Francis Robbins Upton (1852 in Peabody, Massachusetts – March 10, 1921, in Orange, New Jersey) was an American physicist and mathematician. Upton worked alongside Thomas Edison in the development of incandescent light bulbs, electric generators, and electric power distribution. He was the first president of the Edison Pioneers.

Early life
Francis Upton was the son of Elijah Wood Upton and Lucy Elizabeth Winchester. Elijah was well educated and after, he did European travel. Later he was forced to take over his father's glue business due to his father's illness. Francis was 16 by this time and studying at Phillips Academy in Andover, after he received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1875 at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, ME. There he met Elizabeth F. Perry, later to become his wife.

Francis Upton also attended Berlin University and Princeton University. Francis was the first ever to officially receive his doctoral degree from Princeton University. Upton was then hired by Thomas Edison. One of Edison's biographers described the hired man thus:
Two years Edison's senior, Boston-born graduate of Bowdoin College and Princeton, expert in calculus, tempered by a year of postgraduate study at the University of Berlin with Hermann von Helmholtz.

Upton married Elizabeth F. Perry in September, 1879, in Brunswick, Maine. Their daughter Elizabeth Fenno Upton was born August 24, 1880. Upton's sister Sadie, a frequent visitor in Menlo Park, is described as a "smart attractive lady with a distinguished swing".

Work life
Upton was hired by Edison in 1878 on the recommendation of Grosvenor Lowrey.
Upton possessed a mild, modest disposition combined with a keen intelligence. His versatile knowledge of physics made him a most valuable assistant to Edison in that period.
Edison was largely self-educated.  He was brimming over with ideas but needed someone with advanced mathematical skills who could do calculations and research the scientific literature to help solve intractable problems. As Francis Jehl was also working with Edison, he needed another handle besides Francis for Upton:
Affectionately nicknamed "Culture" by his boss because of his introspective, learned mien, piano-playing talent, and impeccable educational credentials.
The challenge of electric illumination was addressed:
Upton's very first assignment for the company was to conduct an extensive literature search through existing domestic and foreign patents for all the information he could find about arc and incandescent lighting.
Many thought that only current (quantity) was the magnitude register of work, without taking potential into consideration. Upton ransacked the Philosophical Magazine, the Poggendorf Annalen, the Comptes Rendus, Dingler's Polytechnical Journal and other musty volumes of scientific societies in search  of data, trying to put Edison's ideas into practical form.

Initially experiments ran currents through metals. Upton attended the 28th meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and spoke "On the phenomena of heating metals in vacuo by means of electric current".
Upton and Edison worked together on the incandescent lamp and in 1880 Upton reported on the history of electric lighting and Edison's lamp.

As evidence of the Upton's use of algebra, his approach to finding the appropriate cross-section S for a wire of length L carrying W amperes at V volts, was to take resistance R = L / S. Upton applied Ohm's law to obtain S = (W L) / V.

Upton has been credited with helping Edison govern his Menlo Park laboratory:
Francis Upton's arrival marked the transition from initial freneticism to a more reasoned approach at Menlo Park, not only because of the thoroughly grounded aspect of his research but also because his austere sensibility had a salutatory influence on Edison.

When Edison's generator was evaluated, Upton published the report.

Upton contributed to other key inventions such as the watt-hour meter, the parallel circuit distribution grid and the new constant voltage dynamo. Upton was of crucial importance to Edison in the design of Edison's power plant and distribution system put into service at the Pearl Street Station in Lower Manhattan on September 4, 1882.
Like Maxwell with Faraday, Upton was the one who interpreted Edison's ideas and translated them into mathematical form. What he did was a classical piece of pioneer investigation conducted under extreme difficulties. His work paved the way for more elaborate work of Hopkinson and Knapp.

In 1890, Upton patented the first electric fire alarm and detector along with a Mr. Fernando J. Dibble, an accomplishment of his which is often overlooked, stemming most probably from a typographical error that labels the device a "Portable Electric Tire-Alarm".

Since 1958, the Princeton University has had Francis Upton Graduate Fellowships.

Later life
In 1894 Francis Robbins Upton left Edison's electrical business which he had managed up to his departure. Upton returned after four years. He assisted in the Edison Ore-Milling Company, extracting iron from sand, and the remaining sand Upton sold to concrete manufactures. Upton eventually left the business in 1911 but still continued to sell bricks and concrete.

On February 3, 1918, the Edison Pioneers elected Upton as their first President.

Francis Robbins Upton died in Orange, New Jersey, on March 10, 1921.

References

External links

 Francis Robbins Upton from Encyclopedia Britannica
 Libserve

1852 births
1921 deaths
19th-century American mathematicians
20th-century American mathematicians
American inventors
American physicists
Bowdoin College alumni
Edison Pioneers
Phillips Academy alumni
Princeton University alumni
Francis

Francis Robbins Upton


The Dragunov sniper rifle, or the SVD rifle, is a gun that was first made in the Soviet Union. It is used by twenty-six countries.

The Dragunov uses the 7.62 x 54mmR cartridge, with a muzzle velocity (The velocity of bullet leaving the rifle) of over 830 meters per second and has a maximum effective range of 1,300 meters with the scope and 1,200 meters with the iron sights.

The basic design is largely based on the AK-47, an assault rifle.

Rifles

SVD-63


Pierre-François-Henri Labrouste () (11 May 1801 – 24 June 1875) was a French architect from the famous  school of architecture. After a six-year stay in Rome, Labrouste established an architectural training workshop, which soon became known for rationalism. He became noted for his use of iron-frame construction and was one of the first to realize the importance of its use.

Biography
Born in Paris, Labrouste was one of five children of , a lawyer and politician from Bordeaux and Anne-Dominique Gourg (1764-1851), daughter and granddaughter of cognac merchants. He entered the Collège Sainte-Barbe as a student in 1809. He was then admitted into the second class and the Lebas-Vaudoyer workshop in the École Royale des Beaux Arts in 1819. In 1820, he was promoted to the first class.  Competing for the Grand Prix, Labrouste was awarded second place (the Palais de Justice scored first) by Guillaume-Abel Blouet in 1821.

In 1823, he won the departmental prize and worked as a lieutenant-inspector (sous-inspecteur) for the director Étienne-Hippolyte Godde during the construction of the Saint-Pierre-du-Gros-Caillou parish in Paris. In 1824 Labrouste won the competition with a design of a Court of Appeals (Cour de cassation). In November, he left Paris for Italy, visiting Turin, Milan, Lodi, Piacenza, Parma, Modena, Bologna, Florence and Arezzo.

In July 1835 in Paris he was present at the scene when Giuseppe Marco Fieschi attempted the assassination of King Louis-Philippe using a home-made, multi-barrel gun fired from an upstairs window. Although the King only received a minor injury, 18 people were killed, including Henri's father, Alexandre Labrouste.

Stay in Rome

Receiving a pension or stipend from the French government for five years, he and the other Académie française laureates stayed in the Medici Villa in Rome. The directors of the Académie stated in correspondence in French about the laureates that, in their studies of antiquity, they "must research the laws of proportion and reduce them to formulas to be used by masters and students in Paris."

His work was the subject of "Henri Labrouste: Structure Brought to Light," the first solo exhibition in the U.S. of his work, at The Museum of Modern Art in New York City.

His buildings include:
 Sainte-Geneviève Library, Paris, built between 1843 and 1850
 The Salle Labrouste, a reading room in the  in the Rue de Richelieu, Paris, and built between 1862 and 1868.

References

1801 births
1875 deaths
Architects from Paris
19th-century French architects
French neoclassical architects
Prix de Rome for architecture
École des Beaux-Arts alumni
Members of the Académie des beaux-arts

Henri Labrouste


Feminism is aimed at defining, establishing, and defending a state of equal political, economic, cultural, and social rights for women. It has had a massive influence on American politics.  Feminism in the United States is often divided chronologically into first-wave, second-wave, third-wave, and fourth-wave feminism.

As of 2023, the United States is ranked 17th in the world on gender equality.

First-wave feminism
The first wave of feminism in the United States began with the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, held at the Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls, New York, on July 19 and 20, 1848.

The Seneca Falls Convention was inspired by the experiences of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott at the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840. The conference refused to seat Mott and other women delegates from America because of their gender. Stanton, the young bride of an antislavery agent, and Mott, a Quaker preacher and veteran of reform, talked of calling a convention to address the condition and treatment of women.

An estimated three hundred people attended the convention, including notables Lucretia Mott and Frederick Douglass. At the conclusion, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments, which was written by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the M'Clintock family.

The Declaration of Sentiments was written in the style and format of the Declaration of Independence. For example, the Declaration of Sentiments stated, "We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men and women are created equal and endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights." The Declaration further stated, "The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpation on the part of man towards woman."

The declaration went on to specify female grievances in regard to the laws denying married women ownership of wages, money, and property. Women were required to turn these things over to their husbands; the laws requiring this in effect throughout America were called coverture laws. A women's lack of access to education and professional careers, and the low status accorded to women in most churches was also addressed. Furthermore, the Declaration declared that women should have the right to vote.

Some of the participants at the Seneca Falls Convention organized the Rochester Women's Rights Convention two weeks later on August 2 in Rochester, New York. It was followed by other state and local conventions in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The first National Woman's Rights Convention was held in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1850. Women's rights conventions were then held regularly from 1850 until the start of the Civil War.

The American women's suffrage movement began with the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention; many of the activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century only a few western states had granted women full voting rights, though women had made other significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody.

