Sir Anerood Jugnauth, GCSK, PV,  (29 March 1930 – 3 June 2021) was a Mauritian statesman, politician and barrister who served both as President and Prime Minister of Mauritius. He was Member of Parliament for Piton & Riviere Du Rempart. A central figure of Mauritian politics in the 1980s and 1990s, he was Leader of the Opposition from 1976 to 1982. He served four consecutive terms as Prime Minister from 1982 to 1995 and again from 2000 to 2003. He was then elected as President and served as such from 2003 to 2012. Following his party's victory in the 2014 general elections, he served his sixth and final term as Prime Minister becoming the longest serving prime minister with more than 18 years of tenure overtaking Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, who held the office for 14 years.

Under Jugnauth's leadership, his party/alliances won 5 general parliamentary elections in a row in 1976, 1982, 1983, 1987, and 1991. He then led the MMM in its first electoral campaign and was presented as Prime Minister in 1976. The MMM won but could not govern due to a hung parliament and Jugnauth became Leader of the Opposition up to 1982 where the MMM-PSM alliance won all the seats. He became Prime Minister up to 1995. He was appointed again as Prime Minister in 2000 and finally as President in 2003.

Jugnauth was a cabinet minister during the leadership of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam from 1965 up to 1969. In 1970, he moved out and went to the newly created political party of the Mauritian Militant Movement, where he eventually became its leader in 1982. He created his own political party called Militant Socialist Movement in 1983 and was once more elected. His party remained in power up to 1995.

Jugnauth founded the Militant Socialist Movement party in 1983. He was honoured with Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards for his continued support for India's causes and concerns and for strengthening India's relationship with Mauritius. Following his tenure as President, Jugnauth led an alliance known as "L'Alliance LEPEP" which won the 2014 general elections. He resigned in January 2017 and was succeeded by his son Pravind Jugnauth as Prime Minister.

Jugnauth was made Queen's Counsel in 1980 and was made a member of the Privy Council in 1983. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1988 when Mauritius was still one of the Queen's realms.

Early career and education

Jugnauth was born in Palma in a Hindu Indo-Mauritian family and was brought up there.His ancestors belonged to the Yadav family of Rasra town in Ballia district of Indian state Uttar Pradesh. His grandfather had migrated to Mauritius from the Ballia District of indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the 1870s. He had his primary education at Palma Primary School and his secondary education at Regent College. He taught for some time at New Eton College and later worked as a clerk in the Poor Law Department for some time before being transferred to the Judicial Department. In 1951, he left Mauritius for the UK to study law at the Lincoln's Inn, and became a lawyer in 1954.

Councillor

In 1957, Jugnauth was elected President of Palma Village Council. Whilst serving as an IFB member of Legislative Council he was also elected as member of the Municipal Council of Vacoas-Phoenix.

1963 elections

Jugnauth was elected for the first time to the Legislative Council in Constituency No. 14 of Riviere du Rempart at a time when there were 40 Constituencies in the island in October 1963 and was candidate of the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB).

In 1964, he was one of the founders of All Mauritius Hindu Congress but continued to serve in Seewoosagur Ramgoolam's government as State Minister for Development from 1965 to 1966. He was then promoted to Minister of Labour in November 1966. He took part in the London Constitutional Conference on Mauritius, also commonly known as the 1965 Lancaster Conference. He resigned from office in April 1967, joined the Civil Service as Magistrate, and did not take part in the August 1967 General Elections. In 1970 he joined the MMM and became the party's president.

1976 elections

The main contenders of the 1976 elections were the Independence Party (alliance of Mauritian Labor Party and the CAM), PMSD, UDM, IFB and the relatively new MMM led by Paul Bérenger and Jugnauth himself. Despite receiving most of the votes (38.64%) the MMM only secured 34 seats, two short of an absolute majority. The Independence Party scored 37.90% of votes and 28 seats, whilst the PMSD received 16.20% of the votes and 8 seats. By re-establishing its former alliance, which it had since 1969 with the PMSD, Ramgoolam managed to stay in power. The Labour-PMSD-CAM alliance occupied 36 seats with a weak majority of only 2 seats, despite CAM's leader Sir Abdool Razack Mohamed's failure to be re-elected. Jugnauth thus served as Leader of the Opposition until the following general elections in 1982.

1982-1995 Prime minister tenure

From 1976 to 1982, the MLP had been weakened by the defection of part of its coalition partner, the PMSD, while the CAM declined to contest the election. The MMM had formed an alliance with Harish Boodhoo's Parti Socialiste Mauricien known as PSM. The election resulted in a landslide victory for the MMM-PSM alliance (formed by Jugnauth and Berenger in early 1981), which won 64.16% of the vote and all 60 elected seats (42 by the MMM, 18 by the PSM, and two for the allied Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais) (for more detail see 1982 Legislative Assembly election results). Voter turn-out was 87.3%, with 471,196 out of an electorate of 540,000 casting their votes for the 34 parties contesting 62 seats. The LP, which had dominated Mauritian politics since 1948, won no seats and (together with the Muslim Action Committee) only 25.78% of the vote. The PMSD did even worse, receiving only 7.79% of the vote. The LP and the PMSD each did eventually receive two seats in parliament under the best-loser provisions.

Jugnauth became Prime Minister for the first time, Boodhoo Deputy Prime Minister, and Paul Bérenger Minister of Finance. Jugnauth being Prime Minister announced general elections in 1983 again. This time he was not a candidate for the MMM but he proposed to Boodhoo dissolving the PSM to make a new stronger Party called the MSM (Militant Socialist Movement). He created the MSM and in Alliance with the Mauritian Labour Party went to the general elections together trying to fight against Berenger and his MMM. In March 1983, the government collapsed when the dominant faction within the MMM [Mouvement Militant Mauricien], led by Bérenger, split from Jugnauth's leadership and resigned from the cabinet.

In early April 1983, Jugnauth formed a new party, the Mouvement Socialiste Militant (MSM), which, in May, amalgamated with the PSM led by Harish Boodhoo. However, the new government lacked a majority in the legislative assembly, and Jugnauth dissolved the assembly in June. New elections were held on 23 August 1983. Jugnauth was re-elected and returned as prime minister of the MSM-PMSD-Labour alliance, defeating the MMM.

The MMM received 209,845 votes (46.4%) – the highest proportion of the vote ever received by a single party in any Mauritian election. The Alliance received 236,146 votes (52.22%); independents and the Rodrigues parties got the remaining 1.38% and two seats. Of the 552,800 registered voters, 452,221 (81.8%) had voted. When seats were distributed, however, the Alliance held a majority – 46 to the 22 received by the MMM. The disproportionate weighting of seats reflects the fact that MMM votes were concentrated in urban constituencies where large numerical majorities won only three seats, whereas the Alliance swept the rural constituencies where Hindus predominated.

Within months of taking office, the Alliance began a process of fragmentation that by 1986 left the government without a working majority in parliament. When in February 1984, the MLP (Mauritius Labour Party) left the government, 11 of its MPs continued to support the government and formed a faction within the MLP called the Rassemblement des Travaillistes Mauriciens (RTM). Upon proroguing parliament in November 1986, Jugnauth agreed that an election was necessary.

Parliament was dissolved on 3 July, and the election date set for 30 August 1987, one year ahead of schedule. Campaigning started on 22 July 1987. Jugnauth's Alliance fought the election with his MSM (Militant Socialist Movement), Duval's MPSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate), and both major factions of the MLP, the one led by Satcam Boolell and the RTM. The MMM allied itself with two small parties, the Mouvement Travailliste Démocrat (RTD) and the Front des Travailleurs Socialiste (FTS). A total of 639,488 voters were registered (approximately 60% of the total population) and of these, 546,623 (85.5%) cast their votes. A total of 359 candidates ran for the 62 elected seats. During the election campaign, the ruling MSM/MLP/PMSD alliance was known as the Sun (Soleil) and the opposing union (composed of MMM/MTD/FTS) as the Heart (Coeur) after their respective emblems.

While overall participation of voters in the polling amounted to 85.5%, it ran up to 93% in some constituencies. The average size of the multimember constituencies was around 30,000. As in previous elections, the MMM and its partners received the highest percentage of votes, 48.12%, of which a small percentage can be attributed to its two small partners (see 1987 Legislative Assembly election results for more detail). It won 21 seats, comprising 19 of the 30 urban seats, and only two of the 30 rural seats. The Alliance (MSM/PMSD/MLP) won a total of 49.86% and 39 seats. After the best-loser seats were allocated, the Alliance held 46 seats to the MMM's 24. The two seats of the Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais helped to raise those of the Alliance to 46.

