An email address identifies an email box to which messages are delivered. While early messaging systems used a variety of formats for addressing, today, email addresses follow a set of specific rules originally standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in the 1980s, and updated by . The term email address in this article refers to just the addr-spec in Section 3.4 of RFC 5322. The RFC defines address more broadly as either a mailbox or group. A mailbox value can be either a name-addr, which contains a display-name and addr-spec, or the more common addr-spec alone.

An email address, such as email@example.com, is made up from a local-part, the symbol @, and a domain, which may be a domain name or an IP address enclosed in brackets. Although the standard requires the local-part to be case-sensitive, it also urges that receiving hosts deliver messages in a case-independent manner, e.g., that the mail system in the domain example.com treat John.Smith as equivalent to john.smith; some mail systems even treat them as equivalent to johnsmith. Mail systems often limit the users' choice of name to a subset of the technically permitted characters.

With the introduction of internationalized domain names, efforts are progressing to permit non-ASCII characters in email addresses.

Message transport

An email address consists of two parts, a local-part (sometimes a user name, but not always) and a domain; if the domain is a domain name rather than an IP address then the SMTP client uses the domain name to look up the mail exchange IP address. The general format of an email address is local-part@domain, e.g. firstname.lastname@example.com, email@example.com. The SMTP client transmits the message to the mail exchange, which may forward it to another mail exchange until it eventually arrives at the host of the recipient's mail system.

The transmission of electronic mail from the author's computer and between mail hosts in the Internet uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), defined in , and extensions such as RFC 6531. The mailboxes may be accessed and managed by applications on personal computers, mobile devices or webmail sites, using the SMTP protocol and either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).

When transmitting email messages, mail user agents (MUAs) and mail transfer agents (MTAs) use the domain name system (DNS) to look up a Resource Record (RR) for the recipient's domain. A mail exchanger resource record (MX record) contains the name of the recipient's mailserver. In absence of an MX record, an address record (A or AAAA) directly specifies the mail host.

The local-part of an email address has no significance for intermediate mail relay systems other than the final mailbox host. Email senders and intermediate relay systems must not assume it to be case-insensitive, since the final mailbox host may or may not treat it as such. A single mailbox may receive mail for multiple email addresses, if configured by the administrator. Conversely, a single email address may be the alias to a distribution list to many mailboxes. Email aliases, electronic mailing lists, sub-addressing, and catch-all addresses, the latter being mailboxes that receive messages regardless of the local-part, are common patterns for achieving a variety of delivery goals.

The addresses found in the header fields of an email message are not directly used by mail exchanges to deliver the message. An email message also contains a message envelope that contains the information for mail routing. While envelope and header addresses may be equal, forged email addresses (also called spoofed email addresses) are often seen in spam, phishing, and many other Internet-based scams. This has led to several initiatives which aim to make such forgeries of fraudulent emails easier to spot.

Syntax

The format of an email address is local-part@domain, where the local-part may be up to 64 octets long and the domain may have a maximum of 255 octets. The formal definitions are in RFC 5322 (sections 3.2.3 and 3.4.1) and RFC 5321—with a more readable form given in the informational RFC 3696 (written by J. Klensin, the author of RFC 5321) and the associated errata.

An email address also may have an associated "display-name" (Display Name) for the recipient, which precedes the address specification, now surrounded by angled brackets, for example: John Smith <firstname.lastname@example.com>. Email spammers and phishers will often use "Display Name spoofing" to trick their victims, by using a false Display Name, or by using a different email address as the Display Name.

Earlier forms of email addresses for other networks than the Internet included other notations, such as that required by X.400, and the UUCP bang path notation, in which the address was given in the form of a sequence of computers through which the message should be relayed. This was widely used for several years, but was superseded by the Internet standards promulgated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Local-part

The local-part of the email address may be unquoted or may be enclosed in quotation marks.

If unquoted, it may use any of these ASCII characters:
 uppercase and lowercase Latin letters A to Z and a to z
 digits 0 to 9
 printable characters !#$%&'*+-/=?^_`{|}~
 dot ., provided that it is not the first or last character and provided also that it does not appear consecutively (e.g., John..email@example.com is not allowed).

If quoted, it may contain Space, Horizontal Tab (HT), any ASCII graphic except Backslash and Quote and a quoted-pair consisting of a Backslash followed by HT, Space or any ASCII graphic; it may also be split between lines anywhere that HT or Space appears. In contrast to unquoted local-parts, the addresses ".John.Doe"@example.com, "John.Doe."@example.com and "John..Doe"@example.com are allowed.

The maximum total length of the local-part of an email address is 64 octets.

 Space and special characters "(),:;<>@[\] are allowed with restrictions (they are only allowed inside a quoted string, as described in the paragraph below, and in that quoted string, any backslash or double-quote must be preceded once by a backslash);
 Comments are allowed with parentheses at either end of the local-part; e.g., john.smith(comment)@example.com and (comment)email@example.com are both equivalent to email@example.com.

In addition to the above ASCII characters, international characters above U+007F, encoded as UTF-8, are permitted by RFC 6531 when the EHLO specifies SMTPUTF8, though even mail systems that support SMTPUTF8 and 8BITMIME may restrict which characters to use when assigning local-parts.

A local-part is either a Dot-string or a Quoted-string; it cannot be a combination. Quoted strings and characters, however, are not commonly used. RFC 5321 also warns that "a host that expects to receive mail SHOULD avoid defining mailboxes where the Local-part requires (or uses) the Quoted-string form".

The local-part postmaster is treated specially—it is case-insensitive, and should be forwarded to the domain email administrator. Technically all other local-parts are case-sensitive, therefore firstname.lastname@example.com and email@example.com specify different mailboxes; however, many organizations treat uppercase and lowercase letters as equivalent. Indeed, RFC 5321 warns that "a host that expects to receive mail SHOULD avoid defining mailboxes where ... the Local-part is case-sensitive".

Despite the wide range of special characters which are technically valid, organisations, mail services, mail servers and mail clients in practice often do not accept all of them. For example, Windows Live Hotmail only allows creation of email addresses using alphanumerics, dot (.), underscore (_) and hyphen (-). Common advice is to avoid using some special characters to avoid the risk of rejected emails.

According to RFC 5321 2.3.11 Mailbox and Address, "the local-part MUST be interpreted and assigned semantics only by the host specified in the domain of the address". This means that no assumptions can be made about the meaning of the local-part of another mail server. It is entirely up to the configuration of the mail server.

Interpretation of the local-part is dependent on the conventions and policies implemented in the mail server. For example, case sensitivity may distinguish mailboxes differing only in capitalization of characters of the local-part, although this is not very common. Gmail ignores all dots in the local-part of a @gmail.com address for the purposes of determining account identity.

Sub-addressing

Some mail services support a tag included in the local-part, such that the address is an alias to a prefix of the local-part. Typically the characters following a plus and less often the characters following a minus, so fred+bah@domain and fred+foo@domain might end up in the same inbox as fred+@domain or even as fred@domain. For example, the address email@example.com denotes the same delivery address as email@example.com.  refers to this convention as subaddressing, but it is also known as plus addressing, tagged addressing or mail extensions. This can be useful for tagging emails for sorting, and for spam control.

Addresses of this form, using various separators between the base name and the tag, are supported by several email services, including Andrew Project (plus), Runbox (plus), Gmail (plus), Rackspace (plus), Yahoo! Mail Plus (hyphen), Apple's iCloud (plus), Outlook.com (plus), Proton Mail (plus), Fastmail (plus and Subdomain Addressing), postale.io (plus), Pobox (plus),
MeMail (plus), MMDF (equals), Qmail and Courier Mail Server (hyphen). Postfix and Exim allow configuring an arbitrary separator from the legal character set.

The text of the tag may be used to apply filtering, or to create single-use, or disposable email addresses.

Domain

The domain name part of an email address has to conform to strict guidelines: it must match the requirements for a hostname, a list of dot-separated DNS labels, each label being limited to a length of 63 characters and consisting of:

 Uppercase and lowercase Latin letters A to Z and a to z;
 Digits 0 to 9, provided that top-level domain names are not all-numeric;
 Hyphen -, provided that it is not the first or last character.
This rule is known as the LDH rule (letters, digits, hyphen). In addition, the domain may be an IP address literal, surrounded by square brackets [], such as firstname.lastname@example.com or jsmith@[IPv6:2001:db8::1], although this is rarely seen except in email spam. Internationalized domain names (which are encoded to comply with the requirements for a hostname) allow for presentation of non-ASCII domains. In mail systems compliant with RFC 6531 and RFC 6532 an email address may be encoded as UTF-8, both a local-part as well as a domain name.

Comments are allowed in the domain as well as in the local-part; for example, john.smith@(comment)example.com and email@example.com(comment) are equivalent to email@example.com.

 specifies that certain domains, for example those intended for documentation and testing, should not be resolvable and that as a result mail addressed to mailboxes in them and their subdomains should be non-deliverable. Of note for e-mail are example, invalid, example.com, example.net, and example.org.

Examples

Valid email addresses
 email@example.com
 firstname.lastname@example.com
 firstname.lastname@example.com (one-letter local-part)
 email@example.com
 firstname.lastname@example.com (may be routed to firstname.lastname@example.com inbox depending on mail server)
 firstname.lastname@example.com (slashes are a printable character, and allowed)
 admin@example (local domain name with no TLD, although ICANN highly discourages dotless email addresses)
 firstname.lastname@example.com (see the List of Internet top-level domains)
 " "@example.org (space between the quotes)
 "john..doe"@example.org (quoted double dot)
 email@example.com (bangified host route used for uucp mailers)
 "very.(),:;<>[]\".VERY.\"very@\\ \"very\".unusual"@strange.example.com (include non-letters character AND multiple at sign, the first one being double quoted)
 firstname.lastname@example.com (% escaped mail route to firstname.lastname@example.com via example.org)
 email@example.com (local-part ending with non-alphanumeric character from the list of allowed printable characters)
 firstname.lastname@example.com (IP addresses are allowed instead of domains when in square brackets, but strongly discouraged)
 postmaster@[IPv6:2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334] (IPv6 uses a different syntax)

Valid email addresses with SMTPUTF8
 I❤CHOCOLATE🍫@example.com (emoji are only allowed with SMTPUTF8)

Invalid email addresses
 abc.example.com (no @ character)
 a@b@firstname.lastname@example.com (only one @ is allowed outside quotation marks)
 a"b(c)d,e:f;g<h>i[j\k]firstname.lastname@example.com (none of the special characters in this local-part are allowed outside quotation marks)
 just"not"email@example.com (quoted strings must be dot separated or be the only element making up the local-part)
 this is"not\email@example.com (spaces, quotes, and backslashes may only exist when within quoted strings and preceded by a backslash)
 this\ still\"not\\email@example.com (even if escaped (preceded by a backslash), spaces, quotes, and backslashes must still be contained by quotes)
 email@example.com (local-part is longer than 64 characters)
 i.like.underscores@but_they_are_not_allowed_in_this_part (underscore is not allowed in domain part)

Validation and verification

Email addresses are often requested as input to website as validation of user existence. Other validation methods are available, such as cell phone number validation, postal mail validation, and fax validation.

