An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an electrical generator that produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity.

Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric energy, or using electric currents. Manual electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential electrode.

Description
Electrostatic machines are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate electrical forces and high voltage phenomena. The elevated potential differences achieved have been also used for a variety of practical applications, such as operating X-ray tubes, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, medical applications, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics experiments. Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and variations as the Pelletron, also find use in physics research.

Electrostatic generators can be divided into categories depending on how the charge is generated:
Friction machines use the triboelectric effect (electricity generated by contact or friction)
Influence machines use electrostatic induction
Others

Friction machines

History

The first electrostatic generators are called friction machines because of the friction in the generation process. A primitive form of frictional machine was invented around 1663 by Otto von Guericke, using a sulphur globe that could be rotated and rubbed by hand. It may not actually have been rotated during use and was not intended to produce electricity (rather cosmic virtues), but inspired many later machines that used rotating globes. Isaac Newton suggested the use of a glass globe instead of a sulphur one. About 1706 Francis Hauksbee improved the basic design, with his frictional electrical machine that enabled a glass sphere to be rotated rapidly against a woollen cloth.

Generators were further advanced when, about 1730, Prof. Georg Matthias Bose of Wittenberg added a collecting conductor (an insulated tube or cylinder supported on silk strings). Bose was the first to employ the "prime conductor" in such machines, this consisting of an iron rod held in the hand of a person whose body was insulated by standing on a block of resin.

In 1746, William Watson's machine had a large wheel turning several glass globes, with a sword and a gun barrel suspended from silk cords for its prime conductors. Johann Heinrich Winckler, professor of physics at Leipzig, substituted a leather cushion for the hand. During 1746, Jan Ingenhousz invented electric machines made of plate glass. Experiments with the electric machine were largely aided by the discovery of the Leyden Jar. This early form of the capacitor, with conductive coatings on either side of the glass, can accumulate a charge of electricity when connected with a source of electromotive force.

The electric machine was soon further improved by Andrew (Andreas) Gordon, a Scotsman and professor at Erfurt, who substituted a glass cylinder in place of a glass globe; and by Giessing of Leipzig who added a "rubber" consisting of a cushion of woollen material. The collector, consisting of a series of metal points, was added to the machine by Benjamin Wilson about 1746, and in 1762, John Canton of England (also the inventor of the first pith-ball electroscope) improved the efficiency of electric machines by sprinkling an amalgam of tin over the surface of the rubber. In 1768, Jesse Ramsden constructed a widely used version of a plate electrical generator.

In 1783, Dutch scientist Martin van Marum of Haarlem designed a large electrostatic machine of high quality with glass disks 1.65 meters in diameter for his experiments. Capable of producing voltage with either polarity, it was built under his supervision by John Cuthbertson of Amsterdam the following year. The generator is currently on display at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem.

In 1785, N. Rouland constructed a silk-belted machine that rubbed two grounded tubes covered with hare fur. Edward Nairne developed an electrostatic generator for medical purposes in 1787 that had the ability to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first of these being collected from the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from another prime conductor carrying the friction pad. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines.

In the 1830s, Georg Ohm possessed a machine similar to the Van Marum machine for his research (which is now at the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany). In 1840, the Woodward machine was developed by improving the 1768 Ramsden machine, placing the prime conductor above the disk(s). Also in 1840, the Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed, using steam as a charge carrier.

Friction operation
The presence of surface charge imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomenon of the triboelectric effect. Rubbing two non-conductive objects can generate a great amount of static electricity. This is not the result of friction; two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge. Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith. Conductive objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that the presence of electric current does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the corona discharge, or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system.

Influence machines

History
Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished and reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of Volta's electrophorus. The electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric charge via the process of electrostatic induction.

The next step was when Abraham Bennet, the inventor of the gold leaf electroscope, described a "doubler of electricity" (Phil. Trans., 1787), as a device similar to the electrophorus, but that could amplify a small charge by means of repeated manual operations with three insulated plates, in order to make it observable in an electroscope. In 1788, William Nicholson proposed his rotating doubler, which can be considered as the first rotating influence machine. His instrument was described as "an instrument which by turning a winch produces the two states of electricity without friction or communication with the earth". (Phil. Trans., 1788, p. 403) Nicholson later described a "spinning condenser" apparatus, as a better instrument for measurements.

Erasmus Darwin, W. Wilson, G. C. Bohnenberger, and (later, 1841) J. C. E. Péclet developed various modifications of Bennet's 1787 device. Francis Ronalds automated the generation process in 1816 by adapting a pendulum bob as one of the plates, driven by clockwork or a steam engine – he created the device to power his electric telegraph.

Others, including T. Cavallo (who developed the "Cavallo multiplier", a charge multiplier using simple addition, in 1795), John Read, Charles Bernard Desormes, and Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, developed further various forms of rotating doublers. In 1798, The German scientist and preacher Gottlieb Christoph Bohnenberger, described the Bohnenberger machine, along with several other doublers of Bennet and Nicholson types in a book. The most interesting of these were described in the "Annalen der Physik" (1801). Giuseppe Belli, in 1831, developed a simple symmetrical doubler which consisted of two curved metal plates between which revolved a pair of plates carried on an insulating stem. It was the first symmetrical influence machine, with identical structures for both terminals. This apparatus was reinvented several times, by C. F. Varley, that patented a high power version in 1860, by Lord Kelvin (the "replenisher") 1868, and by A. D. Moore (the "dirod"), more recently. Lord Kelvin also devised a combined influence machine and electromagnetic machine, commonly called a mouse mill, for electrifying the ink in connection with his siphon recorder, and a water-drop electrostatic generator (1867), which he called the "water-dropping condenser".

Holtz machine

Between 1864 and 1880, W. T. B. Holtz constructed and described a large number of influence machines which were considered the most advanced developments of the time. In one form, the Holtz machine consisted of a glass disk mounted on a horizontal axis which could be made to rotate at a considerable speed by a multiplying gear, interacting with induction plates mounted in a fixed disk close to it. In 1865, August J. I. Toepler developed an influence machine that consisted of two disks fixed on the same shaft and rotating in the same direction. In 1868, the Schwedoff machine had a curious structure to increase the output current. Also in 1868, several mixed friction-influence machine were developed, including the Kundt machine and the Carré machine. In 1866, the Piche machine (or Bertsch machine) was developed. In 1869, H. Julius Smith received the American patent for a portable and airtight device that was designed to ignite powder. Also in 1869, sectorless machines in Germany were investigated by Poggendorff.

The action and efficiency of influence machines were further investigated by F. Rossetti, A. Righi, and Friedrich Kohlrausch. E. E. N. Mascart, A. Roiti, and E. Bouchotte also examined the efficiency and current producing power of influence machines. In 1871, sectorless machines were investigated by Musaeus. In 1872, Righi's electrometer was developed and was one of the first antecedents of the Van de Graaff generator. In 1873, Leyser developed the Leyser machine, a variation of the Holtz machine. In 1880, Robert Voss (a Berlin instrument maker) devised a form of machine in which he claimed that the principles of Toepler and Holtz were combined. The same structure become also known as the Toepler–Holtz machine.

Wimshurst machine

In 1878, the British inventor James Wimshurst started his studies about electrostatic generators, improving the Holtz machine, in a powerful version with multiple disks. The classical Wimshurst machine, that became the most popular form of influence machine, was reported to the scientific community by 1883, although previous machines with very similar structures were previously described by Holtz and Musaeus. In 1885, one of the largest-ever Wimshurst machines was built in England (it is now at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry). The Wimshurst machine is a considerably simple machine; it works, as all influence machines, with electrostatic induction of charges, which means that it uses even the slightest existing charge to create and accumulate more charges, and repeats this process for as long as the machine is in action. Wimshurst machines are composed of: two insulated disks attached to pulleys of opposite rotation, the disks have small conductive (usually metal) plates on their outward-facing sides; two double-ended brushes that serve as charge stabilizers and are also the place where induction happens, creating the new charges to be collected; two pairs of collecting combs, which are, as the name implies, the collectors of electrical charge produced by the machine; two Leyden Jars, the capacitors of the machine; a pair of electrodes, for the transfer of charges once they have been sufficiently accumulated. The simple structure and components of the Wimshurst Machine make it a common choice for a homemade electrostatic experiment or demonstration, these characteristics were factors that contributed to its popularity, as previously mentioned.