On 6 August 1991, Jugnauth dissolved the national assembly and announced that a general election would be held on 15 September, nearly a year early. Jugnauth led an alliance of his MSM (Militant Socialist Movement) with the MMM (Mauritian Militant Movement) and the RTD (Rassemblement des Travaillistes Mauriciens) against an alliance of the MLP (Mauritius Labour Party) and the PMSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate). The MSM/MMM/RTD alliance was better prepared than the opposition. Before the election date had been announced, it had already drawn up its list of candidates for the 20 constituencies and published its election manifesto. The opposition lost valuable time with lengthy negotiations concerning candidates and manifesto. Some 25 parties and independents and 331 candidates were involved. According to official figures, 682,000 voters (about 63% of the total population of 1,083,000) were entitled to vote, and of these about 576,300 (84.5%) turned out. The government alliance's 56.3% of the vote gave it 57 seats in parliament, while the opposition's 39.9% of the vote gave it only three seats. Only four best-loser seats were allocated. Jugnauth once more ruled in Parliament House for a fourth term, and was once more elected prime minister.

1995 and onwards

When Jugnauth lost a vote of confidence over a language issue that required an amendment to the constitution, he dissolved parliament on 16 November 1995 and called a snap election for 20 December. Candidates had to be nominated by 4 December, and the campaign was officially opened on 5 December. A record 506 candidates entered the fray in which some 42 parties and independents participated. A landslide victory for the opposition ended Jugnauth's rule as prime minister which had lasted since 1982. The Labour Party-Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM) alliance captured all 60 of the directly elected seats on the island of Mauritius with only 63.7% of the poll, representing a mere 51.1% of the total electorate. The two seats on the island of Rodrigues went to l'Organisation du Peuple de Rodrigues (OPR). The MSM-RMM alliance obtained 19.3% of the votes cast or the support of 15.4% of the total electorate, but even under the best-loser system it found itself without a single seat in the National Assembly. (Renouveau Militant Mauricien (RMM) was the name adopted by a substantial part of the MMM led by Dr. Prem Nababsing (after Bérenger had broken away from it in 1993 and retained the right to the name of MMM).

Only four best-loser seats were allocated and went to small parties with little national influence – two to the Mouvement Rodriguais in Rodrigues island and the other two respectively to the Hizbullah Party and the Parti Gaëtan Duval (PGD, formerly the PMSD). Jugnauth stood as a candidate at the by-election held in constituency No. 9 (Flacq/Bon Acceuil) in April 1998 but was defeated. He immediately initiated the idea of an MSM/MMM federation which eventually took shape in January 1999. The Federation was dissolved, however, after the defeat of its candidate at the by-election held on 19 September 1999.

Jugnauth founded the MSM/MMM Alliance with Bérenger, leader of the MMM, on 14 August 2000, based on equal sharing of power. At the general elections held on 11 September 2000, he was elected as first member of constituency No 7 (Piton/Rivière du Rempart) and was appointed Prime Minister.

2000 tenure as Prime minister

The outgoing prime minister, Navin Ramgoolam of the Mauritian Labor Party led a coalition with Xavier Luc Duval, the leader of the Parti Mauricien Xavier Duval (PMXD). Duval was Minister of Finance in the previous government alliance formed in mid-1999. The other alliance was formed (for the fourth time) between Jugnauth (MSM) and Bérenger (MMM).

On 15 August 2000, the leaders of these two parties as well several other leaders from much smaller parties signed what they termed a 'historical electoral accord', which included a proposed sharing of the prime ministerial post between MSM leader Jugnauth and MMM leader Bérenger. Under this arrangement, Jugnauth would hold the post of prime minister for the first three years and Bérenger for the remaining two years. After surrendering the premiership to Bérenger, Jugnauth would be called to assume the function of President of the Republic after reforms to strengthen the presidency, which was largely a symbolic post. The accord also provided for a reform of the electoral system to replace the "best losers system" gradually by proportional representation, and to end the Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation's monopoly over the electronic media.

In addition to sharing the post of prime minister, what made the MSM/MMM electoral accord exceptional was the fact that it would allow, for the first time in the history of the island, a non-Hindu Mauritian to become the prime minister. The elections took place on 11 September 2000 with a total of 80.87% of registered voters casting their ballots. The MSM/MMM alliance won 54 of the directly elected seats.

Jugnauth agreed to step down and become president as from 2003. Former president Karl Offmann was also involved. He was put into the office of the president on the condition that he would remain president only for 19 months. Jugnauth became president under the transition with the so-called "sudden" resignation of President Offmann.

Jugnauth resigned as prime minister on 30 September 2003 at 13:30 and also as member of parliament at 15:00, giving his resignation letter to Speaker of the House on the same day. He announced his departure in a 20-minute speech given to the members of parliament stating that he was leaving the office to make room for a new prime minister.

He was sworn into the presidency on 7 October 2003 following the resignation of President Karl Offmann.

Presidential mandates

Jugnauth, along with Lady Jugnauth, took over the keys of the Chateau of Reduit on 7 October 2003. His election to the presidency was largely approved by the entire population as it was considered to be the new era of Mauritian politics, allowing Paul Berenger to become prime minister who was the first person of a non-Hindu religion to become head of government.

In 2003, he handed the leadership of his party to his son Pravind Jugnauth. He announced that he had "reached the end of this road".  During his first mandate, due to the constitution, he had to announce general elections, which eventually took place in July 2005.

Due to the end of the mandate of Jugnauth, two persons, Vice President (Angidi Chettiar) and himself were the two persons nominated to the Presidency. He was voted for by both governing members of parliament as well as opposition MPs. Jugnauth was elected to the ceremonial post of President in 2003. After five years in office, he was re-elected by the National Assembly in a unanimous vote on 19 September 2008, supported by both the government and the opposition.

2008–2014

Parliament voted for Jugnauth to remain as President for a second term in 2008.  Shortly after, during the by-election of 2008 in constituency No 8, the Militant Socialist Movement won with the support of the Labour Party and Pravind Jugnauth returned as MP for that constituency.

In 2010, two days after his 80th birthday, the Labour-MSM-PMSD alliance was made and Navin Ramgoolam dissolved the parliament in respect of general elections. The alliance won the election and the MSM returned 13 MPs. However, in August 2011, the alliance broke and the MSM left the government leaving a very small majority for the Prime Minister. After having a private meeting with Berenger, the leader of the opposition, Jugnauth made a statement that he might resign as president if the situation got any worse concerning the Medpoint scandal which involved his son, Pravind, and who was summoned and arrested by the Independent Commission Against Corruption on conflict of interest. Eventually he resigned as president on 30 March 2012. He mentioned that he did not support government policies, many thought his disagreement stemmed from the fact that the government refused to help his son, accused of corruption, escape from the law. He stated that he resigned because of his disagreement with the members of the government.

Soon after his resignation from the Presidency in 2012, Berenger proposed a 'remake' of the MSM/MMM coalition, which was approved by both parties' structures (political bureaus and central committees). Jugnauth became leader of the alliance with the same conditions. He would hold office of Prime Minister for three years before resigning to make way for Berenger. Following internal crisis between both parties in 2013 and early 2014, Berenger announced two 'cooling off' periods to allow time to resolve these issues. Berenger announced the end of the MSM/MMM in April 2014. He was criticized as he had (on the eve) attended Jugnauth's birthday party and gave a very flattering speech on his political career. After the party, he went in the same night to meet Ramgoolam at a nearby restaurant to discuss a forthcoming alliance. He further announced an alliance between his MMM and Ramgoolam's Labour Party.

General elections (2014)

In April 2014, Paul Berenger announced the dissolution of the coalition due to major disagreement within both parties. Later Berenger announced a coalition between the Labour Party and the Mauritian Militant Movement. Jugnauth then led a coalition composed of the Militant Socialist Movement, PMSD and the ML which is a break-away group of individuals who resigned from the MMM due to the coalition with the Labour Party. Jugnauth's alliance known as "L'Alliance LEPEP" won the 2014 general elections. When Ramgoolam dissolved parliament in end of November 2014, Jugnauth and the MSM conducted an alliance with the PMSD and Mouvement Liberateur (a dissident MMM party led by its former Deputy Leader, Ivan Collendaveloo). His alliance won 47 out of the 60 seats contested. Jugnauth became prime minister for the sixth time and made history as he led an alliance that won against a Labour Party-MMM alliance, which are considered as the two biggest parties (through their significant electorates) in the country. The MSM which lost much of its rural electorate was since Jugnauth's retirement considered the third national party. It nevertheless got its core electorate (from the 1980s) back following its appeal to vote for Jugnauth for a last time as he announced it would be the last election he would contest due to his advanced age.

On 12 September 2016, Jugnauth announced that he would be resigning as Prime Minister very soon due to his advanced age. On 23 January 2017 he resigned and made his son the prime minister.

Assassination attempts

Overall, there have been 4 attempts on Sir Anerood Jugnauth's life. Two of those attempts were whilst he held office. The first one during his tenure was on 6 November 1988 at an Arya Samaj gathering in the suburb of Trèfles, Rose Hill by Satanand Sembhoo who drew a pistol to Prime Minister Jugnauth's head before being disarmed by bodyguards and onlookers. This was followed by a second attempt on 3 March 1989 at a temple in Ganga Talao when armed with a razor blade and disguised as a Hindu pilgrim, Iqbal Ghani assaulted Prime Minister Jugnauth. Both attempts were believed to be the result of drug cartels, against whom Jugnauth was leading a crack-down.