In 1866, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the American Equal Rights Association, an organization for white and black women and men dedicated to the goal of suffrage for all. In 1868 the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, this was the first Amendment to ever specify the voting population as "male". In 1869 the women's rights movement split into two factions as a result of disagreements over the Fourteenth and soon-to-be-passed Fifteenth Amendments, with the two factions not reuniting until 1890. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed the more radical, New York-based National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). Lucy Stone, Henry Blackwell, and Julia Ward Howe organized the more conservative American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), which was centered in Boston. In 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment enfranchised black men. NWSA refused to work for its ratification, arguing, instead, that it be "scrapped" in favor of a Sixteenth Amendment providing universal suffrage. Frederick Douglass broke with Stanton and Anthony over NWSA's position.

In 1869 Wyoming became the first territory or state in America to grant women suffrage. In 1870 Louisa Ann Swain became the first woman in the United States to vote in a general election. She cast her ballot on September 6, 1870, in Laramie, Wyoming.

From 1870 to 1875 several women, including Virginia Louisa Minor, Victoria Woodhull, and Myra Bradwell, attempted to use the Fourteenth Amendment in the courts to secure the vote (Minor and Woodhull) or the right to practice law (Bradwell), and they were all unsuccessful. In 1872 Susan B. Anthony was arrested and brought to trial in Rochester, New York, for attempting to vote for Ulysses S. Grant in the presidential election; she was convicted and fined $100 and the costs of her prosecution but refused to pay. At the same time, Sojourner Truth appeared at a polling booth in Battle Creek, Michigan, demanding a ballot; she was turned away. Also in 1872, Victoria Woodhull became the first woman to run for president, although she could not vote and only received a few votes, losing to Ulysses S. Grant. She was nominated to run by the Equal Rights Party, and advocated the 8-hour work day, graduated income tax, social welfare programs, and profit sharing, among other positions. In 1874 the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was founded by Annie Wittenmyer to work for the prohibition of alcohol; with Frances Willard at its head (starting in 1876), the WCTU also became an important force in the fight for women's suffrage. In 1878 a woman suffrage amendment was first introduced in the United States Congress, but it did not pass. In 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified, giving women the right to vote; the first wave of feminism is considered to have ended with that victory.

Margaret Higgins Sanger,  was one of the first American birth control activists. She was also a sex educator, writer, and nurse. She popularized the term "birth control",  opened the first birth control clinic in the United States in 1916, and established organizations that evolved into the Planned Parenthood Federation of America.

Post-War Feminism
World War II led to an increase in women in the workforce and pushed women into breadwinning jobs in traditionally male spheres. From 1940 to 1945, the number of women in the workforce went from 28% to 37%. The lack of men at home led to many women taking industrial jobs: by 1943, 1/3 of the workers in Boeing's Seattle factory were women. According to historian Jane Marcellus, women experienced a never before seen shift in public praise, as they were commended as being competent and intelligent. This is exemplified in media such as Rosie the Riveter's 'We Can Do It!' Slogan and the 1941 creation of Wonder Woman. This influx of women into the workforce and the media's positive portrayal of them led to many women seeing more routes to take than housewife.

However, this narrow definition of female empowerment was exclusive and not intended to be long-lasting. Women of color were the last to be considered for high paying industrial jobs. African American women were stuck doing domestic work for $3-$7 a week compared to white women earning up to $40 a week in factories. Furthermore, propaganda such as Rosie the Riveter presented a narrow view of working women: white, beautiful, and motivated by patriotism rather than economic necessity. For women of color and working-class women, World War II did not change their economic or societal position. Many of the women joining the workforce returned to the domestic sphere after the war. Workplace periodicals such as Bo'sn's Whistle framed women in sexual language and as oddities in the male industrial sphere.

Yet after World War II, the 1946 Congress of American Women's "Position of the American Woman Today" advocated for the rights of black and minority women. After serving together in factories, white feminism began to embrace intersectionality in the wake of World War II. A growing body of literature illustrates that there was no substantial long-run wage for women in this time. However, the incremental gains in income and societal status that women of color made during the 1940s had long-term effects on feminist thought. By 1950, the wage gap between white and African American females narrowed by 15%.

Opposition to domestic roles began to crop up in the late 1940s as more women were encouraged to become housewives. Edith Stern's 1949 essay, "Women are Household Slaves", emerged as an early preface to second-wave feminist thought. Stern argued that "as long as the institution of housewifery in its present form persists, both ideologically and practically it blocks any true liberation of women". She compared the position of women to that of sharecroppers and spoke out against the emotional and intellectual dissatisfaction of American women. Stern's essay was one of the first arguments that addressed female liberation in the context of the domestic sphere.

However, the 1950s did witness a return to traditional gender roles and values. The number of women in the workforce decreased from 37% to 32% by 1950 due to women giving up their jobs for men returning from war. The media also emphasized the domestic role of women rather than encouraging women to work as it had just a decade earlier. By 1956, 67% of American families had a television compared to just 6% in 1949. Characters such as June Cleaver in "Leave it to Beaver" glorified female characters as subservient housewives to a large, influenceable audience of American women.

However, according to Anna Lebovic, women's magazines such as Vogue in the 1950s set up the groundwork for second wave feminism by advocating for self-actualization and individuality of women. Similarly, 1951 surveys conducted on women who had previously worked at or did work in factories showed that women were expressing irritation with workplace discrimination. Specifically, 75% stated that they wanted to remain in their industry and expressed dissatisfaction that it was difficult to pursue careers such as "sales, academia, or journalism".

Despite the fact that the 1950s were characterized as a return to the domestic sphere for women, there are examples that the labor women conducted during World War II set the stage for the second wave feminism of the 1960s. College reunions in the 1950s, which inspired Betty Friedan's landmark "The Feminine Mystique" were hotbeds for middle-class women to vent about their boredom working at home and by doing so discover shared irritations at the "drudgery" of being a housewife. While the 1940s and 1950s did not entirely foster a new wave of feminism or a substantive amount of feminist literature, this time period did lay some foundations for future feminist thought.

Second-wave feminism

Second-wave feminism in the United States began in the early 1960s. Throughout most of the 60's and ending in 1970, second wave feminism commonly followed the motto, "the personal is political". In 1963 Betty Friedan, influenced by The Second Sex, wrote the bestselling book The Feminine Mystique in which she explicitly objected to the mainstream media image of women, stating that placing women at home limited their possibilities, and wasted talent and potential. The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for women. This book is widely credited with having begun second-wave feminism in the United States.

Also in 1963, freelance journalist Gloria Steinem gained widespread popularity among feminists after a diary she authored while working undercover as a Playboy Bunny waitress at the Playboy Club was published as a two-part feature in the May and June issues of Show. Steinem alleged the club was mistreating its waitresses in order to gain male customers and exploited the Playboy Bunnies as symbols of male chauvinism, noting that the club's manual instructed the Bunnies that "there are many pleasing ways they can employ to stimulate the club's liquor volume." By 1968, Steinem had become arguably the most influential figure in the movement and support for legalized abortion and free day care had become the two leading objectives for feminists.

The movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (which banned sex discrimination in employment), and the Griswold v. Connecticut Supreme Court ruling of 1965 (which legalized birth control for married couples). In 1966 Betty Friedan joined other women and men to found the National Organization for Women (NOW); Friedan would be named as the organization's first president. Among the most significant legal victories of the movement in the late 1960s after the formation of NOW in 1966 were a 1967 Executive Order extending full affirmative action rights to women, Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972), in which the Supreme Court ruled that unmarried people had the same right to birth control as married people, and the legalization of no-fault divorce (although not legalized in all states until 2010).

The movement picked up more victories in the 1970s. The Title X Family Planning Program, officially known as Public Law 91-572 or "Population Research and Voluntary Family Planning Programs" was enacted under President Richard Nixon in 1970 as part of the Public Health Service Act; it is the only federal grant program dedicated solely to providing individuals with comprehensive family planning and related preventive health services. The Supreme Court case Reed v. Reed (1971), was the case in which the Supreme Court for the first time applied the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment to strike down a law that discriminated against women. Also, while the Equal Pay Act of 1963 did not originally cover executives, administrators, outside salespeople, and professionals, the Education Amendments of 1972 amended it so that it does. Also in 1972, the Supreme Court case Eisenstadt v Baird legalized birth control for unmarried people. Also that year Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 outlawed sex discrimination in public schools and public colleges. In 1973 the Roe v Wade Supreme Court case legalized abortion. In 1974 the Equal Credit Opportunity Act criminalized sex discrimination by creditors against credit applicants. Also in 1974 sex was added as a protected class under the Fair Housing Act, thus illegalizing sex discrimination in housing. Also in 1974 the Women's Educational Equity Act was enacted. The criminalization of marital rape in the United States started in the mid-1970s and by 1993 marital rape became a crime in all 50 states, under at least one section of the sexual offense codes. In 1978 the Pregnancy Discrimination Act was enacted; it is a United States federal statute which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to "prohibit sex discrimination on the basis of pregnancy".

A major disappointment of the second-wave feminist movement in the United States was President Nixon's 1972 veto of the Comprehensive Child Development Bill of 1972, which would have provided a multibillion-dollar national day care system.

