Reginald Edward Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne,  (1 August 1905 – 7 September 1980), known as Sir Reginald Manningham-Buller, Bt, from 1954 to 1962 and as The Lord Dilhorne from 1962 to 1964, was an English lawyer and Conservative politician. He served as Lord Chancellor from 1962 to 1964.

Background and education
Born in Amersham, Buckinghamshire, Manningham-Buller was the only son of Sir Mervyn Manningham-Buller, 3rd Baronet, grandson of Sir Edward Manningham-Buller, 1st Baronet, of Dilhorne Hall, Staffordshire, a junior member of the Yarde-Buller family headed by Baron Churston. His mother was the Hon. Lilah Constance, Lady Manningham-Buller , daughter of Charles Cavendish, 3rd Baron Chesham and granddaughter of Hugh Grosvenor, 1st Duke of Westminster.

His uncle's seat of Dilhorne Hall having passed to an heiress ineligible for the baronetcy, Manningham-Buller grew up in Northamptonshire. (Although now pronounced "Dill-horn" by locals, he preferred the older pronunciation of "Dill-urn".) He was educated at Eton College, where he caused a fellow pupil to be expelled for making advances to another boy. He then attended Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took a Third in Law, before being called to the Bar by the Inner Temple in 1927.

Political career
Manningham-Buller was elected to the House of Commons in a 1943 by-election as Member of Parliament (MP) for Daventry. He was briefly Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Works in the caretaker government of Winston Churchill before it lost power in the general election of 1945, and became a King's Counsel in 1947. In 1950, his seat became Northamptonshire South.

Law officer of the Crown
When Churchill regained power in 1951 Manningham-Buller was knighted and became Solicitor-General; in 1954 he was sworn of the Privy Council and became Attorney General for England and Wales. In 1956 he succeeded his father as fourth Baronet.

John Bodkin Adams prosecution
In 1957 Manningham-Buller prosecuted suspected serial killer Dr John Bodkin Adams for the murder of two elderly widows in Eastbourne, Edith Alice Morrell and Gertrude Hullett. Adams was acquitted on the Morrell charge but Manningham-Buller controversially entered a nolle prosequi regarding Hullett. Not only was there seemingly little reason to enter it (Adams was not suffering from ill health), but the Hullett charge was deemed by many to be the stronger of the two cases. Mr Justice Patrick Devlin, the presiding judge, in his post-trial book termed Manningham-Buller's act "an abuse of process". Devlin also criticised Manningham-Buller for his uncharacteristic weakness at a crucial moment in the Morrell case: evidence (some nurses' notebooks) that had gone missing from the Director of Public Prosecutions's files, turned up in the hands of the defence on the second day of the trial. Manningham-Buller claimed he had not seen them before but failed to halt their admission as evidence, or ask for time to acquaint himself with their contents. They were subsequently used by the defence to throw doubt on the accuracy of the testimony of various nurses who had worked with Adams and who had questioned his methods and intentions. This damaged the prosecution tremendously, fatally scuppering the case. Manningham-Buller's handling of the case later provoked questions in the House of Commons.

Detective Superintendent Herbert Hannam of Scotland Yard, the chief investigator, suspected political interference due to Manningham-Buller's membership of a government, which had no interest in seeing a doctor hang. Indeed, on 8 November 1956, Manningham-Buller himself had handed a copy of Hannam's 187-page report to the President of the British Medical Association (BMA), effectively the doctors' trade union in Britain. This document – the prosecution's most valuable document – was in the hands of the defence, a situation that led the Home Secretary, Gwilym Lloyd-George, to reprimand Manningham-Buller, stating that such documents should not even be shown to "Parliament or to individual Members". "I can only hope that no harm will result" since "the disclosure of this document is likely to cause me considerable embarrassment". Subsequently, on 28 November 1956, Labour MPs Stephen Swingler and Hugh Delargy gave notice of two questions to be answered in the House of Commons on 3 December regarding Manningham-Buller's contacts with the General Medical Council (GMC) and BMA regarding the Adams case in the previous six months. Manningham-Buller was absent on the day in question but gave a written reply stating he had "had no communications with the General Medical Council within the last six months." He avoided referring to the BMA directly (despite it being named in the questions) and therefore avoided lying, though it could be argued, still deliberately misled the House. Manningham-Buller then proceeded to launch an investigation into how his contact with the BMA had come to be known by the MPs. A leak from Scotland Yard was suspected and Hannam was reprimanded.

Charles Hewett, Hannam's assistant in the investigation, has described how both officers were astounded at Manningham-Buller's decision to charge John Bodkin Adams with the murder of Mrs. Morrell, whose body had been cremated. He believed that there were other cases against the doctor, where traces of drugs had been found in exhumed remains, which were more capable of proof.  He also considered that a charge of manslaughter would have been more appropriate in the circumstances.  He questioned the decision not to proceed further after Adams' acquittal and he believed that a calculating killer escaped justice as a result. Home Office pathologist Francis Camps suspected Adams of killing 163 patients.

Lady Chatterley's Lover prosecution
Lady Chatterley's Lover was banned in 1928 but republished in 1960 by Penguin Books. The decision was taken to prosecute Penguin under the new Obscene Publications Act. Bernard Levin criticised the decision thus: "It is surely going to be difficult for the prosecution to find anybody taken seriously by the literary or academic worlds to swear that publication of Lady Chatterley's Lover is not in the public interest as a literary event and that its tendency would be to deprave and corrupt those who might read it." When Manningham-Buller saw this in The Spectator, he cabled Sir Jocelyn Simon, Solicitor-General saying: "suggest seriously consider spectator 19th Reggie". He then sent a letter stating: "It seems to me a clear contempt of court and the only question is should we start proceedings? My feelings is that we should." Manningham-Buller suggested prosecuting "the proprietors of The Spectator, the editor and Mr Bernard Levin" once the Chatterley trial itself was over. Sir Jocelyn convinced him to reconsider.

Lord Chancellorship
He continued as Attorney-General under Sir Anthony Eden and Harold Macmillan until July 1962, when he was rather abruptly named Lord Chancellor and sent to the House of Lords to replace Lord Kilmuir. On his appointment he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Dilhorne, of Towcester in the County of Northampton on 17 July 1962. Retained, after Macmillan's retirement, in the cabinet of Sir Alec Douglas-Home, when the Conservatives lost the election of 1964 he was created Viscount Dilhorne, of Greens Norton in the County of Northampton on 7 December, becoming the Deputy Leader of the Conservatives in the House of Lords. In 1969 he was named a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and continued in this capacity until his death.

Manningham-Buller wrote the first report on the Profumo affair – an internal report for the Macmillan Government (confirmed by his daughter, The Baroness Manningham-Buller, when she appeared on the Desert Island Discs radio programme). Then when Lord Denning was appointed to investigate and report on the affair, Dilhorne passed his report over to Denning. Chapman Pincher in his book Inside Story published in 1978 quotes Manningham-Buller as jokingly saying he could have sued Tom Denning for breach of copyright because significant portions of Manningham-Buller's report appeared in Denning's report virtually unchanged. Denning did include much in his report that was not in Manningham-Buller's report.

Key judgments
Lord Dilhorne held in Newbury District Council v Secretary of State for the Environment; Newbury District Council v International Synthetic Rubber Co. Ltd. [1981] AC 578:
"The conditions imposed must be for a planning purpose and not for any ulterior one... and they must fairly and reasonably relate to the development permitted. Also they must not be so unreasonable that no reasonable planning authority could have imposed them.
In that case he also introduced the concept of the 'planning unit' which extinguishes previous permitted uses on land that has in practice become a new planning unit. This has stood up the test of recent jurisprudence and a DCLG (then DoE) circular is largely based on its principles.

Bullying manner
In the late 1950s, Bernard Levin gave Manningham-Buller the nickname "Bullying-Manner" in his Parliamentary sketch. When Manningham-Buller was elevated to the peerage as Lord Dilhorne, Levin renamed him Lord Stillborn. Lord Devlin, judge in the Adams case, described Buller's technique thus:
"He could be downright rude but he did not shout or bluster. Yet his disagreeableness was so pervasive, his persistence so interminable, the obstructions he manned so far flung, his objectives apparently so insignificant, that sooner or later you would be tempted to ask yourself whether the game was worth the candle: if you asked yourself that, you were finished."
Manningham-Buller was one of the inspirations for the character of Kenneth Widmerpool in Anthony Powell's A Dance to the Music of Time.

Marriage and children
Manningham-Buller married Lady Mary Lilian Lindsay (1910–2004), daughter of David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford, in 1930. They had a son and three daughters:

 John Mervyn Manningham-Buller, 2nd Viscount Dilhorne (28 February 1932 - 25 June 2022)
 Hon Marion Cynthia Manningham-Buller (26 November 1934 - 10 August 2013), married Edmund Crispin Stephen James George Brudenell.
 Elizabeth Lydia Manningham-Buller, Baroness Manningham-Buller (born 14 July 1948)
 Hon Anne Constance Manningham-Buller (born 13 August 1951), married Sir John Christopher Parsons, KCVO.

Manningham-Buller died in 1980, aged 75, and was interred in Deene, Northamptonshire.  He was succeeded in the viscountcy by his only son, John.  His second daughter was the Director-General of MI5 from 2002 to 2007 and in 2008 was awarded a life peerage, becoming the Rt Hon The Baroness Manningham-Buller, DCB. His granddaughter is model and media personality Lilah Parsons.

In Parliament, Dilhorne opposed the legislation to legalise homosexual acts between consenting men.