An email address is generally recognized as having two parts joined with an at-sign (@), although technical specification detailed in RFC 822 and subsequent RFCs are more extensive.

Syntactically correct, verified email addresses do not guarantee that an email box exists. Thus many mail servers use other techniques and check the mailbox existence against relevant systems such as the Domain Name System for the domain or using callback verification to check if the mailbox exists. Callback verification is an imperfect solution, as it may be disabled to avoid a directory harvest attack, or callbacks may be reported as spam and lead to listing on a DNSBL.

Several validation techniques may be utilized to validate a user email address. For example,

 Verification links: Email address validation is often accomplished for account creation on websites by sending an email to the user-provided email address with a special temporary hyperlink. On receipt, the user opens the link, immediately activating the account. Email addresses are also useful as means of delivering messages from a website, e.g., user messages, user actions, to the email inbox.
 Formal and informal standards: RFC 3696 provides specific advice for validating Internet identifiers, including email addresses. Some websites instead attempt to evaluate the validity of email addresses through arbitrary standards, such as by rejecting addresses containing valid characters, such as + and /, or enforcing arbitrary length limitations. Email address internationalization provides for a much larger range of characters than many current validation algorithms allow, such as all Unicode characters above U+0080, encoded as UTF-8.
 Algorithmic tools: Large websites, bulk mailers and spammers require efficient tools to validate email addresses. Such tools depend upon heuristic algorithms and statistical models.
 Sender reputation: An email sender's reputation may be used to attempt to verify whether the sender is trustworthy or a potential spammer. Factors that may be incorporated into an assessment of sender reputation include the quality of past contact with or content provided by, and engagement levels of, the sender's IP address or email address.
 Browser-based verification: HTML5 forms implemented in many browsers allow email address validation to be handled by the browser.

Some companies offer services to validate an email address, often using an application programming interface, but there is no guarantee that it will provide accurate results.

Internationalization

The IETF conducts a technical and standards working group devoted to internationalization issues of email addresses, entitled Email Address Internationalization (EAI, also known as IMA, Internationalized Mail Address). This group produced , and continues to work on additional EAI-related RFCs.

The IETF's EAI Working group published RFC 6530 "Overview and Framework for Internationalized Email", which enabled non-ASCII characters to be used in both the local-parts and domain of an email address. RFC 6530 provides for email based on the UTF-8 encoding, which permits the full repertoire of Unicode. RFC 6531 provides a mechanism for SMTP servers to negotiate transmission of the SMTPUTF8 content.

The basic EAI concepts involve exchanging mail in UTF-8. Though the original proposal included a downgrading mechanism for legacy systems, this has now been dropped. The local servers are responsible for the local-part of the address, whereas the domain would be restricted by the rules of internationalized domain names, though still transmitted in UTF-8. The mail server is also responsible for any mapping mechanism between the IMA form and any ASCII alias.

EAI enables users to have a localized address in a native language script or character set, as well as an ASCII form for communicating with legacy systems or for script-independent use. Applications that recognize internationalized domain names and mail addresses must have facilities to convert these representations.

Significant demand for such addresses is expected in China, Japan, Russia, and other markets that have large user bases in a non-Latin-based writing system.

For example, in addition to the .in top-level domain, the government of India in 2011 got approval for ".bharat", (from Bhārat Gaṇarājya), written in seven different scripts for use by Gujrati, Marathi, Bangali, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi and Urdu speakers. Indian company XgenPlus.com claims to be the world's first EAI mailbox provider, and the Government of Rajasthan now supplies a free email account on domain राजस्थान.भारत for every citizen of the state. A leading media house Rajasthan Patrika launched their IDN domain पत्रिका.भारत with contactable email.

The example addresses below would not be handled by RFC 5322 based servers, but are permitted by RFC 6530. Servers compliant with this will be able to handle these:

 Latin alphabet with diacritics: Pelé@example.com
 Greek alphabet: δοκιμή@παράδειγμα.δοκιμή
 Traditional Chinese characters: 我買@屋企.香港
 Japanese characters: 二ノ宮@黒川.日本
 Cyrillic characters: медведь@с-балалайкой.рф
 Devanagari characters: संपर्क@डाटामेल.भारत

See also

 Anti-spam techniques
 Email client
 Email box
 Email authentication
 International email

References

Further reading

  Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (Obsoleted by RFCs 2821 and 5321)
  Standard for the Format of ARPA Internet Text Messages (Obsoleted by RFC 2822) (Errata)
  Domain names, Implementation and specification (Errata)
  Requirements for Internet Hosts, Application and Support (Updated by RFC 2821, RFC 5321) (Errata)
  Mailbox Names for Common Services, Roles and Functions (Errata)
  Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (Obsoletes RFC 821, Updates RFC 1123, Obsoleted by RFC 5321) (Errata)
  Internet Message Format (Obsoletes RFC 822, Obsoleted by RFC 5322) (Errata)
  Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names (Errata)
  IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture (Updated by RFC 5952) (Errata)
  Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (Obsoletes RFC 2821, Updates RFC 1123) (Errata)
  Internet Message Format (Obsoletes RFC 2822, Updated by RFC 6854) (Errata)
  Internet Mail Architecture
  A Recommendation for IPv6 Address Text Representation (Updates RFC 4291) (Errata)
  Overview and Framework for Internationalized Email (Obsoletes RFC 4952, 5504, 5825)
  SMTP Extension for Internationalized Email (Obsoletes RFC 5336)
  Update to Internet Message Format to Allow Group Syntax in the "From:" and "Sender:" Header Fields (Updates RFC 5322)

External links

Email

Email address


The Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway  is a subsidiary railroad of Canadian National Railway (CN) operating in northern Minnesota, United States.  A CN system-wide rebranding beginning in 1995 has seen the DWP logo and name largely replaced by its parent company.  The DWP line is CN's connection between International Falls and Duluth, Minnesota, where the railroad connects to a short stretch of the former Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway before following the former Wisconsin Central (both now wholly owned by CN) to Chicago, Illinois.

In 1970 DW&P reported 792 million ton-miles of revenue freight and no passenger miles; at the end of that year it operated  of road and  of track.

History

The Duluth, Virginia and Rainy Lake Railway (DV&RL) started construction at Virginia, Minnesota, in 1901, with the line extending north to Sand Lake, Minnesota, when the company was purchased by the Canadian Northern Railway (CNoR) who renamed it the Duluth, Rainy Lake and Winnipeg Railway (DRL&W).

Construction continued through 1908 to extend the line north to Ranier, Minnesota, where it bridged the Rainy River on the Canada–United States border to cross into Fort Frances, Ontario, and an interchange with the CNoR mainline between Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Port Arthur, Ontario.

In 1909, CNoR incorporated the Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway, and construction started to achieve access south from Virginia, Minnesota, to Duluth, Minnesota.  Duluth was reached in 1912, providing interchange with several US railways.

The DW&P mainline ran for  from Duluth Junction at Fort Frances (CNoR interchange) to DW&P Junction (Northern Pacific Railway (U.S.)).

Following the bankruptcy of the CNoR system and its subsequent nationalization by Canada's federal government under the Canadian National Railways (CNR), the DW&P was maintained as an important connection for CNR to the upper mid-western states.

During the post-war era, the DW&P line was upgraded to handle an increase in freight and unit train traffic, such as potash, lumber and paper.  In 1960 CNR changed its name to "Canadian National/Canadien National" (CN) and introduced a radical new paint scheme and logo.  At the same time, DW&P was changed to just DWP and given a logo of similar flowing design to the CN "noodle".  CN's other US subsidiary,  and Grand Trunk Western Railroad also underwent a similar name/acronym change to Grand Trunk Western (GT), as did the Central Vermont Railway.

The DW&P's primary passenger terminal in Duluth was via the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha's (Chicago & North Western) brick/stone structure at 5th Avenue West in the city's downtown area, not far from Duluth Union Depot (served by St. Paul & Duluth [Northern Pacific], Duluth & Iron Range, and Duluth, Missabe & Northern). The company eventually opened its own three-story facility in West Duluth during spring 1913 although it was only used as a secondary terminal, primarily housing offices while also maintaining mail/express business. Finally, trackage rights were secured over Northern Pacific for  to Rices Point Yard where it gained direct freight interchange points with NP and Milwaukee Road. Within just a few years of the "Peg's" opening, parent Canadian Northern found itself in dire financial straits. It was turned over to the government on September 6, 1918, and later nationalized as part of the Canadian National Railways, incorporated on June 6, 1919. The DW&P maintained a separate identity during this corporate reshuffling and later became part of CN's Grand Trunk Corporation formed on July 31, 1971, which maintained CN's American holdings.

DWP began to play an increasingly important role for CN in the 1990s, following the implementation of the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement (FTA), and later the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which contributed to increases in Canadian exports south and US imports north.  The DWP provided the most direct connection from CN's western Canadian trackage to the major US interchanges at Chicago, Illinois, however unlike rival Canadian Pacific Railway which had its own Soo Line Railroad subsidiary trackage to use, CN was forced to interchange with US railroads at Duluth, such as Great Northern (later Burlington Northern Railroad, later Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway) or Wisconsin Central Ltd.  In the mid-1990s, CN and WC entered into a formal agreement whereby WC agreed to haul CN trains to Chicago.

