In common law legal systems, a precedent or authority is a legal case that establishes a principle or rule.  This principle or rule is then used by the court or other judicial bodies use when deciding later cases with similar issues or facts. The use of precedent provides predictability, stability, fairness, and efficiency in the law. The Latin term stare decisis is the doctrine of legal precedent.

The precedent on an issue is the collective body of judicially announced principles that a court should consider when interpreting the law. When a precedent establishes an important legal principle, or represents new or changed law on a particular issue, that precedent is often known as a landmark decision.

Precedent is central to legal analysis and rulings in countries that follow common law like the United Kingdom and Canada (except Quebec). In some systems precedent is not binding but is taken into account by the courts.

Types of precedent

Binding precedent

Precedent that must be applied or followed is known as binding precedent (alternately mandatory precedent, mandatory or binding authority, etc.). Under the doctrine of stare decisis, a lower court must honor and the findings of law made by a higher court that is within the appeals path of cases the court hears. In the United States state and federal courts, jurisdiction is often divided geographically among local trial courts, several of which fall under the territory of a regional appeals court, and all regional courts fall under a supreme court. By definition decisions of lower courts are not binding on each other or any courts higher in the system, nor are appeals court decisions binding on each other or on local courts that fall under a different appeals court. Further, courts must follow their own proclamations of law made earlier on other cases, and honor rulings made by other courts in disputes among the parties before them pertaining to the same pattern of facts or events, unless they have a strong reason to change these rulings.

One law professor has described mandatory precedent as follows:

Given a determination as to the governing jurisdiction, a court is "bound" to follow a precedent of that jurisdiction only if it is directly in point. In the strongest sense, "directly in point" means that: (1) the question resolved in the precedent case is the same as the question to be resolved in the pending case, (2) resolution of that question was necessary to disposition of the precedent case; (3) the significant facts of the precedent case are also present in the pending case, and (4) no additional facts appear in the pending case that might be treated as significant.

In extraordinary circumstances a higher court may overturn or overrule mandatory precedent, but will often attempt to distinguish the precedent before overturning it, thereby limiting the scope of the precedent in any event.

Precedent is not "binding" on a judge or "mandatory"
in the same sense that laws are binding on citizens. A judge can't be
jailed or fined for disagreeing with it. His oath is not to
precedent, but at least for federal judges, is to "the
constitution
and the laws of the United States". The Canons  of Judicial
Ethics
do not mention obedience to precedent, but to "the federal
Constitution and that of the state whose laws they administer."
The Code
of Judicial Conduct says nothing about precedent. In most cases,
precedent is the most reasonable interpretation of the Constitution
and our laws, in which cases the oath to the constitution is most
faithfully observed by following precedent. But when a judge finds
the interpretation of the Constitution in a majority opinion
unpersuasive, compared to the interpretation in the dissent, then
following precedent may violate the judge's oath. In a ruling where
Judge Roy Moore saw such a distinction, he acknowledged its authority
as precedent, but said
"[The] interpretation of the Constitution [by the Supreme Court
majority] is their interpretation. But nothing can conflict
with a sworn officer's oath to the Constitution." Of course
chaos is the consequence of careless disregard of precedent. Citizens
trying to obey the law need a sense of what the law is.

Non-binding / Persuasive precedent

Precedent that is not mandatory but which is useful or relevant is known as persuasive precedent (or persuasive authority or advisory precedent). Persuasive precedent includes cases decided by lower courts, by peer or higher courts from other geographic jurisdictions, cases made in other parallel systems (for example, military courts, administrative courts, indigenous/tribal courts, State courts versus Federal courts in the United States), and in some exceptional circumstances, cases of other nations, treaties, world judicial bodies, etc.

In a case of first impression, courts often rely on persuasive precedent from courts in other jurisdictions that have previously dealt with similar issues. Persuasive precedent may become binding through the adoption of the persuasive precedent by a higher court.