Notes

 Cullen, Pamela V., "A Stranger in Blood: The Case Files on Dr John Bodkin Adams", London, Elliott & Thompson, 2006,
 Devlin, Patrick; "Easing the Passing", London, The Bodley Head, 1985

External links
 Gallery of those involved in the Adams case, including a photo of Manningham-Buller

Dilhorne, Reginald Edward Manningham-Buller, 1st Baron
Dilhorne, Reginald Edward Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount
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Dilhorne, Reginald Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount
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Ministers in the Churchill caretaker government, 1945
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Reginald Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne


The Great Waltz is a 1938 American biographical film based very loosely on the life of Johann Strauss II. It starred Luise Rainer, Fernand Gravet (Gravey), and Miliza Korjus. Rainer received top billing at the producer's insistence, but her role is comparatively minor as Strauss' wife, Poldi Vogelhuber. It was the only starring role for Korjus, who was a famous opera soprano and played one in the film.

Joseph Ruttenberg won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography. Korjus was nominated for Supporting Actress, and Tom Held for Film Editing.
The film was popular in Australia, and was distributed largely throughout Sydney and Melbourne for two years after its initial release.

The film has no connection with the 1934 Broadway play The Great Waltz.

Synopsis
The highly fictionalised story sees "Schani" dismissed from his job in a bank. He puts together a group of unemployed musicians who wangle a performance at Dommayer's cafe. The audience is minimal, but when two opera singers, Carla Donner (Miliza Korjus) and Fritz Schiller (George Houston), visit whilst their carriage is being repaired, the music attracts a wider audience.

Strauss is caught up in a student protest; he and Carla Donner avoid arrest and escape to the Vienna Woods, where he is inspired to create the waltz "Tales from the Vienna Woods".

Carla asks Strauss for some music to sing at an aristocratic soiree, and this leads to the composer receiving a publishing contract. He's on his way, and he can now marry Poldi Vogelhuber, his sweetheart. But the closeness of Strauss and Carla Donner, during rehearsals of operettas, attracts comment, not least from Count Hohenfried, Donner's admirer.

Poldi remains loyal to Strauss, and the marriage is a long one. He is received by the Kaiser Franz Joseph I of Austria (whom he unknowingly insulted in the aftermath of the student protests), and the two stand before cheering crowds on the balcony of Schönbrunn.

Cast
 Luise Rainer as Poldi Vogelhuber
 Fernand Gravet as Johann Strauss II
 Miliza Korjus as Carla Donner
 Hugh Herbert as Hofbauer
 Lionel Atwill as Count Hohenfried
 Curt Bois as Kienzl
 Al Shean as Cellist
 Minna Gombell as Mrs. Hofbauer
 Alma Kruger as Mrs. Strauss
 Greta Meyer as Mrs. Vogelhuber
 Bert Roachas Vogelhuber
 Henry Hull as Franz Joseph I of Austria
 Sig Rumann as Wertheimer
 George Houston as Schiller
 Herman Bing as Dommayer
 Christian Rub as Coachman
 Frank Mayo as Ship's Officer (uncredited)
 Larry Steers as Man in Uniform (uncredited)

Box office
According to MGM records, the film earned $918,000 in the US and Canada, and $1,504,000 elsewhere, resulting in a loss of $724,000.

Re-make

The film was re-made in 1972, with Horst Buchholz playing Strauss, alongside Mary Costa, Nigel Patrick, and Yvonne Mitchell.

References

External links

 1972 remake:

American historical films
American biographical films
1930s historical films
1930s biographical films
1938 films
American black-and-white films
1930s English-language films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films set in the 19th century
Films set in Vienna
Films about classical music and musicians
Films about composers
Cultural depictions of Franz Joseph I of Austria
Cultural depictions of Johann Strauss II
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
Films directed by Julien Duvivier
Films directed by Victor Fleming
Films directed by Josef von Sternberg
Films set in Austria-Hungary
1930s American films

The Great Waltz (1938 film)


BellSouth Telecommunications is a service provider which serves the southern United States. It formed as a result of the 1984 AT&T Bell System breakup. BellSouth operates in nine states: Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Georgia and Louisiana. The Bell System telephone companies before BellSouth were South Central Bell and Southern Bell in these nine states. BellSouth is currently under the ownership of AT&T.

American telephone companies

BellSouth


Fritz Stiedry (11 October 18838 August 1968) was an Austrian conductor and composer.

Biography
Fritz Stiedry was born in Vienna in 1883. While still a law student at the University of Vienna, Stiedry's talent for music was noticed by Gustav Mahler, who appointed him his assistant at the Vienna Court Opera in 1907. This was followed by other assistant posts, leading to chief conductorships at the operas of Kassel and Berlin.  In 1932 he conducted the world premiere of Kurt Weill's opera Die Bürgschaft.

Stiedry left Germany when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and from 1934 to 1937 was principal conductor of the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra. He was involved in rehearsals for the premiere of Shostakovich's Fourth Symphony until the premiere was canceled for reasons, in all probability political, that remain controversial.  Some claim that Shostakovich felt Stiedry was unable to deal with the symphony's complexities, but others maintain that the real reason was that Communist Party officials pressured the composer to withdraw the work.

In 1937, Stiedry left Leningrad for the United States and the New Friends of Music Orchestra in New York, conducting long-neglected works by Bach, Haydn and Mozart and premiering Schoenberg's Second Chamber Symphony. From 1945 onwards he returned to opera, conducting the Lyric Opera of Chicago and the Metropolitan Opera of New York and co-founding the Hunter College Opera Workshop.

He died in Zürich, Switzerland in 1968, aged 84.

He recorded Haydn's symphonies nos. 67, 80, 99 and 102.  His live recording from the Metropolitan Opera of Giuseppe Verdi's La forza del destino (omitting the Act I inn scene, as customary there in the 1950s under Rudolf Bing) has been transferred to CD.

Works
 Der gerettete Alkibiades, opera
 chamber music

Literature
 Holmes, John L. Conductors on record, Victor Gollancz, 1982.
 Handbuch österreichischer Autorinnen und Autoren jüdischer Herkunft 18. bis 20. Jahrhundert. Vol. 3, S-Z. Ed. Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Wien. K. G. Saur, 2002, , p. 1328.
 Sadie, Stanley. The new Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Macmillan, 1980.
 Lyman, Darryl. Great Jews in Music, J. D. Publishers, 1986.
 Sadie, Stanley; Hitchcock, H. Wiley (Ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of American Music. Grove's Dictionaries of Music, 1986.
 Myers, Kurtz. Index to record reviews 1984–1987, G.K. Hall, 1989.
 Pâris, Alain. Dictionnaire des interpretes et de l'interpretation musicale au XX siecle, Robert Laffont, 1989.

External links
[ Article at allmusic.com]
 Biography

References

1883 births
1968 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Austrian classical composers
Austrian male classical composers
Male conductors (music)
German expatriates in the Soviet Union
Austrian emigrants to Germany
Austrian Jews
Austrian refugees
Jewish classical musicians
Jewish musicians
Neoromantic composers
Austrian opera composers
Male opera composers
Musicians from Vienna
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
University of Vienna alumni
20th-century Austrian conductors (music)
20th-century Austrian male musicians
Refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union

Fritz Stiedry


IMDG Code or International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code is accepted by MSC (Maritime Safety Committee) as an international guideline to the safe transportation or shipment of dangerous goods or hazardous materials by water on vessel. IMDG Code is intended to protect crew members and to prevent marine pollution in the safe transportation of hazardous materials by vessel.

Basis for national regulations
It is recommended to governments for adoption or for use as the basis for national regulations and is mandatory in conjunction with the obligations of the members of United Nations under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78).
It is intended for use not only by the mariner but also by all those involved in industries and services connected with shipping. Contains advice on terminology, packaging, labeling, placarding, markings, stowage, segregation, handling, and emergency response.  The HNS Convention covers hazardous and noxious substances that are included in the IMDG code.

Updates
The code is updated and maintained by the CCC (formerly DSC) Sub-Committee of the International Maritime Organization every 2 years.

Code in 2023
IMDG Code in calendar year 2023 is either the 2020 Edition; Incorporating Amendment 40-20 or 2022 Edition; Incorporating Amendment 41–22.  Both the 2020 Edition and the 2022 Edition can be used in 2023.

References

External links
IMO Website: IMDG Code
US Office of Hazardous Materials Safety
IMO:Carriage of chemicals by ship
IMO:Preamble:IMDG Code 2006 Edition
IMDG CODE in French version
The codes as an Open Knowledge foundation dataset
Free IMDG Code resources including free introduction and summary of recent changes

Water transport
Chemical safety
International Maritime Organization
Law of the sea


In public finance, internal debt or domestic debt is the component of the total government debt in a country that is owed to lenders within the country. Internal government debt is complement is external government debt. The main sources of funds for internal debts are commercial banks and other financial institutions.

Internal public debt owed by a government (money a government borrows from its citizens) is part of the country's national debt. It is a form of fiat creation of money, in which the government obtains finance not by creating it de novo, but by borrowing it.  The money created is in the form of treasury securities or securities borrowed from the central bank.

These may be traded but will only rarely be spent on goods and services. In this way, the expected increase in inflation due to the increase in national wealth is lower than if the government had simply created the money de novo and increased the more liquid forms of wealth (i.e., the money supply).

References

Further reading

Debt
Macroeconomic indicators
Financial economics
Government debt

Internal debt


Roswell King (May 3, 1765 – February 15, 1844) was an American businessman, planter, slave owner, and industrialist. Together with his son, Barrington King, he founded Roswell Manufacturing Company in the Georgia Piedmont, establishing a cotton mill and industrial complex. They co-founded the town of Roswell, Georgia, inviting friends to be part of its and the mill's development in the 1830s. Roswell's family originally hailed from Delaware but later moved to Connecticut where they were among the first residents of New Haven and later Windsor. As a teen, Roswell participated in the American Revolutionary War as part of the naval resistance before moving to Georgia's low country.

Early life

King was born in Windsor, Connecticut, in 1765, the son of Timothy King, a weaver and Revolutionary naval commander, and Sarah (née Fitch) King. At the age of fifteen in 1780, he moved to Darien, Georgia, in the Low Country and started working. His early professional life included jobs as a surveyor in Glynn County and Justice of the Peace in McIntosh County.