The mid-1990s also saw a major change in how US subsidiaries like DWP and GT fit into CN's corporate structure whereby in 1993–1994, CN changed the name of its entire system to "CN North America" (CNNA) and began a major locomotive and freight car repainting program which saw the GT and DWP logos and names disappear, with only the holding company "Grand Trunk Corporation" remaining on paper and legal documents.  In 1995, the CNNA experiment ended and the name "Canadian National/Canadien National" with the CN acronym returned, only system-wide in both countries.  On November 28, 1995, Canada's federal government privatized CN and its US subsidiaries.

In 2001, CN entered into an agreement to purchase WC entirely on October 21 of that year, providing CN with an "iron lariat" encircling the industrially-important Great Lakes Basin.  The only gap in CN's Winnipeg–Fort Frances/International Falls–Chicago mainline route was a short  section in Duluth where CN had to operate on the Duluth, Missabe and Iron Range Railway to reach WC trackage from the end of DWP trackage.  On May 10, 2004, CN purchased DMIR's parent company Great Lakes Transportation to give total control of the Winnipeg–Chicago corridor and remove the gap at Duluth between DWP and WC trackage.

Merger with Wisconsin Central

In December 2011, the Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway was merged into Wisconsin Central Ltd., which is also controlled by Canadian National Railway. This merger was intended to increase efficiency.

References

External links

 DWP page at CNLines SIG
 Canadian Freight Railcar Gallery - Duluth, Winnipeg & Pacific

Minnesota railroads
Former Class I railroads in the United States
Former regional railroads in the United States
Canadian National Railway subsidiaries
Predecessors of the Canadian Northern Railway
Railway companies established in 1909
Wisconsin railroads

Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway


Rujeko Hockley (born in Zimbabwe) is a New York–based US curator. Hockley is currently the Arnhold Associate Curator at the Whitney Museum of American Art at the Whitney Museum of American Art.

Life and education
Born in Harare, Zimbabwe, Hockley relocated to Washington, D.C., with her family at age two, and frequently spent time in New York and abroad, due to her parents' jobs in international development. Hockley received a B.A. in Art History from Columbia University. She attended graduate school from 2009 to 2012 at UC San Diego, where she is a Ph.D. Candidate.

Hockley is married to the conceptual artist Hank Willis Thomas.

Career
After her undergraduate education, Hockley worked as a curatorial assistant as the Studio Museum in Harlem where she worked for two years alongside Director Thelma Golden. After her work at the Studio Museum, Hockley moved to Southeast Asia for a year and a half to teach English. Once she came back to the states, Hockley applied to graduate art history and curatorial practice programs, attending UC San Diego from 2009 to 2012.

In 2012, Hockley became the Assistant Curator of Contemporary Art the Brooklyn Museum, a position she held for four years. While working at the Brooklyn Museum, Hockley worked on many exhibitions and related programming, including solo shows featuring LaToya Ruby Frazier, Kehinde Wiley, and Tom Sachs. In 2017, Hockley co-curate, with Catherine Morris, We Wanted a Revolution: Black Radical Women, 1965–85, a show dedicated to female artists of color, and their political and social efforts during second-wave feminism. The show received positive reviews.

In 2015, Hockley made artnet News's global list of 25 Women Curators Shaking Things Up and she was among Culture Magazine's 10 Young Curators to Watch in 2016.

In March 2017, the Whitney Museum of American Art hired Hockley as an Assistant Curator. Her first undertaking was to help curate "An Incomplete History of Protest: Selections From the Whitney's Collection, 1940–2017."

Rujeko Hockley and Jane Panetta curated the 2019 Whitney Biennial. The selections within the 75 artists in the show included primarily female, minority artists from the two coasts in the United States. When Panetta and Hockley were asked about their choice of including mostly younger minority artists, they discussed the many common threads they found among their choices including college debt struggles, gentrification and real estate issues.

Hockley serves on the board of Art Matters and Recess.

References

External links
Culture Type - Rujeko Hockley
Whitney Biennial 2019 - organized by Jane Panetta, associate curator, and Rujeko Hockley, assistant curator

Living people
American art curators
American women curators
People from Harare
People associated with the Whitney Museum of American Art
Year of birth missing (living people)
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Zimbabwean emigrants to the United States
21st-century American women
University of California, San Diego alumni
Women art historians

Rujeko Hockley


Robert J. Behnen (born May 8, 1966) is a genealogist and a former Republican member of the Missouri House of Representatives.  He currently resides with his wife, Michele McGuire, and their two children, John and Joseph, in Kirksville, Missouri.

He was born in St. Louis, Missouri, and graduated from Lindbergh High School.  He served in the United States Army achieving the rank of Sergeant (E-5) from 1984 through 1987, serving with the 1st Cavalry Division and the V Corps Inspector General.  He went on to get a B.A. degree from Truman State University in 1991, and an M.B.A. from William Woods University in 1996.  He is fluent in German, and owns a small business conducting German genealogical research.

He is a member of the Area Agency on Aging Senior Service Council, the Missouri Arts Council Cultural Trust Board, and the Missouri Humanities Council.  He is a former board member of the Kirksville Chamber of Commerce, a past president of the Kirksville R-III School Foundation, and president of the Kirksville Rotary Club.  He is a past secretary of the Knights of Columbus, and a past trustee of the Adair County Historical Society.  He is also a former board member of the Adair County Family YMCA.  He is a member of the Thousand Hills Bass Club, the National Wild Turkey Federation, and Ducks Unlimited.

He was first elected to the Missouri House of Representatives in 2000 and served three terms. He sought the 18th District seat in the State Senate in 2006, but was defeated by Wes Shoemeyer. In the election, his opposition ran an ad strongly hinting that Behnen received quid pro quo campaign contributions from beneficiaries of his insertion into an omnibus dentistry bill of provisions that would allow convicted felons to be licensed as bail bondsmen after fifteen years . Behnen has been quoted as saying, "...laws are made all the time to benefit one person. That's not uncommon at all."

Behnen served on the following committees:
Professional Registration and Licensing (chair)
Elementary and Secondary Education (vice chair)
Budget

References
Official Manual, State of Missouri, 2005-2006, Jefferson City, Office of the Secretary of the State of Missouri.

1966 births
Living people
Politicians from St. Louis
Republican Party members of the Missouri House of Representatives
Truman State University alumni
William Woods University alumni
United States Army soldiers
People from Kirksville, Missouri

Robert J. Behnen


The German Inland Waterways Museum (German: Museum der Deutschen Binnenschifffahrt) is located in Ruhrort, Duisburg at the nucleus of Duisburg-Ruhrorter ports, which today make up the largest European inland harbour complex.

The museum was founded in 1974 with the purchase of the museum ship Oscar Huber. In 1998 the museum was moved from the old town hall into the city's former indoor swimming facility, an Art Nouveau landmark which had been built in 1910, closed in 1986, and declared a protected historic site in 1988. The move allowed the museum the space to exhibit complete ships, as well as spurring redevelopment in the harbor area. The building conversion was designed by Architektur Fabrik Aachen (afa) and an American artist, Ron Bernstein, and made very little change to the building exterior while expanding the inner spaces to accommodate the exhibits. For example, a full-size sailing ship now occupies the former men's pool, while the second-story women's pool now houses a reconstructed barge.

References

External links

 Museum website (English)
 Museum website (German only)
 Museum Restaurant website (German only)

Buildings and structures in Duisburg
Culture in Duisburg
Ruhr
Museums in North Rhine-Westphalia
Maritime museums in Germany
Museums established in 1974
1974 establishments in West Germany
German Industrial Heritage Trail sites

German Inland Waterways Museum


Alberto Hurtado (; born Luis Alberto Hurtado Cruchaga on January 22, 1901 in Viña del Mar, Chile – August 18, 1952 in Santiago, Chile), popularly known in Chile as Padre Hurtado (Spanish for "Father Hurtado"), was a Chilean Jesuit priest, lawyer, social worker, and writer, of Basque ancestry. He founded the Hogar de Cristo foundation in 1944. He was canonized on October 23, 2005, by Pope Benedict XVI, becoming his country's second saint.

Early life and education
Alberto Hurtado was born in Viña del Mar, Chile, on January 22, 1901, to an aristocratic family. After the death of his father when Alberto was four years old, his mother, with just two small sons, decided to sell their large estate. Unfortunately the buyer defrauded her. The family, now impoverished, was forced to live with a succession of relatives.

From an early age, Hurtado experienced what it meant to be poor and without a home. Thanks to a scholarship, he was able to attend the prestigious, all-boys, Jesuit school of St. Ignacio, Santiago, Chile (1909–17). During this time, he volunteered at the Parroquia Nuestra Señora de Andacollo, Santiago, a Catholic parish and school in a poor neighborhood of Santiago, where he assisted in the office and was librarian. From 1918 to 1923, he attended the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, studying in its law school and writing his thesis on labour law. After interrupting his studies for obligatory military service, he earned his degree in August 1923.

Hurtado entered the Jesuit novitiate in 1923. In 1925 he went to Córdoba, Argentina, where he studied humanities. In 1927 he was sent to Barcelona, Spain, to study philosophy and theology. When the Jesuits were suppressed in Spain in 1931, he continued his studies in theology at Louvain, Belgium. He was ordained a priest there on August 24, 1933, and in 1935 he obtained a doctorate in pedagogy and psychology.

Educator
Before returning to Chile, Hurtado visited social and educational centers in Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. He returned to Chile in January 1936 and took up his post as professor of religion at Colegio San Ignacio and of Pedagogy at the Catholic University of Santiago. He was entrusted with the Sodality of Our Lady for the students, and he involved them in teaching catechism to the poor.

Conservative Catholics in Chile had difficulty accepting the church's social teachings. As late as 1931, the official organ of the party aligned with the church hierarchy refused to publish the papal encyclical Quadragesimo anno and considered it "an orientation directed to other parts of the world but not Chile."

In 1936, Hurtado authored an article entitled The Priesthood Crisis In Chile, which addressed the problem of the shortage of priests in Chile; his analysis was criticized as "exaggerated". He criticized the quality of catechism instruction offered in Chile and wrote that young men often signed up as catechists but lacked the necessary certificate.