In 1887, Weinhold modified the Leyser machine with a system of vertical metal bar inductors with wooden cylinders close to the disk for avoiding polarity reversals. M. L. Lebiez described the Lebiez machine, that was essentially a simplified Voss machine (L'Électricien, April 1895, pp. 225–227). In 1893, Louis Bonetti patented a machine with the structure of the Wimshurst machine, but without metal sectors in the disks. This machine is significantly more powerful than the sectored version, but it must usually be started with an externally applied charge.

Pidgeon machine
In 1898, the Pidgeon machine was developed with a unique setup by W. R. Pidgeon. On October 28 that year, Pidgeon presented this machine to the Physical Society after several years of investigation into influence machines (beginning at the start of the decade). The device was later reported in the Philosophical Magazine (December 1898, pg. 564) and the Electrical Review (Vol. XLV, pg. 748). A Pidgeon machine possesses fixed electrostatic inductors arranged in a manner that increases the electrostatic induction effect (and its electrical output is at least double that of typical machines of this type [except when it is overtaxed]). The essential features of the Pidgeon machine are, one, the combination of the rotating support and the fixed support for inducing charge, and, two, the improved insulation of all parts of the machine (but more especially of the generator's carriers). Pidgeon machines are a combination of a Wimshurst Machine and Voss Machine, with special features adapted to reduce the amount of charge leakage. Pidgeon machines excite themselves more readily than the best of these types of machines. In addition, Pidgeon investigated higher current "triplex" section machines (or "double machines with a single central disk") with enclosed sectors (and went on to receive British Patent 22517 (1899) for this type of machine).

Multiple disk machines and "triplex" electrostatic machines (generators with three disks) were also developed extensively around the turn of the 20th century. In 1900, F. Tudsbury discovered that enclosing a generator in a metallic chamber containing compressed air, or better, carbon dioxide, the insulating properties of compressed gases enabled a greatly improved effect to be obtained owing to the increase in the breakdown voltage of the compressed gas, and reduction of the leakage across the plates and insulating supports. In 1903, Alfred Wehrsen patented an ebonite rotating disk possessing embedded sectors with button contacts at the disk surface. In 1907, Heinrich Wommelsdorf reported a variation of the Holtz machine using this disk and inductors embedded in celluloid plates (DE154175; "Wehrsen machine"). Wommelsdorf also developed several high-performance electrostatic generators, of which the best known were his "Condenser machines" (1920). These were single disk machines, using disks with embedded sectors that were accessed at the edges.

Van de Graaff

The Van de Graaff generator was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929 at MIT as a particle accelerator. The first model was demonstrated in October 1929. In the Van de Graaff machine, an insulating belt transports electric charge to the interior of an insulated hollow metal high voltage terminal, where it is transferred to the terminal by a "comb" of metal points. The advantage of the design was that since there was no electric field in the interior of the terminal, the charge on the belt could continue to be discharged onto the terminal regardless of how high the voltage on the terminal was. Thus the only limit to the voltage on the machine is ionization of the air next to the terminal. This occurs when the electric field at the terminal exceeds the dielectric strength of air, about 30 kV per centimeter. Since the highest electric field is produced at sharp points and edges, the terminal is made in the form of a smooth hollow sphere; the larger the diameter the higher the voltage attained. The first machine used a silk ribbon bought at a five and dime store as the charge transport belt. In 1931 a version able to produce 1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure.

The Van de Graaff generator was a successful particle accelerator, producing the highest energies until the late 1930s when the cyclotron superseded it. The voltage on open air Van de Graaff machines is limited to a few million volts by air breakdown. Higher voltages, up to about 25 megavolts, were achieved by enclosing the generator inside a tank of pressurized insulating gas. This type of Van de Graaff particle accelerator is still used in medicine and research. Other variations were also invented for physics research, such as the Pelletron, that uses a chain with alternating insulating and conducting links for charge transport.

Small Van de Graaff generators are commonly used in science museums and science education to demonstrate the principles of static electricity. A popular demonstration is to have a person touch the high voltage terminal while standing on an insulated support; the high voltage charges the person's hair, causing the strands to stand out from the head.

Others

Not all electrostatic generators use the triboelectric effect or electrostatic induction. Electric charges can be generated by electric currents directly. Examples are ionizers and ESD guns.

Applications

Gridded ion thruster

EWICON
An electrostatic vaneless ion wind generator, the EWICON, has been developed by The School of Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science at Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). Its stands near Mecanoo, an architecture firm. The main developers were Johan Smit and Dhiradj Djairam. Other than the wind, it has no moving parts. It is powered by the wind carrying away charged particles from its collector. The design suffers from poor efficiency.

Dutch Windwheel
The technology developed for EWICON has been reused in the Dutch Windwheel.

Air ioniser

Fringe science and devices
These generators have been used, sometimes inappropriately and with some controversy, to support various fringe science investigations. In 1911, George Samuel Piggott received a patent for a compact double machine enclosed within a pressurized box for his experiments concerning radiotelegraphy and "antigravity". Much later (in the 1960s), a machine known as "Testatika" was built by German engineer, Paul Suisse Bauman, and promoted by a Swiss community, the Methernithans. Testatika is an electromagnetic generator based on the 1898 Pidgeon electrostatic machine, said to produce "free energy" available directly from the environment.

See also
 Electrostatic motor
 Electrometer (also known as the "electroscope")
 Electret
 Static electricity

References

Further reading
: Beschreibung unterschiedlicher Elektrizitätsverdoppler von einer neuen Einrichtung nebst einer Anzahl von Versuchen üb. verschiedene Gegenstände d. Elektrizitätslehre [Description of different electricity-doubler of a new device, along with a number of experiments on various subjects of electricity] Tübingen 1798.

Wilhelm Holtz: the higher charge on insulating surfaces by side pull and the transfer of this principle to the construction of induction machines .. In: Johann Poggendorff, CG Barth (eds): Annals of physics and chemistry. 130, Leipzig 1867, pp. 128–136
Wilhelm Holtz: The influence machine. In: F. Poske (Eds.): Annals of physics and chemistry. Julius Springer, Berlin 1904 (seventeenth year, the fourth issue).
O. Lehmann: Dr. J. Frick's physical technique. 2, Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig 1909, p. 797 (Section 2).
F. Poske: New forms of influence machines. In: F. Poske (eds) for the physical and chemical education. journal Julius Springer, Berlin 1893 (seventh year, second issue).
 C. L. Stong, "Electrostatic motors are powered by electric field of the Earth". October, 1974. (PDF)
 Oleg D. Jefimenko, "Electrostatic Motors: Their History, Types, and Principles of Operation". Electret Scientific, Star City, 1973.
 G. W. Francis (author) and Oleg D. Jefimenko (editor), "Electrostatic Experiments: An Encyclopedia of Early Electrostatic Experiments, Demonstrations, Devices, and Apparatus". Electret Scientific, Star City, 2005.
 V. E. Johnson, "Modern High-Speed Influence Machines; Their principles, construction and applications to radiography, radio-telegraphy, spark photography, electro-culture, electro-therapeutics, high-tension gas ignition, and the testing of materials". ISBN B0000EFPCO

 J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed.,Oxford, 1881), vol. i. p. 294
 Joseph David Everett, Electricity (expansion of part iii. of Augustin Privat-Deschanel's "Natural Philosophy") (London, 1901), ch. iv. p. 20
 A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik (Breslau, 1905), vol. iv. pp. 50–58 (contains a large number of references to original papers)
 J. Gray, "Electrical Influence Machines, Their Historical Development and Modern Forms [with instruction on making them]" (London, I903). (J. A. F.)
 Silvanus P. Thompson, The Influence Machine from Nicholson – 1788 to 1888, Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng., 1888, 17, p. 569
 John Munro, The Story Of Electricity (The Project Gutenberg Etext)
 A. D. Moore (Editor), "Electrostatics and its Applications". Wiley, New York, 1973.
 Oleg D. Jefimenko (with D. K. Walker), "Electrostatic motors". Phys. Teach. 9, 121–129 (1971).