Plantation manager
King eventually became manager of Major Pierce Butler's rice and cotton plantations on Butler and St. Simons islands, Georgia, where he worked until 1820. The plantations covered hundreds of acres on each island. A total of 500 slaves worked and lived on the two plantations. King also owned a plantation and numerous slaves to work it in Darien, where he became a bank manager.

In the 1830s, King moved his family from the coast to the Piedmont area around Vickery Creek (referred to as Cedar Creek at the time), the area of the future town of Roswell. King had identified this as a good area for the construction of a cotton mill. He had the idea to combine cotton production and cotton processing at the same location. The invention of the cotton gin had made cultivation of short-staple cotton profitable in the uplands of the South. King invited planter friends James Stephens Bulloch and Archibald Smith to join him in the new enterprise.

Roswell, Georgia
When he moved, King transported 36 enslaved African Americans with him from his plantation and bought another 42 slaves in Darien to work on constructing the mill, infrastructure and other buildings at the new complex. The slaves likely built much of his house(s) as well. They brought Gee Chee culture from the coast to the Piedmont area.

King dammed the creek to power a cotton mill, which became fully operational by the latter half of the decade. The mill was incorporated as the Roswell Manufacturing Company by an act of the Georgia General Assembly on December 11, 1839. His son Barrington King served as the company president. Other people named in the act included John Dunwoody and James Stephens Bulloch, friends who he had invited to participate in the company and community. King was known as a master of efficiency and jack of all trades having found much success in farming, banking, and finally manufacturing in the mostly agrarian South.

After living in temporary homes for his first years in the area, Roswell King (who was recently widowed) moved into Primrose Cottage in 1839 along with his recently widowed daughter Eliza King Hand and her children. He died on February 15, 1844.

He was buried in what is now referred to as Founders' Cemetery on Sloan Street in Roswell, just to the north of the original location of the mill. Some of his personal "servants" (enslaved African Americans) were buried near him in unmarked graves.

Barrington King
Barrington King built his mansion, Barrington Hall, on the square in Roswell. It was designed by Willis Ball in 1839.

At Roswell Manufacturing Company, King continued to depend on the skills and labor of enslaved African Americans as he built the business. According to the 1850 Census Slave Schedules, King personally held 70 slaves, and he controlled another 13 slaves held in the name of Roswell Manufacturing Company. In 1860, King still held 47 slaves. He may have sold some when the heavy construction work was finished.

Fanny Kemble's account
As powerful and successful men, Roswell King and his sons lived out some of the complexities of their times. Roswell King, Sr. had conflicts with Major Pierce Butler when he managed his island plantations in Georgia because Butler took a more moderate approach to the treatment of slaves than did King. Butler was one of the wealthiest men in the South when King worked for him. After the father left in 1820, Butler hired his son Roswell King Jr. as plantation manager.

The plantations were inherited by Pierce (Mease) Butler. In the winter of 1838–1839, he and his wife Fanny Kemble, a noted British actress, stayed for the winter at Butler Island Plantation and St. Simons islands. According to Kemble's journal of the visit, Roswell King was reported to have fathered one or more mixed-race children by enslaved women. She wrote that Bran, a mixed-race slave said to be King's son, was conceived and born while King's wife was still alive. He became a driver (supervisor) of other slaves on the plantation.

Roswell King Jr. (1796–1854), the second son and namesake, took over as manager of the Butler plantations in 1820 and worked there until 1838, after which he moved to Alabama to develop his own plantation. Kemble wrote in her journal that he was said to have fathered several mixed-race children during his tenure. She identified them as including Renty, the twins Ben and Daphne, and Jem Valiant, whose mothers were the slave women Betty, Minda, and Judy, respectively. The slave Scylla also had a child by King Jr. These children were born into slavery, as under slave law, children took the status of their mother by the principle of partus sequitur ventrem. Kemble attested to these children by her direct observations and from stories told her by slaves during her residence. During this period, she complained to her husband about King Jr.'s harsh treatment of slaves, as slave women especially appealed to her for help to lighten their work. With their marriage deteriorating, Butler threatened Kemble with no access to their daughters if she published any of her observations about the plantations.

Kemble did not publish her account until 1863, long after their divorce in 1849 and after her daughters had reached their majority. According to the historian Catherine Clinton, King Jr.'s granddaughter, Julia King, wrote to a friend in 1930, saying that Kemble had told lies about her grandfather because he refused to return her affections. The historian Bell documented that the marriage of Kemble and Pierce Butler was fraught with conflict by that time, and was undermined by episodes of spousal infidelity. It ended in separation in 1847 and divorce in 1849. But, Kemble's observing that white planters and managers had mixed-race children with slave women was consistent with other reports of the times, such as Mary Chesnut's diary of the Civil War era, and numerous other accounts.

According to Clinton, Kemble may have falsified portions of her journal. The historian Deirdre David says some readers have found Kemble's descriptions of slaves' appearances and lives to be racist. But, David notes that Kemble's views on race were "not anomalous" in the 19th-century among English writings on the topic. In that context, David described Kemble's descriptions as "relatively mild and moderately conventional." (Historians of the period have noted such contradictions in many contemporary writings, including those of Thomas Jefferson, who opposed slavery but was prejudiced against blacks.)

David notes that King Jr. published his own account of the "brutal system he deplored" in a long letter to The Southern Agriculturalist on 13 September 1828, in which he said that overseers were responsible for much of the cruelty to slaves. He preferred to use differing work rather than physical punishment, for instance, and said he did not condone whipping. David notes that if his account is accurate, the diet and treatment of slaves on the Butler plantation seemed to have deteriorated dramatically between 1828 and what Kemble saw and reported in 1838, shortly after King Jr. had left.

Kemble's journal appears to quote King Jr. verbatim:

I hate the institution of slavery with all my heart; I consider it an absolute curse wherever it exists. It will keep those states where it does exist fifty years behind the others in improvement and prosperity.

Notes

Sources

  – via

Further reading
Bulloch, Joseph Gaston. A History and Genealogy of the Habersham and Other Southern Families, Columbia, South Carolina: The R. L. Bryan Company, 1901.
Cate. Margaret Davis. "Mistakes in Fanny Kemble's Georgia Journal," Georgia Historical Quarterly 44 (March 1960).
Myers, Robert Manson, ed. The Children of Pride: A True Story of Georgia and the Civil War, vol. 3, The Night Season (1865—1868). New York: Popular Library, 1972.
Walsh, Darlene M., ed. Roswell, A Pictorial History, 2nd ed. Roswell, Georgia: Roswell Historical Society, 1994.

External links

Roswell King historical marker

18th-century American businesspeople
American planters
People from Windsor, Connecticut
People from Roswell, Georgia
Roswell, Georgia
1765 births
1844 deaths
People of colonial Connecticut
Colonial American merchants
American slave owners
19th-century American merchants

Roswell King


Linda Drane Burdick (born October 12, 1964) was the Chief Assistant State Attorney at the Orange and Osceola County State Attorney's Office in Orlando, Florida. She was the lead prosecutor on the State of Florida vs. Casey Anthony case.

Background
Linda Drane Burdick was born and raised in Lower Burrell, Pennsylvania. She is the daughter of Marilyn Jacobs and Don Drane. She has one younger sister, Cindy. Drane Burdick attended Lower Burrell High School where in addition to her studies, she participated in a variety of extracurricular activities including softball, gymnastics, French club, Explorers, Junior Achievement, and newspaper staff. When it came time for college, Burdick considered international relations or social science. Instead she earned her undergraduate degree in political science from the University of Pittsburgh, then graduated from its  School of Law in 1989. Drane Burdick currently resides in Orlando, Florida and has one daughter.

Career
Linda Drane Burdick began work at the State Attorney's Office on October 10, 1989. She has prosecuted numerous high-profile felony cases.
In 2001, she won a conviction over Theodore Rodgers Jr., who on Valentine's Day shot and killed his wife at a day care center because, he said, he believed she was having an affair with her ex-husband. Rodgers was sentenced to death. She successfully convicted Franklin Lee Reed in 2003 for the 1986 rape and murder of 13-year-old Mollie Pittman, a Lockhart Junior High school student. Pittman's body was found in a Needles Drive home on May 11, 1986—stabbed 12 times with an ice pick. In 2005, she obtained three life sentences for Brent Mackinder, who was convicted of raping a 7-year-old girl and then trying to kill her along West Orange Trail. Also in 2005, she prosecuted Derek Pelto, who killed his girlfriend by stabbing her and then striking her repeatedly with a hammer. Pelto was sentenced to life in prison.
She was the prosecutor in the 2005 case of the State of Florida vs. Clyde Blount. Blount shot and killed a 16-year-old who he said had been bullying his son. Blount was convicted of manslaughter. More recently, in 2008, Burdick prosecuted Aurlieas McClarty, who walked into an Orlando U-Haul, shot two employees dead and fled with $200. McClarty was sentenced to life in prison. She is most well known for being the lead prosecutor on the State of Florida vs. Casey Marie Anthony in 2011 for the death of Caylee Anthony. Anthony was acquitted of the murder charges on July 5, 2011.

Those who have worked with Drane Burdick describe her as resilient, meticulous, driven, dogged and even a bit aloof. But, they add, a certain amount of emotional distance is to be expected from anyone who has remained sane after 23 years prosecuting alleged child abusers, sexual predators, murderers and rapists.

Drane Burdick was one of 23 candidates being considered to fill a vacant judicial seat in the Ninth Circuit Judicial Court in February 2012. Ultimately, she was not appointed to the position. In August 2012, State Attorney Elect, Jeff Ashton, named Drane Burdick as his Chief Assistant State Attorney.

