Malta is for non-local government purposes divided into districts as opposed to the local government localities. The three main types of such districts – statistical, electoral at national level, and policing – have no mainstream administrative effect as the local councils form the first-tier – moreover only administrative tier – divisions of the country.

Statistical districts and regions
Six districts exist, used for statistical purposes and which are, in turn, grouped into five regions: , Reġjun Tramuntana, Reġjun Ċentrali (both of which were formerly part of Malta Majjistral region), Reġjun Nofsinhar, Reġjun Xlokk (both of which were formerly part of Malta Xlokk region), and Gozo. Each district consists of several localities. The Northern Harbour District, Western District and Northern District together form the North Western Region (Malta Majjistral). The South Eastern District and Southern Harbour District form the South Eastern Region (Malta Xlokk). The Gozo and Comino District is a Region in its own right.

Southern Harbour District

The Southern Harbour District forms part of Malta Xlokk. It contains 14 local councils including the all but western suburbs of the capital Valletta and the small cities Birgu, Cospicua, Senglea and Żabbar. Its largest locality is Żabbar; its smallest, Xgħajra. The District's population is 80,170 (as of 31 December 2016) across its 26.1 km2. Thus it then ranked second-most populous and had the fifth-largest extent.
Birgu (Vittoriosa) 2,451 population (at end 2016)
Bormla (Cospicua) 5,147
Fgura 11,714
Floriana (Furjana) 1,966
Senglea (Isla) 2,691
Kalkara 3,006
Luqa, include the hamlet of Ħal Farruġ 5,793
Marsa (both parishes; the Parish of the Holy Trinity and the Parish of Maria Regina) 5,328
Paola (Paola) (both parishes; the Parish of Christ the King and the Parish of Our Lady of Lourdes) 8,241
Santa Luċija 2,929
Tarxien 8,674
Valletta (the four parishes; the Parish of Our Lady of Porto Salvo, the Parish of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, the Parish of St. Paul's Shipwreck and the Parish of St. Augustine) 5,656
Xgħajra 1,673
Żabbar, include the hamlet of St. Peter's 14,901

Northern Harbour District

The Northern Harbour District forms part of the Central Region. It contains 13 local councils including the city of Qormi, with the largest locality being Birkirkara ( 22,314). The smallest one is Ta' Xbiex (pop. 1,657). The population of the District is 131,056 (as of 31 December 2016) across its 24.1 km2. It is the most populous and yet the smallest.
Birkirkara (include the hamlets of Fleur-de-Lys (Parish of Our Lady of Mount Carmel) and Is-Swatar (Parish of St. George Preca) and the Parish of St. Helen, the Parish of St. Joseph the Worker and the Parish of St. Mary)
Il-Gżira
Il-Ħamrun (both parishes; the Parish of St. Gaetano and the Parish of the Immaculate Conception)
L-Imsida
Pembroke
Tal-Pietà (include the hamlet of Guardamangia)
Ħal Qormi (both parishes; the Parish of St. George and the Parish of St. Sebastian)
San Ġiljan (include the hamlet of Paceville and the parish area of Balluta Bay)
San Ġwann (include the hamlet of Il-Kappara)
Santa Venera
Tas-Sliema (the five parishes; the Parish of Stella Maris, the Parish of Sacro Cour, the Parish of St. Gregory, the Parish of Jesus of Nazareth and the Parish of Our Lady of Mount Carmel)
Is-Swieqi (include the hamlet of Madliena)
Ta' Xbiex

South Eastern District

The South Eastern District forms part of Malta Xlokk. It contains 11 local councils including the city of Żejtun, with the largest locality being Marsaskala ( 12,281) while the smallest one is Ħal Safi (pop. 2,168). The population of the District is 68,044 (as of 31 December 2016) across its 54.3 km2. It is the fourth-largest district by population and area.
Birżebbuġa
Ħal Għaxaq
Il-Gudja
Ħal Kirkop
Marsaskala (Wied il-Għajn)
Marsaxlokk
L-Imqabba
Il-Qrendi
Ħal Safi
Iż-Żejtun
Iż-Żurrieq (include the hamlet of Bubaqra)

Western District

The Western District forms part of Malta Majjistral. It contains 10 local councils including the cities of Mdina, Siġġiewi and Żebbuġ, the most populous locality being Żebbuġ ( 11,759). The smallest one is Mdina (pop. 229). The population of the District is 59,817 (as of 31 December 2016) across its 72.5 km2. Thus it was the fifth-largest by population and has the second-largest extent.
Ħ'Attard
Ħal Balzan
Ħad-Dingli
L-Iklin
Ħal Lija
L-Imdina
L-Imtarfa
Ir-Rabat (include the hamlets of Baħrija and Tal-Virtù)
Is-Siġġiewi
Ħaż-Żebbuġ

Northern District

The Northern District forms part of the Northern Region. It contains 6 local councils but no cities, with the largest locality being St. Paul's Bay ( 29,843); its smallest is Għargħur ( 2,743). The population of the District is 69,467 (as of 31 December 2016) across its 73.6 km2. It is the third most populous and is the largest.
Ħal Għargħur
Il-Mellieħa (include the parish area of Manikata)
L-Imġarr
Il-Mosta
In-Naxxar (include the hamlet of Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq)
San Pawl il-Baħar (include the hamlets of Buġibba, Burmarrad and Qawra)

Gozo and Comino District

The Gozo and Comino District is also the Gozo Region. It contains 14 local councils including the city of Victoria (or Rabat). This is also the largest locality ( 6,211) while the smallest one is Għasri (pop. 418). The population of the District is 31,879 (as of 31 December 2016) across its 68.7 km2. It is the least populous district and the third biggest.
Il-Fontana
Għajnsielem (including Comino)
L-Għarb
L-Għasri
Ta' Kerċem
Il-Munxar
In-Nadur
Il-Qala
San Lawrenz
Ta' Sannat
Ix-Xagħra
Ix-Xewkija
Ir-Rabat (Victoria)
Iż-Żebbuġ

Electoral districts

There are currently 13 Electoral Divisions for the unicameral (single-assembly) parliament. Each consists of a number of localities (although there is no requirement that electoral boundaries follow the boundaries of localities).