Personal life

Jugnauth was the owner of a building company on Mauritius, located at the Sun Trust Building situated at La Rue Edith Cavell, Port Louis. This building was the subject of controversies and critics as the owner leased its floor space at high prices which were achieved at the peak of the local property market's cycle. The Government's Ministry of Education department was a tenant of the Sun Trust Building until 1995 when newly elected Minister, James Burty-David, refused to use that building. The government then relocated the department into another building. The penalty paid to Jugnauth in terms of breach of contract amounted to Rs 45 million (US$1.5 million).

He was the patriarch of the Jugnauth family of Mauritius. Jugnauth married Sarojini Ballah on 18 December 1956 and he is the father of two children: Pravind and Shalini Jugnauth-Malhotra. Pravind has been Prime Minister of Mauritius since 2017 and was previously Minister of Finance as a Member of Parliament for the Constituency Moka & Quartier Militaire. Pravind is also the leader of the Mouvement Socialiste Militant (MSM).

He was also the only Mauritian who served as an elected member on each level in the country as he first served as village & town Councillor (being elected as a Councillor for Palma village in 1956 and again Councillor for the town of Vacoas-Phoenix in 1964). He then served as a Member of Parliament (elected in 1963), became Minister of State in 1965 which preceded his appointment as Minister of Labour in 1966 by Seewoosagur Ramgoolam. He was the only prime minister to have had a sibling and his son in his own cabinet from 2000 to 2003.

On 3 June 2021, Jugnauth died at Clinique Darné in Floréal, Mauritius, aged 91, due to illness.

Controversies

Jugnauth was subjected to various controversies over his 35 years of being on the front bench of Mauritian politics. In 1983, he was criticized for breaking the MMM-PSM coalition government and ousting the MMM from power. In 1984, he was criticized as head of government in the Amsterdam boys scandal which involved 4 government MPs who were arrested as they were carrying drugs from the Netherlands. He prorogued parliament in an objective to prevent any questions on the investigation. In 1988, he fired Satcam Boolell, then leader of the Labour Party, due to political disagreements.

In May 1992, a scandal erupted when the Bank of Mauritius issued a new Rs 20 note having the portrait of Sarojini Jugnauth. It was considered to be a birthday gift from Anerood to his wife. This was a major controversy whereby Jugnauth himself had to apologise in parliament to a private notice question from the opposition. He confirmed that he had reluctantly agreed to the proposal of the Bank of Mauritius to issue such a note. He expressed his sincere apologies and assured the population that he shall not commit such a mistake in the future.

In 1995, months before the general elections which Jugnauth would lose, the then government gave a contract to Sun Trust Building (owned by the Jugnauth family) for a period of 10 years. This was controversial as Jugnauth was the owner of the Building and at the same time was prime minister. The newly elected Labour Party-MMM government decided to rescind the contract. Jugnauth sued for damages and received Rs 45 million (US$1.5 million) as compensation. This was criticized in the press and among the Mauritian diaspora.

In 2007, Jugnauth threatened to have Mauritius leave the Commonwealth in protest at the UK's "barbarous" treatment of the people of the Chagos Islands. Jugnauth stated that he might take the United Kingdom to the International Court of Justice over the islanders' plight. The Chagos Islands, a British colony in the Indian Ocean, were leased to the US in the 1960s to build a military base. The residents were forced out, and the government says they cannot return, but have been granted British citizenship and has donated around 40 million  pounds to the people who numbered 2,000 at the time. Many of the residents now live in poverty in Mauritius as that state has left them destitute,  or as refugees in Britain where they have their housing and costs paid for, and receive financial aid to take the British to court. The American base was built on the large island of Diego Garcia within the Chagos archipelago. Mauritius claims the islands as part of its territory, and Jugnauth claimed his country was forced by the British to accept the Chagossians as a condition of independence.

Honours

 QC (1980)
 Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (1983)
 Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (1988)
 Grand Prix of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
 Honorary Doctorate from Aix-Marseille University (March 1985)
 Doctor of Civil Law (Honoris Causa) from the University of Mauritius (May 1985)
 Order of the Rising Sun (January 1988)
 Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (March 1990)
 Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (2003)
 Honorary Doctorate from Middlesex University (July 2009)
 Padma Vibhushan from India (2020)

Jugnauth bore the title Right Honourable for life. He was also entitled to use MP post-nominal and prefix, as he was an MP for more than 35 years.

National honours

:
 Grand Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (GCSK) (2003)

 Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) (1988)

Foreign honours

:
 Grand Officer of the National Order of Legion of Honour (1990)
:
 Padma Vibhushan (2020)
:
 Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1988)
:
 Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)

Jugnauth was one of the only two Prime Ministers who served under Queen Elizabeth II and the pre-republic regime. There is one primary school in his former constituency, Riviere du Rempart under his name, known as Sir Anerood Jugnauth Government School, situated in the north of the country.

He has also a commemorative golden Mauritian rupee coin issued by the Bank of Mauritius having his portrait on the obverse and a Dodo on the reverse. The inscriptions are "THE Rt HON SIR ANEROOD JUGNAUTH PC, QC, KCMG " and is followed by "MAURITIUS". It originally holds a value of Rs 1,000 but is sold as a collector's piece at US$1,881. On 19 December 2010, he and his wife, Sarojini Ballah went to receive an official opening of a pictorial biography of the President himself showing his path from small age poor child to him being President of Mauritius in 2010 leaving behind him a rich career as one of the leaders of the country. The biography is entitled The Rise of a Common Man. Present at the ceremony were former Prime Minister Navin Ramgoolam, Vice Prime Minister Pravind Jugnauth and other ministers as well as friends of the latter.

References

External links

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1930 births
2021 deaths
Grand Commanders of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Leaders of the Opposition (Mauritius)
Mauritian Hindus
20th-century Mauritian lawyers
Mauritian Militant Movement politicians
Mauritian politicians of Indian descent
Members of the National Assembly (Mauritius)
Militant Socialist Movement politicians
People from Rivière du Rempart District
People from Plaines Wilhems District
Presidents of Mauritius
Prime Ministers of Mauritius
Defense ministers of Mauritius
Ministers of Finance of Mauritius
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in public affairs
Independent Forward Bloc politicians
Mauritian Knights Bachelor
Mauritian Queen's Counsel
Recipients of Pravasi Bharatiya Samman

Anerood Jugnauth


A heath or heathland is a shrubland habitat found mainly on low quality, acidic soils. It has open, low growing woody vegetation.

There are some clear differences between heath and moorland.  For example moorland has a very peaty topsoil, and it is also free-draining, whereas a heath is not.  Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with — especially in Great Britain — a cooler and damper climate.

Heathland is common worldwide. They form extensive and diverse communities across Australia in humid and sub-humid areas. Fire regimes with burning maintain the heathlands. Even more diverse though less widespread heath occurs in Southern Africa. Extensive heath communities can also be found in the California chaparral, New Caledonia, central Chile and along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to these extensive heath areas, the vegetation type is also found in scattered locations across all continents except Antarctica.

References

Habitats
Ecosystems

Heath


In statistics, scale analysis is a set of methods to analyze survey data, in which responses to questions are combined to measure a latent variable. These items can be dichotomous (e.g. yes/no, agree/disagree, correct/incorrect) or polytomous (e.g. disagree strongly/disagree/neutral/agree/agree strongly). Any measurement for such data is required to be reliable, valid, and homogeneous with comparable results over different studies.

Constructing scales

The item-total correlation approach is a way of identifying a group of questions whose responses can be combined into a single measure or scale. This is a simple approach that works by ensuring that, when considered across a whole population, responses to the questions in the group tend to vary together and, in particular, that responses to no individual question are poorly related to an average calculated from the others.

Measurement models
Measurement is the assignment of numbers to subjects in such a way that the relations between the objects are represented by the relations between the numbers (Michell, 1990).

Traditional models
 Likert scale
 Semantic differential (Osgood) scale
 Reliability analysis, see also Classical test theory and Cronbach's alpha
 Factor analysis

Modern models based on Item response theory
 Guttman scale
 Mokken scale
 Rasch model
 (Circular) Unfolding analysis
 Circumplex model

Other models
 Latent class analysis
 Multidimensional scaling
 NOMINATE (scaling method)

References
 Michell, J (1990). An Introduction to the logic of Psychological Measurement. Hillsdales, NJ: Lawrences Erlbaum Associates Publ.

Survey methodology
Sampling (statistics)

Scale analysis (statistics)


Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton FRS (18 October 1863 – 19 February 1930) was a Scottish consulting electrical engineer, who provided the theoretical basis for the electronic television, two decades before the technology existed to implement it. He began experimenting around 1903 with the use of cathode ray tubes for the electronic transmission and reception of images. Campbell described the theoretical basis for an all electronic method of producing television in a 1908 letter to Nature. Campbell-Swinton's concept was central to the cathode ray television because of his proposed modification of the cathode ray tube that allowed its use as both a transmitter and receiver of light. The cathode-ray tube was the system of electronic television that was subsequently developed in later years, as technology caught up with Campbell-Swinton's initial ideas. Other inventors would use Campbell-Swinton's ideas, as a starting-point to realise the cathode ray tube television as the standard, workable form of all electronic television that it became for decades after his death. It is generally considered that the original credit for the successful theoretical conception of using a cathode ray tube device for imaging should belong to Campbell-Swinton.