External links

 Electrostatic Generator – Interactive Java Tutorial National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

 "How it works : Electricity". triquartz.co.uk.

Electrical generators
Electrostatics
Historical scientific instruments

Electrostatic generator


Upper Bicutan (PSGC: 137 607 015) is one of twenty-eight barangays of Taguig City, Metro Manila in the Philippines.

History
In 1909, Bicutan is land surrounded by Pasig, Taguig, and Parañaque.  A large part of it was covered by Fort William McKinley. Powered by Proclamation No. 423 signed by Carlos P. Garcia on July 12, 1957, the land was initially allocated only for soldiers.

Due to the requests of citizens as well as by Pasig, Parañaque and Taguig governments that Bicutan not be included in the areas stated in the Proclamation 423, then-President Diosdado Macapagal signed Proclamation No. 246 that directed Bicutan to not be included in the operation of Proclamation No. 423. In the years 1964 and early 1965, the occupiers had their status as owners of their own land confirmed.

The formerly vacant area was soon filled with houses. Before the end of the year, the population of Bicutan has not dropped below 3,600 families.

Gradually the population rose until a lack of schools was recognized for this area, which was still remote from other urban areas. Therefore, on July 16, 1966, a collaborative effort led to the erection of a school.

The Sangguniang Barangay Upper Bicutan was under the management of Barangay Captain Venancio Osano. Upper Bicutan's Osano Park was named after him.

Soon the community had a large water tank, an elementary school and a few paved roads, as well as the availability of electricity.

As a result, City Ordinances number 24-27, 57–61, 67–69, and 78, series of 2008 and the resulting plebiscite on December 28 of the same year, Purok 1, 2a, 3 and 4 were separated from the barangay and reconstituted as a new barangay, Central Bicutan. The barangay retained Purok 2b, 5 and 6.

References

Taguig
Barangays of Metro Manila

Upper Bicutan


The Davies brothers of Bersham, near Wrexham in north Wales, were a family of smiths active in the 18th century. They were particularly known for their high-quality work in wrought iron, of which several examples still survive in country homes and churchyards around the England-Wales border.

Biography

The family consisted of Hugh or Huw Davies (d. 1702) and his sons Robert (1675–1748) and John (1682–1755), who would both go on to be highly regarded smiths; there were also another two sons, Huw and Thomas, and six daughters, Anne, Magdalen, Jane, Sarah, Elinor, and Margaret. They worked at the Croes Foel forge in Bersham, near Wrexham.

Robert – generally considered the most talented of the family – may have studied under the great French wrought iron smith Jean Tijou. The brothers were also have said to have worked with Robert Bakewell of Derby.

The will of Hugh Sr., dated 13 June 1702 and proved at St Asaph in 1703, left a messuage in Bersham to his wife Eleanor and then to his son Robert along with £7 10s., "for which he is to instruct my son Thomas in the trade and science of a smith which he the said Robert now professeth".

Several examples of work known to be by Robert and John survive, as well as a handful of items attributed to their father. Some of these are of exceptionally high quality; a screen and gates known as the "White Gates", at Leeswood Hall, Flintshire, has been described as one of the finest of its type in the United Kingdom, and has been attributed to the Davies brothers on the basis of distinctive fretwork patterns shared with other of their designs. Nikolaus Pevsner described the Davies brothers' work as "miraculous".

Works by the Davies family

The following are linked to the Davies brothers by documentary evidence:

Gates at Chirk Castle (1719)
St Giles' Church, Wrexham, gates (1720) by Robert Davies, and chancel gates and choir rail attributed to Hugh Davies (late seventeenth century)
Gates of St Peter's Church, Ruthin (1727)
Gate of Oswestry Parish Church (1738)

Works attributed to Davies family

Gates formerly at Stansty Park, now at Erddig Hall. Robert Davies is known to have made gates for Erddig, but they were removed during a subsequent remodelling of the park by William Emes.
The White Gates and Black Gates, Leeswood Hall
The Golden Gates, Eaton Hall, Cheshire
Gates of St Mary's Church, Eccleston, from now-demolished Emral Hall near Wrexham
Gates at Gwysaney Hall, near Sychdyn
Gates now at Cholmondeley Castle
Gates of Hawkstone Hall, Shropshire
Gates and railings at the now-demolished Carden Hall; the gates have now been removed
The main gates of St Oswald's Church, Malpas were formerly attributed to the brothers, but are now considered to be of a later date. A smaller gate in the churchyard is however thought to be the work of their father Hugh.

Gallery

References

Welsh artists
British blacksmiths
History of Wrexham County Borough
Organisations based in Wrexham County Borough

Davies brothers of Bersham


The German Bundestag (commonly referred to as Bundestag) is the legislature of Germany. It meets in Berlin, in the Reichstag building, which was specially rebuilt ready for the Bundestag to move from Bonn.

The Bundestag has at least 598 members. Every 4 years the German people vote. After the 2017 election there were 709 members. In the election of 26 September 2021, 736 members were assigned - the base 598 seats plus 138 overhang and leveling seats. The next elections are in 2025.

A party gets seats when it gets at least 5% of the votes or 3 direct mandates. Every voter has two votes, one for a person and one for a party. 299 members each represent a constituency, just as in the British House of Commons or the US House of Representatives. The other half are elected from a party list in each Land. The total number of seats a party gets depends on the number of the second "party votes" it gets.

But if a party wins more constituency seats than its share of the party votes, then it keeps those extra seats. These extra seats, or extra mandates, are the reason the Bundestag sometimes has more than 598 members. If a party gets extra mandates, the other parties get some extra seats too to make sure every party gets exactly its share of party seats. This system of giving extra mandates was changed in 2013. Before 2013, if a party won extra mandates, then it got to put more members in the Bundestag, which gave the party more influence over the Bundestag than it won in the elections.

The Bundestag president is named Bärbel Bas. She oversees the sessions of the body.

Related pages
 Politics of Germany#Bundestag (election results of 2013)
 German federal election, 2017

Notes

References

Other websites

German Bundestag


"Ta Moko" means tattoo art in Maori.
Often these tattoos covered the whole face and were a symbol of rank, social status, power and prestige for the Maori people.
Ta Moko is a visual language which connects the person who has it to his "whakapapa". Whakapapa is the family, it's the genealogical tree, so there is nothing which links religion to Ta Moko.
Ta Moko symbolises identification with their origins. It is considered to be beautiful but ferocious because they have to frighten their enemies. The Maori facial tattoo was used as a kind of "identification card".

These tattoos look like animals or geometric shapes. The most popular tattoo is "the tortoise".
The technique of making tattooes leaves scars. Traditional tools to make Ta Moko are albatross bone chisels and black ink. A Maori tattoo takes a lot of time to do; generally the Maori people start tattooing themselves in adolescence and they finish in adulthood. They take years to be finished. But a real Ta Moko is very painful. The tattoo artist removes your skin by making wide cuts with a mallet and either a Turtle scale or an Albatross bone. So it takes a long time and you suffer a lot.

Boys start to be tattooed around adolescence but we don't know when women can start to be tattooed.
Men's tattooes can be found everywhere on their bodies; whereas women can only have tattooes on their foreheads, necks, lips, chins and backs.

The number of tattooes they have depends on their age, what the people have done in their lives and the place of the person in the tribe. For Maoris these tattooes are like a diary because they are a written record of all the important events and places a man has experienced in his life.

References

Maori
Body art

Tā moko


Chance of a Lifetime is a 1950 British film starring, produced, co-written and directed by Bernard Miles. Its depiction of industrial relations was seen as controversial and distributors initially refused to screen it. It was nominated for the 1951 BAFTA for Best British Film, which was awarded to The Blue Lamp.

Plot
In the times of austerity after the Second World War, Dickinson works hard to try to keep his failing agricultural implements factory going. His disgruntled workers do not appreciate his efforts, however, and resent Bland, his bullying works manager. He has a suggestion box installed after workers complain he never listens to them but, after the works manager threatens latecomers, the only response is insulting. When Bland sacks the author of the suggestion, Bolger, the workforce go on strike. Dickinson confronts them and, in the heat of the moment, tells them he works much harder than they do and dares them to run the business themselves. Baxter gets the others to take him up on his suggestion, and they elect Stevens and Morris to do just that. Dickinson is taken aback, but reluctantly agrees to let the factory to them on condition that they pay him annually 5% of the capital value of the business, equivalent to £120 a week.