The feminist movement in the late 1970s, led by NOW, briefly attempted a program to help older divorced and widowed women. Many widows were ineligible for Social Security benefits, few divorcees actually received any alimony, and after a career as a housewife, few had skills to enter the labor force.  The program, however, encountered sharp criticism from young activists who gave priority to poor minority women rather than the middle class. By 1980, NOW downplayed the program as it focused almost exclusively on the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Phyllis Schlafly, the conservative leader, moved into the vacuum. She denounced the feminists for abandoning older middle-class widows and divorcees in need,  and warned that ERA would equalize the laws for the benefit of men, stripping protections that older women urgently needed.<ref>Lisa Levenstein, "'Don't Agonize, Organize!': The Displaced Homemakers Campaign and the Contested Goals of Postwar Feminism." 'Journal of American History (2014) 100#4: 1114-1138. online</ref>

The main disappointment of the second wave feminist movement in the United States was the failure to ratify the federal Equal Rights Amendment. It states, "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." The deadline for ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment expired in 1982.

Although the United States signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in 1980, it has never been ratified.

Many historians view the second wave feminist era in America as ending in the early 1980s with the Feminist Sex Wars, a split within the movement over issues such as sexuality and pornography. These disputes ushered in the era of third-wave feminism in the early 1990s.

 Second-wave feminism and sex work
In San Francisco in 1973, Call Off Your Tired Old Ethics (COYOTE) was formed to be the first American sex workers' rights organization. Started by Margo St. James, a self-proclaimed feminist and sex worker, COYOTE worked to give sex workers basic occupational rights and sexual self-determination. That same year, the National Organization for Women (NOW) drafted a resolution in support of COYOTE, calling for the decriminalization of prostitution. After this, COYOTE and NOW worked together to fight to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which ultimately did not pass.

In 1978, the first feminist conference on the pornography industry was held in San Francisco. The next year, more than 5,000 women marched in Times Square against pornography, cementing the anti-pornography feminist movement. Anti-pornography feminists viewed porn as the graphic and sexually explicit way that men subordinated and dehumanized women. They blamed pornography for much of the rape, prostitution, and assault present in the United States. In 1983, an anti-porn ordinance, written and proposed by Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, was drafted in the Minneapolis City Council. Ultimately, the ordinance was defeated by a group of people who felt that the way anti-pornography feminists painted the effects of pornography was inherently sexist and made women, especially sex workers, seem as though they were incapable of giving consent. The backlash from the anti-porn movement resulted in a faction of feminists who called themselves "fuck me feminists". These were women who empowered themselves by reclaiming the sexual objectification and exploitation that had always been used against them. While this seems like an inherently pro-sex work view to have, many "fuck me feminists" viewed sex workers as being victims or being oppressed; so, they were unable to truly choose what happened to their bodies.

By 1985, support for prostitution and sex workers in the United States, especially by the feminists movement, hit a major decline. This was, in part, because of the divided views on the subject held by members of the feminist movement. The dominant point of view, one held by the U.S. Prostitutes Collective and Women Hurt in Systems of Prostitution Engaged in Revolt (WHISPER), supported decriminalization as an interim measure, but ultimately believe in the abolition of prostitution.

 Different feminist views on sex work
There are many different factions within the feminist movement, and each faction took its own stance on the issue of sex work.

Marxist feminists believe that prostitution is a result of capitalism, and therefore, sex workers are exploited by the ruling class, whether that is the pimp or the patriarchy. Marxist feminists believe that prostitutes symbolize the value of women in society, and how a woman's worth is measured in her social, sexual, and economic subordination. Marxist feminists fall into the abolition faction of feminists, and they view abolition of prostitution as an integral pillar to the eventual overthrowing of the patriarchy.

The domination theory feminists believe the root of oppression of women rests in sexuality, and sexuality is a thing to be stolen, sold, bought, bartered, or exchanged by men. Dominant theory feminists view prostitution not as an industry, but, rather, as a state in which all women find themselves. Because they view all sexual intercourse as violent and victimizing to women, dominant theory feminists believe in the abolition of sex work.

Liberal feminists tend to be split between the argument of whether all sex work is degrading to women, and the argument that sex work is work, and should be treated as such. Either way, liberal feminists believe in the legalization of sex work, as criminalization prohibits women's ability to control their own bodies.

Radical sexual-pluralist theory feminists reject the binaries through which other feminists view the world. They do not view the world as having goods and bads, or normal and deviants, as it creates binaries where one form of thinking is praised, and another is condemned. When it comes to sex work, radical sexual-pluralist theory feminists do not have a specific opinion on legalization. Instead, they believe sex workers should speak out against their own marginalization created by the binary, and that feminists should take sex workers opinions and experiences into account when forming their own.

Because of the many divisions within the feminist movement on the topic of sex work, big organizations like NOW preferred to focus on more universal women's rights issues such as abortion. While still controversial, reproductive rights are much less nuanced and leave feminists divided into just two or so divisions, instead of many. Additionally, reproductive rights made an impact on every single woman in this country, instead of one group of women, which made it more appealing for large organizations.

 Sex workers and feminist safe spaces
Feminists were not always welcoming to sex workers, even feminists who supported the decriminalization or legalization of sex work. They created safe spaces for women, especially lesbian women, where feminists could talk and be themselves. The ability to be comfortable with their bodies and sexualities was extremely important in these safe spaces, and women often danced together, sometimes taking their tops off as an expression of comfort with their femininity. Despite the purpose of these places being safe spaces for women, it was made very clear that these places were not meant to be lewd, meaning somewhere men could pick up women to have sex, paid or not. Because of the stigma associated with sex workers, especially with multiple sex workers frequenting the same place, sex workers were not generally accepted in these feminist safe spaces as the women felt it infringed on their comfort. Though never technically banned, sex workers felt isolated within these spaces and tended to avoid them.

Third-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism in the United States began in the early 1990s. In 1991, Anita Hill accused Clarence Thomas, a man nominated to the United States Supreme Court, of sexual harassment. Thomas denied the accusations and, after extensive debate, the United States Senate voted 52–48 in favor of Thomas. In 1992, in response to the Anita Hill sexual harassment case, American feminist Rebecca Walker published an article in Ms. Magazine entitled "Becoming the Third Wave" in which she stated, "I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the third-wave," which coined the term "third wave". Also in 1992 Third Wave Direct Action Corporation was founded by the American feminists Rebecca Walker and Shannon Liss (now Shannon Liss-Riordan) as a multiracial, multicultural, multi-issue organization to support young activists. The organization's initial mission was to fill a void in young women's leadership and to mobilize young people to become more involved socially and politically in their communities.

In the early 1990s, the riot grrrl movement began in Olympia, Washington and Washington, D.C.; it sought to give women the power to control their voices and artistic expressions. However, Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave. Third-wave feminists sought to question, reclaim, and redefine the ideas, words, and media that have transmitted ideas about gender, gender roles, womanhood, beauty, and sexuality, among other things. Third-wave feminism saw many new feminist icons such as Madonna, Queen Latifah, Angelina Jolie, Emma Watson, Beyoncé, and Lady Gaga, as well as fictional characters such as Buffy and Mulan. Third-wave feminists also used the Internet and other modern technology to enhance their movement, which allowed for information and organization to reach a larger audience. This larger audience also expanded to many male celebrities such as Aziz Ansari and Leonardo DiCaprio.

Through the 1980s and 1990s, this trend continued as musicologists like Susan McClary and Marcia Citron began to consider the cultural reasons for the marginalizing of women from the received body of work. Concepts such as music as gendered discourse; professionalism; reception of women's music; examination of the sites of music production; relative wealth and education of women; popular music studies in relation to women's identity; patriarchal ideas in music analysis; and notions of gender and difference are among the themes examined during this time.

Fourth-wave feminism
Fourth-wave feminism refers to a resurgence of interest in feminism that began around 2012 and is associated with the use of social media. According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to sexual harassment and violence against women. Its essence, she writes, is "incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist".

Fourth-wave feminism is "defined by technology", according to Kira Cochrane, and is characterized particularly by the use of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Tumblr, and blogs such as Feministing to challenge misogyny and further gender equality. Fourth-wave feminism can be further defined by its focus on intersectionality and broadening views on gender-identity.

Issues that fourth-wave feminists focus on include street and workplace harassment, campus sexual assault and rape culture. Scandals involving the harassment, abuse, and murder of women and girls have galvanized the movement. In the United States, these have included the Bill Cosby sexual assault cases, the 2014 Isla Vista killings, and the 2017 Harvey Weinstein allegations, which kickstarted the American Me Too movement, which has spread worldwide since then.For Isla Vista killings, see

Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns in the United States include Mattress Performance, The Time'sUp Now movement, and 10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman.

 Multicultural concerns
Critics of mainstream feminist discourse point to the white-washed historical narrative that omits and/or minimizes the roles played by women of color within and without the feminist movement, as well as the differing obstacles faced by women of color. Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, a key figure in the early feminist movement, faced opposition from white feminist leaders such as Rebecca Latimer Felton and Frances Willard, who saw the feminist movement as an Anglo Saxon pursuit and built their rhetoric on white supremacy: "The Anglo-Saxon race," Willard wrote, "will never submit to be dominated by the Negro so long as his altitude reaches no higher than the personal liberty of the saloon."

By the 1970s and 1980s, African-American women had developed a social consciousness by publicly voicing dissatisfaction with black women's representation in feminist discourse. In 1981, feminist and essayist Audre Lorde stated: "What woman here is so enamored of her own oppression that she cannot see her heel print upon another woman's face? What woman's terms of oppression have become precious and necessary to her as a ticket into the fold of the righteous, away from the cold winds of self-scrutiny? ... We welcome all women who can meet us, face to face, beyond objectification and beyond guilt." In 1989, Black scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term intersectionality in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics." Crenshaw argued that discrimination against Black women is a combination of racism and sexism and is thus difficult to fit into one category or the other. She stated, "The goal of this activity should be to facilitate the inclusion of marginalized groups for whom it can be said: "When they enter, we all enter."