District 1
Il-Belt Valletta
Il-Furjana
Il-Ħamrun
Il-Marsa
Tal-Pietà (including Gwardamanġa)
Santa Venera

District 2
Il-Birgu
L-Isla
Bormla
Ħaż-Żabbar (including St. Peter's)
Il-Kalkara
Ix-Xgħajra
Il-Fgura (Tal-Gallu area)

District 3
Iż-Żejtun
Ħal Għaxaq
Marsaskala
Marsaxlokk

District 4
Il-Fgura (Mater Boni Consigli and Tal-Liedna areas)
Il-Gudja
Paola
Santa Luċija
Ħal Tarxien

District 5
Birżebbuġa
Ħal Kirkop
L-Imqabba
Ħal Farruġ
Il-Qrendi
Ħal Safi
Iż-Żurrieq (including Bubaqra)

District 6
Ħal Luqa
Ħal Qormi
Is-Siġġiewi

District 7
Ħad-Dingli
L-Imġarr
L-Imtarfa
Ir-Rabat (including Il-Baħrija and Tal-Virtù)
Ħaż-Żebbuġ

District 8
Birkirkara (including Fleur-de-Lys and part of Swatar)
L-Iklin
Ħal Lija
Ħal Balzan

District 9
Ħal Għargħur
L-Imsida (including part of Swatar)
San Ġwann (including Il-Kappara)
Is-Swieqi (including Tal-Ibraġ and Il-Madliena)
Ta' Xbiex

District 10
Il-Gżira
Pembroke
San Ġiljan (including Paceville)
Tas-Sliema
In-Naxxar (San Pawl tat-Tarġa, Birguma, Magħtab and Salina areas)
Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq

District 11
Ħ'Attard
L-Imdina
Il-Mosta
Burmarrad

District 12
Il-Mellieħa (including Il-Manikata)
In-Naxxar (Church area)
San Pawl il-Baħar

District 13
This district consists of the islands of Gozo and Comino

Ir-Rabat (Victoria)
Il-Fontana
Għajnsielem (including Comino)
L-Għarb
L-Għasri
Ta' Kerċem (including Santa Luċija)
Il-Munxar
Ix-Xlendi
In-Nadur
Il-Qala
San Lawrenz
Ta' Sannat
Ix-Xagħra
Ix-Xewkija
Iż-Żebbuġ (including Marsalforn)

Police districts
Following the 2022 amendments to the police district's boundaries and compositions, Malta has 2 police regions which fall under the responsibility of 2 distinct Assistant Commissioners. Each of these 2 regions consist of 6 police districts, amounting to a total of 12 districts. Each district is administered by its nominated Superintendent and has its own police headquarters.

Region A

District 1
Il-Belt Valletta, Archbishop Street
Il-Furjana, St. Anne Street
Pinto Police, Valletta Waterfront
Headquarters in Valletta, the capital city of Malta

District 2
Il-Ħamrun, St. Paul's Square
Santa Venera, St. Joseph High Road
Tal-Pietà and Gwardamanġa, St. Luke's Square
Il-Marsa, Balbi Street
Headquarters in Ħamrun

District 3
Paola, Valletta Road
Il-Fgura, Hompesch Road
Santa Luċija, Tower Promenade
Ħal Tarxien, Nelson Avenue
Ħal Luqa and Ħal Farruġ St. Andrew Square
Headquarters in Paola (Raħal Ġdid)

District 4
Bormla St. Paul's Street
Il-Birgu, Desain Street
L-Isla, 4 September Street
Il-Kalkara, Archbishop Gonzi Square
Ix-Xgħajra, Church Street
Ħaż-Żabbar and St. Peter's, Ċawsli Street
Marsaskala, Żonqor Road
Headquarters in Bormla (Città Cospicua)

District 5
Iż-Żejtun, Mater Boni Consiglii Street
Birżebbuġa, Pretty Bay
Marsaxlokk, Fishermen's Strand
Il-Gudja, Raymond Caruana Street
Ħal Għaxaq, Labour Avenue
L-Imqabba, Parish Street
Ħal Kirkop, St. Benedict Street
Ħal Safi, St. Paul's Street
Headquarters in Iż-Żejtun (Città Beland)

District 6
Ħal Qormi Main Street
Ħaż-Żebbuġ Parish Street
Is-Siġġiewi St. Nicholas Square
Għar Lapsi
Iż-Żurrieq and Bubaqra, St. Catherine Street
Wied iż-Żurrieq
Il-Qrendi, Church Street
Headquarters in Qormi (Città Pinto)

Region B

District 7
Tas-Sliema, Rudolph Street
Il-Gżira, Belvedere Street
L-Imsida and Ta' Xbiex, Rue d'Argens
Headquarters in Tas-Sliema

District 8
San Ġiljan, Paceville, and Pembroke, St. George's Road, Spinola Bay
Is-Swieqi and Il-Madliena, Keffa Street
San Ġwann and Il-Kappara, Naxxar Road
Headquarters in San Giljan

District 9
Birkirkara, Fleur-de-Lys and Is-Swatar, Main Street
Ħal Balzan, Ħal Lija and L-Iklin, Bertu Fenech Square (Balzan)
Ħ'Attard, Main Street
Ta' Qali, Pitkalija
In-Naxxar and Baħar iċ-Ċagħaq, Żenqa Street
Ħal Għargħur, St. Albert Street
Headquarters in Birkirkara, the second largest locality in Malta

District 10
Il-Mosta, Constitution Street
L-Imġarr, Fisher Street
Ir-Rabat, Il-Baħrija and Tal-Virtù, St. Rita Street
Ħad-Dingli, Main Street
L-Imdina, St. Publius Square
L-Imtarfa, Maltese Regiments Street
Headquarters in Il-Mosta, the third largest locality in Malta

District 11
San Pawl il-Baħar, Burmarrad and Ix-Xemxija, St. Paul's Street
Il-Qawra and Buġibba, Tourist Street
Il-Mellieħa, Parish Square
Iċ-Ċirkewwa, Ċirkewwa Terminal
L-Għadira
Headquarters in San Pawl il-Bahar, the largest locality in Malta

District 12
Kemmuna, Congrave Street
Il-Fontana, Ta' Mulejja Street
Għajnsielem, Simirat Street
L-Għarb, Church Street
L-Għasri, Saviour Square
Ta' Kerċem and Santa Luċija, Sarġ Street
Marsalforn, Marina Street
Il-Port tal-Imġarr, Coast Road
Il-Munxar, Munxar Road
In-Nadur, Saints Peter and Paul Square
Il-Qala, St. Joseph Street
Ramla Bay
San Lawrenz, St. Lawrence Square
Ta' Sannat, Sannat Road
Ta' Pinu
Ix-Xagħra, 8 September Avenue
Ix-Xewkija, Independence Street
Ix-Xlendi, St. Andrew Street
Iż-Żebbuġ, Church Street
Ir-Rabat, Għawdex (Victoria), Republic Street
Gozo Fire Brigade
Headquarters in Ir-Rabat, Għawdex (Victoria), the capital city of Gozo

References

Subdivisions of Malta
Districts

Districts of Malta


The Lampedusa immigrant reception center, officially Reception Center (CDA) of Lampedusa, has been operating since 1998, when the Italian island of Lampedusa became a primary European entry point for immigrants from Africa. It is one of a number of centri di accoglienza (CDA) maintained by the Italian government. The reception center's capacity of 801 people has been greatly exceeded by numerous people arriving on boats from various parts of Africa.