Bland, Miss Cooper, Dickinson's secretary, the works manager, the foreman and a few others quit. That night, Dickinson's solicitor and doctor advise him to use the situation as an opportunity to take a holiday and recommend to Miss Cooper that she return to work.

A supplier changes its credit terms, causing a financial crisis. The local bank manager is unwilling to extend a temporary loan, so Stevens goes to the bank's head office in the City of London and speaks to the bank's managing director, Sir Robert Dysart, but without luck. Finally, Stevens and Morris put up the deeds to their own homes, Palmer raises money on his insurance policy, and, after some grumbling, some of the other workers make up the required sum.

After press publicity of this worker-owned factory, a trade delegation from the (fictitious) country of Xenobia contact the factory to arrange a demonstration of the "one-way plough" that Dickinson had been working on. Miss Cooper invites Dickinson to attend, but he merely watches from a distance. The Xenobians are impressed and order 800 ploughs for £50,000. After the contract is signed, Adam insists the only way to fulfil such a large order is to focus their efforts solely on the plough, to the exclusion of work they have contracted from longtime customers. Morris returns to the factory floor rather than be a party to abandoning their other customers, and Adam takes his place.

Meanwhile, a few of the workers, led by Baxter, are unhappy with the new, lower pay rate. Two trades union men are called in to try to sort things out, and Baxter eventually drops his objections.

Dickinson shows up at the factory late at night and is invited in for a cup of cocoa by the watchman. He meets Miss Cooper and has a chat with her about how things are going. He learns that a steel supplier is delaying delivery, so the next day he goes to see Garrett, its managing director. Garrett strongly disapproves of the experiment and refuses to help it along, but Dickinson suggests that a newspaper article about its sabotaging, with a photograph of Garrett, would not be in his best interests. The steel is delivered.

Then the Xenobian government announces that "in view of their foreign currency position, all outstanding import licences are suspended". Dickinson returns and is able to find other foreign customers for the ploughs. Disaster averted, he goes to leave, only for Stevens to offer him his old position back. Dickinson accepts a lesser position, and indicates that Adam should be the managing director. Stevens walks out, saying he prefers to do real work.

Response
The Rank and Associated British cinemas refused to show the film, claiming it was too political and "would annoy employers". The Ministry of Labour and the British Employers Confederation argued that the film would damage management-employee relations, particularly in the light of renewed industrial unrest in early 1950. The chairman of the Board of Trade, Harold Wilson, argued in cabinet that this was overreaction and the cabinet approved the film's release, using the 1948 Film Act to ensure the film was shown on the major cinema circuit.

The film was an unexpected flop at the box office. A Mass-Observation survey at the time found that only 1/3 of the people who watched the film had intended to do so, with the majority of attendees doing so 'either out of habit [in attending the cinema] or because they had nothing better to do.

Cast
Basil Radford as Dickinson
Niall MacGinnis as (Frank) Baxter
Bernard Miles as (George) Stevens
Julien Mitchell as (Ted) Morris
Kenneth More as Adam (Watson)
Geoffrey Keen as (Harry) Bolger
Josephine Wilson as Miss Cooper
John Harvey as Bland
Russell Waters as Palmer
Patrick Troughton as Kettle
Hattie Jacques as Alice
Peter Jones, Bernard Rebel and Eric Pohlmann as the Xenobians
Amy Veness as Lady Davis
Stanley Van Beers as Calvert
Norman Pierce as Franklin
Gordon McLeod as Garrett
Compton Mackenzie as Sir Robert Dysart
Nigel Fitzgerald as Pennington
Alastair Hunter as Groves (Dickinson's doctor)
Mollie Palmer as Millie
George Street as 1st Trade Union Man
Stanley Rose as 2nd Trade Union Man
Erik Chitty as Silas Pike
Leonard Sharp as Mitch
John Boddington as Bank Clerk
Hilda Fenemore, Helen Harvey, Peggy Ann Clifford, Sam Kydd, Jim Watts, Henry Bryce, Basil Cunard, Anthony Halfpenny, Howell Davies and Donald Tandy as The Workers

References

External links

1950 films
British black-and-white films
Films directed by Bernard Miles
1950s business films
British comedy-drama films
1950 comedy-drama films
1950s English-language films
1950s British films

Chance of a Lifetime (1950 film)


Ivory is a hard yellowsh-white material made from the tusks and teeth of animals such as elephants, hippopotamuses and walruses. Ivory is now very rare and expensive since there are restrictions on hunting elephants for ivory. There are also laws against the trade of ivory. Some countries (including Zimbabwe and South Africa) argue that these laws should be removed or changed, to allow them to sell some ivory.

Ivory has been used to make piano keys, billiard balls, handles and small ornaments. After ivory was banned, these items were usually made from plastic. Many of the earliest plastics were meant to be substitutes for ivory. Ivory has been used in artworks, such as carvings, since ancient times.

Ivory color represents quiet and pleasantness.

Natural materials

Ivory


InfoMania (stylized as infoMania) is an American half-hour weekly satirical news-show that aired on the Current TV television network from 2007 to 2011. The program was initially hosted by Conor Knighton and later Brett Erlich, with features by Ben Hoffman, Sergio Cilli, Sarah Haskins, Bryan Safi, Erin Gibson, and Ellen Fox.

History
The program's executive producer was David Nickoll. Its original executive producer was The Daily Show's co-creator Madeleine Smithberg. For the majority of the show's life, the EP was Jeffrey Plunkett.

Stylistically similar to The Daily Show, InfoMania put a comedic spin on various pieces of popular culture in the United States, including outrageous news stories, video games, viral videos, as well as movies and music.

Prior to being produced in a full half-hour format, the show aired in short 3-5 minute installments, usually at the top of the hour. Before July 2007, the show rotated between names of Google Current and Current Buzz and was a part of Current TV's original programming when the network went on air in August 2005.

In September 2010, InfoMania began receiving a noticeable amount of negative feedback from their fanbase via Facebook and Current TV's website. This first came about following the removal of the ability to watch full episodes of the show on their website, as well as the addition of a live audience to the show. Current TV eliminated the audience from the show in response to these complaints, but they still refuse to post full episodes to the Internet.

On January 12, 2011 Conor Knighton announced his departure on the Current TV website. Brett Erlich became the new host with a new set, but kept the same correspondents returning January 20, 2011.

On July 1, 2011, Brett Erlich announced the July 15th episode would be the final episode of InfoMania.

The show aired Thursday at 11 pm ET/8 pm PT on Current TV before switching to Friday nights during its final month of production. Various segments can be viewed online at various social networking websites such as Hulu.

InfoMania was produced on the same lot as Mad Men in Hollywood, California.

Correspondents
 Sergio Cilli featured segments "White Hot Top 5" and "Music Intervention"
 Ben Hoffman featured segments "InfoMania Editorial," "InfoMania Tech Report," "Kids Kouch!," and "Craigslist Interviews"
 Bryan Safi featured segment "That's Gay"
 Sarah Haskins featured segment "Target: Women"
 Erin Gibson featured segment "Modern Lady"
 Brett Erlich featured segments "Viral Video Film School" and "Rotten Tomatoes on InfoMania" (co-hosted with Ellen Fox)

Segments

References

External links

 Erin Gibson on podcast

2007 American television series debuts
2011 American television series endings
2000s American satirical television series
2010s American satirical television series
2000s American sketch comedy television series
2010s American sketch comedy television series
2000s American television news shows
2010s American television news shows
American news parodies
Current TV original programming
English-language television shows

InfoMania


Bartholomew Dowling (1823 – 20 November 1863) was an Irish author.

Biography

Dowling was born in Listowel, County Kerry. While he was still a child, his parents emigrated to Canada, where they remained for some years, and where Dowling received a part of his education. Returning to Ireland, after the death of the father, the family settled in Limerick, and older biographies misidentify Limerick as the city of Dowling's birth.

Burdened with the task of caring for his mother and younger brothers and sisters, Dowling did not follow literature as a profession. He published short pieces, mostly anonymously, while working in the mercantile trades for support. He traveled to California in the summer of 1852 and engaged in mining in the northern counties. Not finding this work congenial, he took to farming in Contra Costa, where he built himself a home and entertained John Mitchel, General James Shields, and Terence MacManus, as visitors.

