Hales Beckham", mormonwiki.com
"Sustaining the Living Prophets", LDS General Conference, talk given by Janette Hales Beckham, April 1996

1933 births
2022 deaths
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Brigham Young University alumni
Counselors in the General Presidency of the Young Women (organization)
General Presidents of the Young Women (organization)
Republican Party members of the Utah House of Representatives
Politicians from Provo, Utah
People from Spanish Fork, Utah
People from Springville, Utah
Utah Valley University people
Women state legislators in Utah
Latter Day Saints from Utah

Janette Hales Beckham


Gastrophysa polygoni is a species of leaf beetle in the subfamily Chrysomelinae. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The species can be up to 5mm long and is green-blue in colour. The thorax is orange and the wing cases are a metallic green, and the beetle can be seen in spring and summer.

References

Beetles described in 1758
Chrysomelinae
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Gastrophysa polygoni


Operation Tarnegol (, Rooster) was an Israeli Air Force operation carried out on the eve of the 1956 Suez Crisis. It witnessed an Israeli Gloster Meteor NF.13 intercept and destroy an Egyptian Ilyushin Il-14 carrying high-ranking members of the Egyptian General Staff en route from Syria to Egypt.

Background
On 24 October 1956, as Israel, France and Britain were preparing for the launch of operations Kadesh and Musketeer, Abdel Hakim Amer, Egypt's defence minister and commander-in-chief, departed Egypt for a visit to Jordan and Syria. Early on Sunday, October 28, a day before operations were to commence, Israeli intelligence learned that Amer and the entire Egyptian General Staff were soon to depart Damascus for Cairo on board an Ilyushin Il-14. This presented an opportunity to incapacitate Egypt's high command on the eve of operations and the Israeli Air Force was tasked with shooting the aircraft down.

The IAF had only received its first three Meteor NF.13s, the night-fighting variant of the British jet, shortly before the outbreak of the Suez Crisis. Newly formed 119 Squadron, operating out of Ramat David and led by Major Yoash Tsiddon, was therefore shut down for the upcoming campaign and Tsiddon detailed to 117 Squadron as a regular Meteor pilot. Although neither Tsiddon nor his navigator Elyashiv Brosh had practised night intercepts since training, they were dispatched to take 119's lone serviceable aircraft and intercept the Ilyushin.

Interception

Late on 28 October, half an hour after the Ilyushin had reportedly left Damascus, Tsiddon and Brosh departed Ramat-David in Meteor 52. They had taken off with a maximum fuel load and external fuel tanks, but soon discovered that fuel would not flow from the external tanks and jettisoned both. Heading west over the Mediterranean, Tsiddon was  south of Cyprus when the aircraft's radar picked up a target  away at . Tsiddon closed in on the aircraft, slowed and circled it, counting the windows and attempting to trace the shape of its tail in the pitch-dark night. Clearly identifying it as an Ilyushin Il-14, Tsiddon pulled alongside the aircraft to peer inside. Spotting men clad in military uniform, he was certain he had located the correct target.

With the aircraft positively identified, IAF commander Dan Tolkovsky authorized Tsiddon over the radio to shoot it down. With a top speed of about , however, the Ilyushin was flying barely faster than the Meteor's stall speed. Tsiddon slipped behind the Ilyushin and opened fire, but his cannons had been loaded with tracer rounds, whose glow temporarily blinded him from seeing the target. One of his guns jammed, and with two cannons firing on the left versus only one on the right, the slow flying aircraft entered a left-handed spin.

Tsiddon recovered control of the Meteor and closed in on his target again. His initial burst had damaged the aircraft's left engine and had apparently caused an electrical shortage, as no lights were apparent, but the Ilyushin was still flying. Coming in for a second pass, he dropped his flaps and aimed at the tip of the right wing, hitting the body as the Meteor once again yawed to the left. The Ilyushin "mushroomed to a huge fireball" and both aircraft entered an uncontrollable spin. Tsiddon regained control of the Meteor at , only to see the burning Ilyushin disintegrate as it hit the water.

Ascending to , Tsiddon discovered he was dangerously low on fuel. Directed to the closest IAF air base, he landed at Hatzor, his engines flaming out during taxi-in.

Aftermath
Sixteen Egyptian officers and journalists and two crewmen were killed on board the Ilyushin. Intelligence soon reported, however, that Marshal Amer had not been present on the ill-fated flight. He had changed his plans and remained in Damascus, departing the Syrian capital on another aircraft. The IAF had considered intercepting and shooting down the second aircraft as well, but was dissuaded by fears of jeopardizing intelligence sources.