Life

He was born in Edinburgh the son of advocate Archibald Campbell Swinton.

Campbell-Swinton was educated at Cargilfield Trinity School and Fettes College (1878–1881).

He was one of the first to explore the medical applications of radiography, opening the first radiographic laboratory in the United Kingdom in 1896. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1915. He is better known by his work on the electronic television. He discovered the phenomenon known as magnetic focusing in 1896, he found that a longitudinal magnetic field generated by an axial coil can focus an electron beam.

Campbell-Swinton wrote a letter in response to an article in the 4 June 1908 issue of Nature by Shelford Bidwell entitled "Telegraphic Photography and Electric Vision". Even as early as 1908, it was recognised that "The final, insurmountable problems with any form of mechanical scanning were the limited number of scans per second, which produced a flickering image, and the relatively large size of each hole in the disk, which resulted in poor resolution".

Campbell-Swinton's letter was published in the 18 June 1908 issue of Nature. The name of the article is "Distant Electric Vision". He wrote: "This part of the problem of obtaining distant electric vision can probably be solved by the employment of two beams of cathode rays (one at the transmitting and one at the receiving station) synchronously deflected by the varying fields of two electromagnets placed at right angles to one another and energised by two alternating electric currents of widely different frequencies, so that the moving extremities of the two beams are caused to sweep simultaneously over the whole of the required surface within the one-tenth of a second necessary to take advantage of visual persistence. Indeed, so far as the receiving apparatus is concerned, the moving cathode beam has only to be arranged to impinge on a suitably sensitive fluorescent screen, and given suitable variations in its intensity, to obtain the desired result."

He gave a speech in London in 1911 where he described in great detail how distant electric vision could be achieved. This was to be done by using cathode ray tubes (CRTs) at both the transmitting and receiving ends. The photoelectric screen in the proposed transmitting device was a mosaic of isolated rubidium cubes. This was the first iteration of the electronic television which is still in use today. When Swinton gave his speech others had already been experimenting with the use of cathode ray tubes as a receiver, but the use of the technology as a transmitter was unheard of. His concept for a fully electronic television system was later popularised by Hugo Gernsback as the "Campbell-Swinton Electronic Scanning System" in the August 1915 issue of the popular magazine Electrical Experimenter.

In 1914 he once again described his system in his presidential address to the Roentgen Ray Society and in 1921 a book was published describing it in some detail. He himself described his system seven years later in the June 1928 issue of Modern Wireless, "Television by Cathode Rays".
"Surely it would be better policy if those who can afford the time and money would abandon mechanical devices and expend their labours in what appears likely to prove the ultimately more promising method in which the only moving parts are imponderable electrons."

In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died, but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by his students H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and by H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate, but much better images were obtained when the metal plate was covered with zinc sulphide or selenide, or with aluminium or zirconium oxide treated with caesium. These experiments are the base of the future vidicon.

Alongside his research into the electrical transmission of images, Campbell-Swinton also worked in voice telephony, founding the short-lived Equitable Telephone Association in the 1880s.

See also
 Clan Swinton

References

1863 births
1930 deaths
People from Berwickshire
Engineers from Edinburgh
People educated at Fettes College
Projectional radiography
Scottish electrical engineers
British electronics engineers
Scottish businesspeople
Scottish inventors
Television pioneers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Presidents of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers
People educated at Cargilfield School

Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton


A googol is the lairge nummer 10100; that is, the digit 1 follaed bi 100 zeroes:

10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

The term wis coined in 1938 bi 9-year-auld Milton Sirotta, nephew o American mathematician Edward Kasner.  Kasner popularized the concept in his 1940 beuk Mathematics and the Imagination.

Ither names for googol include ten duotrigintillion on the short scale, ten thoosand sexdecillion on the long scale, or ten sexdecilliard on the Peletier lang scale.

A googol haes na particular signeeficance in mathematics, but is uiseful when comparin wi ither very lairge quantities such as the nummer o subatomic pairticles in the veesible universe or the nummer o hypothetically possible chess genmes. Edward Kasner uised it tae illustrate the difference atween an unimaginably lairge nummer an infinity, an in this role it is sometimes uised in teachin mathematics.

A googol is approximately 70! (factorial o 70). In the binary numeral seestem, ane would need 333 bits tae represent a googol, i.e., 1 googol ≈ 2332.2, or exactly .

Googol is notable for bein the subject o the £1 million question in the infamous episode o Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, when contestant Charles Ingram cheatit his way through the shaw bi gettin help frae his wife, who wis in the audience, an fellae contestant Tecwen Whittock. It is an aa the namesake o the internet company Google, wi the name "Google" bein a misspellin o "googol" bi the company's founders.

Tae gie a sense o hou big a googol really is, the mass o an electron, juist unner 1×10-30 kg, can be compared tae the mass o the entire universe, estimatit at atween 1×1050kg an 1×1060 kg. It is a ratio in the order o aboot 1080 tae 1090, still much smawer than the value o a googol.

References

Lairge integers
Integers
Units o amoont

Googol


A hair iron or hair tong is something people use to change the shape of the hair by heating it. There are three types of hair iron:
Straightening irons (sometimes called hair irons, hair straighteners or just straighteners), which straighten the hair.
Curling tongs (sometimes called hair tongs or hair curlers or just curlers, or less often curling irons), which make hair curly.
Styling irons (sometimes called hair stylers or just stylers), that can straighten and curl the hair.

History

In 1872, Marcel Grateau (a Parisian) used heated rods to curl or style hair.

In 1893, Ada Harris, a school teacher from Indianapolis, applied for a patent for the hair straightener. The hair straightener was a device "heated like a curling iron" with two flat faces held together by a hinge . It was said that when the faces press the hair, it will become straight." Harris's invention also had a comb, which would keep different parts of the hair separated.

Simon E. Monroe patented a hair straightener in 1906 that was like a metal comb.

In 1909, Issac K. Shero patented a hair straightener made of two irons that are heated and put together around the hair.

Years later, Sharrell made heated metal tools, for example: hot combs. The hot metal straightener went easily through the hair, making less damage and dryness than the way things were done before. Later, ceramic and electrical straighteners were made, meaning people could adjust the heat settings and straightener size.

Another method of hair straightening is Japanese hair straightening, which was invented in Japan, and works like a perm, but to straighten instead of curl the hair. It is now given at many salons but is quite expensive and must be re-done after it stops working.

The straightening irons of today

Some better hair straighteners today have ceramic coated heating parts, which harm the hair less, and heat up faster than non-ceramic coated heating parts. Cheaper brands do not often have ceramic, but some have a paint-like coating that looks like ceramic plating. Cordless flat irons use lithium battery that can last up to 45 minutes, and other is heated by thermacell butane gas cartridge.

Lots of more expensive hair straighteners use ionic and infra red technology, which helps to keep moisture and oils in the hair, and to stop static and frizz.

Depending on the hair type, repeated use of hair straighteners, like most other heat styling tools, can cause varying amounts of damage such as split ends, thinning of the hair shaft and even causing hair to become brittle and prone to breakage. Generally, after extensive damage, hair will show signs of dryness and display an unhealthy appearance. However, many companies, such as L'Oréal and Tresemmé, have began to manufacture heat protection sprays and cream which aim to reduce the amount of damage that is caused by the use of straighteners.

Hair straighteners should only be used on dry hair, unless they are specially made with vents to let the moisture out.  These sort of irons are usually called "Wet Dry" irons.

Based on the materials used in the heating plates, hair irons can be classified as ceramic, tourmaline and traditional metal flat iron. Ceramic hair irons are believed to be gentle to the hair.

How it works
Hair straighteners work by breaking the hair's hydrogen bonds, which are part of what make the hair curly. After the bonds are broken, the hair is stopped from going back to its original, natural, curly form. The hydrogen bonds can re-form if moisture touches them, such as water or dampness.

Related pages
Hair straightening
GHD
Hair

References

Other websites

Tools
Home appliances

Hair iron


The 1957 an 1958 Packard lineup o automobiles wur actually Studebakers: mildly restyled, rebadged an gien slichtly mair luxurious interiors.  Efter 1956 production, the Packard ingine an transmission factory wis leased tae the Curtiss-Wright Corporation while the assembly plant on Detroit's East Grand Boulevard wis sauld, endin the line o Packard-biggit caurs.  Houever, some Studebaker executives still saw value in the Packard name.  Thir caurs wur developed in hopes that enough wad be sauld tae enable the company tae design an big a completely new luxury Packard.

1957 Packard Clipper
For the 1957 model year, Studebaker-Packard teuk its tap-o-the-line model, the President, an addit a revised grille an taillichts alang wi a machine-turned leuk dashboard an cawed the caur the Packard Clipper.  Twa models wur produced in 1957, a fower-door Town Sedan an a station wagon Clipper Country Sedan. Taillights wur borrowed frae the 1956 Clipper, while the headlicht 'eyebrows', hubcaps, dashboard an interior wur aw Packard styled (In fact, maist wur merely styled tae gie the "Packard look" while fittin ontae a Studebaker, but a few actually wur leftower Packard pairts).