History

Since the early 2000s, with the onset of the ever increasing mass migration to Europe, Lampedusa has become a prime transit point for irregular migrants from Africa, the Middle East and Asia wanting to enter Europe. In 2004, the Libyan and Italian governments reached a secret agreement that obliged Libya to accept those deported from Italian territories. This resulted in the mass return of many people from Lampedusa to Libya between 2004 and 2005. The European Parliament adopted a resolution on 14 April 2005 calling on the Italian authorities "to refrain from collective expulsions of asylum seekers and 'irregular migrants' to Libya".

By 2006, many people were paying people smugglers in Libya to help get them to Lampedusa by boat. On arrival, most were then transferred by the Italian government to reception centres in mainland Italy. Many were then released because their deportation orders were not enforced.

In 2009, the overcrowded conditions at the island's temporary immigrant reception centre came under criticism by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The unit, which was originally built for a maximum capacity of 850 people, was reported to be housing nearly 2,000 boat people. Most of them were from Ghana, Mali and Nigeria and were working illegally as seasonal farm workers. A significant number of people were sleeping outdoors under plastic sheeting. A fire started during an inmate riot destroyed a large portion of the holding facility on 19 February 2009.

In 2011, the rebellions in Tunisia and Libya resulted in an increase in the rate of people moving to Lampedusa. By May 2011, more than 35,000 migrants had arrived on the island from Tunisia and Libya. By the end of August, 48,000 had arrived. Most were young males in their 20s and 30s. The situation has caused division within the EU, the French government regarding most of the arrivals as economic migrants rather than refugees in fear of persecution. The Libyan ambassador to Italy stated that Gaddafi controlled illegal migration to meet his goals: "he wanted to turn Lampedusa black with Africans".

In October 2013, the center accommodated the survivors of the shipwreck of a boat carrying migrants from Eritrea, Somalia and elsewhere, which capsized offshore, resulting in least 300 deaths.
The press referred to that incident as the "Lampedusa boat disaster".

In 2014, 170,100 migrants arrived in Italy by sea, a 296% increase compared to 2013. 141,484 of the travellers ferried over from Libya. Most of the migrants had come from Syria, Eritrea and various countries in West Africa.

See also

Refugees of the 2011 Libyan Civil War
Terraferma (film)
April 2015 Mediterranean Sea migrant shipwrecks
Fire at Sea
Pietro Bartolo

References

Illegal immigration to Italy
Immigration detention centers and prisons in Europe
Prisons in Italy
Lampedusa e Linosa

Lampedusa immigrant reception center


also known as ushi-zumo or Bull sumo, is a spectator sport native to the Ryukyu Islands of Japan (Okinawa Prefecture and the Amami Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture). It is also held in other regions of Japan, such as Iwate Prefecture, Niigata Prefecture, Shimane Prefecture, and Ehime Prefecture. Although sometimes known to Westerners as "Okinawan bullfighting", it is drastically different from the Spanish or Portuguese style of bullfighting where the matches are between a bull and a human, with blood being spilt. Tōgyū has more in common with northern Portugal's sport of chegas and the Swiss sport of cow fighting.

During matches, the bulls lock horns and attempt to force each other to give up ground. Each bull has a coach who helps to keep the bulls locked in conflict and encourages their bull to win. The match is over when one of the bulls tires and withdraws, losing the match. The coaches take great care to prevent the bulls from harming each other and the fight is immediately over if one of them accidentally gores the other.

History
The sport started at least as early as the 12th century, with farmers pitting bulls against each other as a fun sport. Although the exact year in which tōgyū was started is not known, the second half of the Meiji period is when it began to get popular throughout Okinawa. In 1907, tōgyū became popular enough in the cities of Itoman, Gushikawa, Katsuren and Yonagusuku to start receiving coverage in local newspapers. During the Shōwa period, prior to the outbreak of World War II, tōgyū reached new heights of popularity. So great was its popularity that a village is said to have banned it because the villagers spent too much time enjoying the fights, instead of working in the fields.

During the Ryukyu Islands campaign of World War II, the fights ceased, as the Ryukyu Islands became a war zone. Only a few months after the war's end on August 14, 1945, the fights began again.

Between 1950 and 1960, rules became codified and conferences became formed in order to organize the events. In 1965, popularity peaked, with one event bringing in 10,000 spectators.

The sport is deeply ingrained in the local culture of the Ryukyu island of Tokunoshima, where bullfights are major cultural events and bull owners use their bulls as markers of social status. Because of the importance of tōgyu in Tokunoshima, the island's mascot and much local iconography is a tōgyu bull.

Ranking
Just as in sumo, bulls are ranked by their ability, with the top position in both sports being known as yokozuna. Similarities continue down the ranking chain as tōgyū has mirrored sumo's ranking terms. Unlike in sumo, there are weight classes and thus lighter bulls are not expected to compete against the heavier ones.

See also
 Camel wrestling
 Cow fighting
 Animal rights

References

External links
 Okinawa.com
 Biglobe.ne.jp (In Japanese)
 Tougyu.com

Animal combat sports
Cattle
Tourist attractions in Okinawa Prefecture
Ryukyuan culture
Sport in Japan
Sport in Okinawa Prefecture
Bull sports
Animal combat organized by humans

ja:闘牛

Tōgyū


Planet of the Apes is an American science fiction movie released in 2001 and directed by Tim Burton. It was based on the novel La planète des singes written by Pierre Boulle and released in 2001 and is a remake of the 1968 movie. The movie stars Mark Wahlberg and features Tim Roth, Helena Bonham Carter, Michael Clarke Duncan and Paul Giamatti. It was released by 20th Century Fox.

Plot
Leo Davidson lands on a planet inhabited by smart apes.

Reception
The movie received mixed reviews, particularly the twist ending.

Other websites

2001 science fiction movies
American movie remakes
English-language movies
Planet of the Apes movies
Movies based on books
Movies composed by Danny Elfman
Movies directed by Tim Burton
Movies set in the future
Movies set on fictional planets
Movies set in Washington, D.C.
Time travel movies
20th Century Fox movies
Post-apocalyptic movies
Dystopian movies
Movies about slavery
Movies about apes

Planet of the Apes (2001 movie)


The Las Vegas Arts District, or the 18b in Downtown Las Vegas, Nevada was created in 1998 as an 18 block zone set aside to encourage art and artists.

The district won Las Vegas Review-Journals Best of Las Vegas award in 2005.

Also known as 18b, the Las Vegas Arts District contains a mix of independent businesses including vintage clothing boutiques, antique stores, art galleries, hair salons, residences, restaurants and breweries.