The Ilyushin Il-14 had been downed without reporting the attack. Egypt soon made a request to Britain on a humanitarian basis asking for help in searching for the missing plane, and both the British and Egyptians launched search operations, with aircraft scouring the Mediterranean for the plane for several days. The British passed on a request for assistance to Israel, and the Israeli Navy, which had not been informed of the operation, joined the search. The search flotilla was spotted by the IAF. As only the participants and a few high-ranking officers in the IAF were aware of the mission, the flotilla was assumed to be hostile, and a request was sent to the high command to call in the navy to engage the ships, which was denied.

Operation Tarnegol remained classified for 32 years and was only made public in January 1989. It was 119 Squadron's first aerial victory and the last for a Gloster Meteor flying for the IAF.

Notes

References

Conflicts in 1956
1956 in Israel
1956 in Egypt
Suez Crisis
Aerial operations and battles involving Israel
Airliner shootdown incidents
Aviation accidents and incidents in 1956
Gloster Meteor
20th-century aircraft shootdown incidents
October 1956 events in Asia
October 1956 events in Africa

Operation Tarnegol


Major Sydney Vincent Sippe  (pronounced -ee) (24 April 1889 – 17 November 1968) was a British pioneer aviator. He designed, built, and tested early aeroplanes, being the first pilot to take off from the sea in Britain. He flew many missions in World War I, including some of the first ever bombing raids. He won honours from several countries, particularly for his part in the 1914 bombing of a German Zeppelin factory.

Early life
Sippe's parents were Charles Henry Sippe (1842–1924), a shipping export agent (whose firm, C H Sippe & Sons Ltd, still existed until c.2013), and Elizabeth Jane Thornton (born 1846). They had moved to Britain from Australia, both families having originally emigrated from Liverpool.

The youngest of nine children, Sydney Sippe was born in 1889 in Brixton, London, where his parents lived at 17 Lambert Road. He was educated at Dulwich College from May 1903 to December 1905.

Name and title
Sippe was named after Sydney, Australia, where both his parents had lived. His first name is often misspelled 'Sidney', even on official documents, and his surname sometimes written with an accent, 'Sippé', as if of French origin. The form 'Sydney Vincent Sippe' is used both on his birth and death certificates.

Following his service during World War I, Sippe continued to use the title major – and was known as 'the Major' – even though the RAF rank was renamed squadron leader in 1919. He also went by the nickname Pi (pronounced like 'pie'), and was known to his family as Pipi.

Aviation pioneer
After leaving school, in February 1906 Sippe became an engineering apprentice with British Westinghouse in Manchester.

Between late 1909 and early 1910, just a year after Wilbur Wright first demonstrated powered flight in Europe, Sippe (aged 20), his brother Arthur, and their friend James Jensen (or Jenson) designed and built a monoplane from steel tubing.  Its attempted maiden flight on 24 April 1910 at Addington, Croydon, failed due to insufficient power:

Sydney Sippe was thrown forward with some violence and his nose came into collision with one of the steel tubes. The nose came off worst, and a piece of flesh was removed from the inside of his thigh. That, with sundry bruises, was all. A well-meaning friend rushed up with a flask of whisky, which he thrust into the pilot's mouth, and so Sydney Sippe arrived home to his mother with a broken nose, a bleeding thigh—and slightly intoxicated.

He learned to fly at the Avro school at Brooklands, gaining his licence in January 1912 "in a way which showed that he had thoroughly mastered the art". He immediately became a test and demonstration pilot. Three weeks after his flying test he survived a crash near Finchampstead caused by a frozen carburettor; the aircraft was wrecked, but Sippe escaped unhurt.

In the spring of 1912 he test-flew the Avro hydro-aeroplane at Barrow-in-Furness, making the first ever flight from the sea in Britain on 2 April.

He shortly afterwards tested a monoplane for Hanriot in France. Engine failure forced him to land in a cornfield; the plane ended up upside down, but was undamaged, and he flew it again in the first Aerial Derby. This was a race round London, competing against various European pilots including Thomas Sopwith. Engine trouble forced Sippe out of the race.

Later that year he supervised the construction of aircraft in Milan for the Bristol Aeroplane Company, and took part in an Italian long-distance flying competition. On his return to the UK he took up flight testing and instruction at Salisbury.

War service
In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, Sippe immediately joined up and was made a Flight Lieutenant in the Royal Navy Air Service. He took part in the Entente's very first bombing raids on Düsseldorf and Cologne; in the latter, after failing to find his designated target, he instead bombed Cologne railway station, causing serious damage.

Friedrichshafen raid
This was followed by a celebrated attack on the Zeppelin sheds and factories at Friedrichshafen, Germany on 21 November 1914, one of the first long-distance bombing missions. Sippe and two other pilots flew  from Belfort, France, over mountainous terrain and in difficult weather—a risky flight near the limit of the aircraft's range. The distance was increased by the need to avoid flying over neutral Switzerland.