When Packard dealers saw the resultin caur at regional previews, the response wis quick, angry an loud.  Mony dealers felt the Clipper wis too seemilar tae the Studebaker on which it wis based an dropped Packard completely.  Sales wur a law 4,809, amaist aw o which wur the Town Sedan.  Critics bestowed the less nor positive name "Packardbaker" on the caurs.

In order tae produce an ingine o appropriate pouer for a Packard, a McCulloch-supercharged version o Studebaker's 289 in³ (4.7 L) small-block V8 wis uised, givin 275 bhp (205 kW), equivalent tae the Packard ingines in uise the year afore (an likwise uised in the Studebaker Golden Hawk).  Syne the Studebaker-bodied caurs wur quite a bit lichter than the previous year's Packards, the 1957 Packard range actually haed quite exceptional performance for the time.

Writer an auto historian Richard Langworth haes notit that while thir caurs warna truly Packards, thay wur, houever, vera guid Studebakers.

Final Packards

1958 saw the Packard line reduced tae twa models an fower body styles; a 4-door sedan, a 2-door hardtop coupe (whiles referred tae as the "Starlight", a name uised bi Studebaker), a 4-door station wagon which simply bore the Packard name, an the Packard Hawk, a modification o Studebaker's Golden Hawk wi a "fishmouth" Packard grille.

Restyled bi Duncan McRae, Studebaker-Packard's finances dictatit that the changes for 1958 be made as cheaply as possible.  Quad heidlichts wur achieved bi affixin fiberglass pods tae the previous year's front fenders designed for twa headlights.  In the rear, McRae attemptit tae follae the tailfin craze established bi Chrysler's 1957 "Forward Look" bi craftin ootward cantit fiberglass fin extensions that wur mountit tae the tops o the existin vertical rear fenders.  1956 Clipper taillicht units continued tae be uised.  Packards an aa adoptit a law, wide "fishmouth" grille tae further distinguish them frae thair Studebaker cousins.

Despite McRae's efforts, the caur that emerged appeared cobbled thegither, rather than as a cohesive design. Auto reviewer "Uncle" Tom McCahill remarked that frae the rear it looked as if the caurs haed been left in the sun too lang an the cantit fiberglass fins haed startit tae melt doun the straucht rear fender sides.

Anly 2,034 o the three standard models (sedan, hardtop an station wagon) wur produced; an additional 588 Packard Hawks wur biggit as well.  The rarest o aw '58 Packards is the station wagon, wi ae 159 produced.  The last Packard rolled off the South Bend assembly line on Juli 13, 1958.

In 1962 the Studebaker-Packard Corporation offeecially dropped "Packard" frae its name.

Packard vehicles
Clipper
Packard

1957 an 1958 Packards


Judith and Holofernes is the name given to one of the 14 Black Paintings painted by Francisco de Goya between 1819 and 1823. By this time, Goya was in his mid 70s and deeply disillusioned. In mental and physical despair, he painted the private works on the interior walls of his home—applying oils directly on plaster—known as the Quinta del Sordo ("The House of the Deaf Man"), which he had purchased in 1819. Judith and Holofernes was likely painted on the first floor, beside Saturn Devouring His Son. The picture is a personal reinterpretation of the narrative of the Book of Judith, in which the protagonist saves Israel from the assault of the general Holofernes by seducing and beheading him. Judith is the only historical figure who can be identified with certainty among the Black Paintings.

Judith and Holofernes palette consists of blacks, ochres and red applied with very free, broad and energetic brushstrokes. The lighting is both focused and highly theatrical, and seems to imply a night scene lit by a torch, which illuminates Judith's face and outstretched arm and leaves in semidarkness the face of the old serving woman whose darkened outline is shown in prayer. Significantly, neither Holofernes nor the blood streaming from his neck is shown, as is typical of most artistic renderings.

Given Goya's bitter disillusionment over the second restoration of Ferdinand VII, it is possible that Holofernes represents the Spanish King, whom Goya privately despised. Holofernes' death was often depicted in art as a symbol of the defeat of tyranny. This would have been a brave and daring allusion for an artist with such ties to the crown as Goya had. Goya did not believe, however, that the series would ever be viewed by anyone but himself, which allowed him greater freedom of expression. He had been secretive before when delivering unpalatable political views through his work; his Disasters of War series of etchings harshly comments on both the Peninsular War and the later Bourbon Restoration, but was only published 35 years after his death.

Along with the other works in the series, the painting was transferred to canvas in 1873–74 for Baron Émile d'Erlanger under the supervision of Salvador Martínez Cubells, a curator at the Museo del Prado. D'Erlanger donated all 14 canvases to the Prado in 1881.

See also
List of works by Francisco Goya

Footnotes

Bibliography
Benito Oterino, Agustín, La luz en la quinta del sordo: estudio de las formas y cotidianidad, Madrid, Universidad Complutense, 2002, p. 33. Edición digital .
Bozal, Valeriano, Francisco Goya, vida y obra, (2 vols.) Madrid, Tf. Editores, 2005. .
Bozal, Valeriano, Pinturas Negras de Goya, Tf. Editores, Madrid, 1997.
Glendinning, Nigel, Francisco de Goya, Madrid, Cuadernos de Historia 16 (col. «El arte y sus creadores», nº 30), 1993.
Hagen, Rose-Marie and Hagen, Rainer, Francisco de Goya, Cologne, Taschen, 2003. .
 Hughes, Robert. Goya. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004.

External links

Paintings by Francisco Goya in the Museo del Prado
1820s paintings
Paintings depicting Judith

Judith and Holofernes (Goya)


Douglas Percy Bliss (28 January 1900 – 11 March 1984; Urdu: ڈگلس پرسی بلیس) was a Scottish painter and art conservationist.
Bliss's family was of Northamptonshire, England. His grandfather moved to Moray, Scotland. Bliss himself was born in Karachi, India (but now in Pakistan). Bliss was raised in Edinburgh and educated at George Watson's College from 1906–17. He always regarded himself as Scottish.

Bliss left school in 1917 to join the Highland Light Infantry until the end of World War I. In 1922 he was awarded an M.A. in English Literature by the University of Edinburgh. He had studied Art History in his first year. Bliss then studied painting at the Royal College of Art in London. In his postgraduate year he studied engraving. In 1925 the Oxford University Press published his engravings illustrating Border ballads. Bliss then received a number of commissions, including a commission to write A History of Wood Engraving. This work received such critical acclaim that Bliss' reputation as an artist was overshadowed by his reputation as a critic and teacher.

In 1928 Bliss married Phyllis Dodd, who was a painter. Encouraged by his wife Bliss took up painting again, painting oil and watercolour landscapes in Scotland and England. Coincidentally his paintings record the end of an era of small-holding. He also painted some urban scenes just before the towns were transformed by high rise and high-density buildings.

In the 1930s Bliss established the Blackheath Society, which continues today to attempt to protect the amenity of life in south-east London. In the 1930s he taught at the Blackheath School of Art and was the London art critic for The Scotsman. In 1941 Bliss joined the RAF and was stationed in Scotland. After the war, the war he was appointed Director of the Glasgow School of Art. He referred to Glasgow as "the greatest industrial city in the Empire". Bliss was instrumental in saving much of the Art Nouveau architecture and furniture of Charles Rennie Mackintosh. He continued as Director from 1946 until 1964. When he completed his period as Director, Glasgow School of Art was listed by Whitaker's Almanack among the six top Art Schools in Britain.

Bliss's own art was exhibited around Britain. There was an exhibition of his work in the Glasgow School of Art, in the northern hemisphere summer of 1998. Much of the work of Bliss's youth has been lost. Most of his engravings were unpublished before the beginning of the War in 1939 and his entire collection was stolen during the Blitz. Decades later sixteen degraded blocks were identified at an auction. Most split when printing was attempted.

Work in public collections
Cardiff: National Museum of Wales
The Contemporary Art Society
Edinburgh: Gallery of Modern Art
Glasgow: City Art Gallery
Leamington Art Gallery
London: The British Museum
Manchester Education Authority
National Arts Collection Fund
Perth City Art Gallery
The Tate Gallery
Victoria & Albert Museum

Publications
1925 Border Ballads (illustrations); OUP
1926 The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia by Dr. Samuel Johnson, introduction by G.K. Chesterton (illustrations); J. M. Dent London
1928 The Spanish Lady & two other stories by Cervantes (illustrations); OUP
1928 A History of Wood Engraving; J. M. Dent
1929 The Palace of Pleasure by William Painter (illustrations); Cresset Press London
1934 The Devil in Scotland (introductory text & illustrations); Maclehose London
1938 Some Tales of Mystery & Imagination by E. A. Poe; Penguin Books
1952 Memoirs of Prince Alexei Haimatoff by T. J. Hogg (illustrations); Folio Society London
1979 Edward Bawden (a biography); The Pendomer Press Godalming

References

External links

Douglas Percy Bliss on Christie's

1900 births
1984 deaths
20th-century engravers
Scottish illustrators
20th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
Scottish engravers
People educated at George Watson's College
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of the Royal College of Art
Highland Light Infantry soldiers
British Army personnel of World War I
Directors of the Glasgow School of Art
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
Artists from Karachi
20th-century British printmakers
20th-century Scottish male artists

Douglas Bliss


Universitetskaya Embankment () is a 1.2 km long embankment on the right bank of the Bolshaya Neva, on Vasilievsky Island in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Starting at the Spit of Vasilievsky Island, it spans between Palace Bridge and Blagoveshchensky Bridge.