 See also

 Abortion in the United States
 Betty Friedan
 Birth control movement in the United States
 Civil Rights Act of 1964
 Feminist art movement in the United States
 Feminist Majority Foundation
 Feminist movements and ideologies
 Feminism of Madonna
 Gender equality
 Gloria Steinem
 Goddess movement
 Go Topless Day
 Homeless women in the United States
 List of women's rights conventions in the United States
 Married Women's Property Acts in the United States
 Margaret Sanger
 Nevertheless, she persisted
 Radical Women
 Reproductive rights
 Roe v. Wade''
 Sexism
 Sex-positive feminism
 Timeline of feminism in the United States
 Violence Against Women Act
 Woman's club movement in the United States
 Women's education in the United States
 Women's health movement in the United States
 Women in the United States Prohibition movement
 Women's suffrage in the United States
 Women's Equality Day

References

Further reading

History of women in the United States

Feminism in the United States


Brian Henton (born 19 September 1946) is a former racing driver from England. He won both 1974 British Formula Three Championships and the 1980 European Formula Two Championship. He participated in 38 Formula One Grands Prix, debuting on 19 July 1975, but never scored any championship points.

Henton (nicknamed "Superhen" in the British racing press) came from a modest council house background and did not start racing until he was 23. On winning the minor British Formula Vee championship in 1971, ever-conscious of the value of public relations, he announced that he was going to be World Champion. This aim eluded him, but he enjoyed a successful career in Formula Three and Formula Two.

Henton's F1 debut came in 1975 for Lotus, theoretically a good drive but the team was in turmoil with the Lotus 72 finally uncompetitive and its replacement the Lotus 76 a failure, so nothing concrete was achieved. Between 1975 and 1978 he mixed Formula One and Formula Two drives (including a spell in a private March for his own British Formula One Racing Team), never quite establishing himself in either category, but clinched the 1980 F2 championship for Toleman, who took him into F1 for 1981. The first Toleman-Hart was something of a disaster, overweight and underdeveloped, and Henton only managed to qualify once. Unfruitful outings for Arrows and Tyrrell in 1982 led to no more success, though he did set the fastest lap at the British Grand Prix - Henton is the only driver in Formula One history to have set a fastest lap without ever scoring a championship point.

Perhaps fittingly, his last Formula One outing was at the Race of Champions at Brands Hatch in April 1983, which also turned out to be the last non-championship F1 race in the modern era.

Following his retirement from the sport, he returned to running a car dealership and later moved into property development and in recent years has diversified into other areas, notably engineering. He has occasionally driven at historic events and holds equestrian events at his home in Ingarsby Hall, Leicestershire.

Racing record

Career summary

Complete European Formula Two Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

 Henton drove Rupert Keegan's No. 18 Surtees during practice for the 1978 Austrian Grand Prix but was not officially entered for the race.

References

External links
Formula One World

English racing drivers
English Formula One drivers
European Formula Two Championship drivers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
People from Castle Donington
Sportspeople from Leicestershire
1946 births
Living people
Team Lotus Formula One drivers
March Formula One drivers
Boro Formula One drivers
British Formula One Racing Team Formula One drivers
Toleman Formula One drivers
Arrows Formula One drivers
Tyrrell Formula One drivers
Formula One team owners
Formula One team principals

Brian Henton


This Week was a British weekly current affairs television programme that was first produced for ITV in January 1956 by Associated-Rediffusion (later Thames Television) and Rediffusion, running until 1978, when it was replaced by TV Eye. In 1986, the earlier name was revived and This Week continued until Thames lost its franchise at the end of 1992.

In September 1958, This Week filmed George Harrison Marks and Pamela Green at their photography studio in Gerrard Street. David Kentick directed and Nick Barker interviewed Marks and Green. They were filmed working with a nude model, who was strategically covered by a very long wig. The film sequence ended with a montage of their photographs, mostly of nudes. However, the night it was to be broadcast Pope Pius XII died and the programme was cut, and the interview never shown. In 1964, This Week returned to their studio. This time round they showed a clip of the infamous striptease comedy film The Window Dresser.

However, its most influential episode was an exposé on the National Front in 1974, which led to the party's members firing their Chairman John Tyndall and National Activities Organiser Martin Webster two weeks later as a result of the revelations on the show from former NF Chairman John O'Brien of their neo-Nazi paramilitary pasts and continued links.

In 1976 the episode Death in the West believed to contain the first recorded admission from a tobacco company representative that smoking causes health problems resulted in an injunction from Philip Morris International.

The most controversial edition was "Death on the Rock", a 1988 documentary which questioned the official account of the Gibraltar shootings. It is commonly believed this programme was responsible for Thames losing their broadcast franchise.

During its run, the programme's presenters included Ludovic Kennedy, James Cameron, Jonathan Dimbleby, Robert Kee, Dan Farson, Jeremy Thorpe (who became leader of the Liberal Party), Kenneth Harris, Desmond Wilcox, Llew Gardner, Bryan Magee, Peter Taylor (noted for his coverage of Northern Ireland), Denis Tuohy, John Morgan, Peter Williams, Yvonne Roberts and John Edwards.

The programme used the Intermezzo from Sibelius's Karelia Suite as a signature tune.

See also
 Peter Morley

References

External links

1950s British television series
1956 British television series debuts
1960s British television series
1970s British television series
1978 British television series endings
1986 British television series debuts
1992 British television series endings
English-language television shows
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television shows produced by Thames Television
Television shows produced by Associated-Rediffusion

This Week (1956 TV programme)


The Center for Mobile Communication Studies (CMCS) is a research center at Boston University College of Communication. Its current director is Dr. James E Katz, Feld Professor of Emerging Media.

The CMCS was established in June 2004 at the School of Communication and Information (Rutgers University). it is the world's first academic unit to focus solely on social aspects of mobile communication, and that it has become an international focal point for research, teaching and service on the social, psychological and organizational consequences of the burgeoning mobile communication revolution.

The center's staff investigates how mobile communication is affecting human behavior as well as mobile technology's long-term organizational and policy implications. The center's staff includes: James E Katz, Ph.D., Director, Jacob Groshek, Ph.D., James Shanahan, Ph.D., Mina Tsay-Vogel, Ph.D., Tammy R. Vigil, Ph.D. T. Barton Carter, JD., Christopher B. Daly, and Dustin Supa.

The Center helps to develop courses that enhance Boston University College of Communication's core focus on mediated communication in undergraduate and graduate coursework and outreach. The center also provides critical commentary and advice for public and non-profit groups and assists private sector organizations through research, information dissemination, and expert consultation.

The center's official launch at Boston University took place on April 9, 2014.

References

Boston University
Communications and media organizations based in the United States

Center for Mobile Communication Studies


USCGC Confidence (WMEC-619) is a United States Coast Guard medium endurance cutter.

History
Construction of the U.S. Coast Guard Cutter Confidence began at the United States Coast Guard Yard in Curtis Bay, Maryland, in 1965 and was completed in 1966.  Fifth of 16 vessels in the class, Confidence was designed for search and rescue, law enforcement, and alien migrant interdiction operations (AMIO). She originally was assigned to the Seventeenth Coast Guard District for operations in the waters of Alaska, with her home port at Kodiak, Alaska, and began operating there in 1966. In 1968, she came to the aid of the three-man crew of the fishing vessel Chirikof, who had abandoned ship into a skiff without oars when Chirikof sank off Kodiak Island on 29 February and then drifted until sighted by the cargo ship Chena on 1 March; they were too weak from hypothermia to climb Chenas Jacob's ladder, so Confidence arrived on the scene and rescued them from the skiff. On 14 September 1981, Confidence rescued the six-man crew of the crab-fishing vessel City of Seattle after City of Seattle burned and sank in the Shelikof Strait  south of Cape Uganik () on the coast of Uganik Island in Alaska′s Kodiak Archipelago.

In the spring of 1983, following 17 years in Alaskan waters, Confidence was reassigned to the Thirteenth Coast Guard District and was home-ported in Port Angeles, Washington. During her time in the Pacific Northwest, Confidences crew seized 17 foreign and U.S. vessels for violations of U.S. law. In January 1986, Confidence and her crew seized the Panamanian freighter Eagle 1 and her cargo of  of cocaine. This was the largest maritime seizure of cocaine on the United States West Coast at the time.

Confidence was decommissioned and sent to the United States Coast Guard Yard in February 1987 for a major overhaul, referred to as a Midlife Maintenance Availability. Modifications included the installation of a new electronics package to increase the ship's effectiveness, new engines and smokestacks to increase efficiency, and habitability was improved. In October 1988, Confidence was commissioned back into service and sent to her new home port at Port Canaveral, Florida. Now the ship is normally assigned to patrol the waters off the southern coast of the United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean. Her primary missions are Counter Drug operations, Alien Migrant Interdiction Operations (AMIO), Homeland Security Operations, fisheries law enforcement, and Search and Rescue (SAR).

Since the fall of 1991, Confidence has been heavily involved in AMIO, including the interdiction of Haitian, Cuban, and Dominican Republic migrants attempting to illegally enter the U.S. One highlight of these operations was Confidences participation in Operation Able Vigil in 1993, and rescued 1,123 Cuban migrants in less than four weeks. The busiest day resulted in the interdiction of 346 migrants from 46 separate rafts and boats in just 16 hours. In Spring 1992, Confidence participated in Operation Able Manner, interdicting 428 Haitian migrants. Later that year, the ship was the primary platform for Operation Restore Dignity off the coast of Haiti, recovering 78 Haitians who perished when their ferry sank.