Drane Burdick returned to the courtroom in November 2013 as lead prosecutor in the State of Florida vs. Jason Rodriguez. Rodriguez was accused of a mass shooting in an office complex in downtown Orlando, FL that left five people injured and one dead in November 2009. After days of complex testimony delving into the mind of a killer, prosecutor Linda Drane Burdick told jurors that the case against the Gateway Center shooter boiled down to one question alone: "Did Jason Rodriguez know it was wrong to kill people?" Less than 3 1/2 hours later, a 12-member jury returned its verdict: Rodriguez was guilty of first-degree murder in the shooting death of 26-year-old Otis Beckford, and five counts of attempted first-degree murder for wounding five other people Nov. 6, 2009.

Drane Burdick remains the Chief Assistant State Attorney under State Attorney Jeff Ashton.

Casey Anthony Trial
The trial began on May 24, 2011, at the Orange County Courthouse, with Judge Belvin Perry presiding. Linda Drane Burdick was the lead attorney for the state of Florida while Jeffrey Ashton and Frank George served as co-counsel. In the opening statements of the widely publicized trial, Linda Drane Burdick described the story of the disappearance of Caylee Anthony day-by-day. The state alleged an intentional murder and sought the death penalty against Casey Anthony. Prosecutors stated that Anthony used chloroform to render her daughter unconscious before putting duct tape over her nose and mouth to suffocate her, and left Caylee's body in the trunk of her car for a few days before disposing of it.  They painted Anthony as a party girl who killed her daughter to free herself from parental responsibility and enjoy her personal life. Caylee Marie Anthony had been missing for 31 days before police were called. Four hundred pieces of evidence were presented and the trial lasted 33 days, concluding on July 4, 2011. On July 5, 2011, after deliberating 11 hours over the course of 2 days, the Pinellas County, Florida jury acquitted Casey Anthony of first-degree murder, aggravated manslaughter of a child, or aggravated child abuse. She was convicted on four misdemeanor counts of providing false information to a law enforcement officer.

Drane Burdick was portrayed by Elizabeth Mitchell in the 2013 television movie Prosecuting Casey Anthony. Rob Lowe starred as Jeff Ashton and Oscar Nunez portrayed defense attorney Jose Baez.

See also

Jose Baez (lawyer)
Cheney Mason

References

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20130614041328/http://sao9.net/felony-bureau/
 http://sao9.net
 http://myfloridalegal.com
 http://www.ninthcircuit.org
 http://www.ninthcircuit.org/about/courthouses/orange
 https://web.archive.org/web/20140222101433/http://orangecountybar.org/officers

1964 births
Living people
21st-century American trials
Death in Florida
2008 in Florida
History of Orlando, Florida
University of Pittsburgh alumni
University of Pittsburgh School of Law alumni

Linda Drane Burdick


Sir Edward Victor Appleton  (6 September 1892 – 21 April 1965) was an English physicist, Nobel Prize winner (1947) and pioneer in radiophysics. He studied, and was also employed as a lab technician, at Bradford College from 1909 to 1911.

He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1947 for his seminal work proving the existence of the ionosphere during experiments carried out in 1924.

Biography

Appleton was born in Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, the son of Peter Appleton, a warehouseman, and Mary Wilcock, and was educated at Hanson Grammar School.

In 1911, aged 18, he was awarded a scholarship to attend St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated with First Class Honours in Natural Science with Physics in 1913. He was also a member of Isaac Newton University Lodge. In 1915 he married his first wife, Jessie Appleton (formerly Longson), with whom he had two children. Three years after her death he married Helen Lennie (m. 1965).

During the First World War he joined the West Riding Regiment, and later transferred to the Royal Engineers. After returning from active service in the First World War, Appleton became assistant demonstrator in experimental physics at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1920. In 1922 he was initiated into Freemasonry. He was professor of physics at King's College London (1924–1936) and professor of natural philosophy at the University of Cambridge (1936–1939). From 1939 to 1949 he was secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Knighted in 1941, he received the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to the knowledge of the ionosphere, which led to the development of radar.

From 1949 until his death in 1965, Appleton was Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. From 1960 he was involved with the University's plans for a CDA (Comprehensive Development Area) which would have demolished 125 acres of Edinburgh's historic southside, resulting in the loss of many homes and businesses. This University-led project blighted the area for a decade before being abandoned in the mid 1970s.  One recent study describes Appleton as a megalomaniac in his desire to carry out these plans.

In 1956, the BBC invited him to deliver the annual Reith Lectures. Across a series of six radio broadcasts, titled Science and the Nation, he explored the many facets of scientific activity in Britain at the time.

Sir Edward died on 21 April 1965 at Edinburgh and is buried in Edinburgh's Morningside Cemetery with his wife Helen Lennie (d. 1983). The grave lies towards the extreme western side near the new housing to the north-west.

Works
Appleton had observed that the strength of the radio signal from a transmitter on a frequency such as the medium wave band and over a path of a hundred miles or so was constant during the day but that it varied during the night. This led him to believe that it was possible that two radio signals were being received. One was travelling along the ground, and another was reflected by a layer in the upper atmosphere. The fading or variation in strength of the overall radio signal received resulted from the interference pattern of the two signals.

The existence of a reflecting atmospheric layer was not in itself a completely new idea. Balfour Stewart had suggested the idea in the late 19th century to explain rhythmic changes in the Earth's magnetic field. More recently, in 1902, Oliver Heaviside and Arthur E. Kennelly had suggested such an electromagnetic-reflecting stratum, now called the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, may explain the success Marconi had in transmitting his signals across the Atlantic. Calculations had shown that natural bending of the radio waves was not sufficient to stop them from simply "shooting off" into empty space before they reached the receiver.

Appleton thought the best place to look for evidence of the ionosphere was in the variations he believed it was causing around sunset in radio signal receptions. It was sensible to suggest these variations were due to the interference of two waves but an extra step to show that the second wave causing the interference (the first being the ground wave) was coming down from the ionosphere. The experiment he designed had two methods to show ionospheric influence and both allowed the height of the lower boundary of reflection (thus the lower boundary of the reflecting layer) to be determined. The first method was called frequency modulation and the second was to calculate the angle of arrival of the reflected signal at the receiving aerial.

The frequency modulation method exploits the fact that there is a path difference between the ground wave and the reflected wave, meaning they travel different distances from sender to receiver.

Let the distance AC travelled by the ground wave be h and the distance ABC travelled by the reflected wave h'. The path difference is:

The wavelength of the transmitted signal is λ. The number of wavelengths difference between the paths h and h' is:

If N is an integer number, then constructive interference will occur, this means a maximum signal will be achieved at the receiving end. If N is an odd integer number of half wavelengths, then destructive interference will occur and a minimum signal will be received. Let us assume we are receiving a maximum signal for a given wavelength λ. If we start to change λ, this is the process called frequency modulation, N will no longer be a whole number and destructive interference will start to occur, meaning the signal will start to fade.  Now we keep changing λ until a maximum signal is once again received. The means that for our new value λ', our new value N' is also an integer number. If we have lengthened λ then we know that N' is one less than N. Thus:

Rearranging for D gives:

As we know λ and λ', we can calculate D. Using the approximation that ABC is an isosceles triangle, we can use our value of D to calculate the height of the reflecting layer. This method is a slightly simplified version of the method used by Appleton and his colleagues to work out a first value for the height of the ionosphere in 1924. In their experiment, they used the BBC broadcasting station in Bournemouth to vary the wavelengths of its emissions after the evening programmes had finished. They installed a receiving station in Oxford to monitor the interference effects. The receiving station had to be in Oxford as there was no suitable emitter at the right distance of about 62 miles (100 km) from Cambridge in those days.

This frequency modulation method revealed that the point from which waves were being reflected was approximately 56 miles (90 km). However, it did not establish that the waves were reflected from above, indeed they may have been coming from hills somewhere between Oxford and Bournemouth. The second method, which involved finding the angle of incidence of the reflected waves at the receiver, showed for sure that they were coming from above. Triangulations from this angle gave results for the height of reflection compatible with the frequency modulation method. We will not go into this method in detail because it involves fairly complex calculations using Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

Far from being conclusive, the success of the Oxford-Bournemouth experiment revealed a vast new field of study to be explored. It showed that there was indeed a reflecting layer high above the Earth but it also posed many new questions. What was the constitution of this layer, how did it reflect the waves, was it the same all over the earth, why did its effects change so dramatically between day and night, did it change throughout the year? Appleton would spend the rest of his life answering these questions. He developed a magneto-ionic theory based on the previous work of Lorentz and Maxwell to model the workings of this part of the atmosphere. Using this theory and further experiments, he showed that the so-called Kennelly–Heaviside layer was heavily ionised and thus conducting. This led to the term ionosphere. He showed free electrons to be the ionising agents. He discovered that the layer could be penetrated by waves above a certain frequency and that this critical frequency could be used to calculate the electron density in the layer. However these penetrating waves would also be reflected back, but from a much higher layer. This showed the ionosphere had a much more complex structure than first anticipated.   The lower level was labelled E – Layer, reflected longer wavelengths and was found to be at approximately 78 miles (125 km). The high level, which had much higher electron density, was labelled F – Layer and could reflect much shorter wavelengths that penetrated the lower layer. It is situated 186 – 248 miles (300 – 400 km) above the earth's surface. It is this which is often referred to as the Appleton Layer as is responsible for enabling most long range short wave telecommunication.