The bank was lined with granite in 1805–1810 (eastern part), 1831–1834 (western part) and the 1850s (near Blagoveshchensky Bridge). It features an ensemble of Petrine Baroque buildings of the early 18th century, including the Kunstkamera, Twelve Collegia, Menshikov Palace, as well as the neoclassical building of the Academy of Arts.

The embankment was formerly connected to the left bank through Isaakiyevsky Pontone Bridge, constructed in 1819–1841 in front of Senate Square.

One of the campuses of Saint Petersburg State University (hosted in the Twelve Collegia and several other buildings), Saint Petersburg branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (hosted in the Kunstkamera) and Zoological Museum are all situated along the embankment.

The embankment was named after the university in 1887.

Sphinxes

A quay in front of the Imperial Academy of Arts building, adorned with two authentic sphinxes of Pharaoh Amenhotep III brought in 1832 from Thebes, Egypt, was designed by Konstantin Thon and built in 1832–1834.

Streets in Saint Petersburg
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Saint Petersburg

Universitetskaya Embankment


The Ruger SR1911 is a semi-automatic pistol modeled after the classic Colt M1911 pistol.

Design
Like the M1911, the Ruger 1911 is single action only. It also has features such as a beavertail grip safety and a manually operated thumb safety. In addition to these two safeties, the Ruger SR1911 also has a sear disconnect, slide stop and half-cock position. Although Colt's 80 series developed a trigger operated firing pin block safety, and Kimber and Smith & Wesson use a Swartz firing-pin safety, which is operated by the grip safety; the Ruger SR1911 pistol features a titanium firing pin and heavy firing pin spring, which negates the need for a firing pin block, offering an updated safety feature without compromising trigger pull weight.

To improve quality, the stainless steel barrel and bushings are all produced from the same bar stock and on the same machine. Features such as an oversized ejection port and an extended magazine release enhance the performance of the weapon as well. The SR1911 also has a visual inspection port which allows for visual confirmation that the chamber is loaded.

Design-wise, it is nearly identical to the M1911A1. After the gun is fired, the recoil energy sends the slide rearward slightly. At this point, a dropping link under the barrel pivots the barrel's rear down, out of locking lug recesses in the slide, and the barrel is stopped by making contact with the lower barrel lugs against the frame's vertical impact surface. As the slide continues rearward, a claw extractor pulls the spent casing from the firing chamber and an ejector strikes the rear of the case, pivoting it out and away from the pistol. The slide stops and is then propelled forward by a spring to strip a fresh cartridge from the magazine and feed it into the firing chamber. At the forward end of its travel, the slide locks into the barrel and is ready to fire again.

Variants
 SR1911: features a full length 8.67" slide with a 5" barrel, a standard magazine capacity of 8+1 and a weight of 39 oz. Constructed from low-glare stainless steel.
 SR1911 Commander (SR1911CMD): has a shorter overall length of 7.75", shorter barrel length of 4.25", reduced magazine capacity of 7+1, and lighter unloaded weight of 36.40 oz. Also constructed from low-glare stainless steel.
 SR1911 Lightweight Commander (SR1911LWCMD): Same overall length of 7.75", shorter barrel length of 4.25", same magazine capacity of 7+1, and an even lighter unloaded weight of 29.3 oz, thanks to its frame being constructed from lightweight anodized aluminum, rather than stainless steel. This also makes the Lightweight Commander a two-tone pistol.
 SR1911 Officer (SR1911LWOfficer) comes with 3.6" barrel and is chambered in 9mm.

References

1911 platform
.45 ACP semi-automatic pistols
9mm Parabellum semi-automatic pistols
SR1911
Semi-automatic pistols of the United States
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 2011

Ruger SR1911


Fritz Lehmann (17 May 190430 March 1956) was a noted German conductor, whose career was cut short by his early death at the age of 51. His repertoire ranged from the Baroque through to contemporary works, in both the concert hall and the opera house. He was an early advocate of period performance practice. and founded the Berliner Motettenchor. He is best known through a number of recordings he left.

Biography
Fritz Ludwig Lehmann was born in Mannheim, the son of an organist and choirmaster.  He studied at the Hochschule für Musik there from 1918 to 1921, and at the Universities of Heidelberg and Göttingen.  He made his professional debut as a pianist in 1918.

He conducted at Göttingen (1923-1927), firstly as choirmaster and later as conductor of the Municipal Theatre.  In Essen he was head of the classes for opera and orchestra at the Folkwangschule.  He also conducted in Hildesheim and Hanover until 1938. In 1934, he became conductor of the Göttingen International Handel Festival, where he conducted the first modern production of Handel's Tolomeo, on 19 June 1938. He resigned after conflict with the Nazi authorities in 1944.

Lehmann was Generalmusikdirektor in Bad Pyrmont (1934-1938), and Wuppertal (1938-1947).  He returned to the Göttingen International Handel Festival in 1946, remaining there until 1953. On 29 June 1947 he led the first modern production of Handel's Teseo.

Recording 6 cantatas by Johann Sebastian Bach he conducted the Berliner Motettenchor (Berlin Motet Choir), a 1949 by Günther Arndt founded mixed youth choir, with the Berlin Philharmonic and soloists including Helmut Krebs and Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, who also appeared in his 1949 recording of the St Matthew Passion for Les Discophiles Français, as the Evangelist and Vox Christi (voice of Christ).

From 1953, he taught at the Munich Hochschule für Musik und Theater. He simultaneously had an active career as a guest conductor in various European countries and Argentina, and led the Bamberg Symphony on a tour of Spain.

During the interval while conducting the St Matthew Passion in Munich, on Good Friday, 30 March 1956, Lehmann collapsed and died of a heart attack, aged only 51.  Another conductor took over for the second half, the audience not being informed of Lehmann's death until the end of the performance. Lehmann had begun to record Bach's Christmas Oratorio with the Berliner Motettenchor and the RIAS Kammerchor, the Berlin Philharmonic and soloists Gunthild Weber, Sieglinde Wagner, Helmut Krebs and Heinz Rehfuss in 1955. It was unfinished when he died; Günther Arndt conducted parts 5 and 6 in 1956.

Recordings
Fritz Lehmann's recordings include:
J.S. Bach:
Cantatas BWV 1, 4, 19, 21, 39, 56, 79, 82, 105, 170, 189
Mass in B minor
St Matthew Passion
St John Passion
Christmas Oratorio
Brahms: A German Requiem
Corelli: Concerto Grosso No. 1
Georg Friedrich Handel:
Water Music 1951 <Archiv Produktion APM 14006>
Music for the Royal Fireworks 1952 <Archiv Produktion 13012 AP>
Joseph Haydn<Deutsche Grammophon 18397>
Symphony No.45, F sharp minor
Humperdinck: Hänsel und Gretel (with Rita Streich, Munich Philharmonic)
Korngold: Die tote Stadt (recorded September 1952)
Mendelssohn:
Piano Concerto No.1 in G minor, Op.25 (Bamberger Symphoniker; Helmut Roloff, piano; recorded: May 1952)
Piano Concerto No.2 in D minor, Op.40 (Bamberger Symphoniker; Helmut Roloff, piano; recorded: May 1952)
Mozart:
Piano Concerto in D major, "Coronation", K. 537 (Berlin Philharmonic; Carl Seemann, piano)
Concert Rondo in D major, K. 382 (Bamberg Symphony, Carl Seemann)
Schubert: Music for Rosamunde and Die Zauberharfe

References

1904 births
1956 deaths
German choral conductors
German male conductors (music)
German music educators
Conductors (music) who died while conducting
Musicians from Mannheim
Bach conductors
20th-century German conductors (music)
20th-century German male musicians
20th-century German composers
Academic staff of the Folkwang University of the Arts

Fritz Lehmann


Joseph Haydn (also known as Franz Joseph Haydn) was an Austrian composer. He was born on March 31 or April 1, 1732, and died on May 31, 1809. He was one of the most famous composers in the Classical music period. He is often called the "Father of the Symphony." He also taught Ludwig van Beethoven and a friend of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Mozart considered him a mentor)

Life
Haydn's father made wheels for a living. He had the skills of a blacksmith, stonemason, and carpenter. He used that skill in his spare time to make musical instruments for his family to play. The Haydn family would give informal weekend concerts. One of Joseph's relatives thought that Joseph had a great singing voice and should go with him to a boarding school where he would start studying to become a priest.