In 2001, Confidence was outfitted with an Over the Horizon rigid hull inflatable boat, designed to transport law enforcement teams at high speeds for long distances independent of the cutter.

From January 2003 until June 2005, Confidence interdicted over 1,100 Cuban, Haitian, and Dominican migrants with several noteworthy cases. In November 2004, Confidence rescued 82 migrants from a  Haitian sailing vessel taking on water off the coast of the Bahamas. In January 2005, Confidence crewmembers rescued 127 migrants in  seas from a , grossly overloaded Dominican yola. In June 2005 during a ten-day period, Confidence safely intercepted 162 Haitians from a  vessel on the Great Bahama Bank, seven Cubans from a makeshift vessel sinking in the Old Bahama Channel and 111 Haitians in a  vessel in  seas north of Great Inagua, Bahamas.

The year 2006 was the 40th anniversary of Confidence's initial commissioning. The original life expectancy of this cutter class was 30 years, but it is expected she will remain in service an additional 10–15 years. During her service, Confidence has been awarded the United States Secretary of Transportation's Gold Medal for Outstanding Achievement, 6 Coast Guard Unit Commendations, 5 Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendations, 3 National Defense Service Medals, 4 Humanitarian Service Medals, and 4 Special Operations Ribbons. Following the ship's 2007 Tailored Annual Cutter Training, Confidence earned her 10th consecutive Coast Guard Battle "E" Ribbon for Operational Excellence.

References

External links
Confidence home page

Ships of the United States Coast Guard
Reliance-class cutters
1966 ships
Ships built by the United States Coast Guard Yard
Historic American Engineering Record in Florida

USCGC Confidence


The Tijuana Cultural Center (CECUT) is a cultural center in the Zona Río district of Tijuana, Mexico. The center opened 20 October 1982, and accommodates more than a million visitors per year.

Nowadays this iconic Tijuana institution has different programs for all ages, from classes for early stimulation for kids around 2 months and 2 years old, plastic arts and artisan workshops for children from 5 to 15 years old, and concerts, conferences, movies, documentaries, exhibitions, and services designed to entertain while educating different age groups at the same time.

Attractions and facilities
The centerpiece of the complex is an OMNIMAX cinema designed by architects Pedro Ramirez Vazques and Manuel Rossen Morrison. It is the only IMAX cinema in Tijuana, and has come to be popularly known as La Bola ("The Ball"). The cinema, which uses a 360-degree projector to surround viewers with a panoramic image, has 308 seats.

The OMNIMAX cinema has been part of the cultural center since the complex first opened in 1982. In October of that year, it premiered the film El pueblo del sol, which was made especially for the cinema's opening. The film presents images from the most representative regions of Mexico, and got very good reviews. It was the cinema's only film for 13 years. Today, the center offers a daily selection of films; it premieres about four films per year.

The center encompasses a large esplanade that accommodates up to 6,000 people. The esplanade is a venue for performances, festivals, and expos. There is also a large bookshop that also sells handicrafts and design items.

The permanent exhibition, Museo de las Californias, ("Museum of The Californias"), which houses over 200 pieces and demonstrates the history of the Baja Peninsula and the current U.S. state of California from the prehistoric period until the first half of the 20th century.

Outside there is the pre-Hispanic style garden called Jardin Caracol ("Snail Garden"), that contains sculptures from the different regions of the mesoamerican cultures that inhabited south Mexico before the arrival of the Spanish Army.

There is a small café in the garden.

A theatre has a room for around a thousand visitors and it is mostly used for private concerts and plays. There are also lecture rooms, video room, café, and a bookshop. There are several spaces for temporary small exhibits.

In September 2008, on the eve of its 26th anniversary, CECUT opened El Cubo ("The Cube)"),  so named because of the contrast between the nickname of the OMNIMAX cinema "The Ball". Since then it has been the home for exhibitions from other countries such as those of Buda Guanyin, Gabriel Figueroa, Alice Rahon, Venus en Tijuana, Proyecto Civico, and Animated Painting among others.

The Cubo Bistro restaurant offers French cuisine organized by celebrity chef Javier Plascencia, considered the greatest contributor to the development of Baja Med cuisine.

History and impact
The center opened in 1982 with the mission to promote cultural tourism from the US. The building was constructed by the architects Pedro Ramírez Vázquez and Manuel Rosen Morrison. The CECUT first opened as part of the National Fund for Social Activities then in 1983 it was part of the Ministry of Tourism. Later that year CECUT was joined into the Ministry of Public Education. Finally, in 1986 the CECUT gained its own independence, and was able to plan its own budget. In 1988 they changed their actions guiding themselves towards a comprehensive national cultural policy.

CECUT is a  walk from the east port of entry from San Ysidro to Mexico.

References

External links

Cultural centers in Mexico
Cultural Center
Art museums and galleries in Mexico
Museums in Baja California
Cinemas in Mexico
Culture in Tijuana
Museums established in 1982
Theatres completed in 1982
1982 establishments in Mexico
Tourist attractions in Baja California

Tijuana Cultural Center


Economic appraisal is a type of decision method applied to a project, programme or policy that takes into account a wide range of costs and benefits, denominated in monetary terms or for which a monetary equivalent can be estimated. Economic appraisal is a key tool for achieving value for money and satisfying requirements for decision accountability. It is a systematic process for examining alternative uses of resources, focusing on assessment of needs, objectives, options, costs, benefits, risks, funding, affordability and other factors relevant to decisions.

The main types of economic appraisal are:
 Cost–benefit analysis
 Cost-effectiveness analysis
 Scoring and weighting

Economic appraisal is a methodology designed to assist in defining problems and finding solutions that offer the best value for money (VFM). This is especially important in relation to public expenditure and is often used as a vehicle for planning and approval of public investment relating to policies, programmes and projects.

The principles of appraisal are applicable to all decisions, even those concerned with small expenditures. However, the scope of appraisal can also be very wide. Good economic appraisal leads to better decisions and VFM. It facilitates good project management and project evaluation. Appraisal is an essential part of good financial management, and it is vital to decision-making and accountability.

References
A P Thirwal

External links
  NSW Government Guidelines  for Economic Appraisal
  Economic Appraisal: Principles and Procedures Simplified
 UK Treasury Green Book
 Department of Finance & Personnel: Economic Appraisal – what is it?

Evaluation methods
Decision analysis
Public economics

Economic appraisal


The Watergate scandal was a serious scandal during and after the 1972 presidential election.

A United States President, Richard Nixon was running for election against Democrat George McGovern. Afterwards, Frank Wills, a security guard, discovered clues that former FBI and CIA agents broke into the offices of the Democratic Party and George McGovern months before the election. They secretly listened to phone lines and stole several important documents.

When these men were found, they were discovered to have been associated with Nixon. He had helped them cover all the evidence of the scandal, and may have even hired the men to begin with. The Washington Post was a newspaper which played a big role in exposing the misdoings, specifically aided by reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. This showed the public that Nixon was not as trustworthy as he seemed.

Nixon chose to resign from office on August 9, 1974 because he wished not to be impeached. This means that he might have been charged with crimes. The U.S. Congress could not impeach him if he resigned. After this, Gerald Ford became his vice-president because Spiro T. Agnew (Nixon's first vice-president) had to resign as well after unrelated charges of accepting bribes and avoiding taxes. Ford then became the President by default of Nixon using his power under the 25th Amendment to the U.S Constitution. Ford pardoned Nixon for all of his crimes later on. The name "Watergate" comes from the hotel in Washington, D.C. where the first crime and break in took place, and is often associated with political scandals.

Other resources
Brittanica

1970s crimes
1970s in the United States
Burglary

Watergate scandal


Dragoljub Velimirović (Serbian Cyrillic: Драгољуб Велимировић; 12 May 1942 – 22 May 2014) was a Serbian (formerly Yugoslav) chess grandmaster, born in Valjevo.

Biography
He was introduced to chess at the age of seven by his mother Jovanka Velimirović (1910–1972), who was one of Yugoslavia's leading women chess players before World War II. He lived in Belgrade from 1960.

FIDE awarded him the International Master title in 1972 and Grandmaster title in 1973. He won the Yugoslav Chess Championship three times, in Vrnjacka Banja 1970 (with Milan Vukić), in Novi Sad 1975 (outright) and in Nikšić/Belgrade 1997 (also outright).

Velimirović was selected for the Yugoslav national team many times, one of the earliest occasions being for the USSR vs Yugoslavia match at Ohrid 1972, during which he notably defeated Rafael Vaganian in the first round. At the European Team Championship between 1970 and 1977 he excelled, winning a number of silver and bronze medals, both for individual and team performances. At the Chess Olympiad in Nice 1974, he took two silver medals (one team, one individual). A further silver medal followed from his participation at the World Team championship in Lucerne 1989.

In World Championship cycles, he was the winner of Zonal tournaments in Praia da Rocha 1978 and Budva 1981. He participated at three Interzonal tournaments in Rio de Janeiro 1979, Moscow 1982 and in Szirák 1987, but was never able to qualify for the Candidates phase.

Velimirović was noted for his attacking style of play and possessed a great gift for visualizing sacrificial possibilities. Whilst spectacular chess made him popular with onlookers, each game required a great effort and this may have limited his international tournament success. His early tournament results included Skopje 1971 (2nd=, behind Lev Polugaevsky, equal with Albin Planinc), Vrnjacka Banja 1973 (1st), Novi Sad 1976 (2nd, behind Jan Smejkal, ahead of Vlastimil Hort and Svetozar Gligorić). He sustained the effort into the 1980s and early 1990s, adding further successes at Zemun 1980 (1st=, with Milan Vukić), Titograd (40th anniv Liberation of the city) 1984 (1st=, with Viktor Korchnoi, and ahead of Mikhail Tal), Vršac 1985 (1st), Vršac 1987 (1st=, with Jaan Ehlvest), Metz Open 1988 (1st), and Niksic 1994 (1st).