The magneto-ionic theory also allowed Appleton to explain the origin of the mysterious fadings heard on the radio around sunset. During the day, the light from the Sun causes the molecules in the air to become ionised even at fairly low altitudes. At these low altitudes, the density of the air is great and thus the electron density of ionised air is very large. Due to this heavy ionisation, there is strong absorption of electromagnetic waves caused by 'electron friction'. Thus in transmissions over any distance, there will be no reflections as any waves apart from the one at ground level will be absorbed rather than reflected. However, when the sun sets, the molecules slowly start to recombine with their electrons and the free electron density levels drop. This means absorption rates diminish and waves can be reflected with sufficient strengths to be noticed, leading to the interference phenomena we have mentioned. For these interference patterns to occur though, there must not simply be the presence of a reflected wave but a change in the reflected wave.  Otherwise the interference is constant and fadings would not be heard. The received signal would simply be louder or softer than during the day. This suggests the height at which reflection happens must slowly change as the sun sets. Appleton found in fact that it increased as the sun set and then decreased as the sun rose until the reflected wave was too weak to record. This variation is compatible with the theory that ionisation is due to the Sun's influence. At sunset, the intensity of the Sun's radiation will be much less at the surface of the Earth than it is high up in the atmosphere. This means ionic recombination will progress slowly from lower altitudes to higher ones and therefore the height at which waves are reflected slowly increases as the sun sets.

The basic idea behind Appleton's work is so simple that it is hard to understand at first how he devoted almost all of his scientific career to its study. However, in the last couple of paragraphs some of the complexities of the subject have been introduced. Like many other fields, it is one that grows in intricacy the more it is studied. By the end of his life, ionospheric observatories had been set up all over the world to provide a global map of the reflecting layers. Links were found to the 11-year sunspot cycle and the aurora borealis, the magnetic storms that occur in high latitudes. This became particularly relevant during the Second World War when the storms would lead to radio blackouts. Thanks to Appleton's research, the periods when these would occur could be predicted and communication could be switched to wavelengths that would be least affected. Radar, another crucial wartime innovation, was one that came about thanks to Appleton's work. On a very general level, his research consisted in determining the distance of reflecting objects from radio signal transmitters. This is exactly the idea of radar and the flashing dots that appear on the screen (a cathode ray tube) scanned by the circulating 'searcher' bar. This system was developed partly by Appleton as a new method, called the pulse method, to make ionospheric measurements. It was later adapted by Robert Watson-Watt to detect aeroplanes. Nowadays, ionospheric data is important when communications with satellites are considered. The correct frequencies for these signals must be selected so that they actually reach the satellites without being reflected or deviated before.

In 1974 the Radio and Space Research Station was renamed the Appleton Laboratory in honour of the man who had done so much to establish the UK as a leading force in ionospheric research, and had been involved with the station first as a researcher and then as secretary of its parent body, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Honours and awards
Appleton was awarded the following:
 Fellow of the Royal Society (1927)
 Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1936)
 Nobel Prize in Physics (1947)
 Faraday Medal
 Hughes Medal
 Royal Medal
 Chree Medal
In addition the following are named in his honour:
 Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
 Appleton Medal and Prize
 Appleton Suite at Bradford Register Offices
 Appleton Tower at the University of Edinburgh
 Appleton Science Building at Bradford College
 Appleton Academy, a school in the Wyke area of the City of Bradford
 Appleton crater on the Moon is named in his honour.
 Appleton Layer, which is the higher atmospheric ionised layer above the E-layer
 Annual Appleton Lecture at the Institution of Engineering and Technology

Artistic recognition
Appleton's portrait, by William Hutchison hangs in Old College, University of Edinburgh.

See also
Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics, founded by Appleton

References

 IET Appleton lectures
  with the Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1947 The Ionosphere (Citation: Nobel Prize in Physics: 1947, "for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer."
 "Sir Edward Victor Appleton (1892–1965): Appleton was an English physicist and Nobel prize winner who discovered the ionosphere."  Historic Figures, bbc.co.uk.  Accessed 21 October 2007.  (Photograph of Appleton c. 1935 ©). [Provides link to Nobel Foundation account, listed above.]
 Science and the Nation The BBC Reith Lectures, 1956, by Edward Appleton

External links

Memoirs of Sir Edward Victor Appleton, 1920 – 1966
 Sir Edward Appleton; The Discovery of the Properties of the Ionosphere

1892 births
1965 deaths
20th-century British physicists
Academics of King's College London
Fellows of King's College London
Academics of the University of London
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Atmospheric physicists
English physicists
Fellows of the Royal Society
IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
Nobel laureates in Physics
Scientists from Bradford
Principals of the University of Edinburgh
Royal Medal winners
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Recipients of the King Haakon VII Freedom Cross
Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
English Nobel laureates
British Nobel laureates
Jacksonian Professors of Natural Philosophy
Presidents of the British Science Association
People associated with the nuclear weapons programme of the United Kingdom
Scientists of the National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin
English Freemasons
Members of Isaac Newton University Lodge
Military personnel from Bradford
British Army personnel of World War I
Royal Engineers soldiers
Duke of Wellington's Regiment soldiers
Burials in Scotland

Edward Victor Appleton


"The Invisible Enemy" is an episode of the original The Outer Limits television show. It first aired on October 31, 1964, during the series' second season.

Opening narration
In the vast immensities of cosmic space, bold adventurers streak their way to join battle with strange enemies on strange worlds — the alien, the unknown, perhaps even the invisible, armed only with Man's earthbound knowledge...

Plot
Two astronauts on the M-1 spaceship land on Mars in the year 2021; when one goes out to explore he is heard screaming and his last transmission indicates that he had no idea what was happening to him. When the second astronaut goes out to investigate, he too makes a similar transmission. Three years later a second mission, M-2, lands with a crew of four consisting of Major Merritt, Captains Buckley and Lazzari and Lieutenant Johnson. They are tasked both to explore and to determine what happened to the M-1. When Captain Lazzari is sent to explore the ruins of the M-1, he goes behind the ship to examine it and screams in unbearable agony, just like the previous crew. Captain Buckley and Lieutenant Johnson go to investigate and Buckley finds only bloodstains. Johnson, armed with a nuclear bazooka, wanders off and disappears. The two remaining crew are ordered to stay within the confines of the ship in the last hours before take-off. However, Captain Buckley has a vision wherein the planet's deserts appear as sand-filled oceans; he then slips out to examine these "oceans". While exiting the ship he cuts his hand; he rubs the blood onto a scrap of cloth and throws it out into the desert. He learns that a Sand-Beast – a crustacean-like animal that swims through the sands like a shark – is at fault for the deaths. Major Merritt, the leader of the expedition, was asleep when Captain Buckley exited, but goes out to find him and becomes trapped on a rock when the Sand-Beast pursues him. With ten minutes left until lift-off, Captain Buckley creates a distraction by running across the sands; this allows both Merritt and Buckley to reach the shore unharmed. They shoot the Sand-Beast, using the nuclear bazooka Johnson left behind when he was killed. The fatally wounded Sand-Beast submerges beneath the surface, but five other Sand-Beasts, drawn by the noise and blood of their dying kin, soon emerge. The two remaining astronauts realize, "There's a whole army of them". Major Merritt and Captain Buckley communicate with control on Earth that they are coming home.

Closing narration
"'Battle joined. Casualties? Yes. Resolution: Victory, of a sort. A painful step from the crib of destiny. On another day, a friend, perhaps, instead of a deadly peril — part of the saga of the space pioneers."

Background
The episode was based on a short story by Jerry Sohl, 'The Invisible Enemy', which was first published in Imaginative Tales magazine in September 1955. That story takes place on the fourth planet of a faraway star, where the fifty-man warship Nesbitt lands to investigate the disappearance of a number of spaceships sent to the planet. After a ten-man expeditionary team is consumed from inside a forcefield, the ship's computer suggests, unconvincingly, that "invisible" birds are to blame. Twenty-nine more men are killed and a lone survivor, named Lazzari, is found in the desert. The final transmission from his unit: "No! No! They're coming out of the ground!" Lazzari kills himself by smashing his head against a bulkhead and the remaining crew gather outside the ship to give him a military burial. The computer advises against it; the corpse is bloody and blood seems to provoke the attacks. Allison, the civilian computer expert, protests against the burial and is locked inside the Nesbitt by the mission commander. Allison watches helplessly as the funeral party is eaten by "large, heavy, porpoiselike creatures ...swimming up out of the sand as if it were water."

After reading Sohl's first draft based on his short story, ABC decided the monster should appear sooner, so Seeleg Lester rewrote the script. That version involved the ship's crew monitoring the planet's surface with cameras (Lester even talked to Sohl about writing scenes incorporating cameras beneath the sands of Mars), yet with all these cameras operating, the crew still didn't figure out what was killing them. After further rewrites by Sohl, the script was passed to producer Ben Brady, who rewrote the last act into a "calm fourth quarter".  Finally, director Byron Haskin rewrote the entire script over a 28-hour period, feeling that the episode would never have aired if he had filmed the script he was given.

Cast

Trivia
This episode's alternative title is "The Yellow Sands".
The Sand-Beast makes a cameo appearance in the next episode, "Wolf 359".
This episode is erroneously listed on one DVD case ("The Outer Limits Volume Three The Original Series Disc 1 Episodes 33–40") in "The Outer Limits The Complete Original Series Volumes 1–3". The episode is actually only on Disc 2 included in the case for "The Outer Limits Volume Three The Original Series Discs 2–3 Episodes 39–49". The same is true for the next episode, "Wolf 359".

References

The Outer Limits (1963 TV series season 2) episodes
1964 American television episodes
Fiction set in 2021
Fiction set in 2024
Mars in television
Works about astronauts
Television episodes written by Jerry Sohl

The Invisible Enemy (The Outer Limits)


Vespasiano Bignami (1841–1929) was an Italian painter, art critic, and caricaturist. He belonged to the Scapigliatura movement, and helped found La Famiglia Artistica.