Haydn did not like it very much at the boarding school, but his voice developed to a point where he was selected to be a part of the Boy's Choir of the Vienna Cathedral. He stayed there until his voice changed. Haydn made a living teaching lessons and playing in the streets for handouts until he met Nicola Porpora, who hired Haydn as an accompanist and general servant.

Eventually Haydn got a job working for Nicholas Esterhazy. He worked for the Esterhazys for over 30 years. He wrote symphonies, string quartets, operas, piano sonatas, and other pieces.

After he was released from his duties with the Esterhazys, Haydn travelled to London. Even at the age of 60 he was still active and wrote some of his most famous symphonies there. While in London, he heard Handel's Messiah, and was inspired to write two oratorios of his own, The Seasons and The Creation. While working on these oratorios in Vienna, Haydn gave lessons to Ludwig van Beethoven. Beethoven had first wanted to study with Mozart, but by the time Beethoven was ready to study in Vienna, Mozart had died.

The house in Vienna where Haydn wrote his oratorios has been turned into a museum called 'Haydnhaus'. There visitors can see the piano by Anton Walter that composer was using for writing music. Haydn was so well-respected in Vienna that he was known as "Papa Haydn" and his influence on music was profound and great.

1732 births
1809 deaths
Austrian composers
Classical era composers

Joseph Haydn


Jamie Hope is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera Emmerdale. He was played by Alex Carter and first appeared on screen on 16 February 2006. He last appeared on 21 May 2010, after Carter quit the soap to pursue new projects.

Casting
Carter's casting was announced in November 2005. Jamie was introduced as the eldest son of the established character Bob Hope (Tony Audenshaw) and debuted on 16 February 2006. On 8 February 2010, Carter announced that he was quitting the show, citing an exhausting filming schedule as his reason.

Storylines

It took Jamie a long time to come to Emmerdale. He felt his father Bob had abandoned him and his sister Dawn when they were children and although she had managed to rebuild her relationship with Bob, Jamie wasn't sure he could. The marriage of Bob to his fourth wife Viv proved enough of a draw to get Jamie to let bygones be bygones. When they met, it was immediately clear Jamie and Bob were cut from the same cloth.

Even though he had decided to attend the wedding, Jamie changed his mind and realized that he couldn't forgive his father after all. He punched his father at the reception when Bob had a go at his mother Jean, causing Jamie's resentment to boil to the surface again. Jamie told Bob he could never forgive him. When Jamie flew back to Spain, Bob was saddened. He had wanted another chance to get to know his son so much, but it seemed all was lost. So, when Jamie arrived back a few weeks later, Bob was overjoyed.

However, Jamie wasn't after a reunion with his father. Pretending to be the dutiful son, Jamie tried to con Bob out of £2,000 to pay off an ex-girlfriend who was keeping his dog, Snoop, hostage. When Bob rumbled Jamie's plan, he was heartbroken. He threatened to cut Jamie off forever if he walked away with the money and after much soul searching, Jamie decided he wanted to get to know his father after all.

Whilst working at his stepmother Viv's café to pay off the loan Bob had given him, Jamie was bored and frustrated – especially when his exotic food ideas were being disregarded. He stumbled upon a new venue of employment when local antiques dealer Rodney Blackstock gave him the chance to prove what a great salesman he was. He made a tidy profit but a full-time position didn't materialize so a resourceful Jamie decided to do it alone again.

After Dawn died in the Kings River Showhome explosion, Jamie and Bob started a vendetta against the King family. However, as time passed, Bob became worried that Jamie would take the ultimate revenge. On the day Tom King died, Jamie was at Home Farm with revenge in mind. He was separated from Bob and made his way home and lied about going to Home Farm. Bob believed Jamie could be the killer so he confessed. When Jamie found out, he made a statement to the police, saying he was at Home Farm and didn't have an alibi for the time of death. Realizing they didn't have enough evidence to prosecute Bob, the police released him. However, both father and son remained suspects for the murder.

In 2007, Jamie got a job as a postman but found the job very demanding. Also, he had a one-night stand with Louise Appleton in his ice cream van. They soon began a relationship, but Jamie was disappointed when Louise was embarrassed to be seen in public with him. He confronted her and they went public, despite being an odd match. Louise was seventeen years older than Jamie, but they had a strong bond.

In 2008, Louise feared she was pregnant. Jamie found the pregnancy testing kit which revealed she wasn't. He was pleased but Louise was angry with Jamie for being so obviously pleased. This led to them splitting up briefly but soon got back together and became engaged.

In July, Jamie was furious to discover that Louise had blackmailed Viv to obtain her café and post office. Louise apologized and they were soon back to normal.

In September, Jamie and Louise set a date for their wedding to be around Christmas. They were in the process of arranging their wedding when Louise started getting telephone calls from a man called Jonty DeLorean. Louise refused to discuss this with anyone, leading Bob, Terry Woods , and Betty Eagleton to think she was having an affair. She eventually revealed that while in Australia, she had won a beauty contest for the over 30s, and Jonty was her manager. Disappointed that Jamie could think so badly of her, Louise left for Australia with Jonty but Jamie arrived at the last minute and proposed again. Louise accepted and they left together.

Jamie returned to the village in late November, claiming it was due to a massive fear of exotic such as snakes and scorpions; it was later revealed that he had punched a national icon, a kangaroo. He went back to visit Louise after Mark Wylde gave him compensation for accidentally knocking him off a ladder.

When Diane Sugden returned from a trip to Australia to visit Louise and her nephew, Paul Lambert who emigrated there with his partner, Jonny Foster, Diane revealed that shortly after her return, Louise had broken off her engagement to Jamie and sent him back the engagement ring.

Jamie later falls in love with Gennie Walker who had previously had an affair with Bob whilst Viv had been in prison for fraud, and starts a relationship with her. In May 2010, Jamie and Gennie planned to leave Emmerdale and move to Newquay where they had both been offered new jobs. At their leaving party in the Woolpack, Jamie caught Bob saying farewell to Gennie and kissing her on the forehead. Because they had been out of view from everyone else at the pub, Jamie assumed the worst and thought that Bob and Gennie had restarted their affair. Viv subsequently found out about Bob cheating on her whilst she had been in prison. After a tearful conversation with Gennie, Jamie realized that nothing had happened between Gennie and his father. But the memory of what happened between her, and Bob was too much for him to cope with, so he ended their relationship, leaving Gennie heartbroken. After also bidding farewell to his father, Jamie left the village, driving to Newquay alone for a fresh start.

References

External links
 Jamie Hope at itv.com
 Alex Carter talks about his Emmerdale character Jamie Hope

Emmerdale characters
Fictional British postal workers
Television characters introduced in 2006
British male characters in television

Jamie Hope


In ecology, r/K selection theory relates to the selection of combinations of traits in an organism that trade off between quantity and quality of offspring. The focus on either an increased quantity of offspring at the expense of individual parental investment of r-strategists, or on a reduced quantity of offspring with a corresponding increased parental investment of K-strategists, varies widely, seemingly to promote success in particular environments. The concepts of quantity or quality offspring are sometimes referred to as "cheap" or "expensive", a comment on the expendable nature of the offspring and parental commitment made. The stability of the environment can predict if many expendable offspring are made or if fewer offspring of higher quality would lead to higher reproductive success. An unstable environment would encourage the parent to make many offspring, because the likelihood of all (or the majority) of them surviving to adulthood is slim. In contrast, more stable environments allow parents to confidently invest in one offspring because they are more likely to survive to adulthood.

The terminology of r/K-selection was coined by the ecologists Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson in 1967 based on their work on island biogeography; although the concept of the evolution of life history strategies has a longer history (see e.g. plant strategies).

The theory was popular in the 1970s and 1980s, when it was used as a heuristic device, but lost importance in the early 1990s, when it was criticized by several empirical studies. A life-history paradigm has replaced the r/K selection paradigm, but continues to incorporate its important themes as a subset of life history theory. Some scientists now prefer to use the terms fast versus slow life history as a replacement for, respectively, r versus K reproductive strategy.

Overview

In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesised to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions: r- or K-selection. These terms, r and K, are drawn from standard ecological algebra as illustrated in the simplified Verhulst model of population dynamics:

where N is the population, r is the maximum growth rate, K is the carrying capacity of the local environment, and dN/dt, the derivative of N with respect to time t, is the rate of change in population with time. Thus, the equation relates the growth rate of the population N to the current population size, incorporating the effect of the two constant parameters r and K.
(Note that decrease is negative growth.) The choice of the letter K came from the German Kapazitätsgrenze (capacity limit), while r came from rate.

r-selection
r-selected species are those that emphasize high growth rates, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., high r, low K).  A typical r species is the dandelion (genus Taraxacum).

In unstable or unpredictable environments, r-selection predominates due to the ability to reproduce rapidly. There is little advantage in adaptations that permit successful competition with other organisms, because the environment is likely to change again. Among the traits that are thought to characterize r-selection are high fecundity, small body size, early maturity onset, short generation time, and the ability to disperse offspring widely.

Organisms whose life history is subject to r-selection are often referred to as r-strategists or r-selected. Organisms that exhibit r-selected traits can range from bacteria and diatoms, to insects and grasses, to various semelparous cephalopods and small mammals, particularly rodents.