The 18b is located halfway between the Fremont East Entertainment district and the Stratosphere Resort, clustered around Main and Charleston, bounded loosely by Commerce Street to the West, Hoover Avenue to the North, Fourth Street to the East and Colorado Avenue at the south. It is an easy bike ride, walk or bus ride from Fremont Street.  The name, "18b," represents the original Arts District area, which consisted of 18 blocks. Today, the Arts District area has grown beyond those original 18 blocks and is a classic urban mix of residential, commercial and cultural uses that will continue to grow as the hub of the arts scene in Las Vegas.

Eclectic and always changing, the Las Vegas Arts District continues to grow, offering visitors and locals a taste of Las Vegas that is not the average tourist spot.

Events
The district hosts a First Friday art walk on the first Friday of every month.  First Friday offers an eclectic group of artists as well as "entertainers of all types, including local bands, fire breathers, acrobats, break dancers, fortune tellers and performance artists."

Boundaries
Recently expanded, the district is loosely bounded by Gass Avenue (in the north), Imperial Avenue (in the south), Las Vegas Boulevard (to the east), and Commerce Street (to the west). The official bounds are visible on the City of Las Vegas website.

References

Downtown Las Vegas
Arts districts
Culture of Las Vegas
Tourist attractions in the Las Vegas Valley

18b The Las Vegas Arts District


Thomas Hornsby  (1733 in Durham – 11 April 1810 in Oxford) was a British astronomer and mathematician.

Life
Hornsby became a Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1760.

He occupied the Savilian Chair of Astronomy at Oxford University from 1763.  In the same year, he became Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy.

Hornsby was especially concerned with the observation of the transit of Venus.  In 1761, he observed the transit of Venus from Shirburn Castle, in Oxfordshire, the seat of the Earl of Macclesfield.  George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield (ca. 1695–1764), celebrated as an astronomer, had spent most of his time conducting astronomical observations at Shirburn Castle; here he had built an observatory and a chemical laboratory.

On the 1st April 1764 Hornsby observed the partial phases of an annular solar eclipse.

Despite the international efforts made to observe the 1761 transit, poor weather conditions hampered observations. In 1766 Hornsby informed the Royal Society that preparations needed to begin for the 1769 transit, his publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society focusing attention on the "cone of visibility" indicating some of the better places to observe the transit.

Hornsby himself viewed the 1769 transit at the Tower of the Five Orders, the entrance to the Bodleian Library in Oxford.

In the periodical Philosophical Transactions, Hornsby published a comparative analysis of 1761 transit (1763); a plan for suitable viewing stations for 1769, including possible locations in the Pacific (1765); a description of organising and reporting observing groups in Oxford (1769); and a comparative analysis of the 1769 transit (1771). Using the solar parallax values obtained from the 1769 transit, he wrote in Philosophical Transitions December 1771 that "the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun (is) 93,726,900 English miles." The radar-based value used today for the astronomical unit is . This is only a difference of eight-tenths of one percent. The work was within the bounds of the aphelion and perihelion distances to the sun, ~95 million miles and ~91 million miles respectively. These results have been described as "absolutely remarkable" considering what the astronomers had to work with.

Hornsby was instrumental in the establishment of the Radcliffe Observatory at Oxford in 1772, and was made Radcliffe Observer in the same year.  In 1782, he was appointed Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy.  In 1783, he became Radcliffe Librarian. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788.

Hornsby made tens of thousands of astronomical observations.  These were not published, however, until 1932, and were donated to Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1935. They include a determination of the rate of change of the axial inclination of the Earth and the proper motion of Arcturus, both close to the modern values, whose combination of visual magnitude and large proper motion led Hornsby to argue (incorrectly) that "We may, I think, fairly conclude that Arcturus is the nearest Star to our System visible in this Hemisphere".

The crater Hornsby on the Moon is named after him.

N.B. His death announcement in the Kentish Gazette 24 April 1810 quotes his death as "Wednesday (11th Apr. 1810) at the Observatory Oxford, aged 76, the Rev. Thomas Hornsby D.D. & F.R.S. Savalian Professor of Astronomy, Professor of Natural Philosophy, & Librarian of the Radcliffe Library."
The O.D.N.B gives this information:
"Hornsby, Thomas (1733–1810), astronomer, the son of Thomas Hornsby (bap. 1704, d. 1771), an apothecary and later alderman, and his wife, Thomasine Forster, née Coulson (bap. 1705, d. 1775), was baptized in the parish of St Nicholas, Durham, on 27 August 1733. Hornsby died in Oxford on 11 April 1810, and was buried at St Giles' there on 19 April."

Sources

 Thomas Harriot's manuscripts
 History of transit observing
 Stephen Johnston, "Blast from the Past: Measurement and morals in the early Transits of Venus," Museum of the History of Science, University of Oxford, at http://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/phystat05/Talks/johnston.ppt (accessed July 2006)
 Kentish Gazette 24 April 1810
 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

1733 births
1810 deaths
18th-century British astronomers
18th-century British mathematicians
19th-century British mathematicians
Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Savilian Professors of Astronomy
Sedleian Professors of Natural Philosophy

Thomas Hornsby


An emperor (female equivalent: empress) is a male who rules an empire. The word is taken from the Latin language Imperator. Often it is capitalized.

A woman who comes to power in an empire is called an empress. The wife of an emperor is also called an empress. An emperor or empress is often a hereditary monarch and comes to power when one of his parents, or relatives, dies. In some countries, people elected a new emperor from candidates.

The only emperor in the world today is the Emperor of Japan (tennō), but he lacks political power. The true leaders of Japan are the Diet and Prime Minister because the country is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

The English word comes from Latin, the language of the old Roman Empire. At first, an imperator was a powerful general (army leader) but, after Augustus, it was only used by their most powerful rulers. There have been many countries in history whose leaders are called "emperors" in English. The leaders of the Byzantine Empire (basileus, Autokrator) in Greece, the Holy Roman Empire (imperator, Kaiser) in Austria and Germany, Russian Empire, Serbia , and Bulgaria (tsar), and the Ottoman Empire (sultan, padishah, khagan, kaysar) in Turkey all said they were just new parts of the old Roman Empire.

The leaders of other countries who said they ruled the whole world or called themselves "King of Kings" are frequently also called emperors in English. For example, the old rulers of China (Huangdi), Iran (Shah), and Ethiopia (Negusa negast) are all known as emperors in English. There have also been emperors of France, Brazil , and Mexico, and the rulers of the United Kingdom called themselves the Emperors and empresses of India for a while.