He was born in Cremona. Apprenticed to a seller of colored postcards at the age of eight, he spent some time at the Accademia Carrara of Bergamo under Enrico Scuri. In Bergamo, poor, and needing to scramble to make ends meet, he "painted thank-you notes with water-colors; penciled a theater curtain (sipario) for an amateur group; made small paintings of acrobats; made signs for inns and businesses; painted hundreds of cherubs on the wallpaper of a church; made a painted canvas organ cover depicting a twice life-size figure of Saint Cecilia; painted wooden church sculptures, painted glass for Magic lantern projectors, and made many cartoons for frescoes and paintings by classmates". In 1861, he moved to Milan, and made cartoons for the satirical and patriotic  L'Uomo di Pietra (referring to Scior Carera). He also illustrated books and journals, and produced industrial art.

In 1869, he exhibited at the Brera a painting titled Botanical Lesson, which won the Mylius Prize. In an exhibition at Brussels, he exhibited Condemned to Death,  which depicts a panic-stricken chicken flapping its wings, beak open, looking in vain for an escape from its fate in a kitchen. He also frescoed houses including the ceilings of the villa in Nizza of architect Maraini (destroyed in fire, 1874). In 1879, he painted Four Evangelists for the church of Rosazza Biellese. In 1881, he exhibited a painting titled Un Trivio in the Academy Exhibition of Milan.

In 1873, he helped found the Famiglia Artistica of Milan, which still serves as an association for artists. He was a friend to many artists and helped write biographies of Francesco Barzaghi and Cesare Tallone. He  taught at the Accademia di Brera. He was a  member of the city council and a director of the Galleria d'Arte Moderna of Milan. He traveled to work in San José, Costa Rica. He died in Milan in 1929.

The art critic Carlo Bozzi helped organize Bignami's notes and papers and donated them to the city of Milan, where they are now represented by the Vespasiano Bignami Collection.

References

External links

1841 births
1929 deaths
Artists from Cremona
19th-century Italian male artists
Italian male painters
20th-century Italian male artists
Artists from Milan

Vespasiano Bignami


David Wallace Young (born November 11, 1959, in Greensboro, North Carolina) is a businessman who served as Chairman of the North Carolina Democratic Party from 2009 through 2011.

Young is a former county commissioner in Buncombe County and served as the president of the North Carolina Association of County Commissioners.
Since 2005, he has served on the University of North Carolina system board of governors.
Young was a candidate for North Carolina State Treasurer in 2008. On May 6, 2008, Young lost the Democratic primary for Treasurer to Janet Cowell. In January 2009, he was elected chairman of the North Carolina Democratic Party, succeeding Jerry Meek. Following a disappointing showing by the party in the 2010 elections, Young announced he would not seek a second term as party chairman. He was succeeded by David Parker.

References

External links
 News & Observer Profile
 David Young & Associates
 News & Observer: Young running for Democratic state chair
 News & Observer: State Democrats seat new leader

1959 births
County commissioners in North Carolina
Living people
North Carolina Democratic Party chairs
North Carolina Democrats

David Young (North Carolina politician)


Gracht (; plural: grachten) is a Dutch  word for a canal within a city.
Grachten often have a round shape, and form a circle around the city cores in the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern Germany. Outside the Netherlands, the word grachten mostly refers to the city canals of Amsterdam (for which it is well known) and also Utrecht, Leiden and The Hague. The Koninginnegracht in The Hague was conceived by King Willem I for the promotion of tourism in the early 19th century. Since 2009 the Willemsvaart once more offers tours over this gracht, to Scheveningen, known as "StrandRelax" or "BeachRelax", a unique stretch of sand between The Hague and the sea.

Translation

The word  cannot be easily translated; for this reason, it is necessary to distinguish between four related terms:

 A  (city-canal) is a waterway in the city with one-way streets on both sides of the water. The streets are lined with houses, often in a closed front. In rare cases, there is only one street, and on the other side of the waterway, the houses border on the water.
 A  (literally meaning ) is a man-made watercourse, usually in the countryside, with or without streets along its banks.
 A  is a canal used for transport, rather than for other purposes such as drainage. Like most , they are usually in the countryside.
 A  is by origin a water-filled moat which surrounds a city for defense purposes. When the city expands, the  is incorporated in the city's structure and can no longer be distinguished from a , but the name  is usually maintained. As such,  often encircle (older) parts of the city. However, in other cases regular  were dug in circles as well, like the famous  (literal translation:  belt) of Amsterdam.

Although the word  means  or  in the general sense, there is no exact equivalent for the term in English.

Etymology

The word gracht stems from the older word graft, which is derived from graven, to dig (cf. English "grave"). The Dutch language has had a sound shift in which the combination -ft became -cht. Other examples are lucht (German: Luft, air) and zacht (English: soft). In some regional languages such as Frisian and Gronings, the word graft is still used.

In Dutch, the word gracht is used only when canals are located inside the city, while canals outside a city are called kanaal. However, Venice is an exception. In Dutch, one does not say "de grachten van Venetië" (the city-canals of Venice), but "de kanalen van Venetië" (the canals of Venice).

Toponyms for grachten are usually made by the suffixes -gracht, -singel (which refers to the old circle-shaped canals), -wal (referring to the bank of the gracht), -vest (referring to a fortification), and -kade (Southern Dutch: -kaai; quay). The suffix -diep is used in Groningen where it is a local word for a large canal.

When a gracht is a remake of an old river, the river's name is used.

History
Grachten were the life-lines of Dutch and Flemish cities. They were used for many purposes: for transportation, for draining, as water supply and as sewers, all at the same time. In heavily populated cities, these combined functions repeatedly proved to be detrimental to the public health.

Most Hanseatic cities have grachten to transport, to load and to land goods in and from ships. In the Netherlands, the northeastern cities of Deventer, Hindeloopen, Kampen, Leeuwarden, Meppel, Sneek, Zutphen and Zwolle are renowned for their historical grachten. Other cities in the Netherlands, in the western part of the country, are also touristic attractions because of their grachten, especially Alkmaar, Amersfoort, Gouda, Hoorn, Leiden, Utrecht and Weesp.

Sometimes grachten were made from older rivers, like in Groningen. There the older river called Drentse Aa was used as a natural part of the grachten. In Delft, the main gracht – Oude Delft – started as a drainage canal for reclaiming land in marshy surroundings: in a period roughly around the year 1100, a canal was dug, making use of a natural creek in the marshy country. This canal was called Delf, later on Delft, from the word delven that is akin to the verb to "delve" in English. This canal was used to drain the land at both sides; later on it also served as a waterway for transport.

Later, a second canal, called the Nieuwe Delft (New Delft) was dug through part of the settlement that had grown around the first. The original canal became known as the Oude Delft (Old Delft), a name it still bears today.

The rural village around Oude and Nieuwe Delft developed into a more urban area and the canals gradually acquired the character of city-canals or grachten. A third canal was dug and also changed into a gracht; it connected with the moat around the marketplace. The city and the grachten grew hand in hand. In 1246, this agglomeration was granted a city charter by the Count of Holland and became the City of Delft. A natural waterway was later incorporated in the city and became a gracht as well. Circular canals or singels were dug and surrounded the city. Fortifications were built along these singels and fixed the shape of the historical inner city of Delft. The characteristic, narrow grachten, perpendicular to the main grachten, developed from ditches that had been dug to drain and delimit the fields which preceded the city.

When it was still a Dutch colony, Cape Town had a network of grachten, that were fed by the springs at the base of Table Mountain. These provided water and sanitation for the infant town. In the ensuing centuries, the grachten were covered over, but many of the prominent streets in the modern city centre still bear their names (notably the Heerengracht, Keizersgracht, Buitengracht and Buitensingel). There is currently a project to restore some of these historic waterways.

A function in almost every city was drainage. Rainwater flowed through these city-canals. Usually they were also used as a sewer. Because these functions are not needed any more, many grachten have been filled in to give access to road traffic. However, these new streets have mostly retained the names of the grachts and singels they covered or replaced.

References

Canals
Water transport infrastructure
Waterways in the Netherlands

Dutch words and phrases

Gracht


A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. An earlier name for a tensile testing machine is a tensometer.  The "universal" part of the name reflects that it can perform many standard tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures (in other words, that it is versatile).

Components
Several variations are in use.  Common components include:

 Load frame - Usually consisting of two strong supports for the machine.  Some small machines have a single support.
 Load cell - A force transducer or other means of measuring the load is required.  Periodic calibration is usually required by governing regulations or quality system.
 Cross head - A movable cross head (crosshead) is controlled to move up or down.  Usually this is at a constant speed: sometimes called a constant rate of extension (CRE) machine.  Some machines can program the crosshead speed or conduct cyclical testing, testing at constant force, testing at constant deformation, etc. Electromechanical, servo-hydraulic, linear drive, and resonance drive are used.
 Means of measuring extension or  deformation - Many tests require a measure of the response of the test specimen to the movement of the cross head.  Extensometers are sometimes used.
 Output device - A means of providing the test result is needed.  Some older machines have dial or digital displays and  chart recorders.  Many newer machines have a computer interface for analysis and printing.
 Conditioning - Many tests require controlled conditioning (temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.).  The machine can be in a controlled room or a special environmental chamber can be placed around the test specimen for the test.
 Test fixtures, specimen holding jaws, and related sample making equipment are called for in many test methods.

Use

The set-up and usage are detailed in a test method, often published by a standards organization.  This specifies the sample preparation, fixturing, gauge length (the length which is under study or observation), analysis,  etc.

The specimen is placed in the machine between the grips and an extensometer if required can automatically record the change in gauge length during the test. If an extensometer is not fitted, the machine itself can record the displacement between its cross heads on which the specimen is held.  However, this method not only records the change in length of the specimen but also all other extending / elastic components of the testing machine and its drive systems including any slipping of the specimen in the grips.

Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on specimen. Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software record the load and extension or compression of the specimen.

Machines range from very small table top systems  to ones with over 53 MN (12 million lbf) capacity.