Custom
Long-held custom, which has traditionally been recognized by courts and judges, is the first kind of precedent. Custom can be so deeply entrenched in the society at large that it gains the force of law. There need never have been a specific case decided on the same or similar issues in order for a court to take notice of customary or traditional precedent in its deliberations.

Case law
The other type of precedent is case law. In common law systems this type of precedent is granted more or less weight in the deliberations of a court according to a number of factors. Most important is whether the precedent is "on point," that is, does it deal with a circumstance identical or very similar to the circumstance in the instant case? Second, when and where was the precedent decided? A recent decision in the same jurisdiction as the instant case will be given great weight. Next in descending order would be recent precedent in jurisdictions whose law is the same as local law. Least weight would be given to precedent that stems from dissimilar circumstances, older cases that have since been contradicted, or cases in jurisdictions that have dissimilar law.

Critical analysis of precedent

Court formulations

The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit has stated:

A judicial precedent attaches a specific legal consequence to a detailed set of facts in an adjudged case decision, which is then considered as furnishing the rule for the determination of a subsequent case involving identical or similar material facts and arising in the same court or a lower court in the judicial hierarchy.

The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has stated:

Stare decisis is the policy of the court to stand by precedent; the term is but an abbreviation of stare decisis et non quieta movere — "to stand by and adhere to decisions and not disturb what is settled." Consider the word "decisis." The word means, literally and legally, the decision. Under the doctrine of stare decisis a case is important only for what it decides — for the "what," not for the "why," and not for the "how." Insofar as precedent is concerned, stare decisis is important only for the decision, for the detailed legal consequence following a detailed set of facts.

Precedents viewed against passing time can serve to establish trends, thus indicating the next logical step in developing interpretations of the law. For instance, if immigration has become increasingly restricted under the law, then the next legal decision on that subject may serve to restrict it further still.

Scholars have recently attempted to apply network theory to precedents in order to establish which precedents are most important or authoritative, and how the court's interpretations and priorities have changed over time.

Super stare decisis
Super-stare decisis is a term used for important precedent that is resistant or immune from being overturned, without regard to whether correctly decided in the first place. It may be viewed as one extreme in a range of precedential power, or alternately, to express a belief, or a critique of that belief, that some decisions should not be overturned.

In 1976, Richard Posner and William Landes coined the term "super-precedent," in an article they wrote about testing theories of precedent by counting citations. Posner and Landes used this term to describe the influential effect of a cited decision. The term "super-precedent" later became associated with different issue: the difficulty of overturning a decision. In 1992, Rutgers professor Earl Maltz criticized the Supreme Court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey for endorsing the idea that if one side can take control of the Court on an issue of major national importance (as in Roe v. Wade), that side can protect its position from being reversed "by a kind of super-stare decisis."

The issue arose anew in the questioning of Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito during their confirmation hearings before the Senate Judiciary Committee. Before the hearings the chair of the committee, Senator Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania, wrote an op/ed in the New York Times referring to Roe as a "super-precedent." He mentioned the concept (and made seemingly humorous references to "super-duper precedent") during the hearings, but neither Roberts nor Alito endorsed the term or the concept.

Criticism of Precedent
In a controversial 1997 book, attorney Michael Trotter blamed over-reliance by American lawyers on binding and persuasive authority, rather than the merits of the case at hand, as a major factor behind the escalation of legal costs during the 20th century. He argued that courts should ban the citation of persuasive precedent from outside their jurisdiction, with two exceptions:
(1) cases where the foreign jurisdiction's law is the subject of the case, or
(2) instances where a litigant intends to ask the highest court of the jurisdiction to overturn binding precedent, and therefore needs to cite persuasive precedent to demonstrate a trend in other jurisdictions.

Related pages

 Test case (law)

Notes

Legal terms

Legal precedent


Pascual Echagüe, (16 May 1797 – 2 June 1867) was an Argentine soldier and politician. He served as Governor of  Entre Ríos and Santa Fe provinces and Minister of War and Navy during the governments of Urquiza and Derqui. He participated in the Argentine Civil Wars and the Uruguayan Civil War.