K-selection

By contrast, K-selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches, that invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood (i.e., low r, high K). In scientific literature, r-selected species are occasionally referred to as "opportunistic" whereas K-selected species are described as "equilibrium".

In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly).

Traits that are thought to be characteristic of K-selection include large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require extensive parental care until they mature. Organisms whose life history is subject to K-selection are often referred to as K-strategists or K-selected. Organisms with K-selected traits include large organisms such as elephants, humans, and whales, but also smaller long-lived organisms such as Arctic terns, parrots and eagles.

Continuous spectrum
Although some organisms are identified as primarily r- or K-strategists, the majority of organisms do not follow this pattern.  For instance, trees have traits such as longevity and strong competitiveness that characterise them as K-strategists.  In reproduction, however, trees typically produce thousands of offspring and disperse them widely, traits characteristic of r-strategists.

Similarly, reptiles such as sea turtles display both r- and K-traits: although sea turtles are large organisms with long lifespans (provided they reach adulthood), they produce large numbers of unnurtured offspring.

The r/K dichotomy can be re-expressed as a continuous spectrum using the economic concept of discounted future returns, with r-selection corresponding to large discount rates and K-selection corresponding to small discount rates.

Ecological succession
In areas of major ecological disruption or sterilisation (such as after a major volcanic eruption, as at Krakatoa or Mount St. Helens), r- and K-strategists play distinct roles in the ecological succession that regenerates the ecosystem.  Because of their higher reproductive rates and ecological opportunism, primary colonisers typically are r-strategists and they are followed by a succession of increasingly competitive flora and fauna.  The ability of an environment to increase energetic content, through photosynthetic capture of solar energy, increases with the increase in complex biodiversity as r species proliferate to reach a peak possible with K strategies.

Eventually a new equilibrium is approached (sometimes referred to as a climax community), with r-strategists gradually being replaced by K-strategists which are more competitive and better adapted to the emerging micro-environmental characteristics of the landscape.  Traditionally, biodiversity was considered maximized at this stage, with introductions of new species resulting in the replacement and local extinction of endemic species. However, the intermediate disturbance hypothesis posits that intermediate levels of disturbance in a landscape create patches at different levels of succession, promoting coexistence of colonizers and competitors at the regional scale.

Application
While usually applied at the level of species, r/K selection theory is also useful in studying the evolution of ecological and life history differences between subspecies, for instance the African honey bee, A. m. scutellata, and the Italian bee, A. m. ligustica. At the other end of the scale, it has also been used to study the evolutionary ecology of whole groups of organisms, such as bacteriophages. Other researchers have proposed that the evolution of human inflammatory responses is related to r/K selection.

Some researchers, such as Lee Ellis, J. Philippe Rushton, and Aurelio José Figueredo, have attempted to applied r/K selection theory to various human behaviors, including crime, sexual promiscuity, fertility, IQ, and other traits related to life history theory. Rushton's developed "differential K theory" to attempt to explain variations in behavior across human races. Differential K theory has been debunked as being devoid of empirical basis, and has also been described as a key example of scientific racism.

Status
Although r/K selection theory became widely used during the 1970s, it also began to attract more critical attention. In particular, a review in 1977 by the ecologist Stephen C. Stearns drew attention to gaps in the theory, and to ambiguities in the interpretation of empirical data for testing it.

In 1981, a review of the r/K selection literature by Parry demonstrated that there was no agreement among researchers using the theory about the definition of r- and K-selection, which led him to question whether the assumption of a relation between reproductive expenditure and packaging of offspring was justified. A 1982 study by Templeton and Johnson showed that in a population of Drosophila mercatorum under K-selection the population actually produced a higher frequency of traits typically associated with r-selection. Several other studies contradicting the predictions of r/K selection theory were also published between 1977 and 1994.

When Stearns reviewed the status of the theory again in 1992, he noted that from 1977 to 1982 there was an average of 42 references to the theory per year in the BIOSIS literature search service, but from 1984 to 1989 the average dropped to 16 per year and continued to decline. He concluded that r/K theory was a once useful heuristic that no longer serves a purpose in life history theory.

More recently, the panarchy theories of adaptive capacity and resilience promoted by C. S. Holling and Lance Gunderson have revived interest in the theory, and use it as a way of integrating social systems, economics and ecology.

Writing in 2002, Reznick and colleagues reviewed the controversy regarding r/K selection theory and concluded that:

Alternative approaches are now available both for studying life history evolution (e.g. Leslie matrix for an age-structured population) and for density-dependent selection (e.g. variable density lottery model).

See also
 Evolutionary game theory
 Life history theory
 Minimax/maximin strategy
 Ruderal species
 Semelparity and iteroparity
 Trivers–Willard hypothesis

References

Ecological theories
Evolutionary biology concepts
Mating systems
Population ecology
Race and intelligence controversy
Selection

R/K selection theory


The Sidewise Awards for Alternate History were established in 1995. These awards are for the best alternate history stories and novels of the year.

The awards are named after the 1934 short story "Sidewise in Time" by Murray Leinster. In the story, a strange storm makes parts of the Earth exchange places with similar places from other timelines.

Steven H Silver, Evelyn C. Leeper, and Robert B. Schmunk created the award. The number of judges has changed in different years. There have been three to eight judges, including judges in the UK and South Africa.

There are two Sideways awards. The Short-Form award is for writing that is shorter than 60,000 words. The Long-Form award may be for writing that is longer than 60,000 words. This can include a novel or a complete series of novels. The judges may also give a Special Achievement Award, but this is not required every year. Special Achievement awards are for writing that was published befor1995. The awards are given each year, usually at Worldcon.

Award winners

Long Form
1995 Paul J. McAuley, Pasquale's Angel
1996 Stephen Baxter, Voyage
1997 Harry Turtledove, How Few Remain
1998 Stephen Fry, Making History
1999 Brendan DuBois, Resurrection Day
2000 Mary Gentle, Ash: A Secret History
2001 J. N. Stroyar, The Children's War
2002 (tie) Martin J. Gidron, The Severed Wing & Harry Turtledove, Ruled Britannia
2003 Murray Davies, Collaborator
2004 Philip Roth, The Plot Against America
2005 Ian R. MacLeod, The Summer Isles
2006 Charles Stross, The Family Trade, The Hidden Family, and The Clan Corporate
2007 Michael Chabon, The Yiddish Policemen's Union
2008 Chris Roberson, The Dragon's Nine Sons
2009 Robert Conroy, 1942
2010 Eric G. Swedin, When Angels Wept: A What-If History of the Cuban Missile Crisis
2011 Ian R. MacLeod, Wake Up and Dream
2012 C. J. Sansom, Dominion
2013 (tie) D.J. Taylor, The Windsor Faction & Bryce Zabel, Surrounded by Enemies: What If Kennedy Survived Dallas?
2014 Kristine Kathryn Rusch, The Enemy Within
2015 Julie Mayhew, The Big Lie
2016 Ben H. Winters, Underground Airlines
2017 Bryce Zabel, Once There Was a Way
2018 Mary Robinette Kowal, The Calculating Stars

Short Form
1995 Stephen Baxter, Brigantia's Angels
1996 Walter Jon Williams, Foreign Devils (in War of the Worlds: Global Dispatches)
1997 William Sanders, The Undiscovered
1998 Ian R. MacLeod, The Summer Isles
1999 Alain Bergeron, The Eighth Register (translated by Howard Scott)
2000 Ted Chiang, Seventy-two Letters
2001 Ken MacLeod, The Human Front
2002 William Sanders, Empire
2003 Chris Roberson, O One
2004 Warren Ellis, The Ministry of Space
2005 Lois Tilton, Pericles the Tyrant
2006 Gardner Dozois, Counterfactual
2007 (tie): Michael Flynn, Quaestiones Super Caelo Et Mundo & Kristine Kathryn Rusch, Recovering Apollo 8
2008 Mary Rosenblum, Sacrifice
2009 Alastair Reynolds, The Fixation
2010 Alan Smale, A Clash of Eagles
2011 Lisa Goldstein, Paradise Is a Walled Garden
2012 Rick Wilber, Something Real
2013 Vylar Kaftan, The Weight of the Sunrise
2014 Ken Liu, The Long Haul: From the Annals of Transportation, The Pacific Monthly, May 2009
2015 Bill Crider, It Doesn't Matter Anymore
2016 (tie): Daniel M. Bensen, Treasure Fleet & Adam Rovner, What If the Jewish State Had Been Established in East Africa
2017 Harry Turtledove, Zigeuner
2018 Oscar (Xiu) Ramirez and Emmanuel Valtierra, Codex Valtierra

Special Achievement
1995 L. Sprague de Camp, lifetime achievement
1997 Robert N. Sobel, For Want of a Nail
1999 Randall Garrett, the Lord Darcy series
2018 Eric Flint, the 1632 series

Other websites
 The Sidewise Award website.

1995 establishments
Science fiction awards
Literary awards
Lists of books

Sidewise Award for Alternate History