In a lengthy poem titled "Reminiscences of the Mines", published in the Pioneer magazine for November, 1855, Dowling wrote of life in the mining camp. Sometimes he wrote under the pen-name of "Southern"; at other times over the initial letter of his surname; but his favorite signature was "Masque". In Edward Hayes's Ballad Poetry of Ireland, two of Dowling's works are printed anonymously, and only one bears his name.

In March 1858, P. J. Thomas, an enterprising publisher and one of the founders of the San Francisco Monitor, induced Dowling to quit the seclusion of Crucita Valley in Contra Costa County and move to San Francisco and work on that newspaper. Dowling became editor of the San Francisco Monitor, at a time when he was in poor health. However, he continued his writing, which "displayed a vigor and versatility that gave evidence of what he was capable of accomplishing under more favorable circumstances".

Dowling's death on 20 November 1863 resulted from his being thrown from a buggy and having his leg broken. His health previous to this shock had been declining, and he died in St. Mary's Hospital of San Francisco.

Sources
"Bartholomew Dowling" in Denis Oliver Crowley, Irish Poets and Novelists (1892) pp. 31–77.

References

External links

Irish male poets
Writers from County Kerry
Irish emigrants to Canada
1823 births
1863 deaths
19th-century Irish poets
19th-century male writers
Irish emigrants to the United States
Road incident deaths in California

Bartholomew Dowling


Scirpus microcarpus is a species of flowering plant in the sedge family known by the common names panicled bulrush, smallfruit bulrush, and barberpole bulrush. It is native to North America, where it can be found throughout the northern and western regions, from Alaska across Canada to the northeastern United States, in most of the central and western states, and in Baja California. It grows in many types of moist and wet habitat. It is a perennial herb growing from a long rhizome system. The erect, three-angled stems often exceed one meter tall. Sheathing leaves occur at the stem bases as well as higher up the stems. The inflorescence is a panicle of many clusters of spikelets and leaflike bracts on long, thin branches. The fruit is a pale, smooth achene less than 2 millimeters long.

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Flora of North America
Washington Burke Museum
Photo gallery

microcarpus
Flora of Northern America
Plants described in 1828

Scirpus microcarpus


The Encyclopaedia Hebraica () is an encyclopedia in Hebrew. It was started in 1948.

History

The encyclopedia was published by Bracha Peli who had already created another encyclopedia. The man in charge was her son who was named Alexander.

A committee decided the aims of the encyclopedia in 1944. Printing of the first part began in 1948. This was the year that Israel became a country. The president of the encyclopedia project was also the President of Israel, Professor Chaim Weizmann. The first photograph in the encyclopaedia was of Israel's Declaration of Independence.

The first volume covered the entries for the letter "Aleph" (א) to Australia.

The introduction said:
... we will finish publishing all 16 volumes within five or six years...

The writing took more than thirty years. The encyclopedia had thirty-two volumes when it was finished. An Index (publishing)|index was not printed until 1985. In 1995 there were large updates of entries dealing with the State of Israel.

The supervisor was always Alexander Plai. Its editors were Joseph Klausner, Benzion Netanyahu, Yeshayahu Leibowitz, Nathan Rotenstreich, Yehoshua Gutman, and Joshua Prawer. More than 2500 people wrote the encyclopedia.

Some people felt it was very important to be included in the encyclopedia. They would ask the editors to make sure they had an article about them. Other articles caused arguments e.g. Adolf Hitler.

The Schocken Publishing House has been working on a new edition of the encyclopedia.

Content
The Encyclopaedia Hebraica said it was about "General, Jewish, and Israeli" ideas. The encyclopaedia covers all the general topics, but the articles were larger on Judaism, Jews, and Israel. The encyclopaedia includes the Jewishness of the person, even when it is not important.

Articles on countries and cities include their history and then a Jewish history. For places which were under Nazi rule an account is given of the Jewish people during the Holocaust.

Writers of the encyclopaedia did not hide their Jewish views. The Kingdom of Jordan was not in the first edition. Instead Jordan was included in the article "Land of Israel,".

The letter Aleph contains the largest number of articles. The longest article is "Land of Israel" which takes all of volume 6.
Next in size is "United States of America". The large size of the aleph articles reflects the enthusiasm of the early editors. It became clear that the encyclopaedia would never come to an end. The plan was changed. The final size of the encyclopaedia was smaller than planned.

The woman who owned it was Bracha Peli. She died in 1986. In 1997 the encyclopedia was sold to another company.

References

Israeli culture
Hebrai
Hebrew language

Encyclopaedia Hebraica


Wolf is an unincorporated community in Sheridan County, Wyoming, United States.  Its elevation is 4,626 feet (1,410 m).  Although Wolf is unincorporated, it had a post office, with the ZIP code of 82844 which closed in 1993. Public education in the community of Wolf is provided by Sheridan County School District #2.

References

Unincorporated communities in Sheridan County, Wyoming
Unincorporated communities in Wyoming

Wolf, Wyoming


Lawrence J. Quirk (September 9, 1923 – October 17, 2014) was an American writer, Hollywood reporter and film historian.

Career
Lawrence J. Quirk was born in 1923 at Lynn, Massachusetts. He was the nephew of James R. Quirk, former editor and publisher of the now-defunct Photoplay magazine. He was an army sergeant in Korea, a reporter for the Hearst papers, and a film magazine editor and publisher. Quirk was a film critic, writer, and editor for many publications. Since the 1960s, he wrote more than 30 books primarily on movie stars in Hollywood.  He used his knowledge and friendship with Hollywood actors and politicians such as the Kennedys to gain material for his books. Quirk also appeared on many radio and television programs, including Good Morning America, Good Morning, New York, and  A Current Affair. He was profiled by Patricia Bosworth for the April 1998 Hollywood issue of Vanity Fair.

He lived in Manhattan until his death in October 2014 at the age of 91.

Works

Books
The Complete Films of William Powell (1986)
Fasten Your Seat Belts: The Passionate Life of Bette Davis (1990)
Bob Hope: The Road Well-Traveled (1999)
Joan Crawford: The Essential Biography (University Press of Kentucky, 2002) with William Schoell
Rat Pack, The Neon Nights with the Kings of Cool (2003) with William Schoell
The Kennedys in Hollywood (1996)
Robert Francis Kennedy: The Man and the Politician (1968)
The Films of Joan Crawford (1968)
The Films of Ingrid Bergman (1970)
The Films of Fredric March (1971)
The Great Romantic Films (1974)
The Films of Robert Taylor (1975)
The Films of Ronald Colman (1977)
The Films of Warren Beatty (1979)
The Films of Myrna Loy (1980)
The Films of Gloria Swanson (1984)
Claudette Colbert: An Illustrated Biography (Crown; 1985)
Jane Wyman: The Actress and the Woman: An Illustrated Biography (Crown, 1986)
Lauren Bacall: Her Films and Career (1986)
Norma: The Story of Norma Shearer (St. Martin's; 1988)
Margaret Sullavan: Child of Fate (St. Martin's)
The Films of Katharine Hepburn, by Homer Dickens, revised and updated by Lawrence J. Quirk (1990)
The Life and Wild Times of Cher (1992)
Great War Films: From the Birth of a Nation to Today (1994)
James Stewart: Behind the Scenes of a Wonderful Life (1997)
 Robert Redford: The Sundance Kid"  (Taylor Trade Publishing, ) with William SchoellPaul Newman: A Life, Updated Edition (Taylor Trade Publishing, 2009)

Reviews
"Lulu in Hollywood:'' A Disgraceful Pot-Pouri of Blatant Falsehoods, Distortions and Odd Biographical Omissions: Self-Pitying, Self-Congratulatory - and Self-Serving " (June 1982)
"Brilliant Pittsburgh Journalist Barry Paris Coming Out with a Major Biography of Louise Brooks" (August 1986)

References

1923 births
2014 deaths
American male journalists
American LGBT journalists
American LGBT writers
20th-century American biographers
21st-century American biographers
American male biographers
American newspaper journalists
American film critics
American film historians
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
People from Lynn, Massachusetts
Writers from Massachusetts
Journalists from Massachusetts
20th-century American male writers

Lawrence J. Quirk


The  in Nagasaki, Japan is one of the few museums in Japan devoted to the theme of "overseas exchange".