Minister in Santa Fe
Echagüe was born in Santa Fe in 1797 and received a doctorate in theology in 1818 from the National University of Córdoba. He was a teacher for a short time, later secretary and afterward provincial minister to Governor Estanislao López. He represented his province at the signing of the treaties with Entre Ríos (1823), and at the Pacto Federal in January 1831.

He served several times as interim governor, and joined the army with the honorary rank of lieutenant colonel. He took part in the 1829 campaign against the Unitarian Juan Lavalle, fighting at the Battle of Márquez Bridge. He went with the army against Córdoba Province, and was in charge of the negotiations for the surrender of the provincial capital after the imprisonment of general José María Paz, being influential on the good treatment given to the captives.

Echagüe went officially to Entre Ríos Province, where he owned property, in December 1831, sent by López to obtain peace in the province. He defeated an obscure soldier who had named himself governor and was elected governor on 22 February 1832.

Entre Ríos Governor
His administration started a period of progress and peace, with good relations with the Buenos Aires provincial governor, Juan Manuel de Rosas. During this period, Echagüe was promoted to general and re-elected twice to the post. He promoted Urquiza to colonel and commander of the Uruguay River's coastal forces. He founded the towns of La Paz and Diamante.

Peace in his province was threatened by Fructuoso Rivera's revolt against Manuel Oribe, the Uruguayan president. Rivera was defeated in June 1838, and Echagüe confiscated the possessions of the Entre Ríos citizens who had supported Rivera. Later on, he attacked the capital city of Corrientes, where the governor Genaro Berón de Astrada had rebelled against Rosas and had allied himself with Rivera. Echagüe defeated him at Pago Largo, and as a result more than one thousand enemy soldiers were killed, among them Berón de Astrada.

With the support of Juan Antonio Lavalleja and the members of the White Party, he crossed the Uruguay river in order to attack Rivera, but the latter defeated him at the Battle of Cagancha, on 29 December 1839, in San José Department, Uruguay near the Cagancha creek.

He returned later on to invade Corrientes Province, but general Paz defeated him decisively on 28 November 1841, at the Battle of Caaguazú. The Entre Ríos cavalry could not maneuver and was almost completely lost. Echagüe quit his post as governor and took refuge in Buenos Aires. Urquiza was named governor as his replacement.

Governor of Santa Fe
Echagüe went with Oribe in his campaign to Santa Fe Province at the end of 1841. After the defeat of Juan Pablo López, Echagüe was elected Governor on 16 April 1842. He conducted a progressive and orderly government, as he had done in Entre Ríos, fomenting education in both provinces, in a time when this endeavor was given little though by the governing bodies.

In June 1845, López invaded Echagüe's province from Chaco, and occupied the capital city for a month, but Echagüe counter-attacked and defeated him, with Buenos Aires' support at Malabrigo. the rest of his term as Governor was a period of peace and stability.

When Urquiza declared himself to be against Rosas in 1851, and declared war, Echagüe was en route from Entre Ríos to Buenos Aires, and was attacked in December 1851. Echagüe and colonel Martín Santa Coloma reached Buenos Aires, while Domingo Crespo was named governor.

Final years
After a short period, when it is not known where he lived – there are several versions that he might have travelled to Europe along with Rosas, and that both of them had met with Pope Pius IX – he took refuge in Montevideo. In 1854 he went to Entre Ríos, where he lived with a special permit from President Urquiza, who in 1856 named him Minister of War. Echagüe then organized a campaign against the native tribes in the Southern Chaco region.

From 1859 he was a national Senator, and that same year, federal Interventor in Mendoza Province, from 16 April until 23 August.

Echagüe represented La Rioja Province at the Constitutional Convention of 1860. Served as interim Minister of War during the administration of President Santiago Derqui and retired to Entre Ríos after the Battle of Pavón.