Countries ruled by Emperor

 China (221 BC – 1911, 1915–1916)
 Ethiopia (1137– 1975)
 Japan (The only empire that currently exists)
 Roman Empire (27 BC – 476)
 Byzantine Empire (395–1453)
 Latin Empire (1204–1261)
 Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261)
 Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461)
 Empire of Thessalonica (1224–1246)
 Western Roman Empire (395–476)
 Carolingian Empire (800–843)
 Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)
 Russian Empire (1721–1917)
 Empire of Vietnam (1802–1945)
 French Empire (1804–1814, 1815, 1852–1870)
 Haitian Empire (1804–1806, 1849–1859)
 Austrian Empire (1804–1867)
 Brazilian Empire (1822–1889)
 German Empire (1871–1918)
 Mexican Empire (1821–1823, 1864–1867)
 Indian Empire (1858–1947)
 Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
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Bengal ( ; , ) is a historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Bengal proper is divided between modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. The Indian states of Assam and Tripura have a sizeable Bengali population. A large Bengali diaspora exists across the world. Bengali is the sixth-most spoken language in the world.

Various Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric and other peoples inhabited the region since antiquity. The ancient Vanga Kingdom is widely regarded as the namesake of the Bengal region. The Bengali calendar dates back to the reign of Shashanka in the 7th century. The Pala Empire was founded in Bengal during the 8th century. The Sena dynasty and Deva dynasty ruled between the 11th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, Bengal was absorbed by Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent. An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed and became the eastern frontier of the Islamic world. During this period, Bengal's rule and influence spread to Assam, Arakan, Tripura, Bihar, and Orissa. Bengal Subah later emerged as a prosperous part of the Mughal Empire.

The last independent Nawab of Bengal was defeated in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey by the East India Company. The company's Bengal Presidency grew into the largest administrative unit of British India with Calcutta as the capital of both Bengal and India until 1911. As a result of the first partition of Bengal, a short-lived province called Eastern Bengal and Assam existed between 1905 and 1911 with its capital in the former Mughal capital Dhaka. Following the Sylhet referendum and votes by the Bengal Legislative Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly, the region was again divided along religious lines in 1947.

Bengali culture, particularly its literature, music, art and cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond. The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes several Nobel laureates. Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India, the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms of gender parity, the gender pay gap and other indices of human development.

Etymology

The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga (pronounced Bôngô), the earliest records of which date back to the Mahabharata epic in the first millennium BCE. The reference to 'Vangalam' is present in an inscription in the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, which is one of the oldest references to Bengal. The term Vangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records. The modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery.

History

Antiquity

Neolithic sites have been found in several parts of the region. In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region. By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery. Remnants of Copper Age settlements are located in the region. At the advent of the Iron Age, people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment. From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Cities in Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar emerged. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation. Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade with distand lands in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.

The ancient geopolitical divisions of Bengal included Varendra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela. These regions were often independent or under the rule of larger empires. The Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription indicates that Bengal was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE. The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population. Punch-marked coins found in the region indicate that coins were used as currency during the Iron Age. The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies. A prince from Bengal named Vijaya founded the first kingdom in Sri Lanka. The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and the Gupta Empire. The region was a centre of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention of chess, Indian numerals, and the concept of zero.

The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta. The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including a cavalry of war elephants. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal. 1st century Roman coins with images of Hercules were found in the region and point to trade links with Roman Egypt through the Red Sea. The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are believed to be the emporium (trading centre) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy. A Roman amphora was found in Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal which was made in Aelana (present-day Aqaba, Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.

The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign of Shashanka. The origins of the Bengali calendar can be traced to his reign. Shashanka founded the Gauda Kingdom. After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam. The ancient city of Gauda later gave birth to the Pala Empire. The first Pala emperor Gopala I was chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent under Dharmapala and Devapala. The Palas vied for control of Kannauj with the rival Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Pala influence also extended to Tibet and Sumatra due to the travels and preachings of Atisa. The university of Nalanda was established by the Palas. They also built the Somapura Mahavihara, which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated. The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan. The Varman dynasty ruled parts of northeastern Bengal and Assam. The Sena dynasty emerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century. The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal. The smaller Deva dynasty also ruled parts of the region. Ancient Chinese visitors like Xuanzang provided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions.

Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab takeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of the Meghna River. Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims. Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati. A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum.

Sultanate period

In 1204, the Ghurid general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji began the Islamic conquest of Bengal. The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243. Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty. According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders. Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal. The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers. The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d'état, which "inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India's interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam". Bengal became a province of the Delhi Sultanate. A coin featuring a horseman was issued to celebrate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Arabic. An abortive Islamic invasion of Tibet was also mounted by Bakhtiyar. Bengal was under the formal rule of the Delhi Sultanate for approximately 150 years. Delhi struggled to consolidate control over Bengal. Rebel governors often sought to assert autonomy or independence. Sultan Iltutmish re-established control over Bengal in 1225 after suppressing the rebels. Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi's authority in Bengal was relatively weak. It was left to local governors to expand territory and bring new areas under Muslim rule, such as through the Conquest of Sylhet in 1303.

In 1338, new rebellions sprung up in Bengal's three main towns. Governors in Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon declared independence from Delhi. This allowed the ruler of Sonargaon, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, to annex Chittagong to the Islamic administration. By 1352, the ruler of Satgaon, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, unified the region into an independent state. Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua. The new breakaway state emerged as the Bengal Sultanate, which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire. At the time, the Islamic world stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east.

The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enter Nepal and stretched from Varanasi in the west to Orissa in the south to Assam in the east. The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army. The Bengal-Delhi War ended in 1359 when Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal. Ilyas Shah's son Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty recognized Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi. The ruler of Arakan sought refuge in Bengal during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years.  Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state. The ruler of the Jaunpur Sultanate also sought refuge in Bengal. The vassal states of Bengal included Arakan, Tripura, Chandradwip and Pratapgarh. At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura. The Bengal Sultanate experienced its greatest military success under Alauddin Hussain Shah, who was proclaimed as the conqueror of Assam after his forces led by Shah Ismail Ghazi overthrew the Khen dynasty and annexed large parts of Assam. In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate benefited from Indian Ocean trade networks and emerged as a hub of re-exports. A giraffe was brought by African envoys from Malindi to Bengal's court and was later gifted to Imperial China. Ship-owing merchants acted as envoys of the Sultan while travelling to different regions in Asia and Africa. Many rich Bengali merchants lived in Malacca. Bengali ships transported embassies from Brunei, Aceh and Malacca to China. Bengal and the Maldives had a vast trade in shell currency. The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in the Hejaz region of Arabia.

The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to the Hussain Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by the Suri dynasty; and ended with the Karrani dynasty. The Battle of Raj Mahal and the capture of Daud Khan Karrani marked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar. In the late 16th-century, a confederation called the Baro-Bhuyan resisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal. The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of the Zamindars of Bengal. They were led by Isa Khan, a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire.

Mughal period

Mughal Bengal had the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the Paradise of the Nations by the Mughal Emperors. A new provincial capital was built in Dhaka. Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (subedar). Dhaka became a centre of palace intrigue and politics. Some of the most prominent governors included Rajput general Man Singh I, Emperor Shah Jahan's son Prince Shah Shuja, Emperor Aurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperor Azam Shah, and the influential aristocrat Shaista Khan. During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666.  Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by the Nawabs of Bengal. Bengal premier Murshid Quli Khan managed to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury. He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.