The museum holds  48,000 items in its collection, including historical documents and arts and crafts, that tell the story of Nagasaki as the sole window opened to foreign countries during the period of national isolation. The museum also contains a reconstruction of part of the Nagasaki Magistrate's Office called bugyōsho, a local agency of the central government in the Edo period.

The permanent exhibition features exhibits dealing with exchange with the Netherlands, China and Korea, and shows artifacts brought to Japan by foreign traders. It also focuses on "Nanban" (Portuguese and Spanish culture) and the introduction of Christianity.
The museum shows the role Nagasaki played in post-restoration Japan in the diplomatic sphere, as well as being at the forefront of modern medicine, printing, ship building and industrial technology.

External links
 Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture

Museums in Nagasaki
History museums in Japan
Prefectural museums

Nagasaki Museum of History and Culture


Ken Battefield (1905–1967) was a prolific comic book artist in the 1940s and early 1950s, during the Golden Age of Comic Books. He is most associated with the Nedor Publishing line of books where, at various times, he illustrated Pyroman, Doc Strange, Black Terror, American Eagle, The Scarab, Captain Future, and many others.

In the latter days of working with that company he was hired to produce large amounts of work which was then "punched" up by Rafael Astarita and Graham Ingels. Through the Chessler, Funnies Inc., Iger, and Benjamin W. Sangor studios, as well as freelance, he also did work for Ace Periodicals, Fox Publications, DC Comics, Charlton Comics, Fiction House, Novelty Press, Ajax-Farrell, Hillman Periodicals, Holyoke Publishing, Harvey Comics, Quality Comics, Street and Smith, and more.

Among Battefield's other projects was the January 1958 revised edition of Classics Illustrated #54, The Man in the Iron Mask.

While working for the Chesler Shop, Battefield met a young Carmine Infantino in a coffee shop, and subsequently got him his first comics job in that studio.

References

1967 deaths
Golden Age comics creators
1905 births

Ken Battefield


Jarvis Ardel Brown (born March 26, 1967) is an American Major League Baseball outfielder who played for the Minnesota Twins, San Diego Padres, Atlanta Braves, and Baltimore Orioles. He won the World Series with the Twins.

Career
Brown was born in Waukegan, Illinois, and attended St. Joseph High School in Kenosha, Wisconsin. After attending Triton Community College, he was drafted by the Twins in the first round (ninth overall) of the 1986 draft. He played in the major leagues from 1991 through 1995, seeing only limited playing time. He was a remarkably fast runner, but did not possess similar talents where hitting was concerned. He had only 227 at bats in the majors, with a career batting average of .203. He hit one home run in his career and drove in ten runs. He did, however, steal thirteen bases.

Brown has a World Series ring, when he was used almost exclusively as a pinch runner by the world champion 1991 Minnesota Twins. In the 1991 American League Championship Series, Brown had no at bats but played in one game and scored one run. During the 1991 World Series, he played in three games and was 0-for-2; he came on in the ninth inning of game seven as a pinch runner, advancing to the third base. Brown thus had the chance to become the first rookie in baseball history to score a World Series-winning run; however, he was stranded. The Twins won anyway, getting Brown a World Series ring.

After baseball
After the completion of his Major League career, Jarvis Brown became head coach of the University of Wisconsin Parkside Rangers baseball program. After a three-year stint, Jarvis was relieved of his duties as head coach, in which he compiled a career record of 31-108.

As of 2009, Brown was an assistant baseball coach at Carthage College.

References

External links

Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Winter League)

1967 births
Living people
African-American baseball players
Atlanta Braves players
Baltimore Orioles players
Bowie Baysox players
Carthage Firebirds baseball coaches
Elizabethton Twins players
Kenosha Twins players
Las Vegas Stars (baseball) players
Major League Baseball center fielders
Major League Baseball right fielders
Minor league baseball managers
Minnesota Twins players
Norfolk Tides players
Orlando Sun Rays players
Portland Beavers players
Richmond Braves players
Rochester Red Wings players
San Diego Padres players
Sportspeople from Waukegan, Illinois
Baseball players from Lake County, Illinois
Thunder Bay Whiskey Jacks players
Tiburones de La Guaira players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Tucson Toros players
Triton College alumni
Triton Trojans baseball players
Visalia Oaks players
Waterbury Spirit players
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American sportspeople

Jarvis Brown


Gloriosam Reginam (December 8, 1955) is a letter of Pope Pius XII to the Polish episcopate, to protest against the persecution of the Church in Poland, and, to commemorate the 300th anniversary of Jasna Góra, the Polish sanctuary of the Virgin Mary. The invincible Mother of God, who the pope says watches over the freedom for Poland, will most certainly assist.

Gloriosam Reginam begins with a review of the historic attachment of the Polish faithful to the Virgin Mary. She in turn was pleased to always assist the Polish people. The larger the difficulties and dangers, the more obvious was her help. In 1655 Protestant invaders from Sweden easily took Warsaw and Kraków, leaving Jasna Góra as the last symbol of Polish freedom. But the Abbot of the monastery, Augustyn Kordecki, did not lose courage, and, appealing to the Mother of God, inspired Polish defenders to extreme resistance. The tide turned and Poland regained its freedom.  Consequently, King Kasimir named the Virgin Mary patron and Queen of Poland. Pope Pius XI created a special Polish feast day to the Virgin as Queen of Poland, to be celebrated May 3 of every year.
This proves, so Pope Pius, that the virgin can be trusted to save the Polish people at any time. The Catholic faith is the most valuable treasure of the Polish people, a true source of strength in difficult times.  Poles, over the centuries stood loyal to the Holy Apostolic See. Poles withstand the subtle and not so subtle advances of atheist propaganda.
 Poles are not afraid in heavy storms. They maintain their calmness, firmness and dignity, trusting in the Most High and Eternal God, to whom nothing is impossible. He subdues in short time and with modest means, everything and everybody powerful and arrogant.

Persecution
All events, including the  bad ones experienced at present, are subject to the hidden plans of God. To endure the present calamities, it is necessary to be strong in hope and faith,  and, to live publicly and privately, like a reflection of Gospel teachings. Pope Pius suggests to his readers, to look up to the powerful virgin, in case they are afraid. The most blessed Mother will never abandon her faithful and beloved Polish people. The Pope reminds his readers, that he castigated anti-Christian religious persecutions many times before. The persecution got worse, not only in Poland but in other countries too. Priests and Bishops are incarcerated under most awful circumstances, or they are under house arrest, unable to be pastorally active.  Religious were forced to leave their houses, Catholic organizations were dissolved, all Catholic media closed, Catholic schools closed or robbed of their rights.
 We paternally hug all these brothers and sons of ours, so dear to us, because they suffer innocently for truth and justice, and once again we recommend them and all their intentions most ardently to our Lord God, the most generous source of consolation and eternal rewards.

In the following part, Pope Pius XII  critiques some unnamed Polish clergy, for meddling in affairs, which are none of their business, and for giving sermons and press releases,  which are misleading, as they are based on wrong principles and false teachings.  He reminds his readers, that he led worldwide protests against the incarceration of Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński  two years earlier. Many countries living in freedom joined in his protest. But Polish  bishops are still incarcerated or kept from their offices. The invincible Mother of God who watches over the freedom for Poland, will most certainly assist.  The Pope concludes, it is most justified, to memorialize her and thank her for the liberation from the most terrible occupation.  Pope Pius XII  concludes his letter with his best wishes to  Poles all over the world, and his Apostolic Blessing.

References

Sources

 Gloriosam Reginam, Acta Apostolicae Sedis, AAS 1956, 73

Pope Pius XII Mariology
Persecution of Catholics during the pontificate of Pope Pius XII
History of Catholicism in Poland
Pope Pius XII apostolic writings
Catholic theology and doctrine
1955 documents
1955 in Christianity

Gloriosam Reginam


The Wynona Riders are an East Bay pop punk band formed in 1988 as Miss Conduct by Jim Tyler (drums), Eric Matson (guitar), Ron Murphy (bass) and Mike Lipari (vocals). In 1989 Ron Greer (Skip) joined the band as the lead singer, changing their name upon their first 924 Gilman Street performance. It was named after the actress Winona Ryder.