See also
 Modulus of elasticity
 Stress-strain curve
 Young's modulus
 Necking (engineering)
 Fatigue testing
 Hydraulic press

References

 ASTM E74 - Practice for Calibration of Force Measuring Instruments for Verifying the Force Indication of Testing Machines
 ASTM E83 - Practice for Verification and Classification on Extensometer Systems
 ASTM E1012 - Practice for Verification of Test Frame and Specimen Alignment Under Tensile and Compressive Axial Force Application
 ASTM E1856 - Standard Guide for Evaluating Computerized Data Acquisition Systems Used to Acquire Data from Universal Testing Machines
 JIS K7171   - Standard for determine the flextural strength for plastic material & products

External links

 Video of a universal testing machine performing a tensile test
 What is a Universal Test Machine?

Materials science
Tests
Measuring instruments

Universal testing machine


Clarence Edmund Bennett (1833–1902), usually referred to as Clarence E. Bennett, a graduate of West Point, a career  American Army officer who saw duty almost exclusively in Western frontier assignments, served in the American Civil War in California, New Mexico and Arizona Territories and later in Reconstruction occupation forces and frontier duty during the later Indian Wars.

Early life and army service
Born in New York, Clarence E. Bennett graduated from West Point  and was promoted to Brevet 2nd Lieutenant of Infantry, July 1, 1855.  He served in garrison at Carlisle Barracks, and later on the frontier as a second lieutenant with the U.S. 10th Infantry Regiment from August 16, 1855.  He served at Fort Ripley, Minnesota, from 1855 to 1857.  He was part of the Utah Expedition from 1857 to 1860, serving as regimental adjutant, of 10th Infantry, from October 1, 1858, to July 16, 1860, and served at Fort Laramie, Dakota Territory, in 1860.  He resigned his commission on September 10, 1860, and moved to San Bernardino, California to be a farmer until 1863.  He married Sciota or Siotha Whitlock (born in 1835 in Missouri) in San Bernardino about 1861.  She was the daughter of Harvey Gilman Whitlock and Minerva Abbott, who had been two of the earliest Mormon converts in 1830.  Their four children were: William Clarence, Irvine E., Ida Minerva, and Daisy Whitlock.

Civil War service
During the secession crisis prior to Civil War and following Fort Sumter, Bennett was active in informing Union officials of the activities of the secessionists in San Bernardino County that led to Federal troops occupying Camp San Bernardino within the town and later at Camp Carleton nearby.  He was elected as captain of the local California Militia Company the San Bernardino Mounted Rifles on October 10, 1861, and was commissioned October 26, 1861.  With the Rifles he aided the civil authorities in suppressing Rebellion in the county.  On April 1, 1862, Captain Bennett tendered his resignation from the militia, to Governor Leland Stanford, wishing to be absent from the county for a few months.

Bennett later enlisted in the 1st Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry, in San Francisco on February 9, 1863, serving as a major, stationed first in Southern California commanding at Drum Barracks, with the task of organizing new companies of First California Cavalry Volunteers from February 9 to June 4, 1863.  He was on frontier duty at Camp Morris, in San Bernardino, defending against the threat of secessionists to Union men in the town from June to August, 1863.  From  August 15, 1863, to April 17, 1864, he commanded the garrison at Fort Yuma and was promoted  lieutenant colonel of the 1st California Cavalry Volunteers, December 31, 1863.

From May to December 1864, he commanded Fort Craig, New Mexico Territory then from January to February 1865, Fort Bowie, Arizona Territory.  From February to June 1865, he was given command of District of Arizona, headquartered at Tubac. On March 13, 1865, Bennett was promoted brevet colonel, U. S. Volunteers, For Faithful And Meritorious Services During The Rebellion.  He remained active scouting, making roads, and establishing Camp McDowell, from June 1865, to August 1866.  He was mustered out of the Volunteer Service, on August 15, 1866.

Later army service
From February 23, 1866. Bennett had been returned to service in the regular army re-appointed to the United States Army, with the rank of second lieutenant, 6th Cavalry Regiment and was promoted first lieutenant, 6th Cavalry, July 28, 1866.  He served on quartermaster and commissary duty at Camp McDowell, from December 1866 to March 1867 and was promoted captain, US 17th Infantry Regiment on January 22, 1867.

After a leave of absence from March to December 1867, Captain Bennett joined the regimental garrison at Galveston, Texas on December 8, 1867, remaining there on Reconstruction duty until March 1868.  He served on a court martial at San Antonio, Texas, March 13 to June 26, 1868.  He was then appointed acting assistant inspector-general, District of Texas, from July 1 to August 10, 1868, then for the Fifth Military District, August 10, 1868, to April 10, 1869.  He was on registering duty in the First Military District to June, 1869, then the regiment was sent to Virginia for Reconstruction duty and he was in garrison at Winchester, Virginia, June 1, 1869 to February 1870 and then, due to troubles in the state of North Carolina, his company was sent to Raleigh, North Carolina, February 1870 to April 1870.

Due to increasing trouble with the Sioux, the regiment was ordered to Dakota Territory, and arrived at Fort Sully in mid May, and commenced a long tour of service which lasted over sixteen years.  Captain Bennett served on frontier duty, at Fort Sully, from April 1870, then at Post at Grand River Indian Agency from May 1870 to June 1872.  In June 1872, he traveled to Fort Rice, and participated in the Yellowstone Expedition of 1872 under Colonel David S. Stanley, from July to September 1872. Subsequently, he was in garrisons at Fort Rice, to October 1873, then at Fort Abercrombie, to August 1876, and at Post at Standing Rock Indian Agency, August 1876 to November 1876.  He was a member of the prison board, December 16, 1876, to January 24, 1877, then on a leave of absence, to March 31, 1877.

He returned to frontier duty at Post at Standing Rock Indian Agency from April 25 to December 1877, then was at Fort Snelling, Minnesota, December 1877 to October 10, 1878, and at Fort Sisseton, Dakota, October 16 to December 18, 1878. He was on detached service, December 18, 1878, to February 27, 1879.

Again on frontier duty at Fort Sisseton, Dakota, from February 1879 to May 16, 1884. He was then at Fort Totten, Dakota, from May 1884 to July 13, 1886, (with a leave of absence, January 11 to March 31, 1885).  Finally he served at Fort D. A. Russell, Wyoming, from July, 1886.

Bennett was promoted major, U.S. 19th Infantry Regiment, November 28, 1893.  He was promoted lieutenant colonel, U.S. 11th Infantry Regiment, June 27, 1897. Bennett retired as a lieutenant colonel on December 2, 1897.  He died on November 4, 1902, of apoplexy and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia.

References

External links

 Clarence E. Bennett Papers (University of Montana Archives)

1833 births
1902 deaths
United States Military Academy alumni
American people of the Indian Wars
People of California in the American Civil War
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

Clarence Edmund Bennett


Computer assisted language learning (Acronym CALL) is an method of teaching and learning languages. Teachers and learners use computers, software, and Internet communication technology to improve language learning. Many instructors use a Learning Management System (LMS) or Course Management System (CMS) to organize teaching with these technologies. Since other tools such as mobile phones, tablets, and interactive whiteboards are now also used, some people use the phrase Technology enhanced language learning or TELL to describe this way of teaching.

Learning
Computer science

Computer assisted language learning


The Pawnbroker (1961) is a novel by Edward Lewis Wallant which tells the story of Sol Nazerman, a concentration camp survivor who suffers flashbacks of his past Nazi imprisonment as he tries to cope with his daily life operating a pawn shop in East Harlem. It was adapted into a motion picture by Sidney Lumet.

Nazerman is a bulky man, 45 years old, who before the war had been a professor at the University of Kraków. He has dealt with his trauma by deliberately shutting down his emotions, with the result that he sees everyone around him, especially the desperate people who come into his shop, as "scum." Nazerman is plagued by nightmares and headaches stemming from the physical and mental trauma of his wartime experiences, in which his wife was forced into prostitution and his son drowned in the excrement of a cattle car on the way to the concentration camp.

Having lost his family in the camps, Sol now lives with his sister Bertha in the suburb of Mt. Vernon. She has married a mid-westerner and prizes her "American"-looking blonde haired daughter over her more Jewish-looking son. He is also taking care of his best friend's widow, Tessie, and her dying father, Mendel. Sol supports both families through the pawnshop, which is in reality a front for Mafia money.

The novel deals not only with the after-effects of the camp experience, but also with making a parallel between the desperation of the residents of Harlem and that of the people in the camps. The major characters include Sol's Latino assistant, Jesus Ortiz, and a recently arrived social worker,  Marilyn Birchfield. There are numerous minor characters who are local Harlem residents, some of whom treat Sol with affection and receive only indifference in return.

The climax of the story occurs on the anniversary of Sol's family's death and forces him to confront his own emotions, including his guilt over having survived and his desire to die. The novel details the relationship with Sol's nephew, a troubled young man with whom he achieves a bond.

References

1961 American novels
Novels about the aftermath of the Holocaust
Jewish American novels
Harcourt (publisher) books
American novels adapted into films

The Pawnbroker


The Australian Air Force Cadets (AAFC) is a youth organisation in Australia. The goal of the organisation it to help prepare young people for adult life. It was first created on July 11, 1941 with the name Air Training Corps. It was created to give training to young men (ages 14 to 20) who were interested in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). The name was changed in 2001.

Other websites
 Official AAFC website

Air force
Australian military organisations
1941 establishments in Australia

Australian Air Force Cadets


8 Eyes is a 1988 video game created by Thinking Rabbit for the Nintendo Entertainment System.  The game has eight levels in it, and can be played by one or two players.  In the game, a soundtrack, composed by Kenzou Kumei, had three songs for each of the eight levels, each set in a different part of the world.  It has almost the same gameplay and graphics to Castlevania.  The name of the main character of the game is Orin, and he looks like Simon Belmont from the Castlevania games.

Other websites

1988 video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Platform games

8 Eyes


A land-grant university (also called land-grant college or land-grant institution) is an institution of higher education in the United States designated by a state to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890.