In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognized the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was officially titled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa", as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organization in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine quality handicrafts, and other trades. A process of proto-industrialisation was underway. Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders. The Nawab's state was a major exporter of Bengal muslin, silk, gunpowder and saltpetre. The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company. The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies.

Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a centre of the worldwide muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.

Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

Colonial era (1757–1947)

In Bengal effective political and military power was transferred from the old regime to the British East India Company around 1757–65.
Company rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. The Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Viceroy of India for many years. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943). Under British rule, Bengal experienced the deindustrialisation of its pre-colonial economy.

Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry. The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, in industries such as textile manufacturing. Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people.

In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council was set up as the first modern legislature in India. Elected representation was gradually introduced during the early 20th century, including with the Morley-Minto reforms and the system of dyarchy. In 1937, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature while the Bengal Legislative Assembly was created. Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive of the government was the Prime Minister of Bengal.

The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative unit in the British Empire. At its height, it covered large parts of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore. In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of the Malacca Straits was made a residency of Bengal. The area included the erstwhile Prince of Wales Island, Province Wellesley, Malacca and Singapore. In 1867, Penang, Singapore and Malacca were separated from Bengal into the Straits Settlements. British Burma became a province of India and a later a Crown colony in itself. Western areas, including the Ceded and Conquered Provinces and The Punjab, were further reorganized. Northeastern areas became Colonial Assam.

In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 in the Barisal region. About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of the Company Rule in India and establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as the British Raj. The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam where the All India Muslim League was founded. In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymath Rabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. In spite of a last-ditch effort by politicians Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sarat Chandra Bose to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western joined India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.

Partition of Bengal (1947)

On 27 April 1947, the last Prime Minister of Bengal Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy held a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal. Suhrawardy said "Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy". On 2 June 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee told the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom that there was a "distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan".

On 3 June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (120 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July, the Sylhet district of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal.

The English barrister Cyril Radcliffe was instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India. The Radcliffe Line created the boundary between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, which later became the Bangladesh-India border. The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals of Gaur, Pandua, Murshidabad and Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored.

Geography

Most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 232,752  km2—West Bengal is  and Bangladesh .

The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet region are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within  above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by . Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.
The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at . A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of . The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu ()—the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.

At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption. The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.

Historical, political and cultural geography

Geographic distinctions

North Bengal

North Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division (Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district. Darjeeling Hills are also part of North Bengal. Although only people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar identifies themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.

Northeast Bengal

Northeast Bengal refers to the Sylhet region, comprising Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Karimganj district in the Indian state of Assam. The region is noted for its distinctive fertile highland terrain, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. The Surma and Barak river are the geographic markers of the area. The city of Sylhet is its largest urban centre, and the region is known for its unique regional language known as Sylheti. The ancient name of the region is Srihatta. The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms as well as the Bengal Sultanate. It later became a district of the Mughal Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasia and other tribal minorities.

The region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India.

Central Bengal

Central Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a large Sal tree forest. The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater Faridpur region. In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions.

South Bengal

South Bengal covers the southwestern Bangladesh and the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal.The Bangladeshi part includes Khulna Division, Barisal Division and the proposed Faridpur Division The Indian part of South Bengal includes 12 districts: Kolkata, Howrah, Hooghly, Burdwan, East Midnapur, West Midnapur, Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Nadia, South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas.

The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.

Southeast Bengal

Southeast Bengal refers to the hilly and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh. Southeast Bengal is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage. The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders as Harkand in the 9th century. During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Sultanate of Bengal, the Kingdom of Tripura, the Kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule. The Chittagonian language, a sister of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya and Bawm peoples.

Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the northern parts of Arakan are also historically considered to be a part of it.

Places of interest
There are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growing surfing destination. St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.

Other regions

Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history. In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganization drastically reduced the territory of Bengal.

Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State.

Arakan

Arakan (now Rakhine State, Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan. The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan. An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the Bengali Candra dynasty. Paul Wheatley described the "Indianization" of Arakan. The early population of Arakan was a mix of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman peoples.

According to Pamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi". Arakan emerged as a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. It later became an independent kingdom. The royal court and culture of the Kingdom of Mrauk U was heavily influenced by Bengal. Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders. Bengali Hindus and Bengali Buddhists served as priests. Some of the most important poets of medieval Bengali literature lived in Arakan, including Alaol and Daulat Qazi. In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of the Peacock Throne of India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan.  Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th-century.

The modern-day Rohingya population is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan. The Rohingya genocide resulted in the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many being uprooted from their homes in Rakhine State.

Assam

The Indian state of Assam shares many cultural similarities with Bengal. The Assamese language uses the same script as the Bengali language. The Barak Valley has a Bengali-speaking majority population. During the Partition of India, Assam was also partitioned along with Bengal. The Sylhet Division joined East Bengal in Pakistan, with the exception of Karimganj which joined Indian Assam. Previously, East Bengal and Assam were part of a single province called Eastern Bengal and Assam between 1905 and 1912 under the British Raj.

Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, including Kamarupa, Gauda and Kamata. Large parts of Assam were annexed by Alauddin Hussain Shah during the Bengal Sultanate. Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory. The islands were once used as a British penal colony. During World War II, the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by the Provisional Government of Free India. Anti-British leader Subhash Chandra Bose visited and renamed the islands. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled many Bengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Bihar

In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms. The ancient region of Magadha covered both Bihar and Bengal. Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire and the Pala Empire. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under the Mughal Empire. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Chittagong Hill Tracts
The Chittagong Hill Tracts is the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh. Its indigenous population includes Tibeto-Burman ethnicities, including the Chakma people, Bawm people and Mro people among others. The region was historically ruled by tribal chieftains of the Chakma Circle and Bohmong Circle. In 1713, the Chakma Raja signed a treaty with Mughal Bengal after obtaining permission from Emperor Farrukhsiyar for trade with the plains of Chittagong. Like the kings of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to fashion themselves using Mughal nomenclatures and titles. They initially resisted the Permanent Settlement and the activities of the East India Company. The tribal royal families of the region came under heavy Bengali influence. The Chakma queen Benita Roy was a friend of Rabindranath Tagore. The region was governed by the Chittagong Hill Tracts manual under colonial rule. The manual was significantly amended after the end of British rule; and the region became fully integrated with Bangladesh.

Malay Archipelago

Through trade, settlements and the exchange of ideas; parts of Maritime Southeast Asia became linked with Bengal. Language, literature, art, governing systems, religions and philosophies in ancient Sumatra and Java were influenced by Bengal. Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Southeast Asia depended on the Bay of Bengal for trade and ideas. Islam in Southeast Asia also spread through the Bay of Bengal, which was a bridge between the Malay Archipelago and Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent. A large number of wealthy merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca. Bengali ships were the largest ships in the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 15th century.