Social apostolate

In 1940, Hurtado was appointed diocesan director of the Catholic Action youth movement and he served as its national director from 1941 to 1944. Also in 1941, Hurtado authored Is Chile a Catholic Country? The book published statistics demonstrating a lack of priests assigned to the working class and rural populations, and it reported on parishes that had one priest assigned to 10,000 laypeople spread across huge geographic areas. He advocated an increase in the number of priests and better education for them. Almost half of Chile's clergy were foreigners, including missionaries from the United States and Canada, who rode circuits of towns to administer the sacraments. Most Chileans regarded devotion to the Virgin and the saints as more important than attending Mass or receiving the Eucharist, which they could not do regularly.

In the book, Hurtado published the results of a 1939 survey of Chilean religious practices and reported that only 9% of Chilean women and 3.5% of Chilean men regularly attended Mass. The book was heavily criticised by more conservative Catholics, who accused Hurtado of being a Communist.

Keeping in mind his own origins, and ever grateful for the help he and his family had received when they were in great difficulties, Hurtado was led to active social involvement. His strong faith was transformed into action with his founding of an organization similar to Boys Town in the United States. His shelters, called Hogar de Cristo (Home of Christ), took in all children in need of food and shelter, abandoned or not. He also purchased a 1946 green pickup truck and monitored the streets at night to help those in need that he could reach. His own charisma brought him many collaborators and benefactors. The movement was a huge success. The shelters multiplied throughout Chile and it is estimated that between 1945 and 1951 more than 850,000 children received some help from the movement.

Labor movement and social doctrine of the church
In 1947, Hurtado entered the labor movement. Inspired by the social teaching of the church he founded the Chilean Trade Union Association, meant to train leaders and instill Christian values in the labor unions. He wrote three books: Social Humanism (1947), The Christian Social Order (1947) and Trade Unions (1950). He served as a confessor to the Falange Nacional, the precursor to the modern Christian Democratic Party. To disseminate the social teaching of the church and help Christians reflect and act on the serious social problems faced by Chile, he founded in 1951 the periodical Mensaje ("Message"). He published numerous articles and books on labor issues in relation to the Catholic faith.

Death
Deeply spiritual, Hurtado was untiring in his work for the workers and the youth, combining intellectual reflection and practical actions. Ever optimistic and joyful, he had also an attractive personality that brought many people to Christ and the Catholic Church, young and old, intellectuals and manual workers.

In 1952, Hurtado was stricken with intense pain and rushed to the hospital. He was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. Day after day the media kept the country informed of Hurtado's state of health. Before his death he had become a national hero. After a brief battle with the illness, he died in Santiago.

Veneration
Hurtado was beatified on October 16, 1994, by Pope John Paul II and canonized by Pope Benedict XVI on October 23, 2005. Hurtado was one of the first people to be elevated to sainthood during the papacy of Pope Benedict XVI; he was also the second Chilean saint, after Teresa of Los Andes.

Hurtado is one of the most popular and cherished saints in his country, Chile. An indication of his lasting popularity was the presence in Saint Peter's Square, on the day of Hurtado's canonization, of a very large contingent of Chilean people, led by the highest authorities of the country, starting with President Ricardo Lagos and some high-ranking Chilean politicians who actually had been Hurtado's students during his school teacher time, like Senator Gabriel Valdés.

Legacy

 The "Hogar de Cristo" he founded still exists, and through its fight for social justice, it has become one of the biggest charity groups in Chile.
  There is also an avenue and the San Alberto Hurtado metro station in Santiago (the closest to his main shrine, which also houses the Hogar's headquarters) named after him.
 Alberto Hurtado University, located in Santiago and run by the Society of Jesus, preserves his name and strives to bring his legacy into contemporary education and social affairs, facilitating activities through its Center for Reflection and Social Action (CREAS).
 St. Joseph's Preparatory School in Philadelphia, PA, established The Hurtado Food Pantry, where a team of high school students organizes monthly food collections and deliveries, sending out thousands of pounds of food to the community.
 Xavier High School in New York, New York, renamed a hall (in which a soup kitchen feeds over 900 meals every Sunday) and Seattle University has a Residential Learning Community named after him.
  Jesuit High School in Portland, Oregon, opens its empty classrooms in the evenings to an ESL program called The Hurtado Center.
 Belen Jesuit High School has started the Hurtado Experience for its ninth graders, taking them on retreats to help out the needy in Miami.
 The famous Jesuit boarding school Clongowes Wood College, Co. Kildare. Ireland, named their Bursary Programme after him in 2007. Ten percent (10%) of the student population are educated free in the interest of the school being socially just. This is not a scholarship but a bursary for students who would benefit most from a Clongowes education in the Jesuit tradition. Currently six years in Clongowes would cost €100800.00 ( 2011/2012 figures €16800 per annum ).
 Chilean historian Marciano Barrios Valdes considered the Catholic Action movement in Chile to be what sustained the Catholic Church's continued existence in Chile into the 1960s.
 The Jesuit run Rockhurst High School in Kansas City, Missouri, runs an accelerated learning program for inner-city, Catholic, middle school boys named "The Hurtado Scholars Program".
 Since 2006 the Press Club of Chile has presented the annual Alberto Hurtado Cruchaga Award () to people and institutions for service to the community in the field of journalism.
 Jesuit High School of Tampa Bay has a scholarship named after him for those students who serve in their community.
He is patron of the Novitiate of the USA Midwest province of the Society of Jesus.

Criticism
Members of the Conservative Party denounced what they saw as Hurtado's endorsement of the National Falange, a party founded after young social Catholics split from the conservative party. There were also attacks from the left. An anonymous article published in Policarpo in 1982 called Hurtado "the last prophet of the bourgeoisie" while it contrasts him unfavorably with the figure of Enrique Alvear who is hailed as the "first Pastor of the Church of the poor in Chile". Clotario Blest, who like Hurtado was also intellectually indebted to Fernando Vives, is reported to have distanced himself from Hurtado.

Media
During the 1990s there was a short TV series dedicated to him, named Crónica de un Hombre Santo (English: Chronicles of a Holy Man). Four actors portrayed Hurtado, from his childhood to his last years; popular telenovela actor Cristián Campos played the adult Hurtado during his ministry.

Hurtado remains very popular in Chile to this day. His Facebook fan page has more than 50,000 followers.

Main works
 ¿Es Chile un pais católico? (English: Is Chile a Catholic country?), Santiago (Chile), 1941.
 Humanismo social (English: Social humanism), Santiago (Chile), 1947.
 El orden social cristiano en los documentos de la jerarquía católica (English: Christian social order in the documents of the Catholic hierarchy), 2 vol., Santiago (Chile), 1947.
 Sindicalismo: historia-teoría-práctica (English: Syndicalism: History-Theory-Practice), Santiago (Chile), 1950.

See also

Bartolome Blanco Marquez, Youth leader of Catholic Action and martyr of the Spanish Civil War
Alberto Marvelli
Saint Alberto Hurtado, patron saint archive
San Alberto Hurtado metro station
Frederic Ozanam
Alberto Hurtado University

References

Bibliography
 CID, F.D.: El humanismo de Alberto Hurtado S.J., Santiago (Chile), 1975.
 LAVIN, A.: El P.Hurtado, amigo y apostol de los jovanes, Santiago (Chile), 1978.
 GILFEATHER, Katherine A.: Alberto Hurtado, a man after God's Heart, Santiago (Chile), 2004.

External links
 "Padre Hurtado" Documentation and Studies Center (Spanish)
 Padre Hurtado: Some of his writings and his biography (English)
 Fundación Padre Hurtado (Spanish)
 Hogar de Cristo (English)

Chilean Roman Catholic saints
20th-century Chilean Jesuits
Jesuit saints
Chilean people of Basque descent
Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968) alumni
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile alumni
Chilean trade unionists
1901 births
1952 deaths
People from Viña del Mar
Burials in Chile
20th-century Christian saints
Deaths from pancreatic cancer in Chile
Conservative Party (Chile) politicians
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Canonizations by Pope Benedict XVI
Venerated Catholics by Pope John Paul II
Hurtado

Alberto Hurtado


Robert E. Lee Taylor Jr. (June 8, 1913 – July 2, 2009) was an American publisher and chairman of the Philadelphia Bulletin in the years leading up to the paper's demise. He was jailed in 1963 for his refusal to testify before a grand jury about his paper's reporting, and was released after the Pennsylvania Supreme Court ruled that his actions were protected under the state's shield law.

Early life and education
Taylor was born in Norfolk, Virginia, and grew up in Baltimore, Maryland. He attended Princeton University, graduating in 1935. Taylor started work at the Philadelphia Bulletin after graduating from college — where his uncle Robert McLean was publisher, and owned the paper together with his brothers and sisters — and worked at the paper for nearly 40 years, other than during World War II, when he served in the United States Navy.

Philadelphia Bulletin
As the paper's president in 1963, he and other staff members at the Bulletin were ordered to testify before a grand jury investigating municipal corruption and were required to furnish details of the sources for the paper's stories. Upon refusing, Taylor and city editor Earl Selby were held in jail for contempt of court. By a 6–1 vote, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania overturned the sentences to five days in jail and a fine of $1,000, ruling that the state's 1937 shield law covered documents and individuals. In his majority opinion, Chief Justice John C. Bell Jr. stated that in cases where there is a doubt, "the statute must be liberally construed in favor of the newspaper and the media".

In March 1964, McClean stepped down as publisher, having served in that position since 1961, with Taylor succeeding him as publisher and keeping his post as the paper's president. At the time, the Bulletin daily circulation of 700,000 made it the city's largest and one of the largest of all afternoon papers nationwide. The ascendancy of The Philadelphia Inquirer combined with the loss of popularity of afternoon papers led to a significant drop in both advertisers and readership. McLean stepped down as chairman after 61 years at the paper in April 1975, and Taylor was named as his successor as chairman and chief executive officer, with William L. McLean 3rd named editor and publisher to succeed Taylor. In his role as chairman, he oversaw the paper's sale in 1981. The paper ceased publication as of January 29, 1982, after 135 years in business, having dominated its market for most of its life.