Signed by Abraham Lincoln in 1862, the first Morrill Act began to fund educational institutions by granting federally controlled land to the states for them to sell, to raise funds, to establish and endow "land-grant" colleges. The mission of these institutions as set forth in the 1862 act is to focus on the teaching of practical agriculture, science, military science, and engineering—although "without excluding other scientific and classical studies"—as a response to the industrial revolution and changing social class. This mission was in contrast to the historic practice of higher education concentrating on a liberal arts curriculum. A 1994 expansion gave land-grant status to several tribal colleges and universities.

Ultimately, most land-grant colleges became large public universities that today offer a full spectrum of educational opportunities. However, some land-grant colleges are private, including Cornell University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Tuskegee University.

History
The history of Land Grant Colleges and Universities actually predates the Morrill Act of 1862 by almost sixty years.  In early March of 1786, Manasseh Cutler, Rufus Putnam, Benjamin Tupper, and Samuel Parsons, met with seven other men in Boston at the Bunch of Grapes Tavern; they were owed large sums of money for their service under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War. They formed the Ohio Company of Associates to petition the US Government for a large grant of land  in lieu of the money.

The Ohio Company was granted 1,500,000 acres of land in Southeastern Ohio on the condition that some of the land within two townships be dedicated to a university for the purpose of educating settlers who would help lead the settlement efforts of the new Northwest Territory frontier.  Originally chartered as the American Western University, Ohio University was officially founded in Athens, Ohio (named after Athens, Greece) in 1804 and opened its doors for the first students in 1808. As such it became the first land grant university, long before the Morrill Act in 1862.

The concept of publicly funded agricultural and technical educational institutions first rose to national attention through the efforts of Jonathan Baldwin Turner in the late 1840s. The first land-grant bill was introduced in Congress by Representative Justin Smith Morrill of Vermont in 1857. The bill passed in 1859, but was vetoed by President James Buchanan. Morrill resubmitted his bill in 1861, and President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Act into law in 1862. The law gave every state and territory 30,000 acres per member of Congress to be used in establishing a "land grant" university. Over 17 million acres were granted through the federal land-grant law. Recent scholarship has emphasized that many of these federal public lands had been taken from Indigenous peoples through treaties and land cessions, often coerced through violence and threats.

Upon passage of the federal land-grant law in 1862, Iowa was the first state legislature to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act, on September 11, 1862. Iowa subsequently designated the State Agricultural College (now Iowa State University) as the land-grant college on March 29, 1864. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16, 1863, and opened on September 2, 1863. The oldest school that currently holds land-grant status is Rutgers University, founded in 1766 and designated the land-grant college of New Jersey in 1864. The oldest school to ever hold land-grant status was Yale University (founded in 1701), which was named Connecticut's land-grant recipient in 1863. This designation was later stripped by the Connecticut legislature in 1893 under populist pressure and transferred to what would become the University of Connecticut.

A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, aimed at the former Confederate states. This act required each state to show that race was not an admissions criterion, or else to designate a separate land-grant institution for persons of color. This latter clause had the effect of facilitating segregated education, although it also provided higher educational opportunities for persons of color who otherwise would not have had them. Among the seventy colleges and universities which eventually evolved from the Morrill Acts are several of today's historically black colleges and universities. Though the 1890 Act granted cash instead of land, it granted colleges under that act the same legal standing as the 1862 Act colleges; hence the term "land-grant college" properly applies to both groups.

Later on, other colleges such as the University of the District of Columbia and the "1994 land-grant colleges" for Native Americans were also awarded cash by Congress in lieu of land to achieve "land-grant" status.

In imitation of the land-grant colleges' focus on agricultural and mechanical research, Congress later established programs of sea grant colleges (aquatic research, in 1966), space grant colleges (space research, in 1988), and sun grant colleges (sustainable energy research, in 2003).

West Virginia State University, a historically black university, is the only current land-grant university to have lost land-grant status (when desegregation cost it its state funding in 1957) and subsequently regain it, which happened in 2001.

The land-grant college system has been seen as a major contributor in the faster growth rate of the U.S. economy that led to its overtaking the United Kingdom as economic superpower, according to research by faculty from the State University of New York.

The three-part mission of the land-grant university continues to evolve in the twenty-first century. What originally was described as "teaching, research, and service" was renamed "learning, discovery, and engagement" by the Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities, and again recast as "talent, innovation, and place" by the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities (APLU).

State law precedents

Prior to the enactment of the Morrill Act in 1862, individual states established institutions of higher education with grants of land. The first state to do so was Georgia, which set aside 40,000 acres for higher education in 1784 and incorporated the University of Georgia in 1785.

Michigan State University was chartered under Michigan state law as a state agricultural land-grant institution on February 12, 1855, as the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan, receiving an appropriation of  of state-owned land. The Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania (later to become The Pennsylvania State University) followed as a state agricultural land-grant school on February 22 of that year. Michigan State and Penn State were subsequently designated as the federal land-grant colleges for their states in 1863. In 1955, the U.S. Postal service issued a commemorative stamp to celebrate the two institutions as "first of the land-grant type institutions to be founded."

Hatch Act and Smith–Lever Act
The mission of the land-grant universities was expanded by the Hatch Act of 1887, which provided federal funds to states to establish a series of agricultural experiment stations under the direction of each state's land-grant college, as well as pass along new information, especially in the areas of soil minerals and plant growth. The outreach mission was further expanded by the Smith–Lever Act of 1914 to include cooperative extension—the sending of agents into rural areas to help bring the results of agricultural research to the end users. Beyond the original land grants, each land-grant college receives annual federal appropriations for research and extension work on the condition that those funds are matched by state funds.

Expansion
While today's land-grant universities were initially known as land-grant colleges, only a few of the more than 70 institutions that developed from the Morrill Acts retain "College" in their official names; most are universities.

The University of the District of Columbia received land-grant status in 1967 and a $7.24 million endowment (USD) in lieu of a land grant. In a 1972 Special Education Amendment, American Samoa, Guam, Micronesia, Northern Marianas, and the Virgin Islands each received $3 million.

In 1994, 29 tribal colleges and universities became land-grant institutions under the Improving America's Schools Act of 1994. As of 2008, 32 tribal colleges and universities have land-grant status in the U.S. Most of these colleges grant two-year degrees. Six are four-year institutions, and two offer a master's degree.

Land acknowledgment statements and criticism
In the early 21st century, a growing number of land-grant universities have placed land acknowledgment statements on their websites in recognition of the fact that their institutions occupy lands that were once traditional territories of Native American peoples. For example, the University of Illinois System states,
These lands were the traditional birthright of indigenous peoples who were forcibly removed and who have faced two centuries of struggle for survival and identity in the wake of dispossession. We hereby acknowledge the ground on which we stand so that all who come here know that we recognize our responsibilities to the peoples of that land and that we strive to address that history so that it guides our work in the present and the future.
Another example comes from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln which states,
The University of Nebraska is a public, land-grant institution with campuses and programs across the State that reside on the past, present, and future homelands of the Pawnee, Ponca, Oto-Missouria, Omaha, Dakota, Lakota, Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Kaw Peoples, as well as the relocated Ho Chunk (Winnebago), Iowa, and Sac and Fox Peoples.

In an article in High Country News, Robert Lee and Tristan Ahtone criticized such statements for failing to acknowledge the true breadth of the benefits derived by European Americans from formerly Native American land. They pointed out that land grants were used not only for campus sites but also included many other parcels that universities rented or sold to generate funds that formed the basis of their endowments. Lee and Ahtone also pointed out that only a few land-grant universities have undertaken significant efforts at reconciliation with respect to the latter types of parcels. For instance, they could identify what portions of their current resources are traceable to Native American lands and reallocate some of those resources to help Native Americans.

Nomenclature

Land-grant universities are not to be confused with sea grant colleges (a program instituted in 1966), space grant colleges (instituted in 1988), or sun grant colleges (instituted in 2003). In some states, the land-grant missions for agricultural research and extension have been relegated to a statewide agency of the university system rather than the original land-grant campus; an example is the Texas A&M University System. Its agricultural missions, including the agricultural college at the system's main campus, are now under the umbrella of Texas A&M AgriLife.

Relevant legislation

The Morrill Act of 1862
The Hatch Act of 1887
The second Morrill Act of 1890
The Adams Act – 1906
The Nelson Act – 1907
The Smith–Lever Act of 1914
Chapter 79 – May 8, 1914
The Smith–Hughes Act – 1917
The Parnell Act – 1925
The Capper–Ketcham Act – 1928
The Bankhead–Jones Act of 1935
The Bankhead–Flanagan Act – 1945
The Research Marketing Act – 1946
Amendment to Smith–Lever Act – 1953, 1955, 1961, 1962, 1968
Amended Hatch Act – 1955
The McIntire–Stennis Act – 1962
The Research Facilities Act – 1965
Public Law 89-106 – 1965
The National Sea Grant College Program – 1966
The Rural Development Act – 1972
The Food and Agriculture Act of 1977
The National Agricultural Research, Extension, and Teaching Policy Act of 1977 – Title XIV
The Resource Extension Act – 1978
Amendment to Title XIV – 1981
The Agriculture and Food Act of 1981
Amendment to Title XIV of Food Security Act – 1985
Improving America's Schools Act of 1994—extended land-grant status to tribal colleges and universities

See also
Association of Public and Land-grant Universities
List of land-grant universities
Manual labor college
State university

References

External links

 Where the land came from, including maps showing individual parcels.
 Gruen, J. Philip , "The Land-Grant Campus", SAH Archipedia, eds. Gabrielle Esperdy and Karen Kingsley, Charlottesville: UVaP, 2012—, architecture and land use

Universities and colleges in the United States
History of universities and colleges in the United States
Public universities and colleges in the United States
Types of university or college

Land-grant university