He volunteered for the Paraguayan War against Paraguay; but due to his advanced age he was rejected.

He died in Entre Ríos at the "San Gabriel" ranch, owned by his wife, Manuela Puig de Echagüe.

References

Bibliography

Federales (Argentina)
Governors of Mendoza Province
Governors of Entre Ríos Province
Governors of Santa Fe Province
1797 births
1867 deaths
Argentine generals

Pascual Echagüe


The village of Air Papan is a seaside area with a  long beach set in between the hills in Mersing District, Johor, Malaysia.

Other than a few properties and a mosque in the village beach-side area the remainder are dotted around the area.

Every 1 May the "Pesta Air Papan" (Air Papan Festival) is celebrated featuring cultural shows, games, food etc.

References

Mersing District
Villages in Johor

Air Papan


The Coronation of Napoleon () is a painting completed in 1807 by Jacques-Louis David, the official painter of Napoleon, depicting the coronation of Napoleon at Notre-Dame de Paris. The oil painting has imposing dimensions – it is almost  wide by a little over  tall. The work is on display at the Louvre Museum in Paris.

History of the work
The work was commissioned by Napoleon orally in September 1804, and Jaques-Louis started work on it on 21 December 1805 in the former chapel of the College of Cluny, near the Sorbonne, which served as a workshop. Assisted by his student Georges Rouget, he put the finishing touches in January 1808.

From 7 February to 22 March 1808, the work was exhibited at the Salon annual painting display in 1808, and it was presented to the Salon decennial prize competition in 1810. The painting remained the property of David until 1819, when it was transferred to the Royal Museums, where it was stored in the reserves until 1837. Then, it was installed in the Chamber Sacre of the museum of the historical Palace of Versailles on the orders of King Louis-Philippe. In 1889, the painting was transferred to the Louvre from Versailles.

David was commissioned by American entrepreneurs to paint a full size replica, in 1808, immediately after the release of the original. He began work that year, painting it from memory, but didn't finish until 1822, during his exile in Brussels. The replica was eventually returned to France in 1947, to the original's place in the Palace of Versailles.

The painting is a subject of The Public Viewing David's 'Coronation' at the Louvre, a painting by Louis-Léopold Boilly done in 1810, in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Composition

The composition is organized around several axes, and incorporates the rules of neoclassicism. One axis is that which passes through the cross and has a vertical orientation. A diagonal line runs from the pope to the empress. All eyes are turned towards Napoleon, who is the center of the composition.