Personnel changes
Jim Tyler did not get along with his bandmates very well due to his renewed Christian values, so he left the band in 1990 for college.  Jim went on to play drums for Flaccid and HOSS, based in Fort Collins, Co.   Ron Murphy originally took over drumming duties, but continuing creative differences led to his split from the band. Bass playing then went to  Jack Cheeze (Paul Naginis), while Rico Martinez filled in on drums. In this line-up they recorded the track "Break" for a compilation album called "Can of Pork" (LKOUT 44). Subsequently, Rico was thrown in jail and replaced by Dave "E.C." Henwood of Filth and The Vagrants.

Jack Cheeze left the band over creative differences. Replaced by Richie Bucher, they recorded an EP called "Send in the clowns". In 1992, a tour across the U.S. was planned, when Erick suddenly quit the band without an explanation. Skip and Richie started the band "Here Kitty Kitty" with Joe Selby and Kreig White, and recorded some demos. As "Here Kitty Kitty" they did a tour across the U.S. in 1994.

Meanwhile, Skip asked their record company, Lookout! Records, if they would be interested to release the Wynona Riders demos on CD, as he did not want the music of that band to fade into history. When he asked Dave for his opinion on the release of these demos, he suggested that re-recording the tracks might be a better idea.

Skip, Dave and Richie got together, auditioned for a new guitar player, but eventually wound up working with Erick again. The recording sessions resulted in the album J.D. Salinger, containing a cover of Kim Wilde's Kids in America.

After the release of this album, Erick joined the band "Jack Killed Jill" and announced that he could not tour with The Wynona Riders. Upon hearing this, the other three members kicked him out of the band for good. After auditioning Patrick Hynes (one of the three owners of Lookout! Records at the time) and Joe Selby the band chose Joe to fill the guitar role for their 1995 US tour in support of the "J.D. Salinger" LP/CD.

After a successful tour that saw The Wynona Riders play over 40 shows around the country in six weeks the band decided to try to stick it out with the touring line-up and began writing new material for a follow-up record.  An interim release under the name The Nation of Wenonah was released on What Else? records out of Indiana as a split EP with band Lynard's Innards.  The EP was a send-up/tribute of the Washington D.C. band the Nation of Ulysses.  As more new songs were written the style of the band was veering towards the agitpop styles of other D.C. bands from the early 1990s and Richie and Dave found themselves less than enthusiastic about the direction the band was headed.

Time was booked into Andy Ernst's Art of Ears studio, where "J.D. Salinger" had been recorded to record an EP, Artificial Intelligence(LKOUT 162) for Lookout!, but before the band entered the studio they broke up after performing onstage at 924 Gilman St. in Berkeley, ironically while  opening for  Fifteen's farewell show.

Skip and Joe formed the band "Toyboat" with former Red #9 and Hi-Fives drummer Julie Rose and bassist Adam Turk, E.C. joined the band "Three Years Down", and Richie went to work at a bakery.  A year later Toyboat would disband and Joe Selby would join Three Years Down as their bass player with Skip moving to New York to pursue a career in information technology.

Current members
Ron "Skip" Greer: Vocals
Joe Selby: Guitar
Richie Bucher: Bass
Dave Henwood: Drums

Past members
Eric Matson: Guitar
Ron Murphy: Bass, Drums
Paul Naginis: Bass
Rico Martinez: Drums
Jim Tyler: Drums
Mike Lipari: Vocals

Discography

Studio albums

Compilation albums

Extended plays

Split EPs

Compilation appearances

References

Musical groups established in 1988
Musical groups from the San Francisco Bay Area
Pop punk groups from California

The Wynona Riders


The Archaean (or Archean) eon is the geological period after the Hadean and before the Proterozoic. It is one of the four main time periods (eons) of Earth history. The Archaean lasted from 4,000 million years ago (mya) to 2,500 mya. It contains the first sedimentary rocks, and the first fossil life forms, which were cyanobacteria, and acritarchs.

Most of the rocks which survive are volcanic (igneous) and metamorphic in origin. Volcanic activity was everywhere. When the Archaean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today. It was still twice the current level when the Archaean ended, 2,500 mya. This high level of heat flow may have made plate tectonics more vigorous than today. The question of when plate tectonics began is a major research area. The large supercontinent Vaalbara formed in the Archaean. There were oceans already, before the Archaean.
The atmosphere almost entirely lacked free oxygen, and instead, it was mostly methane and CO2.

Fossil bacterial mats, called stromatolites, are found throughout the Archaean after about 3,500mya. These were formed by cyanobacteria, which used photosynthesis and gave off oxygen as a by-product. Initially, this oxygen was absorbed by combining with iron ions in solution. Not until much later did oxygen build up in the atmosphere.

Fossil raindrop marks have been found in the later Archaean, 2,700 mya. The rocks were discovered in Ventersdorp in the North West Province of South Africa in the 1980s.

Related pages
 Life timeline

References

Archaean

Archaean


Perchloric acid is an acid that contains the perchlorate ion. It is produced by the oxidation of chlorate by electrolysis. The chlorate came from the chloralkali process. It is used to make ammonium perchlorate, which is used in rockets. It is a strong oxidizing agent and very corrosive. It is a colorless liquid.

Related pages
Perchlorate
Potassium chlorate
Ammonium

Acids
Chlorine compounds

Perchloric acid


James Anthony Bailey (July 4, 1847 – April 11, 1906), born James Anthony McGinnis, was an American owner and manager of several 19th-century circuses, including The Barnum and Bailey Greatest Show on Earth.

Early life
James Anthony McGinnis was born July 4, 1847 to Edward and Hannora McGinnis in Detroit, Michigan. Edward McGinnis died in October, 1849 of cholera and in 1855, James was orphaned when his mother died. James then went to live with his older sister, Catherine Gordon.

Life with Catherine was difficult as she tended to be overbearing and harsh. Sometime between 1859 and 1860, James ran away from Catherine's home and found a job and a place to stay on a farm about 10 miles outside the city of Pontiac, Michigan. Finding life on the farm unrewarding, 13-year old James wandered into Pontiac where he found work at the Hodges House Hotel.

After working at the hotel for a time, he was discovered by Colonel Frederic Harrison Bailey, a nephew of circus pioneer Hachaliah Bailey, and an advance man for John Robinson and Bill Lake's traveling circus. F.H. Bailey gave McGinnis a job as his assistant, and the two traveled together for many years. McGinnis eventually adopted F.H. Bailey's surname to become James A. Bailey.

Circus life
In his diary, James' brother-in-law Joe McCaddon writes that Bailey recounted stories of how he left the circus world at age 16 and went to work as clerk to a sutler during the Civil War.

In 1866, with the war over, he went back to work for Bill Lake, who now owned his own circus with his wife Agnes Thatcher Lake. During this time, James met Ruth Louisa McCaddon of Zanesville, Ohio. James and Ruth became friends, fell in love, and were married in December 1868. The very next year in Granby, Missouri, Bill Lake was shot and killed. With her husband dead, Agnes Lake became the first woman in the United States to own a circus (Agnes Lake would later marry famous gunfighter Wild Bill Hickok, who worked for a short time with Buffalo Bill Cody, whose Wild West Show James A. Bailey would one day manage).

Bailey later associated with James E. Cooper, and by the time he was 22, he was manager of the Cooper and Bailey circus. He then met with P.T. Barnum, and together they established Barnum and Bailey's Circus (for which Bailey was instrumental in obtaining Jumbo the Elephant) in 1880, with their combined show opening the following spring in Madison Square Garden.

Barnum was the face of the circus, but James Bailey was the hard worker who insisted on staying behind the scenes. Barnum once wrote to him that James managed the show "ten times better than I could."

Equestrienne Josie Demott Robinson wrote in her autobiography that, "Mr. Barnum was the advertiser, who loved the limelight, who rode around in the ring, and announced who he was. But Mr. Bailey was the businessman, content to be invisible...and interested only in the success of the show."

Bailey was considered by many to be a genius at logistics. His organizational skills for transporting people, animals, and equipment was copied by the military of more than one country.