Theory

In the theory of chess openings there is a sharp and popular variation of the Sicilian Defence called the Velimirović Attack, which is identified by the sequence of moves: 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 Nc6 6.Bc4 e6 7.Be3 Be7 8.Qe2 ... intending 9.0-0-0. It is like the Yugoslav Attack, but not quite as powerful or risky because Black's bishop isn't on the .

Death and eulogies
Velimirović died on May 22, 2014, at the age of 73 in Belgrade after a prolonged illness.  He was survived by his wife Mirjana Velimirović and his daughter Ana Velimirovic-Zorica. There was a commemoration ceremony in Velimirović's honour on May 26, 2014, at 11:00 at the Serbian Chess Federation.  Velimirovic was cremated on May 26, 2014, and the burial was at the New Cemetery, Belgrade.

Notable games
Dragoljub Velimirovic vs. Jovan Sofrevski, Yugoslav Championship 1965, Sicilian Defence, Velimirovic Attack (B89), 1–0. White sacrifices a knight as early as move 14, in order to initiate a swift attack against the enemy king.
Dragoljub Velimirovic vs. Ljubomir Ljubojevic, Yugoslav Championship 1972, Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation (B99), 1–0. White deviates from the common theoretical continuation (12.Qg3) with a speculative knight sacrifice. His opponent, a world-class player, fails to find the most accurate defence and further sacrificial tactics ensue.

See also
Borislav Kostić
Svetozar Gligorić

References

External links

1942 births
2014 deaths
Chess grandmasters
Chess theoreticians
Serbian chess players
Yugoslav chess players
Sportspeople from Valjevo
Sportspeople from Belgrade

Dragoljub Velimirović


The "Powell Doctrine" is a journalist-created term, named after General Colin Powell, for a doctrine that Powell created in the run-up to the 1990–1991 Gulf War. The doctrine poses questions emphasizing national security interests, overwhelming strike capabilities with an emphasis on ground forces, and widespread public support, all of which have to be answered affirmatively before military action is taken. Powell's doctrine is based in large part on the Weinberger Doctrine, devised by Caspar Weinberger during his tenure as Secretary of Defense (at which time Powell was Weinberger's senior military assistant).

Summary
The Powell Doctrine states that a list of questions all have to be answered affirmatively before military action is taken by the United States:
 Is a vital national security interest threatened?
 Do we have a clear attainable objective?
 Have the risks and costs been fully and frankly analyzed?
 Have all other non-violent policy means been fully exhausted?
 Is there a plausible exit strategy to avoid endless entanglement?
 Have the consequences of our action been fully considered?
 Is the action supported by the American people?
 Do we have genuine broad international support?

As Powell said in an April 1, 2009, interview on The Rachel Maddow Show, it denotes a nation's exhausting of all "political, economic, and diplomatic means", which, only if all were futile, would result in the condition that the nation should resort to military force. Powell has also asserted that when a nation is engaging in war, every resource and tool should be used to achieve decisive force against the enemy, minimizing casualties and ending the conflict quickly by forcing the weaker force to capitulate.

Analysis and commentary
The Powell Doctrine has been reported as an emerging legacy from the Korea and Vietnam wars and the "Never Again vs. Limited War" policy debates (either win or don't start versus value of limited war) and Weinberger's Six Tests described in his 1984 speech "The Uses of Military Power".  It has been used to compare the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, and the Iraq War.

See also
Bush Doctrine
Just war theory
Pottery Barn rule
Reagan Doctrine
Shock and awe
Weinberger Doctrine

References

Further reading
 Campbell, Kenneth J. "Once Burned, Twice Cautious: Explaining the Weinberger-Powell Doctrine." Armed Forces & Society 24#3 (1998): 357–74.
 LaFeber, Walter. "The rise and fall of Colin Powell and the Powell Doctrine." Political Science Quarterly 124.1 (2009): 71–93. online
 MacMillan, John. "After Interventionism: A Typology of United States Strategies." Diplomacy & Statecraft 30.3 (2019): 576–601. online
 Meiertöns, Heiko. The Doctrines of US Security Policy: An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press (2010), .
 Middup, Luke. The Powell Doctrine and US Foreign Policy (Ashgate, 2015) online.
 O'Sullivan, Christopher D. Colin Powell: American Power and Intervention From Vietnam to Iraq, New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, (2009)
 Record, Jeffrey. "Back to the Weinberger-Powell Doctrine?" Strategic Studies Quarterly, no. Fall (2007): 79–95.
 Walt, Stephen. "Applying the 8 Questions of the Powell Doctrine to Syria." Foreign Policy (September 13, 2013). online
 Yeatman, Scott T. "Modifying the Weinberger-Powell Doctrine for the Modern Geo-Strategic Environment." (NDU/JFSC Joint Advanced Warfighting School, 2017) online.

Primary sources
 Powell, Colin L.  "U.S. Forces: Challenges Ahead." Foreign Affairs; Winter 1992, Vol. 71 Issue 5, 32–45, 14p  online
 Powell, Colin L. and Joseph E. Persico. My American Journey  (1995), autobiography.

Military doctrines
Foreign policy doctrines of the United States
1990 in the United States
1990 in international relations

Powell Doctrine


Johann Ulrich Steigleder (22 March 1593 – 10 October 1635) was a German Baroque composer and organist. He was the most celebrated member of the Steigleder family, which also included Adam Steigleder (1561–1633), his father, and Utz Steigleder (died 1581), his grandfather.

Steigleder was born in Schwäbisch Hall on 22 March 1593. He was instructed in music by his father Adam, whose teacher was the then-famous Simon Lohet. In 1613 he became organist of Stephanskirche in Lindau, on Lake Constance; then in 1617 he left Lindau for Stuttgart, where he became organist of the Stiftskirche the same year. In 1627 Steigleder was appointed ducal organist at the Württemberg court. While in Stuttgart, he may have taught, among others, Johann Jakob Froberger. He died of plague in 1635 in the midst of the Thirty Years' War.

Steigleder's most important works are his two published collections of organ pieces. The first, Ricercar tabulatura of 1624 (published at Stuttgart), introduced a number of important innovations. It was the first German music collection to be published using engraved copper plates (the title page indicates that the composer did the engraving himself). It was also, together with Scheidt's Tabulatura nova, one of the first German printed collections to adopt five-line notation with notes instead of letter notation. Finally, Steigleder was among the first to make the transition from modal indications such as primi toni, secundi toni, etc. to keys in keyboard music. Ricercar tabulatura consists of 12 ricercars that explore a wide range of techniques and models, from simple monothematic works to pieces with double subjects, several sections, etc.; some are inspired by Sweelinck in their structure and/or use of diminution and augmentation. One of the ricercars contains a long interlude built on imitation of cuckoo's call, like Frescobaldi's and Kerll's capriccios sopra Cucu.

Steigleder's Tabulaturbuch (Strasbourg, 1627) consists of 40 variations on Luther's chorale "Vater unser im Himmelreich". This collection was intended for the church organist, and Steigleder specifically states that the performer may choose how many variations to play, which ones and in what sequence. Certain variations call for a supporting instrument or singer to reinforce the chorale melody. Steigleder employs a vast array of techniques from simple 2 voice settings to double counterpoint, extensive multi-sectional fantasies and toccatas, various canons, hocket, and many more.

In part because of his early death Steigleder did not exert much influence over the development of keyboard music in Europe. Thematic connections with his work, however, were found in Froberger's music.

References
 G.B. Sharp, Dorothea Schröder. "Steigleder.", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy, grovemusic.com .
 Willi Apel. "The History of Keyboard Music to 1700", Indiana University Press (November 1997). .
 Ulrich Siegele: Johann Ulrich Steigleders Vaterunser-Variationen (1626/27); Eine Kunst der organistischen Choralbearbeitung im Spannungsfeld zwischen ober- und niederdeutscher Tradition,  Cornetto-Verlag Stuttgart 2012
 Faksimile-Editionen der Vater-unser-Variationen und der Ricercar tabulatura, Cornetto-Verlag Stuttgart

Discography
Ricercar Tabulatura 1624. Organist: Olimpio Medori, SS. Annunziata organ, Florence (Cornetto, 2004)

Meantone Steigleder : Ricercar Tabulatura 1624. Organist: Gary Verkade. The Grönlund organ in Norrfjärden church, Sweden (Euridice, 2016)

External links

German Baroque composers
Organists and composers in the South German tradition
German male organists
Composers for pipe organ
17th-century deaths from plague (disease)
1593 births
1635 deaths
17th-century classical composers
German male classical composers
17th-century male musicians
Male classical organists

Johann Ulrich Steigleder


The Fiemme Mountains, sometimes also the Fleimstal Alps () or Fiemme Dolomites (), are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps in the Italian region of Trentino-South Tyrol. The range was named after the Fiemme Valley (Italian: Val di Fiemme; German: Fleimstal).

It is located between the Sarntal Alps, the Dolomites, the Vicentine Alps, the Garda Mountains, the Brenta and the Nonsberg Group. In the Alpine Club classification of the Eastern Alps (AVE) of 1984, the Fiemme Mountains are bounded as follows: the northern end is formed by the town of Bolzano from where the boundary continues southeast along the Eggental valley, over the Zanggenjoch and Satteljoch passes to Predazzo. Next it runs through Paneveggio and over the Rolle Pass into the Cismon Valley as far as Mezzano. It then crosses the Góbbera and Brocon Passes to Pieve Tesino and Strigno into the Sugana Valley. Finally it runs along the Mocheni Valley to Trento, from where follows the Etschtal valley once again to Bolzano.