Reaching the target area, Sippe crossed Lake Constance in mist while under heavy fire, descending to just ten feet above the water so as to use the mist as cover. Despite their aircraft taking damage, the three pilots succeeded in bombing their targets. Although substantial damage was claimed at the time and in some later histories, the damage inflicted was slight.

One pilot was shot down and captured, but Sippe and the third pilot returned safely.

The raid was announced by Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, who called it "a fine feat of arms". One historian concluded: "The pilots deserve all praise for their admirable navigation... this flight of 250 miles, into gunfire, across enemy country, in the frail little Avro with its humble horse-power, can compare as an achievement with the best of them".

The bullet-damaged tail of Sippe's (or possibly one of the other pilots') plane was later mounted on a plaque as a souvenir.

Honours
Sippe and the other returning pilot received the French Legion of Honour (rarely given to foreigners) immediately after the Friedrichshafen raid, at the request of General Joffre himself. Sippe was awarded the Distinguished Service Order in the 1915 New Year Honours, and the OBE in the 1919 New Year's Honours. He was also awarded the Croix de Guerre, and made a Chevalier of the Belgian Order of Leopold.

Sippe was mentioned in dispatches six times during the war.

Cigarette cards
Sippe was featured on at least two cigarette cards: one, with his photograph and short biography, no. 26 in a series of 50 Naval Portraits, was issued by Lambert and Butler in c.1917. Another, no. 2 in a series of 50 War Incidents, was issued by Wills. Both cards recounted the Friedrichshafen raid.

Family
In December 1915, Sippe married Mabel Frances D'Arcy, only child of Gerald d'Arcy of Dublin; they had two children, Angela and James, and four grandchildren. They subsequently separated, and were divorced in 1933 on the grounds of her adultery with a Greek man.

Post-war life
After World War I, Sippe went through a variety of jobs, mostly related to engineering or aviation.

In the early 1920s he trained pilots in Japan.

In 1922 he began a secret attempt to salvage what was thought to be £2 million worth of gold coins (£100 million in 2012 prices) from the SS Tubantia, a ship which sank off the Dutch coast in 1916. When a rival salvage operation started the following year, Sippe won a landmark court case which ruled that, as his divers had found the ship and started work, he had the sole right to salvage it. In 1925, after £100,000 (£5.2 million in 2012 prices) had been spent on the salvage attempt, he concluded that though the cargo had been in the ship, the difficulty of accessing it made it too dangerous for divers to recover, and so the project was abandoned.

Sippe was a sales manager for ten years with Short Brothers (now a large aerospace business), then with Crossley Motors, followed by the Fairey Aviation Company from 1946 to 1955. He later founded his own business, Field and Forest Supplies, selling products of his own invention. In 1963 he became a consultant to the 20th Century Joinery and Packing Co Ltd, a company which specialized in packing aircraft parts for transport.

He died of cancer in 1968 in Leatherhead Hospital. Despite Sippe's distinguished war record, it seems no obituary appeared in any major newspapers, as they were not aware of his death at the time.

References

1889 births
1968 deaths
British World War I pilots
20th-century British inventors
Knights of the Legion of Honour
People educated at Dulwich College
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Royal Naval Air Service aviators
Royal Air Force officers
Officers of the Order of the British Empire

Sydney Sippe


Sarovaram (also known as Sarovaram Bio Park) is an eco-friendly development near Kottooly in Kozhikode city in India. The park is situated adjacent to Canoly Canal. The project has been developed with an eco-friendly theme and is located in an ecosystem consisting of wetlands and mangrove forests containing bird habitats.

Protected species
This park is a protected place to conserve mangrove species and other flora.  This park is identified as one of the 27 wetlands of India.  There are 7 mangrove species and 29 associated species.  This park is the habitat for 34 types of birds.
The canal is eleven kilometres long and connects the Korapuzha and Kallayi rivers.  The park contains boating facilities, musical fountain and an open-air theatre.  Of late the park has gained a reputation as a popular hangout of college couples.
 It is also the favourite spot of photographers for pre marriage shoots and other photoshoots.The construction has been done in traditional Kerala style.

The Sarovaram project is being developed in stages, and the first few stages are complete and open to public. It is one of the more popular spots in the city to spend an evening, along with the beach and Mananchira Square.

Image gallery

Location

See also
 Mananchira Square
 Samoothiri Tower
 Canoly Canal
 Beypore

References

External links

Tourist attractions in Kozhikode
2007 establishments in Kerala
Mangrove ecoregions

Sarovaram Bio Park