Characters

 Napoleon I (1769–1821), is standing, dressed in coronation robes similar to those of Roman emperors. Others are merely passive spectators. In the actual painting it is possible to see the outline of what was originally painted: Napoleon holding the crown above his own head, as if placing on himself.
 Joséphine de Beauharnais (1763–1814), is kneeling in a submissive position, as called for in the French Civil Code. She received the crown from the hands of her husband, not the pope. Her robe is decorated with silk according to a contemporary cartoon by Jean-Francois Bony.
 Maria Letizia Ramolino (1750–1836), mother of Napoleon, was placed in the stands by the painter. She occupies a place more important than the pope. Actually, she did not attend the ceremony to protest the friction of Napoleon with his brothers Lucien and Joseph. Maria Letizia asked the painter to give Lucien a place of honour. In 1808, when Napoleon discovered the canvas completed in the workshop of David, he was enthralled, and expressed his gratitude to the painter who had managed to convey to posterity the tribute paid to the affection he was carrying to a woman who shared with him the burden of his office.
 Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), who at the beginning of the empire received the title of grand constable, King of Holland, in 1806. He married Hortense de Beauharnais, the daughter of Josephine.
 Joseph Bonaparte (1768–1844),  who, after the coronation, received the title of Prince Imperial. Then he was King of Naples in 1806 and Spain in 1808.
 The young Napoleon Charles Bonaparte (1802–1807), son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense de Beauharnais.
 The sisters of Napoleon. In the replica, the dress of Napoleon's favorite sister will be pink. This is the only change in the replica despite being painted from memory.
 Charles-Francois Lebrun (1739–1824), the third consul alongside Napoleon and Cambacérès. Under the First Empire, he took the place of prince-architrésorier. He holds the sceptre.
 Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès (1753–1824), arch-chancellor prince of the empire. He takes the hand of justice.
 Louis-Alexandre Berthier (1753–1815), minister of war under the Consulate. Marshal of the Empire in 1805. He keeps the globe surmounted by a cross.
 Talleyrand (1754–1836), grand chamberlain since July 11, 1804.
 Joachim Murat (1767–1815), Marshal of the Empire, king of Naples after 1808, brother-in-law of Napoleon and husband of Caroline Bonaparte.
 Pope Pius VII (1742–1823), was content to bless the coronation. He is surrounded by dignitaries clerics, appointed by Napoleon since the Concordat. In order not to jeopardize the new balance between Church and State, the pope accepted to attend the coronation. The original sketches (as was typical in those days) showed the (key) subjects - including the Pope - minus their clothing, which was added in the actual painting. The pope was originally pictured with hands crossed on his lap, but Napoleon, supposedly claiming that the Pope was not present to do nothing, instructed that the painting depict him anointing the proceedings.
 The painter Jacques-Louis David is depicted in the stands as well.
 Halet Efendi, an Ottoman ambassador, was also present. He is shown below in the detailed picture.
 Dom Raphaël de Monachis, Greek-Egyptian monk and member of the Institut d'Égypte is depicted among the clergy men, standing to the right of the Bishop, with a beard and a red hood.
 The lady robe bearer in front, right behind Josephine, on the right side from the picture-viewer's point, is Elisabeth-Hélène-Pierre de Montmorency-Laval, mother of politician Sosthènes II de La Rochefoucauld. She was a court lady of Josephine.

See also
 List of paintings by Jacques-Louis David

References

Bibliography
 Malika Dorbani-Bouabdellah, The largest French paintings in the Louvre
 Jean Tulard, Le Sacre de l'empereur Napoléon. Histoire et légende, Paris 2004

External links
 Louvre Museum's interactive closer look at The Coronation of Napoleon

1800s paintings
Neoclassical paintings
Paintings in the Louvre by French artists
Portrait paintings in the Louvre
Paintings by Jacques-Louis David
Paintings of Napoleon
Churches in art
Paris in art
Popes in art
Notre-Dame de Paris
Cultural depictions of Joséphine de Beauharnais

The Coronation of Napoleon


Radio America is an American radio network specializing in conservative-oriented talk programming. A division of the American Studies Center, the network says its mission is "to produce and syndicate quality radio programs reflecting a commitment to traditional American values, limited government and the free market." The American Studies Center has funded special broadcast projects at Radio America, such as a documentary series on African American conservatives, and conservative programming like The Alan Keyes Show; What's the Story? With Fred Barnes; Common Sense Radio with Oliver North; Bob Barr's Laws of the Universe; Veterans Chronicles with Gene Pell; The G. Gordon Liddy Show; The Greg Knapp Experience; and Dateline Washington with Greg Corombos.

The network currently broadcasts a mix of general interest programming, including Doug Stephan and conservative talk host Chad Benson, during the week, and a variety of  weekend talk shows on various topics (such as The Money Pit and The Pet Show with Warren Eckstein.

Radio America weekday programming airs on over 600 radio stations nationwide.

History
Radio America was founded in 1985 by its current president, James C. Roberts. In 1997, it achieved full network status, broadcasting 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Currently, Radio America distributes 15 hours of new programming each weekday. Throughout its existence, Radio America has been producing news, talk, documentary and short-features programming that has been picked up by stations around the nation.

Radio America programming is delivered to radio stations via satellite. Weekdays feature mainly news and political talk shows, while weekends offer specialty programs ranging from home finance and sports to medical advice and politics.