Personal life
Taylor died at age 96 on July 2, 2009, at his home in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. He was survived by two daughters, a son, six grandchildren and one great-grandchild. His two marriages, to Leonore McAlpin Shiland and Jane Matthews Jackson, both ended with the death of his spouse.

References

1913 births
2009 deaths
American newspaper publishers (people)
Businesspeople from Baltimore
People from Norfolk, Virginia
People from Montgomery County, Pennsylvania
Princeton University alumni
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Journalists imprisoned for refusing to reveal sources
Journalists from Pennsylvania
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists

Robert E. L. Taylor


François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 1694 – 30 Mey 1778), kent bi his nom de plume Voltaire (; ), wis a French Enlichtenment writer, historian, an philosopher famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Kirk, an his advocacy o freedom o religion, freedom o expression, an separation o kirk an state.

Voltaire wis a versatile writer, producin warks in awmaist every literary form, includin plays, poems, novelles, essays, an historical an scientific warks. He wrote mair nor 20,000 letters an mair nor 2,000 beuks an pamphlets. He wis an ootspoken advocate o ceevil liberties, despite the risk this placed him in unner the strict censorship laws o the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made uise o his warks tae criticise intolerance, religious dogma, an the French institutions o his day.

References

1694 births
1778 daiths
Writers frae Paris
Early Modren philosophers
French philosophers
Enlichtenment philosophers
Philosophers o sexuality
French dramatists an playwrichts
French historians
French poets
French essayists
French satirists
French fantasy writers
Members o the Académie française
Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni
Buirials at the Panthéon, Paris
Fowk o the Regency o Philippe d'Orléans
Fowk o the Ancien Régime
Anti-naitionalists
Age o Enlichtenment
French memoirists
Recipients o the Pour le Mérite (ceevil cless)
Critics o Islam
Critics o Judaism
Critics o releegions
Members o the Proushie Academy o Sciences
Fellaes o the Ryal Society
Pseudonymous writers
French Freemasons
17t-century French fowk
18t-century French writers
18t-century philosophers
Critics o the Catholic Kirk
Critics o Christianity

Voltaire


Shahbano Bilgrami is a writer, editor, poet, and book/film reviewer.

Biography
Though born in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, Shahbano spent her early life in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Due to her interest in literature, she was awarded a variety of prizes in essay and creative-writing contests throughout high school. In 1991, she and her family moved back to her country of origin, where she completed her A Levels. Shahbano then went on to the University of London to complete a BA Honours in English and an MA in Twentieth Century Literature from King's College London. She has lived in Morgantown, West Virginia with her husband and two daughters since 2002.

During her eight years at the Karachi branch of the Oxford University Press, she was an editor and writer for the Education Division. While working there, she wrote and contributed to many textbooks aimed at children.

In 1997, her poetry was published in An Anthology, by the Oxford University Press. It is a collection of poetry written by poets of Pakistani origin. Without Dreams, Shahbano's first full-length novel, has been placed on the longlist for the Man Asian Literary Prize 2007.

Awards and honours
2007, longlisted, Man Asian Literary Prize

References

Sources
Harper Collins Biography
Man Asia Literary Prize Biography
A book review by Shahbano Bilgrami

1973 births
Living people
Alumni of King's College London
Pakistani women writers
People from Rawalpindi District

Shahbano Bilgrami


James Bentley is an actor who was born on 14 July 1992. He won a Young Artist Award for playing Nicholas Stewart in the 2001 psychological horror film The Others.

In 2004, Bentley played Michael Sellers in The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, Young Nero in Imperium: Nero and a double for John Sessions in Stella Street.

Bentley won the Nottingham New Theatre award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in 2013. He found further success in 2014 when he won the award for a second time running. In 2015 he became a fellow of the aforementioned theatre.

He is currently a backstage manager, his most previous engagement being 'Half a Sixpence'.

References

External links

American male child actors
1992 births
Living people
21st-century American male actors

James Bentley (actor)


The Mangfall Mountains (), or sometimes Mangfall Alps, are the easternmost part of the Bavarian Prealps that, in turn, belong to the Northern Limestone Alps. The name comes from the river Mangfall, whose tributaries, the Rottach, Weißach, Schlierach and Leitzach, drain large parts of the area and form an important drinking water reservoir for the city of Munich.

Geography

Location
The mountain region is bounded by the Isar valley in the west, the Inn valley in the east, the Brandenberg Alps (the Rofan) and the Austrian state border in the south. North of the Mangfalls lies the Alpine Foreland. The region has an area of  752.40 km²  or, by narrower definitions, only 333 km².

The Mangfall Mountains are divided into the Tegernsee Mountains (from the Isar to the line Tegernsee−Rottach−Weiße Valepp), Schliersee Mountains (to the Leitzach valley) and the Wendelstein Group (between the Leitzach glacial valley and the Inn valley).

Peaks
The highest peak in the Mangfalls is the Rotwand at , one of the most popular local mountains for Munich's citizens at all times of the year. The Wendelstein lies a few kilometres further northeast of the Rotwand, but is separated from it by a valley. Another popular destination is the Brünnstein.

These and the other main peaks in the Mangfall Mountains are (sorted by height in metres (m) above Normalnull (NN):
 Rotwand (1.884 m), Miesbach district
 Großer Traithen (1.852 m), Rosenheim district
 Wendelstein (1.838 m), Rosenheim district
 Risserkogel (1.826 m), Miesbach district
 Schinder (1.808 m), Miesbach district
 Ruchenköpfe (1.805 m), Miesbach district
 Plankenstein (1.768 m), Miesbach district
 Kaserwand (1.690 m), Rosenheim district
 Brecherspitz (1.683 m), Miesbach district
 Monte Scanapà (1.669 m), Rosenheim district
 Hochsalwand (1.625 m), Rosenheim district
 Brünnstein (1.619 m), Rosenheim district
 Seebergkopf (1.538 m), Rosenheim district
 Großer Riesenkopf (1.337 m)
 Madron (942 m), Rosenheim district
 Petersberg (847 m), Rosenheim district

Lakes
Like the Alps as a whole, the Mangfall Mountains were heavily affected by the last ice age (Würm glaciation). For example, lakes like the Tegernsee, and the typical U-shaped valleys were formed by glaciers.

References

External links

Miesbach (district)
Bavarian Prealps
Mountain ranges of Bavaria

Mangfall Mountains


Edward Albert Shils (1 July 1910 – 23 January 1995) was a Distinguished Service Professor in the Committee on Social Thought and in Sociology at the University of Chicago and an influential sociologist. He was known for his research on the role of intellectuals and their relations to power and public policy. His work was honored in 1983 when he was awarded the Balzan Prize. In 1979, he was selected by the National Council on the Humanities to give the Jefferson Lecture, the highest award given by the U.S. federal government for distinguished intellectual achievement in the humanities.

Education
Shils grew up in Philadelphia, where he went to high school. Though he taught sociology and social thought, he did not have a formal degree in those fields. His undergraduate degree, from the University of Pennsylvania, was in French literature. He came to the attention of Louis Wirth, a distinguished sociologist at the University of Chicago, who hired Shils as a research assistant. Thereafter, Shils became recognized as an outstanding teacher in the field of sociology. His knowledge of the literatures of numerous cultures and fields was deemed to be impressive. He taught sociology, social philosophy, English literature, history of Chinese science and other subjects.

Career
A specialist in the thought of sociologist Max Weber, he translated works by Weber and by sociologist Karl Mannheim into English.  He served with the British Army and the United States Office of Strategic Services during World War II. Upon returning to Chicago, he was appointed Associate Professor in 1947, and Professor in 1950. In 1971, he was named Distinguished Service Professor.

For many years, Shils held joint appointments at Chicago and other universities. He was: reader in sociology at the London School of Economics from 1946 to 1950; a fellow of King's College, Cambridge, from 1961 to 1970; a fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge, from 1970 to 1978; and an honorary professor in social anthropology at the University of London from 1971 to 1977. He was named an honorary fellow at the London School of Economics in 1972 and an honorary fellow at Peterhouse in 1979. He was also a professor at the University of Leiden from 1976 to 1977.

He attempted to bridge the research traditions of German and American sociology. At Chicago, he attracted leading European scholars to teach at the University, including Arnaldo Momigliano, Raymond Aron and the British sinologist Michael Loewe, among others. Professor Shils was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.

Personal life
Edward Shils married the historian Irene Coltman in England towards the end of 1951.   Edward Shils and Irene Coltman had a son. They divorced. Shils died in January 1995. He was survived by his son and daughter-in-law, Adam and Carrie Shils of Chicago; a grandson, Sam Shils; and a nephew, Edward Benjamin Shils, professor emeritus at the University of Pennsylvania  A large photo of Shils hangs in the Shils Reading Room at the University of Chicago's Social Science Research Building.

Shils had a fraught relationship with Saul Bellow, a colleague at the University of Chicago who also served on the Committee on Social Thought. Shils served as his "mentor, character model and editor" and figures prominently in many of Bellow's novels, including Mr. Sammler's Planet (Artur Sammler), Humboldt's Gift (Professor Durnwald), and Ravelstein (Rakhmiel Kogon). Artur Sammler and Professor Durnwald are both described glowingly, but in Ravelstein the Shils character is treated with "animosity [that] reaches lethal proportions" following a falling out between the two. He also had a poor relationship with Alfred Kazin, with Joseph Epstein describing how he refused to have anything written by Kazin in his home and saying "I don't want that Jew in my house" (although Shils himself was also Jewish).

Bibliography

Own works

The Intellectual Between Tradition and Modernity: The Indian Situation (1961)
Theories of Society: Foundations of Modern Sociological Theory, Two Volumes in One, with Jesse R. Pitts, Talcott Parsons (Editor), & Kaspar D. Naegele, New York: The Free Press (1961)
The Calling of Sociology, and Other Essays on the Pursuit of Learning (1980)
Tradition  (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981)
The Constitution of Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982)
The Academic Ethic (1984).