In the South Tyrolean part of the Fiemme Mountains is the Trudner Horn Nature Park.

References

Mountain ranges of the Alps
Mountain ranges of Italy
Southern Limestone Alps

Fiemme Mountains


Alfonsina Strada (16 March 1891 – 13 September 1959) was an Italian cyclist, the only woman to have ridden one of cycling's three major stage races. She started in the Giro d'Italia in 1924 when the organisers mistook her for a man. Newspapers called her The Devil in a dress.

Her racing career included an Italian record which lasted 26 years. She died aged 69 as she propped up her motorcycle after riding it to a bicycle race.

Early life
Born Alfonsina Morini at Castelfranco Emilia, near Modena, she was the daughter of a peasant family. Her father was a day labourer, her mother a wet nurse. One account says her house was a windowless shack through which chickens ran; another says she was one of 24 living there. Further reports speak of her family considering her passion for cycling to have been the work of the devil, that it had the evil eye. Some reports say that she was one of eight children; others that she was one of 10, with eight brothers; still others that she had 10 brothers. Her living conditions as a child may have been romanticised by reporters and gone unexamined as her legend grew.

According to lore, Morini grew up a tomboy, playing with her brothers and their friends and riding her father's bicycle until she was 10 and her father bought her a bike in exchange for chickens. Romantic accounts say that villagers crossed themselves as she rode past, dressed and behaving more like a boy than a girl. Her mother is said to have pressed her to become a seamstress.

She rode her first race at about 13, winning a live pig. She won nearly all the girls' races she entered and many of the boys' events. Her reputation brought an invitation to ride the Grand Prix of St Petersburg in Russia in 1909. She was such a success that the Tsarina Alexandra⋅wanted her husband, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, to give her a gold medal.

In 1911 she went to Moncalieri, now in the southern suburbs of Turin, and set an hour record of 37.192 km. The status of the record is uncertain. It appears to have stood since 1905 but some reports say that Morini wasn't credited with her distance because her ride had been considered unladylike. Since that wouldn't have been an issue had she simply improved the women's record, there's a suggestion that she may also have broken a male record, perhaps a regional one, and it was that which she was denied. Her distance stood for 26 years.

She won 36 races against men and became the friend of riders such as Costante Girardengo. She raced at Bologna and Paris and twice rode the Giro di Lombardia at a time when it was open to all. She finished 32nd and last in the 1917 race, an hour and 34 minutes behind the Belgian Philippe Thys. She completed the 204 km course in 8h 32m. She rode again in 1918 and finished 21st, ahead of several men.

Marriage
In 1915, when 24, Morini married Luigi Strada, a metal plater and engraver, who was also a rider and racer. He gave her a new racing bike with dropped bars as a present. The couple moved to Milan, where Alfonsina rode on the velodrome as Luigi acted as her trainer.

1924 Giro d'Italia

Strada's ride in the Giro d'Italia came about through a disagreement between the organiser, Emilio Colombo of Gazzetta dello Sport, and the top riders of the day. The riders refused to take part. Colombo did what the Tour de France had done and offered places to whoever wanted to ride. Gazzetta dello Sport promised to pay their bills, their hotels and their food. It offered places for 90 riders and promised 600 chickens, 750 kg of other meat, 4,800 bananas and 720 eggs. But there would be no managers, no masseurs, no mechanics and no team cars.

Strada entered as "Strada, Alfonsin." The absence of a final "o" or "a" to her first name hid her gender. She was accepted as number 72 and, assuming her to be a man, journalists began writing of Alfonsino. The truth emerged the day before the start and by then it was too late.

She came 74th on the first day, an hour behind the leader but not badly by the standard of the day, when riders could be separated by hours. She finished 50th of 65 between Genoa and Florence and survived as far as Naples. Then the weather turned. A gale blew, rain poured, mud and rocks swept across the road. Strada was among many who crashed. Her handlebar snapped and she stood by the roadside until a peasant snapped a broomstick to jam in the hole. She rode on with one side of her bar of steel and the other made from a broomstick but finished outside the time limit.

Radio Marconi said The Foggia-L'Aquila – 7th stage was 304 km, which was bad enough because the southern Italian roads at this time were nearly impassable. They were not paved, and were rocky and icy too. The mountain pass was so terrible that the riders could not get their bikes through the mire and mess on their own and almost all the participants were towed part way by motorcycles and cars. Alfonsina suffered terribly on this stage. She fell on a descent and had to ride many more hours using her bruised, scraped and swollen knee.

The race referees excluded her because she was out of time. The organiser, Colombo, couldn't stop them from applying his own rules but by then spectators were waiting to see her and her rides were producing stories for his reporters.  Some reports say that Colombo had to balance sentiment, commercial benefit, the political climate and Italian fascism's intolerance of her challenge to machismo. Colombo let her ride on as an individual, paying her bills but excluding her from prizes.

The next day was to Fiume, where a crowd lifted her from her bicycle and carried her in triumph when she finished in tears from pain and exhaustion 25 minutes after the time limit. It motivated her to continue to Milan. Only 38 completed the race and Strada, although no longer formally in the running, finished more than 20 hours ahead of Telesforo Benaglia, the maglia nera. She finished 28 hours behind the winner, 30-year-old Giuseppe Enrici of Piedmont. However, almost an hour separated Enrici from his runner-up, Federico Gay, so it was hardly a close-run race. With two riders finishing behind her, Strada won 50,000 lire for her efforts.

Later career
Strada was never allowed to ride the Giro again, but she followed it for several years and earned the respect of the journalist Armando Cougnet, Giardini, Colombo, Cattaneo, Lattuarda, Costante Girardengo, as well as of other journalists and competitors. She rode exhibition races throughout Italy, Spain, France, Luxembourg and before Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in Saint Petersburg. In 1937, in Paris, she defeated the French champion, Robin.

In 1938 she set the female world record for the hour, covering 32.58 km at Longchamp, Paris, a record beaten in 1955 by Tamara Novikova of the Soviet Union

The Italian writer Dino Buzzati wrote that, as a boy riding in a park in Milan, he saw Strada and managed to stay with her for two laps before "exploding". He said that after that she shot off down the path like an arrow.

Personal life and death

Luigi Strada died in 1946. In 1950 Strada married Carlo Messori, a retired racing cyclist, and they opened a bicycle shop on Via Varesina in Milan. He started to write her biography but he died in 1957 before it was completed and she closed the shop.

She lived alone in Milan for her last years, riding to her shop every day until cycling grew too tiring. She sold some of her medals and trophies and bought a scarlet Moto Guzzi 500cc motorbike. In September 1959 she rode this to the Tre Valli Varesine professional race. The motorbike fell off its stand when she got home. The weight was too much for her and she had a heart attack as she and the Moto Guzzi fell to the ground. She was dead by the time she reached hospital.

Her bicycle is among the collection at the Madonna del Ghisallo chapel close to Lake Como in Italy.

Memories of Alfonsina Strada
In 2010 the Italian band Têtes de bois published the song "Alfonsina e la bici" dedicated to Alfonsina Strada.

The videoclip of the song has the Italian astrophysicist Margherita Hack starring as Alfonsina Strada.

The 2023 Giro Donne cycling race included a mid-race sprint named in honor of Strada, during stage 3 of the 9-stage classic.

Sources

References

External links
Image of Alfonsina Strada at Radio Marconi
Image of Alfonsina Strada

Videoclip of Têtes de bois's song Alfonsina e la bici

1891 births
1959 deaths
Italian female cyclists
People from Castelfranco Emilia
Cyclists from Emilia-Romagna
Sportspeople from the Province of Modena

Alfonsina Strada


Alberto Santos-Dumont (July 20, 1873 – July 20, 1932) was a Brazilian pilot and early aviator.  He built and flew some of the first airplanes and made some of the first good steering systems for hot air balloons.  He is called the "Father of Aviation" in Brazil.

According to the First Flight Society, he was the third person in the world to fly an airplane, after only Wilbur and Orville Wright.  He was the first person in Europe to fly an airplane.

Early life

Alberto Santos-Dumont was born in a village named Cabangu in Minas Gerais, Brazil.  He was the sixth of his parents' eight children.  Santos-Dumont's father had been born in France and trained to be an engineer.  He liked to use machines on the family's large coffee farm and became rich.  He taught Alberto Santos-Dumont how to use machines too.

For a while, Alberto Santos-Dumont studied at the Colégio Culto à Ciência in Brazil, but when he was 18, his father had an accident that left him unable to move parts of his body.  The Santos-Dumont family moved to Europe, and his parents sent Alberto Santos-Dumont to Paris. In Paris, he learned physics and other sciences.

As an adult, Alberto Santos-Dumont was about 1.62 meters tall (5' 4").

Flying

At first, Santos-Dumont worked with hot air balloons.  One problem with hot air balloons was that they were very difficult to steer.  After making a few hot air balloons that could go up and down well, Alberto Santos-Dumont decided to build a good steering system.  He built eleven hot air balloons that could be steered, called dirigibles, between 1898 and 1905.  His third balloon in this project, Santos Dumont No. 3, worked.  He was able to steer it around the Eiffel Tower and land where he meant to land.  His Santos Dumont No. 6 won the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize.