Radio America has a sister organization, the American Veterans Center, which is also funded by the American Studies Center.

Awards
In 1994, Radio America produced The Blues Story: Triumph of An American Musical Art Form, a six-part radio documentary that won a Keeping the Blues Alive Award from the Blues Foundation.

The network has won a host of other awards, including the New York International Radio Festival's Gold and Silver medals, the ABA Silver Gavel, Gabriel, Ohio State, and Freedom Foundation.

References

External links
Radio America's Official Website
Radio America Programming Schedule
Radio America YouTube Channel
American Veterans Center (R.A.'s Sister Organization)
National Memorial Day Parade (A project of the American Studies Center)

American radio networks
Conservative talk radio
1985 establishments in the United States

Radio America (United States)


A torque converter is a device, usually implemented as a type of fluid coupling, that transfers rotating power from a prime mover, like an internal combustion engine, to a rotating driven load.  In a vehicle with an automatic transmission, the torque converter connects the prime mover to the automatic gear train, which then drives the load. It is thus usually located between the engine's flexplate and the transmission. The equivalent device in a manual transmission is the mechanical clutch.

A torque converter serves to increase transmitted torque when the output rotational speed is low. In the fluid coupling embodiment, it uses a fluid, driven by the vanes of an input turbine, and directed through the vanes of a fixed stator, to drive an output turbine in such a manner that torque on the output is increased when the output shaft is rotating more slowly than the input shaft, thus providing the equivalent of an adaptive reduction gear. This is a feature beyond what a simple fluid coupling provides, which can match rotational speed but does not multiply torque. Fluid coupling based torque converters also typically include a lock-up function to rigidly couple input and output and avoid the losses associated with transmitting torque by fluid flow when operating conditions permit.

Hydraulic systems
By far the most common form of torque converter in automobile transmissions is the hydrodynamic device described above.  There are also hydrostatic systems which are widely used in small machines such as compact excavators.

Mechanical systems
There are also mechanical designs for torque converters, many of which are similar to mechanical continuously variable transmissions or capable of acting as such as well. They include the pendulum-based Constantinesco torque converter, the Lambert friction gearing disk drive transmission and the
Variomatic with expanding pulleys and a belt drive.

Usage
 Automatic transmissions on automobiles, such as cars, buses, and on/off highway trucks.
 Forwarders and other heavy duty vehicles.
 Marine propulsion systems.
 Industrial power transmission such as conveyor drives, almost all modern forklifts, winches, drilling rigs, construction equipment, and railway locomotives.

Function

Theory of operation
Torque converter equations of motion are governed by Leonhard Euler's eighteenth century turbomachine equation:

The equation expands to include the fifth power of radius; as a result, torque converter properties are very dependent on the size of the device.

Torque converter elements
A fluid coupling is a two-element drive that is incapable of multiplying torque, while a torque converter has at least one extra element—the stator—which alters the drive's characteristics during periods of high slippage, producing an increase in output torque.

In a torque converter there are at least three rotating elements: the impeller, which is mechanically driven by the prime mover; the turbine, which drives the load; and the stator, which is interposed between the impeller and turbine so that it can alter oil flow returning from the turbine to the impeller.  The classic torque converter design dictates that the stator be prevented from rotating under any condition, hence the term stator.  In practice, however, the stator is mounted on an overrunning clutch, which prevents the stator from counter-rotating with respect to the prime mover but allows forward rotation.

Modifications to the basic three element design have been periodically incorporated, especially in applications where higher than normal torque multiplication is required.  Most commonly, these have taken the form of multiple turbines and stators, each set being designed to produce differing amounts of torque multiplication.  For example, the Buick Dynaflow automatic transmission was a non-shifting design and, under normal conditions, relied solely upon the converter to multiply torque.  The Dynaflow used a five element converter to produce the wide range of torque multiplication needed to propel a heavy vehicle.