 Portraits: A Gallery of Intellectuals. Edited by Joseph Epstein  (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997)

Critical studies, reviews and biography

Translations

See also
 Chicago school (sociology)

Notes

References
Joseph Epstein, My Friend Edward

External links
 Shils Obituary at Chicago Chronicle, 1995
 In Memoriam by Hugh Trevor-Roper, The New Criterion
 Editor's Notes re Shils, University of Chicago Magazine, June 1997

1910 births
1995 deaths
Academics of the London School of Economics
Academics of the University of London
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
20th-century American Jews
American sociologists
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Fellows of Peterhouse, Cambridge
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Academic staff of Leiden University
People from Springfield, Massachusetts
Quadrant (magazine) people
University of Chicago faculty

Edward Shils


Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (; 12 December 1934 – 1 April 2012) was a Mexican politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who served as the 59th president of Mexico from 1982 to 1988.

Inheriting a severe economic and financial crisis from his predecessor José López Portillo as a result of the international drop in oil prices and a crippling external debt on which Mexico had defaulted months before he took office, De la Madrid introduced sweeping neoliberal policies to overcome the crisis, beginning an era of market-oriented presidents in Mexico, along with austerity measures involving deep cuts in public spending. In spite of these reforms, De la Madrid's administration continued to be plagued by negative economic growth and inflation for the rest of his term, while the social effects of the austerity measures were particularly harsh on the lower and middle classes, with real wages falling to half of what they were in 1978 and with a sharp rise in unemployment and in the informal economy by the end of his term.

De la Madrid's administration was also famous for his "Moral Renovation" campaign, whose purported goal was to fight the government corruption that had become widespread under previous administrations, leading to the arrests of top officials of the López Portillo administration.

In addition, his administration was criticized for its slow response to the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, and the handling of the controversial 1988 elections in which the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari was declared winner, amid accusations of electoral fraud.

Early life and education
Miguel de la Madrid was born in the city of Colima, Colima, Mexico. He was the son of Miguel de la Madrid Castro, a notable lawyer (who was assassinated when his son was only two), and Alicia Hurtado Oldenbourg. His grandfather was Enrique Octavio de la Madrid, the governor of Colima.

He graduated with a bachelor's degree in law from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and received a master's degree in Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, in the United States.

In 1953, he was introduced to Paloma Cordero by her older brother. The couple began dating in 1955 and married four years later at the Santa Rosa de Lima Church in Cuauhtémoc in 1959. Cordera and de la Madrid had five children - Margarita, Miguel, Enrique Octavio, Federico Luis and Gerardo Antonio.

Early career
He worked for the Bank of Mexico and lectured in law at UNAM before he got a position at the Secretariat of Finance in 1965. Between 1970 and 1972, he was employed by , Mexico's state-owned petroleum company, after which he held several other bureaucratic posts in the government of Luis Echeverría. In 1979, he was chosen to serve in José López Portillo's cabinet as Secretary of Budget and Planning, replacing Ricardo García Sainz.

1982 election

De la Madrid had no political experience as an elected official prior to becoming the candidate for the PRI. In the assessment of political scientist Jorge G. Castañeda, López Portillo designated De la Madrid as a candidate by elimination, not by choice, and that  De la Madrid remained in contention as a candidate because he was never the bearer of bad news to the president.  Other contenders were Javier García Paniagua and David Ibarra Muñoz. When his candidacy was revealed, his "candidacy was greeted with unusual hostility from some sectors of the political establishment--an indication of the emerging rift between the old políticos and emerging technocrats." De la Madrid did not run against a strong opposition candidate. His campaign rhetoric emphasized traditional liberal values of representation, federalism, strengthening of the legislature and the judiciary. There was massive turnout in the election, for the first time in many years, voting overwhelmingly for De la Madrid.

Presidency
De la Madrid inherited the financial catastrophe from his predecessor; Mexico experienced per capita negative growth for his entire term. De la Madrid's handling of the devastating 1985 Mexico City earthquake was his own major misstep. The end of his administration was even worse, with his choice of Carlos Salinas de Gortari as his successor, the split in the PRI with the exit of Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, and the government's handling of balloting with election results deemed fraudulent. His administration did have some bright spots, with Mexico's becoming a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1985. Mexico also was part of the Contadora process to find a solution of the conflicts in Central America.

Economic policy

Unlike previous Mexican leaders, he was a market-oriented president. Inflation increased on an average of 100% a year and reached to an unprecedented level of 159% in 1987. The underemployment rate soared to 25% during the mid-1980s, income declined, and economic growth was erratic since prices rose usually much faster than incomes.

All that was a stark reminder of the gross mismanagement and policies of his two immediate predecessors, particularly the financing of development with excessive overseas borrowing, which was often countered by high internal capital flights. De la Madrid himself had been Minister of Budget and Programming under López Portillo, and as such he was perceived by many as being co-responsible for the crisis that he himself had to deal with upon taking office.
As an immediate reaction to the economic crisis, he first presented the Immediate Economic Reorganization Program (Programa Inmediato de Reordenación Económica) and, a couple of months later, the National Development Plan (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo). Some of the measures proposed were a reduction of public spending, fiscal reforms, a restructuring of the bureaucracy, and employment protection.

During his presidency, De la Madrid introduced neoliberal economic reforms that encouraged foreign investment, widespread privatization of state-run industries, and reduction of tariffs, a process that continued under his successors, and which immediately caught the attention of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other international observers. In January 1986, Mexico entered the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) following its efforts at reforming and decentralizing its economy. The number of state-owned industries went down from approximately 1,155 in 1982 to 412 in 1988. De la Madrid re-privatized companies that had been made state-run under his predecessors. He sought better public-private sector relations, but the private sector began backing opposition candidates nonetheless. Given the dire economic circumstances he inherited from his predecessor, he pursued policies of economic austerity, rather than deficit spending.

Domestic elections

President De la Madrid initially stated that further democratization of the country was necessary, and the political system opened up to greater competition.  As other parties showed the potential for their electoral success, however, his attitude later seemed to be hostile to the advance of opposition parties, instead allowing the PRI to maintain near-absolute power of the country (at the time, the PRI still governed all of the Mexican states plus the Federal District, in addition to holding 299 of the 400 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 63 of the 64 seats in the Senate). However, it was during his administration that the opposition National Action Party (also known as "PAN" for its initials in Spanish) started to become popular with the masses, especially in Northern Mexico.

In 1983, during the municipal elections in the northern state of Chihuahua, the PAN won the state's nine biggest Municipalities, which held 70% of its population. The border state had been one of the most affected by the government's policies, specially the nationalization of the Bank decreed in the last months of former President López Portillo's administration. Rather than accepting that the unpopularity and corruption of the PRI in Chihuahua had led to such a defeat, the local PRI bosses claimed that the Catholic Church, the local businessmen and even "foreign influences" had persuaded voters to support the PAN. Most importantly, the local PRI stated that the electoral defeat was a "tragic disaster" that should never be repeated.

The 1986 gubernatorial elections in that same state [es] were marked by accusations of Electoral fraud. Although the PRI candidate, Fernando Baeza, was officially pronounced winner, the PAN candidate Francisco Barrio Terrazas, who officially ended in second place with 35.16% of the vote (at the time, the biggest percentage of votes that an opposition candidate had earned in Chihuahua) did not recognize the results, and the PAN promoted acts of civil disobedience to resist the alleged fraud. Many other local elections were marked by accusations of fraud in those years, sometimes ending with violent clashes. In some small municipalities of Veracruz and Oaxaca, the local population even seized or burned the local Town halls in response to alleged electoral frauds.

Electoral reform
In response to these controversies, an electoral reform was conducted in 1986:
 The number of members of the Chamber of Deputies being elected by proportional representation (plurinominales) was increased from 100 to 200 and allowed for a better representation of opposition parties.
 The Senate is composed of two senators from each state and two from the Federal District of Mexico. An election of half of its members takes place every three years.
 The Legislative Assembly of the Federal District of Mexico was created.

Attempt to legalize abortion
Since his campaign for the presidency, De la Madrid had mentioned the importance of discussing the topic of abortion, given the high national demographic growth and the scarce resources that the country had to deal with the necessities of an ever-growing population, specially in the middle of the economic crisis.

Upon becoming President, De la Madrid and the Attorney General Sergio García Ramírez attempted to reform the Penal Code of the Federal District to decriminalize abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy "due to failure of the contraceptive methods, fetal alterations and pregnancies due to rape, with previous medical authorization and carried out at a hospital center". However, due to the highly negative reaction of the Catholic church and the conservative sectors, the initiative was finally withdrawn.

1984 Molotov cocktail attack
On 1 May 1984, an anti-government activist named José Antonio Palacios Marquina, along with others, threw Molotov cocktails at the balcony of the Presidential Palace, where De la Madrid was reviewing the May Day parade. Although the President was unharmed, the incident left many officials and guests injured, including the then-director of the ISSTE, Alejandro Carrillo.

San Juanico explosions

On 19 November 1984, a massive series of explosions occurred at a liquid petroleum gas (LPG) tank farm in the town of San Juan Ixhuatepec (outside of Mexico City, Mexico).
The disaster was initiated by a gas leak on the site, likely caused by a pipe rupture during transfer operations, which caused a plume of LPG to concentrate at ground level for 10 minutes. The plume eventually grew large enough to drift on the wind towards the west end of the site, where the facility's waste-gas flare pit was located. The explosions devastated the town of San Juan Ixhuatepec, and resulted in 500-600 deaths and 7,000 people with severe injuries.

The tragedy sparked a national outrage, and President De la Madrid visited the affected area on 20 November. He instructed the creation of a commission to help the survivors and to rebuild the destroyed homes. On 22 December, the Procuraduría General de Justicia found the state-run oil company Pemex to be responsible for the incident, and was ordered to pay indemnification to the victims. Due to the tragedy apparently having been caused by corruption and incompetence at the state-run company, the public further resented the Government and public institutions.

1985 Earthquake

In the morning of 19 September 1985, an 8.0 magnitude earthquake devastated Mexico City and caused the deaths of at least 5,000 people. De La Madrid's mishandling of the disaster damaged his popularity because of his initial refusal of international aid. It placed Mexico's delicate path to economic recovery in an even more precarious situation, as the destruction extended to other parts of the country.

The federal government's first public response was President de la Madrid's declaration of a period of mourning for three days starting from 20 September 1985.