Santos-Dumont liked to fly his dirigibles around Paris.  He became famous and popular, and people copied his clothes and style.  United States President Theodore Roosevelt invited him to visit the White House.  The French nicknamed him "le petit Santos," or "little Santos," and he became a folk hero in Brazil.

Then Santos-Dumont decided to work on heavier-than-air flying machines, which people call airplanes or aeroplanes today.  In the fall of 1906, he tried to fly his biplane, the Santos-Dumont 14-bis in a field outside Paris.  Experts disagree on exactly what counts as flying and what is only a hop in the air, so perhaps his first flight was on September 13 when the 14-bis stayed in the air for a short distance or perhaps it was in October when it flew for 50 meters, but everyone agrees that Santos-Dumont did fly in the fall of 1906.  On November 12, 1906, outside Paris, he flew the 14-Bis biplane for 220 meters (722 feet) outside Paris, 6 meters up in the air.  The 14-bis used a 50-horsepower internal combustion engine, meaning an engine that burned its own fuel inside itself instead of using steam.

Because many people had come out to watch him fly, because he was already famous, and because the Wright Brothers had not told many people about their own flight at Kitty Hawk in 1903, many people thought Alberto Santos-Dumont was the first person to fly an airplane at all.

Alberto Santos-Dumont made his last flight in 1910.  Some time after that, doctors told him he had multiple sclerosis.  He committed suicide in Brazil in 1932.  Some sources say this was because he was sad that airplanes had become weapons in World War I and other wars.

Legacy

Alberto Santos-Dumont is part of the First Flight Society's shrine at Kitty Hawk and listed in the Brazilian Air Ministry Almanac.

Some people in Brazil believe Alberto Santos-Dumont was the first person to fly an airplane, before the Wright Brothers.  This is for two reasons: First, some people think the Wright Brothers' flight at Kitty Hawk did not count.  They believe the Wright Brothers Flyer got off the ground but not long enough to count as flying.  Others say that the winds at Kitty Hawk helped the Flyer too much for the flight to count.  Others say that the Kitty Hawk flight did not count because the Wright Brothers used a catapult to get the Flyer started.  However, the Wright Brothers did not really use a catapult that day, though they did use one with later planes.  Second, some people they think the Wright Brothers did fly, but not in 1903 when they said they did.  One reason for this is that Alberto Santos-Dumont performed almost all his tests and experiments publicly.  Anyone who wanted could watch him work.  He often tested his planes with many people watching.  The Wright Brothers kept much of their work a secret because they did not want other inventors to steal their ideas.  They hoped to patent their work and make money.  However, when the Wright Brothers flew their first true plane at Kitty Hawk, they asked five people from the local town and life saving station to come watch and take a photograph.  By 1906, the Wright Brothers had flown many of their planes many times, for as far as 39 kilometers. Today, most aviation historians believe that Alberto Santos-Dumont was not the first person to fly.

By flying his dirigible around the Eiffel Tower and landing on purpose, Alberto Santos-Dumont helped convince people that flying machines were not only interesting inventions but that they could be useful in real life.  He also invented the Desmoiselle, a monoplane.  That means it was a plane with one set of wings instead of two sets of wings like a biplane.  The Desmoiselle flew so well that it helped monoplanes become the most common type of plane.

References

1873 births
1932 deaths
French aviators
Brazilian people
People with multiple sclerosis

Alberto Santos-Dumont


The West Rhine railway (German: Linke Rheinstrecke, literally 'left (bank of the) Rhine route') is a famously picturesque, double-track electrified railway line running for 185 km from Cologne via Bonn, Koblenz, and Bingen to Mainz. It is situated close to the western (left) bank of the river Rhine and mostly aligned to allow 160 km/h operation between Cologne and Koblenz and between Bingen and Mainz. Line speed between Koblenz and Bingen is restricted by the meandering nature of the Rhine Gorge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

History

The first section of the line opened on 15 February 1844, by the Bonn–Cologne Railway Company (Bonn-Cölner Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft) between the former station of Cologne St. Pantaleon Cologne and Bonn. It was extended on 21 January 1856, south to Rolandseck station and in 1859 north to the Cologne central station.

After the takeover by the Rhenish Railway Company (Rheinische Eisenbahn Gesellschaft, RhE) on 1 January 1857 the line was extended in 1858 through Remagen and Andernach and crossed the Moselle to Koblenz via the Moselle railway bridge, opened on 11 November 1858.  The particularly beautiful section of the line between Koblenz and Bingerbrück (now called Bingen Hbf), which runs close to the river through this winding section of the Rhine Valley was opened on 15 December 1859.  Bingerbrück station was at the time on the border of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Here it connected with the Rhine-Main line of the  Hessian Ludwig Railway (Hessische Ludwigsbahn), opened on 17 October 1859, from Mainz and the Nahe Valley Railway to Saarbrücken.

In Koblenz, the Pfaffendorf Bridge over the Rhine was completed in 1864 to connect to the Right Rhine line to Niederlahnstein and Wiesbaden.  With the construction of the Horchheim Bridge south of Koblenz, opened in 1879, and the Urmitz Bridge north of Koblenz, opened in 1918, this bridge was progressively given over to pedestrian, vehicular and, eventually, tram traffic and the last train used it at the outbreak of World War I in August 1914.

From 1861 the Nassau State Railways established a train ferry between Bingen and Rüdesheim am Rhein; this was converted to a passenger ferry in 1900. From 1870 to 1914 another train ferry operated between Bonn and Oberkassel to transfer trains between the West Rhine line and the East Rhine railway.

During the First World War three strategic Rhine crossings were built at the request of the German generals in order to bring troops and war materials to the Western Front. The Bingen–Rüdesheim ferry was replaced by the Hindenburg Bridge, built between 1913 and 1915 and connecting the East Rhine line with the West Rhine railway and the Nahe Valley Railway. From 1916 to 1918, the Neuwied–Koblenz line, including the Crown Prince Wilhelm Bridge, was built between Urmitz and Neuwied-Engers. The Ludendorff Bridge between Erpel and Remagen was built from 1916 to 1919. It connected the East and West Rhine railway lines and the strategically important Ahr Valley Railway. The Hindenburg, Ludendorff and Kronprinz-Wilhelm Bridges  were destroyed in World War II. Only the Crown Prince Wilhelm Bridge was rebuilt, as the Urmitz bridge, in 1954.

The line was electrified in 1959.

Current operations

Until the opening of the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line, the line was one of the busiest in Germany. The fastest trains connecting the Rhineland and southern Germany ran on the line. The importance of the line for long distance travel has diminished since the opening of the high-speed line. The line is now generally used by one InterCity or Intercity-Express service (stopping at Bonn, Koblenz and Mainz) each hour, one Regional-Express train each hour (the Rhein-Express to Koblenz Hauptbahnhof and one RegionalBahn (stopping) train each hour in each direction, as well as by many freight trains. Before the opening of the high-speed line, freight trains were largely restricted to the Right Rhine line, but with the increased availability of train paths on the Left Rhine line many of them are now routed over it.

Notes

References

 Also  and .

Railway lines in North Rhine-Westphalia
Railway lines in Rhineland-Palatinate
Railway lines opened in 1844
1844 establishments in Prussia

West Rhine Railway


Calophyllum is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Calophyllaceae. They are mainly distributed in Asia, with some species in Africa, the Americas, Australasia, and the Pacific Islands.

History
Members of the genus Calophyllum native to Malesia and Wallacea are of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and were carried with them in the Austronesian expansion as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. They were comparable in importance to how oaks were in European shipbuilding and timber industries. The most notable species is the mastwood (Calophyllum inophyllum) which grows readily in the sandy and rocky beaches of the island environments that the Austronesians colonized.

Description
Calophyllum are trees or shrubs. They produce a colorless, white, or yellow latex. The oppositely arranged leaves have leathery blades often borne on petioles. The leaves are distinctive, with narrow parallel veins alternating with resin canals. The inflorescence is a cyme or a thyrse of flowers that grows from the leaf axils or at the ends of branches. In the flower the sepals and petals may look similar and are arranged in whorls. There are many stamens. The fruit is a drupe with thin layers of flesh over a large seed.

Uses
Many species are used for their wood. Some are hardwood trees that can reach 30 meters in height. They tend to grow rapidly. The outer sapwood is yellowish, yellow-brown, or orange, sometimes with a pink tinge, and the inner heartwood is light reddish to red-brown. The wood has a streaked, ribboned, or zig-zag grain. The wood has been used to build boats, flooring, and furniture, and made into plywood. Calophyllum wood may be sold under the name bitangor, and the species may be used interchangeably; one shipment may contain boards from several different species.

Plants of the genus are also known for their chemistry, with a variety of secondary metabolites isolated, such as coumarins, xanthones, flavonoids, and triterpenes. Compounds from the genus have been reported to have cytotoxic, anti-HIV, antisecretory, cytoprotective, antinociceptive, molluscicidal, and antimicrobial properties. Some plants are used in folk medicine to treat conditions such as peptic ulcers, tumors, infections, pain, and inflammation.

C. inophyllum is the source of tamanu oil, a greenish, nutty-scented oil of commercial value. It has been used as massage oil, topical medicine, lamp oil, and waterproofing, and is still used in cosmetics. Tacamahac is the resin of the tree. This species is also cultivated for its wood and planted in coastal landscaping as a windbreak and for erosion control.

Symbolism
A stylized Calophyllum is featured on the national coat of arms of Nauru.

Diversity
There are approximately 187 species in the genus.

Species include:

Gallery

See also
Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia

References

Bibliography

Malpighiales genera
National symbols of Nauru

Calophyllum