Although not strictly a part of classic torque converter design, many automotive converters include a lock-up clutch to improve cruising power transmission efficiency and reduce heat.  The application of the clutch locks the turbine to the impeller, causing all power transmission to be mechanical, thus eliminating losses associated with fluid drive.

Operational phases
A torque converter has three stages of operation:

Stall. The prime mover is applying power to the impeller but the turbine cannot rotate. For example, in an automobile, this stage of operation would occur when the driver has placed the transmission in gear but is preventing the vehicle from moving by continuing to apply the brakes. At stall, the torque converter can produce maximum torque multiplication if sufficient input power is applied (the resulting multiplication is called the stall ratio). The stall phase actually lasts for a brief period when the load (e.g., vehicle) initially starts to move, as there will be a very large difference between pump and turbine speed.
Acceleration. The load is accelerating but there still is a relatively large difference between impeller and turbine speed.  Under this condition, the converter will produce torque multiplication that is less than what could be achieved under stall conditions.  The amount of multiplication will depend upon the actual difference between pump and turbine speed, as well as various other design factors.
Coupling. The turbine has reached approximately 90 percent of the speed of the impeller.  Torque multiplication has essentially ceased and the torque converter is behaving in a manner similar to a simple fluid coupling.  In modern automotive applications, it is usually at this stage of operation where the lock-up clutch is applied, a procedure that tends to improve fuel efficiency.

The key to the torque converter's ability to multiply torque lies in the stator.  In the classic fluid coupling design, periods of high slippage cause the fluid flow returning from the turbine to the impeller to oppose the direction of impeller rotation, leading to a significant loss of efficiency and the generation of considerable waste heat.  Under the same condition in a torque converter, the returning fluid will be redirected by the stator so that it aids the rotation of the impeller, instead of impeding it. The result is that much of the energy in the returning fluid is recovered and added to the energy being applied to the impeller by the prime mover.  This action causes a substantial increase in the mass of fluid being directed to the turbine, producing an increase in output torque.  Since the returning fluid is initially traveling in a direction opposite to impeller rotation, the stator will likewise attempt to counter-rotate as it forces the fluid to change direction, an effect that is prevented by the one-way stator clutch.

Unlike the radially straight blades used in a plain fluid coupling, a torque converter's turbine and stator use angled and curved blades.  The blade shape of the stator is what alters the path of the fluid, forcing it to coincide with the impeller rotation.  The matching curve of the turbine blades helps to correctly direct the returning fluid to the stator so the latter can do its job.  The shape of the blades is important as minor variations can result in significant changes to the converter's performance.

During the stall and acceleration phases, in which torque multiplication occurs, the stator remains stationary due to the action of its one-way clutch.  However, as the torque converter approaches the coupling phase, the energy and volume of the fluid returning from the turbine will gradually decrease, causing pressure on the stator to likewise decrease.  Once in the coupling phase, the returning fluid will reverse direction and now rotate in the direction of the impeller and turbine, an effect which will attempt to forward-rotate the stator.  At this point, the stator clutch will release and the impeller, turbine and stator will all (more or less) turn as a unit.

Unavoidably, some of the fluid's kinetic energy will be lost due to friction and turbulence, causing the converter to generate waste heat (dissipated in many applications by water cooling). This effect, often referred to as pumping loss, will be most pronounced at or near stall conditions.  In modern designs, the blade geometry minimizes oil velocity at low impeller speeds, which allows the turbine to be stalled for long periods with little danger of overheating (as when a vehicle with an automatic transmission is stopped at a traffic signal or in traffic congestion while still in gear).

Efficiency and torque multiplication
A torque converter cannot achieve 100 percent coupling efficiency.  The classic three element torque converter has an efficiency curve that resembles ∩: zero efficiency at stall, generally increasing efficiency during the acceleration phase and low efficiency in the coupling phase.  The loss of efficiency as the converter enters the coupling phase is a result of the turbulence and fluid flow interference generated by the stator, and as previously mentioned, is commonly overcome by mounting the stator on a one-way clutch.