De la Madrid initially refused to send the military to assist on the rescue efforts, and it was later deployed to patrol streets only to prevent looting after a curfew was imposed.

The earthquake created many political difficulties for the then-ruling Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) or Institutional Revolutionary Party. The crisis was severe enough to have tested the capabilities of wealthier countries, but the government from local PRI bosses to President de la Madrid himself exacerbated the problem aside from the lack of money. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared it would not request aid.

It was also widely reported in the days after the earthquake that the military assisted factory owners in retrieving their machinery rather than in removing the bodies of dead factory workers.

President de la Madrid was also criticized for refusing to cut foreign debt payments to use the money to help with the recovery effort (at the time, his administration destined around 30% of the federal budget towards the payments of the foreign debt). The government's response to the earthquake was widely criticized at various levels of Mexican society, being seen as both authoritarian and incompetent. As most of the collapsed buildings were of recent construction and public works projects, the government was seen at fault due to mismanagement and corruption in these constructions. The government itself realized that it could not handle the crisis alone through already-established institutions and decided to open the process up to "opposition groups".

1986 FIFA World Cup

During his administration, Mexico hosted the 1986 FIFA World Cup. There were some protests against the tournament, as Mexico was going through an economic crisis at the time and the country was still recovering from the 1985 earthquake, therefore the World Cup was considered by many as a lavish and unnecessary expense. During the World Cup's inauguration at the Estadio Azteca on 31 May, De la Madrid was jeered by a crowd of 100,000 while trying to give a speech, apparently in protest over his administration's poor reaction to the 1985 earthquake. An official who was present at the event recalled that "[The President's] words were completely drowned out by boos and whistles [...] I was dying with embarrassment, but it seemed to be the right metaphor for the mood of the country."

Split in the PRI
In October 1986, a group of politicians from the  Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, Porfirio Muñoz Ledo and Ifigenia Martínez, announced the creation of the Democratic Current (Corriente Democrática) within the PRI. The Democratic Current demanded the establishment of clear rules for the selection of the party's presidential candidate. When they failed, Cárdenas, Muñoz Ledo and Martínez left the PRI the following year and created the National Democratic Front (Frente Democrático Nacional), a loose alliance of left-wing parties.

Drug trafficking

As the U.S. consumption of illegal substances grew in the 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. became interested in strengthening enforcement of drug trafficking in Mexico.  In the 1980s U.S. Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush expanded the so-called "war on drugs" to stop drugs at ports of entry from Mexico.  More importantly, the U.S. began asserting extraterritorial jurisdiction over drug trafficking in Mexican national territory.  The crackdown on drug trafficking resulted in higher prices for drugs, since there was more risk involved, but trafficking in this era boomed.  Drug trafficking organizations in Mexico grew in size and strength.  As the U.S. asserted jurisdiction over trafficking in Mexico, Mexico could no longer pursue an autonomous drug policy. Agents of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) began operating in Mexico without the consent of Mexican authorities.  "In 1987, De la Madrid declared drug trafficking a national security problem and completely reorganized Mexican antidrug policy" and more government financial and personnel resources were devoted to the policy. Arrests in 1987 for drug trafficking reached 17,000. Front-line enforcement agents of the Mexican police were often corrupted by bribes from drug traffickers. Violence between traffickers and the police increased in this period.  A major incident in the drug war and in U.S.-Mexican relations was the kidnap, torture, and murder of DEA agent Enrique "Kiki" Camarena in 1985. In 1984, the Mexican government had staged a raid on a suspected site of drug trafficking in Chihuahua state.  Traffickers suspected Camarena of providing information to the Mexican government and he was abducted in February 1985, tortured and killed; his body was found a month later. The U.S. responded by sending a special unit of the DEA to coordinate the investigation in Mexico. In the investigation, Mexican government officials were implicated, including Manuel Ibarra Herrera, past director of Mexican Federal Judicial Police, and Miguel Aldana Ibarra, the former director of Interpol in Mexico. Drug trafficking as an issue has continued in Mexico in succeeding presidential administrations.

Foreign policy

In 1983, the Contadora Group was launched by Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Mexico to promote peace in Latin America and to deal with the armed conflicts in El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala.

On 31 March 1986, the Mexicana Flight 940 crashed in the state of Michoacán, killing everyone on board. Initially, two Middle Eastern terrorist groups claimed responsibility for this crash, along with the bombing of TWA Flight 840, which occurred just two days later. An anonymous letter signed by those groups claimed that a suicide mission had sabotaged the plane in retaliation against the United States. However, sabotage was later dismissed as a cause of the crash, and the investigations carried out by the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board and Mexican aeronautical authorities concluded that the cause of the accident was that the center landing gear tire was filled with compressed air, instead of nitrogen.

1988 election

Galloping inflation, the controversial privatization program and austerity measures imposed by his administration caused the ruling party to lose ground, leading up to the controversial elections of 1988.  In the assessment of political scientist Roderic Ai Camp, "It would be fair to say that the election of Carlos Salinas de Gortari in 1988 marked the low point of that office as well as the declining legitimacy of the state." In 1987, an internal conflict led to a division in the PRI, as President De la Madrid, like previous PRIísta Presidents had traditionally done, handpicked his successor for the Presidency and appointed the Secretary of Budget and Programming, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, as the PRI candidate for the 1988 elections. A group of left-wing PRI politicians, led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (the son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas) and Porfirio Muñoz Ledo, protested Salinas' appointment as they demanded that the PRI should put an end to the practice of the President choosing his own successor, and proposed that the PRI Presidential candidate should be democratically chosen by all of the PRI members through a convention. They also claimed that President De la Madrid had gone too far with his austerity and free-market reforms, and that his protégée Salinas represented a continuation of such policies. After many public discussions and proposals, the leadership of the PRI stood by President De la Madrid and confirmed Salinas as the party's presidential candidate, while expelling Cárdenas and Muñoz Ledo from the PRI, along with their followers.

For the first time since the PRI took power in 1929, the elections featured two strong opposition candidates with enough popularity to beat the PRI candidate. On one hand, after he and Muñoz Ledo were expelled from the PRI, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas was nominated presidential candidate by the Frente Democrático Nacional, a coalition of leftist parties. Cárdenas attained massive popularity as result of his efforts at democratizing the PRI, his successful tenure as Governor of Michoacán, his opposition to the austerity reforms and his association with his father's nationalist policies. On the other hand, the right-wing opposition party PAN nominated Manuel Clouthier as their presidential candidate. A businessman-turned-politician, Clouthier became popular, specially in Northern Mexico, for his populist rhetoric and his dennouncement of the political establishment and the media.

On Election Day 1988, the computer system used to count the votes shut down, as Cárdenas held an initial lead. That event is remembered by the phrase se cayó el sistema ("the system crashed"). When the system was restored, Carlos Salinas was declared the winner. The expression "se cayó el sistema" became a euphemism for electoral fraud. All the opposition candidates refused to recognize the official results and claimed that a massive electoral fraud had been orchestrated by the government. Nevertheless, Salinas was confirmed by the Chamber of Deputies, controlled by the PRI, as the winner.

Post-presidency

Director of Fondo de Cultura Económica
After completing his term, he became the director of the Fondo de Cultura Económica (FCE) in 1990. He implanted modernization programs in production and administration. It incorporated the most advanced techniques in book publishing and graphic arts and maintained the openness and plurality features in the publication policy of the company.

On 4 September 1992, he inaugurated the new facilities, on 227 Picacho-Ajusco Road. Surrounded by garden and offices, it hosts cultural unity Jesús Silva Herzog, the Gonzalo Robles Library, which houses the growing publishing history of the Fund, and the seller Alfonso Reyes.

On the international scene in 1990, the existing facilities were remodeled subsidiaries. The presence of the Economic Culture Fund acquired a larger projection in the Americas: on 7 September 1990, the subsidiary in San Diego, California, was founded. On 21 June 1991 Seller Azteca opened its doors in São Paulo, Brazil. In 1994 FCE facilities were inaugurated in Venezuela, and in 1998, another subsidiary was established in Guatemala. This Thus, the FCE reached a significant presence in Latin America with nine subsidiaries: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Spain, United States, Guatemala, Peru and Venezuela.

In publishing field, under his direction, 21 new collections were launched: in 1990, Keys (Argentina) in 1991, A la Orilla del Viento, Mexican Codices, University Science and Special Editions of At the Edge of the wind; in 1992, Breviary of Contemporary Science (Argentina) and New Economic Culture, in 1993 Library Prospective, Mexican Library, Library Cervantes Prize (Spain), and History of the Americas Trust and Cruises, in 1994, Word of Life and Indians A Vision of America and the Modernization of Mexico; Files, Sunstone (Peru), Entre Voces, Reading and Designated Fund 2000; Encounters (Peru) History of Mexico, and five periodicals: Galeras Fund, Periolibros, Images, Spaces for Reading and the Fund page.

During his administration, the FCE received several awards, among them: in 1992, FILIJ Book Award (CNCA) to children's books, in 1993 Golden Laurel Award (Department of Culture of the City of Madrid) in 1993, honorable mention Juan García Bacca (Peruvian Cultural Association) Award, and Gold Aztec Calendar (Mexican Association of Radio and Television). In 1994 and 1995 Award Book Bank of Venezuela for children's books.

The Spanish Council for Latin American Studies, distinguished him for his contributions to the development of reading in the Spanish language, received in 1997 the IUS Award by the Faculty of Law of the UNAM, and in 1998 the government of France awarded him the Academic Palms in rank of Commander for his contribution to cultural development. In 1999, Mr. De la Madrid received the medal Picasso Gold (UNESCO), for their work on the diffusion of Latin American culture.

Controversial statements
De la Madrid made headlines in May 2009 after a controversial interview with journalist Carmen Aristegui. During the interview, he said that his choice of Carlos Salinas de Gortari to succeed him in the Presidency had been a mistake and that he felt "very disappointed" in his successor, lamenting the widespread corruption of the Salinas administration. De la Madrid then directly accused Salinas of having stolen the money of the Presidential slush fund, and also accused his brother Raúl Salinas de Gortari of having ties to drug lords.