He hired Pinkerton Detectives to travel with the show and protect circusgoers from grifters and thieves.

He established "Orphan Day", one day a year when orphans could attend the circus for free. He was often known to carry children who couldn't walk into the circus tent and find them a seat away from the crush of the crowd.

Following Barnum's death in 1891, Bailey managed not only The Barnum and Bailey Greatest Show on Earth, but in 1894, took on the management of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.

Death and legacy
Bailey died of erysipelas in 1906 at age 58 at his home in Mount Vernon, NY.
He is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery, in The Bronx, New York City. His widow subsequently sold the circus to the Ringling brothers in 1907, who eventually merged the rival operations in 1919.

In his book about the circus, Earl Chapin May wrote, "Probably...no circus owner and manager left more sincere mourners than the thin little magnate known to millions as James A. Bailey."

Taped beneath a photo of James Bailey in the scrapbook of employee Harrison Gunning is a small scrap of paper that reads, "P.T. Barnum was the great showman, but Mr. Bailey was the supreme of all circus managers, past and present."

James A. Bailey was inducted into the International Circus Hall of Fame in 1960 and into the Circus Ring of Fame in Sarasota, Florida in 1990.

References

External links

  American Experience: The Circus: The Life and Times of James Bailey, Part 1
  American Experience: The Circus: The Life and Times of James Bailey, Part 2
  American Experience: The Circus: The Life and Times of James Bailey, Part 3

The Affairs of James A. Bailey by Richard E Conover

1847 births
1906 deaths
Circus owners
Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus
Wild West shows
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Businesspeople from Detroit
Infectious disease deaths in New York (state)

James Anthony Bailey


The Army of Northern Virginia was the most successful of any Confederate army during the American Civil War.  It was the main Confederate fighting force in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War.  The army often fought against the Union Army of the Potomac. The army was led by several generals during its early history, but was best known for its final leader, General Robert E. Lee, who took over in June of 1862. For that reason it was often called "Lee's army".

History
The army, when first organized was called the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac. It was formed October 22, 1861. Confederate General P. G. T. Beauregard was first given command of what was called the "Alexandria Line" on May 31, 1861. He joined his troops near Manassas, Virginia on June 2. He planned an attack on Washington, D.C. which first required pushing the Union army back behind Bull Run. He called for additional support from Joseph E. Johnston's army in the Shenandoah Valley. On the morning of July 21, 1861, Beauregard planned a surprise attack on the Union forces that failed. He was driven back until the afternoon, when Johnston's troops arrived by train. The Confederates were then able to push the Union forces back and created a victory out of a near-disaster. Both Beauregard and Johnston were full generals. But Johnson took over command of the two armies which were now merged into one. Confederate President Jefferson Davis did not like or agree with Beauregard. There was a series of verbal disputes with Beauregard following Johnston taking command. Possibly as a result, Beauregard was sent west in January 1862 to serve as second in command in the Army of Mississippi.

In the Battle of Seven Pines, Johnston was wounded. Jefferson Davis appointed Lee to take over command. In June 1862, when Lee took over, the army was a collection of various commands in Virginia and North Carolina. This is also when the army reached its peak strength of 90,000 soldiers. When he replaced Johnston, his orders had the heading "Department of Northern Virginia," and the "Army of Northern Virginia". From that time on that was the name it was known by.

The army under Lee

Lee wanted to inspire his troops telling them "every man has resolved to maintain the ancient fame of the Army of Northern Virginia and the reputation of its general and to conquer or die in the approaching contest." There was no ancient history, it was a newly formed army. But Lee got the idea across. The first first series of battles under Lee, called Seven Days Battles, defined Lee's army. His soldiers were tough, dedicated men willing to inflict and suffer great casualties in order to win battles. Between 1861 and 1865, the Army of Northern Virginia fought in dozens of battles. Some of the better known are the Battle of Antietam, the Battle of Chancellorsville and the Battle of Gettysburg. In the Battle of Fredericksburg his army managed to inflict 12,653 casualties on the Union army while losing only 5,377 men. In December 1861, Lee corrected one of his officers after a fight saying "you allow these people to get away". "Go after them, and damage them all you can!" In the months following Lee's takeover of the Army of Northern Virginia, as they drove the Union army away from Richmond, Virginia, and out of Virginia, he became a hero to his soldiers and the people of Virginia.

Antietam and the Maryland Campaign

Antietam was the third of four battles in Lee's Maryland Campaign. It fought on September 17, 1862 and was the bloodiest one-day battle of the Civil War. Exact numbers are unknown, but official records show the Army of Northern Virginia suffered 10,320 casualties (killed, wounded or missing). The Union Army of the Potomac suffered 12,400 casualties.

Lee's goal was for the Army of Northern Virginia to invade the Northern states of Maryland and Pennsylvania. That way he could threaten the cities of Washington, D.C. and Baltimore. By a series of decisive victories Lee thought that the South could gain recognition from England and France and get them to support the Southern cause. The hope was if Lee's army was victorious, it might cause Abraham Lincoln to sue for peace. During the month of September Lee had moved his army north. They captured the garrison at the Battle of Harpers Ferry. Lee's army was driven back at the Battle of South Mountain and withdrew again after a day of heavy fighting at Antietam. Retreating back into Virginia, Lee managed to reinforce General George B. McClellan's overly-cautious nature with a successful rearguard action at the Battle of Shepherdstown. It stopped the Union Army of the Potomac from chasing the Army of Northern Virginia back into Virginia. From a military standpoint, Antietam was a draw. But it gave Lincoln the opportunity he needed to claim a victory and use it to deliver his Emancipation Proclamation.

Chancellorsville

At Chancellorsville, Lee's army defeated the Army of the Potomac once again, this time inflicting 16,800 casualties while losing 13,000 men. The victory at Chancellorsville brought new hope to the South. It reinforced the idea that a single blow to the North could win the war. His soldiers and officers held Lee in the highest regard. They trusted his judgment and believed him to be a military genius. At this same time the Union Army of the Potomac was suffering poor morale under General Joseph Hooker. Time and again the Army of Northern Virginia, which had fewer men and far fewer resources, defeated the larger Army of the Potomac. Lee carefully monitored events in the Northern newspapers for any and all information about his enemy.

Gettysburg

Gettysburg was Lee's next chance to strike a final blow that would win the war. The battle was fought from July 1 to July 3, 1863. This time Lee suffered more casualties than he could afford. The standoff that was Gettysburg ended Lee's invasion of the north and nearly destroyed the Army of Northern Virginia. Now the war was turned around for the Union.

The battle revealed the Army of Northern Virginia had another agenda. As the Confederate army swept northward into Pennsylvania, the soldiers rounded up escaped slaves and free blacks. African-Americans, men, women and children were gathered up and taken with the army as they marched north. When the Army of Northern Virginia retreated, they took the captured black people, estimated to be over a thousand, back to Virginia. There those who had escaped slavery were returned to their slaveowners. Others were sold at auction or imprisoned. Lee may not have ordered the "slave hunt". Once in Pennsylvania he told his troops "no greater disgrace could befall the army," or discredit the Confederate cause, "than the perpetuation of the barbarous outrages upon the unarmed and defenceless [sic] and the wanton destruction of private property that have marked the course of the enemy in our own country." This did not stop his officers and men from rounding up blacks. In one case at Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, soldiers threatened to burn "every house which harbored a fugitive slave". They gave the people in their homes 20 minutes to give up any black people.

Appomattox
In mid-May, 1864, rumors were going around that the Army of Northern Virginia was beaten. A Union officer on General George G. Meade's staff corrected the idea. He said "Lee is a brave and skillful soldier and he will fight while he has a division or a day's rations left." Of Lee's soldiers Lyman said "These rebels are not half-starved and ready to give up—a more sinewy, tawny, formidable-looking set of men could not be". Lyman knew they were still a deadly fighting force even after three years of hard war against a larger and better equipped army. Not surprisingly, it would take another 11 months of hard fighting before the Army of Northern Virginia finally surrendered at Appomattox.

Notes

References

Other websites
 Uniforms of the Army of Northern Virginia 1861-1865; YouTube
 What the Rebel Yell Sounded Like (started in the Army of Northern Virginia); YouTube

Confederate States of America

Army of Northern Virginia