Between 1830 and 1867, the ports of Singapore and Malacca, the island of Penang, and a portion of the Malay Peninsula were ruled under the jurisdiction of the Bengal Presidency of the British Empire. These areas were known as the Straits Settlements, which was separated from the Bengal Presidency and converted into a Crown colony in 1867.

Meghalaya
The Indian state of Meghalaya historically came under the influence of Shah Jalal, a Muslim missionary and conqueror from Sylhet. During British rule, the city of Shillong was the summer capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam (modern Bangladesh and Northeast India). Shillong boasted the highest per capita income in British India. The city continues to have a sizeable Bengali population; while visitors from Bangladesh frequent the state often.

North India
The ancient Mauryan, Gupta and Pala empires of the Magadha region (Bihar and Bengal) extended into northern India. The westernmost border of the Bengal Sultanate extended towards Varanasi and Jaunpur. In the 19th century, Punjab and the Ceded and Conquered Provinces formed the western extent of the Bengal Presidency. According to the British historian Rosie Llewellyn-Jones, "The Bengal Presidency, an administrative jurisdiction introduced by the East India Company, would later include not only the whole of northern India up to the Khyber Pass on the north-west frontier with Afghanistan, but would spread eastwards to Burma and Singapore as well".

Odisha
Odisha, previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority. Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah. Parts of the region were ruled by the Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by the Mughal Emperor.

Tibet
During the Pala dynasty, Tibet received missionaries from Bengal who influenced the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism. One of the most notable missionaries was Atisa. During the 13th century, Tibet experienced an Islamic invasion by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji, the Muslim conqueror of Bengal. In the 16th century, the Tibetan tangka became the currency of Tibet due to the historical taka's use on the Silk Road.

Tripura
The princely state of Tripura was ruled by the Manikya dynasty until the 1949 Tripura Merger Agreement. Tripura was historically a vassal state of Bengal. After assuming the throne with military support from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464, Ratna Manikya I introduced administrative reforms inspired by the government of Bengal. The Tripura kings requested Sultan Barbak Shah to provide manpower for developing the administration of Tripura. As a result, Bengali Hindu bureaucrats, cultivators and artisans began settling in Tripura. Today, the Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-majority population. Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links between Bangladesh and Northeast India. In Bengali culture, the celebrated singer S. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family.

Flora and fauna

The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jackfruit, betel nut and date palm. Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight. Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (Dooars) with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees. Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park. The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.

The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish. For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols. For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal.

Politics
Today, the region of Bengal proper is divided between the sovereign state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. The Bengali-speaking Barak Valley forms part of the Indian state of Assam. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-speaking majority and was formerly the princely state of Hill Tipperah. In the Bay of Bengal, St. Martin's Island is governed by Bangladesh; while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands has a plurality of Bengali speakers and is governed by India's federal government as a union territory.

Bangladeshi Republic

The state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognising Islam as the country's established religion, the constitution grants freedom of religion to non-Muslims.

Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) are the two largest political parties in Bangladesh.

Bangladesh is a member of the UN, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, ADB, OIC, IDB, SAARC, BIMSTEC and the IMCTC. Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbours.

Indian Bengal

West Bengal is a constituent state of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. The president of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government. The governor appoints the chief minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly. President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the prime minister of India.

Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.

The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial president of India. The former president of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress.

The two major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress being minor players.

Crossborder relations

India and Bangladesh are the world's first and eighth most populous countries respectively. Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.

The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal. India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh.

Economy

The Ganges Delta provided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit. Living standards for Bengal's elite were relatively better than other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Between 400 and 1200, Bengal had a well-developed economy in terms of land ownership, agriculture, livestock, shipping, trade, commerce, taxation, and banking. The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to the Delhi Sultanate, which ceased after the creation of the Bengal Sultanate and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significant international trade in Bengal.

In 1338, Ibn Battuta noticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamic dinar. In 1415, members of Admiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka. The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for the Sultan of Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27 mints in provincial capitals across the kingdom. These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns. These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal.

The taka continued to be issued in Mughal Bengal, which inherited the sultanate's legacy. As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into the world economy under Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardized legal tender. It was also used in commerce with the Dutch East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company and the British East India Company. Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the centre of the worldwide muslin trade. The muslin trade in Bengal was patronized by the Mughal imperial court. Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia. The treasury of the Nawab of Bengal was the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771.

Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent. Mughal Bengal saw the emergence of a proto-industrial economy backed up by textiles and gunpowder. The organized early modern economy flourished till the beginning of British rule in the mid 18th-century, when the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in government, trade, and regulation. The British displaced the indigenous ruling class and transferred much of the region's wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain.  In the 19th century, the British began investing in railways and limited industrialization. However, the Bengali economy was dominated by trade in raw materials during much of the colonial period, particularly the jute trade.

The partition of India changed the economic geography of the region. Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing. East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including the world's largest jute mill. In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalized 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatized in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy. Liberal reforms in 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding. In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India.

The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer. Three Bengali economists have been Nobel laureates, including Amartya Sen and Abhijit Banerjee who won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics and Muhammad Yunus who won the Nobel Peace Prize.

Stock markets
Dhaka Stock Exchange
Chittagong Stock Exchange
Calcutta Stock Exchange

Ports and harbours
Port of Chittagong
Port of Kolkata
Port of Mongla
Haldia Port
Port of Payra
Port of Pangaon
Port of Narayanganj
Port of Ashuganj
Port of Barisal
Matarbari Port
Land port of Benapole-Petrapole

Chambers of commerce
Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry
Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI)
Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry
Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI)
Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI)

Intra-Bengal trade
Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion. Most of this trade relationship is centred on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border. The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement.

Demographics

The Bengal region is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.
According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364; however, CIA's The World Factbook gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736. "So, the Bengal region, , has at least 241.1 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.

Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya.

English is often used for official work alongside Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal. Other major Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Assamese, and Nepali are also familiar to Bengalis in India.

In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are native to the region. These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g., A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei (officially called "Manipuri"), Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g., Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g., Kurukh, Sauria Paharia).

Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for Bangladesh and 70.2 for West Bengal. In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate, in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 72.9%. The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%

West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.

Major cities

Culture

Language

The Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit. It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script. Bengali is the 5th most spoken language in the world. It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family. It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages. Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya. It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. It is also the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.

Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.

Currency

In both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. The history of the taka dates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal. It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate. The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.

Literature

Bengali literature has a rich heritage. It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script. The Bengali language and script evolved  from Magadhi Prakrit. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Chôrjapôdô, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Maimansingha Gitika or Thakurmar Jhuli. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta and Jibanananda Das. In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed.

Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others.