Only two hours after the interview had been broadcast, a group of PRI leaders, including Emilio Gamboa Patrón, Ramón Aguirre, Francisco Rojas, and De la Madrid's sons Enrique and Federico, arrived at De la Madrid's home and reportedly asked him to retract his statements, arguing that they could damage the party. As a result, on the same day De la Madrid issued a statement retracting the comments he had made during the interview with Aristegui, claiming that due to his advanced age and his poor health, he was not able to "correctly process" the questions.

Death
De la Madrid died on 1 April 2012, at 7:30 am in a Mexican hospital, following a lengthy hospitalization due to complications from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which led to acute kidney injury and cardiac arrest.

Public image and legacy
Unlike his predecessors (specially Luis Echeverría and José López Portillo), President De la Madrid was noted for making relatively few speeches and keeping a more reserved and moderate public image. Although that has been attributed to a strategy to break with his predecessors' populist legacies, President De la Madrid's public image was considered "gray". This perception worsened with his government's slow response to the 1985 Earthquake, when President De la Madrid also rejected International aid in the immediate aftermath of the tragedy.

President De la Madrid's biggest legacy may have been his implementation of economic neoliberal reforms in Mexico, breaking with decades of economic nationalism, and beginning mass privatization of state-run companies, a process which would be further deepened during the administration of his successor, Carlos Salinas de Gortari. De la Madrid was also the first of the so-called Technocrats to become president. On the other hand, those reforms and his unwillingness to allow a primary election to choose the PRI candidate for the 1988 Presidential elections are credited as the factors which led to the split of the party in 1987, with Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas and Porfirio Muñoz Ledo founding the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD by its initials in Spanish) in 1989, taking a great number of former priístas with them.

Under his "Moral Renovation" campaign, his administration attempted to fight corruption at all Government levels, fulfilling Mexico's foreign debt compromises, and creating the Secretaría de la Contraloría General de la Federación (Secretariat of the General Inspectorate of the Federation) to guarantee fiscal discipline and to keep an eye on possible corrupt officials. Nevertheless, his administration still had some corruption scandals of its own, the most notorious being the murder of journalist Manuel Buendía in 1984 by agents of the Federal Security Directorate (Buendía had been investigating possible ties between Drug cartels, the CIA and the FSD itself). De la Madrid shut down the FSD in 1985, although in its place similar Intelligence agencies would be created in subsequent years.

Finally, his administration's handling of the 1986 elections in Chihuahua and, specially, the 1988 Presidential elections, remains highly controversial.

In a 1998 interview for a documentary produced by Clío TV about his administration, De la Madrid himself concluded:

"What hurts me the most, is that those years of economic adjustment and structural change, were also characterized by a deterioration of the income distribution, a depression of the real wages, and an insufficient creation of jobs. In summary, by a deterioration of the social conditions."

In a national survey conducted in 2012, 36% of the respondents considered that the De la Madrid administration was "very good" or "good", 26% responded that it was an "average" administration, and 30% responded that it was a "very bad" or "bad" administration.

See also

 List of presidents of Mexico
 History of Mexico
 Politics of Mexico

References

Further reading
Castañeda, Jorge G. Perpetuating Power: How Mexican Presidents Were Chosen. New York: The New Press 2000.
Krauze, Enrique, Mexico: Biography of Power. New York: HarperCollins 1997.

External links

 Biography by CIDOB  (in Spanish)

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Presidents of Mexico

Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians
20th-century Mexican lawyers
1934 births
2012 deaths
National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni
Academic staff of the National Autonomous University of Mexico
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Politicians from Colima City
Members of the Order of Jamaica
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Grand Crosses with Diamonds of the Order of the Sun of Peru
20th-century Mexican politicians
Neoliberalism
Respiratory disease deaths in Mexico
Deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Miguel de la Madrid


Benjamin Franklin Grussendorf, Jr. (February 23, 1942 – June 17, 2011) was an educator and Democratic politician from the U.S. state of Alaska.  Grussendorf represented Sitka, Alaska (where he lived for most of his life) and surrounding areas for ten terms in the Alaska House of Representatives, and remains one of the body's longest-serving members.  He also served as Speaker of the House, becoming the first person to be elected to that office for three terms.

Early life
Benjamin Franklin Grussendorf, Jr. was born in Grand Rapids, Minnesota, to Fern (née Ross) and Benjamin Franklin Grussendorf.  He grew up there, where his father was a judge.  He received a M.A. degree from the University of Minnesota.  He moved to Sitka, Alaska, in 1966, where he worked as a teacher at Sitka High School and instructor in political science at Sitka Community College.

Political career

Local politics in Sitka
Grussendorf entered politics when he served on Sitka's charter commission in 1971, responsible for merging the City of Sitka and the Greater Sitka Borough into today's City and Borough of Sitka.  From there, he served on the new municipality's Assembly and was deputy vice mayor.  He was mayor of Sitka from 1975 to 1979, also serving as president of the Alaska Conference of Mayors.

State legislature
Grussendorf originally ran for the Alaska House in 1972, unsuccessfully challenging appointed incumbent Edward Flynn in the primary election.  Howard C. Bradshaw, Sitka's senator since statehood, resigned in late 1971 to become the director of the Sitka Pioneer Home.  Sitka's representative, H. D. "Pete" Meland, was appointed to replace Bradshaw, with Flynn appointed to replace Meland.  Flynn would lose in the general election to Republican nominee Richard Irving "Dick" Eliason, a former Sitka mayor who was originally elected to the seat in 1968 by 54 votes over Democratic incumbent Frank Getman, before losing reelection to Meland in 1970 by 22 votes.

Grussendorf again ran for the House in 1980, this time for an open seat, as Meland retired and Eliason ran for his Senate seat.  Grussendorf would serve ten terms in the House, from 1981 to 2001.  Grussendorf served three terms as Speaker of the House, 1985–1986, 1987–1988 and 1991–1992.  He was the only person to serve three terms as speaker until 2013, when Mike Chenault was elected to a third term at the start of the 28th Alaska State Legislature.  During his last term as speaker, Eliason finished up his legislative career by serving as Senate president prior to retiring.  This marked the only time in the state's history that the legislature's two respective presiding officers hailed from the same community.

Personal and later life
Grussendorf was married to Karen (née Solem) and they had two children, son Tim and daughter Karla.  Tim Grussendorf was a longtime Senate aide, mostly during his father's tenure in office (the legislature's nepotism policy allow family members of legislators to work or seek employment in the opposite chamber).  He has been a candidate for office himself, but without the success of his father.

Grussendorf was a Presbyterian. He died on June 17, 2011, after a lengthy illness.

References

External links
 Ben Grussendorf at 100 Years of Alaska's Legislature

1942 births
2011 deaths
Alaska city council members
American Presbyterians
Educators from Minnesota
Mayors of Sitka, Alaska
People from Grand Rapids, Minnesota
Schoolteachers from Alaska
Speakers of the Alaska House of Representatives
Democratic Party members of the Alaska House of Representatives
University of Minnesota alumni
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians

Ben Grussendorf


Twinity is a 3D online virtual world. Initially developed by Metaversum GmbH, it is currently held by ExitReality. The game offers its population, called Twinizens, to navigate around virtual (historical) versions of real-world cities, also called a mirror world or a Metaverse. A public beta began in September 2008, with the release of the first virtual city, Berlin, which later was followed by Singapore, London, Miami and New York. Twinity is built on BigWorld Technology and its economy is based on a free-to-play model.

Twinity is the first 3D online virtual world to incorporate true-to-scale replicas of large cities from all over the world. However, the company has recently begun to shift the focus away from a mirror world towards a more fantasy-oriented environment with locations like the Isle of Palmadora. In this respect, Twinity seems to be moving towards a Second Life-like world with more innovative features that they set up within the game, since much of user-created content is fictional and is not related to real addresses of shops and apartments. All of the game's cities were removed in January 2012. On June 8, 2012, the acquisition of Twinity by ExitReality was announced.

World

Avatar customization
Twinity members represent themselves in the world where they can use their real names and create an avatar that can be customized in different ways, including the usage of a special Photofit application. Photofit allows a user to upload a real photo, which it then adapts to the measurements of an avatar face, making it resemble a picture. However, the creation of new alter egos and role play are popular among Twinity players as well.

Globals
The virtual currency used in Twinity is called "Globals". With the Globals, the Twinizens can buy clothes, furniture items, animations and pay for their own virtual apartment. Globals can be bought with credit card on the homepage, with PayPal or through Mopay. The users can also gain Globals by attending virtual contests and events, use SponsorPay or finish the welcome tour that they are offered upon registration.

Content
Twinity is based both on professional and user-generated content. Many Twinizens are content creators, developing and selling their own products in the world as well as creating their own machinima. Users also set up their own apartments, clubs, shops and lounges in which to host various events or to share with others. Starting fall 2010, all users are given starter apartments that they can furnish and decorate themselves. Users can create their own furniture or purchase pre-made items from the shops in Twinity. Additionally, a real estate agency can be found on the Twinity homepage where the Twinizens can localize an apartment of their choice. Within Twinity, an achievement system is offered, which allows users to earn profile badges related to the categories: travel, lifestyle and living.

Technology
Twinity uses next-generation texturing technologies to deliver a graphically up-to-date visual experience that can be compared to the latest game releases in the industry. This includes such engine features as normal, specular and cube maps. Screen space ambient occlusion and glow shader effects finish the final look in the post-rendering. Twinity uses 3D mapping data by Tele Atlas, which makes the virtual buildings resemble their look in the real world.

A major part of the content in Twinity is user-generated. Premium members can create 3D-objects, clothes, floor plans and animations which they upload through the Twinity client or export COLLADA files through 3D modelling tools such as Google Sketchup, Blender, Autodesk 3ds Max or Autodesk Maya.

Twinity uses the 3D Game Engine from BigWorld, an Australian games company for 3D virtual worlds, which was specially created for Metaversum.

Closing
At first week of November 2021, Twinity website and game were shut down, its official blog is on still with last update of December 10 2021.

See also
 Active Worlds
 Blue Mars
 IMVU
 Kaneva
 Second Life
 Smeet

References

External links

 ExitReality
 "Twinity - what is it good for?"

2008 video games
Virtual world communities
Gaming websites
Windows games
Windows-only games
Video games developed in Germany
Virtual economies
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games

Twinity