Personification

The Bangamata is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali Renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists. Hindu nationalists adopted a modified Bharat Mata as a national personification of India. The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal.

Art

The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art. It included sculptures and paintings.

Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court. The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India. Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art. The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene.

Architecture

Classical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara). During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region. Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at Adina. Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow.

The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions. The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.

In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.

Sciences

The Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama. Bengal was the leader of scientific endeavours in the subcontinent during the British Raj. The educational reforms during this period gave birth to many distinguished scientists in the region. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent. IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science. He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate. Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry. Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems. In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction. Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of the Fundamental Physics Prize "for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory".

Music

The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music. The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition. Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.

Cuisine

Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a Bengali". Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, and several kinds of Pithe. The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes.

Boats

There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes. They vary in design and size. The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others. Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such as Jarul (dipterocarpus turbinatus), sal (shorea robusta), sundari (heritiera fomes), and Burma teak (tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies. The British Royal Navy later utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar.

Attire

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhoti or pyjama, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.

Festivals

For Bengali Muslims, the major religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, and Shab-e-Barat. These festivals are celebrated with great pomp. For Bengali Hindus, the major religious festivals include Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra. In honour of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians, both Buddha's Birthday and Christmas are public holidays in the region. The Bengali New Year is the main secular festival of Bengali culture celebrated by people regardless of religious and social backgrounds. Other Bengali festivals include the first day of spring and the Nabanna harvest festival in autumn.

Media

Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership. West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bengali. Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata.

Sports

Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh Bengali Games has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.

See also
 Bengali Renaissance
 Bengalis
 Greater Bangladesh
 Bangladeshi diaspora
 List of Bengalis
 Bangladesh

Notes

References

External links

Regions of Asia
Geography of South Asia
Geography of Bangladesh
Geography of India
 B
Regions of India
Historical Indian regions
Subdivisions of British India
Historical regions

Bengal


A cartridge means an object that adds different functions or content to an electronic device (like a video game cartridge), or that refills something the device needs (like an ink cartridge for a printer).

A cartridge is easy to use. For example, an ink cartridge is easier to use than a bottle of ink. This is because all the ink is inside the cartridge.

A cassette is a small cartridge. The words have similar meanings.

Electronics
Storage devices

Cartridge (electronics)


ESPN Integration is an agreement between ESPN and Electronic Arts to put various ESPN features in their games. The first game to feature ESPN Integration was MVP 06 NCAA Baseball. The features that have so far appeared include a streaming ticker at the bottom of the screen with real up to date sports scores, just as it appears on the ESPN channel. This ticker does not just crawl during menus and load screens but also in actual gameplay. Another feature is the ability to listen to sports updates from ESPN Radio, and a third feature is being able to read the top 40 sports stories from ESPN.com.

Other vwebsites
Interview about ESPN Integration  on IGN

Video games

ESPN Integration


This is a list of characters in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.
Escalus (Prince) is the political ruler of Verona. He is the cousin of MERCUTIO and PARIS
Count Paris is a filthy snob. In LOVE with Juliet.
Lord Montague is a powerful nobleman of Verona and the head of the Montague family. He is Romeo's father.
Lady Montague is Montague's wife and Romeo's mother.
Romeo Montague is the son of Lord and Lady Montague. Romeo falls in love with Juliet Capulet, and secretly marries her. Juliet fakes her death to rid herself of a parental marriage arrangement with Count Paris. Romeo is not aware of the fake death. He believes Juliet is truly dead and kills himself. Leonardo DiCaprio, Leonard Whiting, Douglas Booth and Leslie Howard have played Romeo in movie adaptations of the play. Romeo is also a character in opera and ballet adaptions of the play.
Benvolio is a member of House Montague and ROMEO's cousin.
Capulet is a powerful nobleman of Verona and the head of the Capulet family. He is Juliet's father.
Lady Capulet is CAPULET's wife and JULIET's mother.
Juliet Capulet is barely a young adult when she meets and falls in love with a family enemy, Romeo Montague. The two marry secretly. When Juliet's parents arrange a marriage for Juliet with Count Paris, she takes a potion that will make her appear to be dead. Her body is taken to a crypt. She later comes back to life. When she discovers Romeo has killed himself, she kills herself. Claire Danes, Norma Shearer, Hailee Steinfeld and Olivia Hussey have played Juliet in the movies. The play was adapted to opera and ballet. Rudolph Nureyev and Margot Fonteyn have danced the "star-crossed lovers" in the ballet adaptation.
Friar Lawrence is an old clergyman who secretly marries Romeo and Juliet. Juliet's fake death is his idea. He is unable to prevent Romeo from killing himself.
Juliet's Nurse is about 28 years old. She has a well known speech in which she recalls Juliet's babyhood.
Tybalt is a hot-headed young man always looking for a fight. He is Juliet Capulet's cousin. He kills Mercutio in a duel and is later killed by Romeo. Basil Rathbone and Michael York have played Tybalt in the 1936 and 1968 movie adaptations.
Mercutio is a young man and friend to Romeo. When Romeo declines to participate in a duel with a family enemy, Mercutio takes Romeo's place and is killed as Romeo tries to end the duel. Mercutio is a talkative young man. His most famous speech is the Queen Mab speech.
Balthasar is ROMEO's personal servant in House Montague.
Abraham is a servant in House Montague
Samson is a servant of House Capulet.
Gregory is a servant of House Capulet.
Peter is the NURSE's personal servant in House Capulet.
Apothacary is a pharmacist who sells Romeo the poison that he uses to kill himself.
Friar John is a a clergyman in the same group as FRIAR LAURENCE whom he uses to try and send a message to ROMEO.
Rosaline  is the gorgeous and aloof woman Romeo crushes on until he meets the love of his life, Juliet. But, um, don't get excited, because we never see her, she has no speaking part, and she isn't even listed in the dramatis personae (the cast list). So, why the heck are we talking about Rosaline in our "Character Analysis"? Well, we may not hear directly from Rosaline (or even see her unless we watch, say, Zeffirelli's 1968 film adaptation of the play), but we do hear a lot about her from one of the play's major characters, Romeo.
capulet Surname of the heroine Juliet's family in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.
Friar John We know very little of Friar John's personality.  Certainly he is willing to help Friar Lawrence so we might say that he is obedient or kind.  He is caught up in a quarantine so we know that his inability to deliver the letter wasn't because of cowardice or bad intent.  All we can say for sure is that Friar John tries to help Friar Lawrence.  He has no idea what is in that letter.  We know that he does make the attempt but that is about all we know.  It is difficult to draw conclusions about Friar John's personality from our limited contact with him in the story.

In addition, the script contains a number of minor characters such as Pages, Musicians, Citizens of Verona, male and female Kinsfolk to both Houses, Masquers, Guards, Watchmen, Officers, and Attendants.

Romeo

Characters in Romeo and Juliet