Even with the benefit of the one-way stator clutch, a converter cannot achieve the same level of efficiency in the coupling phase as an equivalently sized fluid coupling.  Some loss is due to the presence of the stator (even though rotating as part of the assembly), as it always generates some power-absorbing turbulence.  Most of the loss, however, is caused by the curved and angled turbine blades, which do not absorb kinetic energy from the fluid mass as well as radially straight blades.  Since the turbine blade geometry is a crucial factor in the converter's ability to multiply torque, trade-offs between torque multiplication and coupling efficiency are inevitable.  In automotive applications, where steady improvements in fuel economy have been mandated by market forces and government edict, the nearly universal use of a lock-up clutch has helped to eliminate the converter from the efficiency equation during cruising operation.

The maximum amount of torque multiplication produced by a converter is highly dependent on the size and geometry of the turbine and stator blades, and is generated only when the converter is at or near the stall phase of operation.  Typical stall torque multiplication ratios range from 1.8:1 to 2.5:1 for most automotive applications (although multi-element designs as used in the Buick Dynaflow and Chevrolet Turboglide could produce more).  Specialized converters designed for industrial, rail, or heavy marine power transmission systems are capable of as much as 5.0:1 multiplication.  Generally speaking, there is a trade-off between maximum torque multiplication and efficiency—high stall ratio converters tend to be relatively inefficient around the coupling speed, whereas low stall ratio converters tend to provide less possible torque multiplication.

The characteristics of the torque converter must be carefully matched to the torque curve of the power source and the intended application. Changing the blade geometry of the stator and/or turbine will change the torque-stall characteristics, as well as the overall efficiency of the unit.  For example, drag racing automatic transmissions often use converters modified to produce high stall speeds to improve off-the-line torque, and to get into the power band of the engine more quickly. Highway vehicles generally use lower stall torque converters to limit heat production, and provide a more firm feeling to the vehicle's characteristics.

A design feature once found in some General Motors automatic transmissions was the variable-pitch stator, in which the blades' angle of attack could be varied in response to changes in engine speed and load.  The effect of this was to vary the amount of torque multiplication produced by the converter.  At the normal angle of attack, the stator caused the converter to produce a moderate amount of multiplication but with a higher level of efficiency.  If the driver abruptly opened the throttle, a valve would switch the stator pitch to a different angle of attack, increasing torque multiplication at the expense of efficiency.

Some torque converters use multiple stators and/or multiple turbines to provide a wider range of torque multiplication. Such multiple-element converters are more common in industrial environments than in automotive transmissions, but automotive applications such as Buick's Triple Turbine Dynaflow and Chevrolet's Turboglide also existed. The Buick Dynaflow utilized the torque-multiplying characteristics of its planetary gear set in conjunction with the torque converter for low gear and bypassed the first turbine, using only the second turbine as vehicle speed increased.  The unavoidable trade-off with this arrangement was low efficiency and eventually these transmissions were discontinued in favor of the more efficient three speed units with a conventional three element torque converter.
It is also found that efficiency of torque converter is maximum at very low speeds.

Lock-up torque converters
As described above, impelling losses within the torque converter reduce efficiency and generate waste heat.  In modern automotive applications, this problem is commonly avoided by use of a lock-up clutch that physically links the impeller and turbine, effectively changing the converter into a purely mechanical coupling.  The result is no slippage, and virtually no power loss.

The first automotive application of the lock-up principle was Packard's Ultramatic transmission, introduced in 1949, which locked up the converter at cruising speeds, unlocking when the throttle was floored for quick acceleration or as the vehicle slowed. This feature was also present in some Borg-Warner transmissions produced during the 1950s. It fell out of favor in subsequent years due to its extra complexity and cost. In the late 1970s lock-up clutches started to reappear in response to demands for improved fuel economy, and are now nearly universal in automotive applications.

Capacity and failure modes
As with a basic fluid coupling the theoretical torque capacity of a converter is proportional to , where  is the mass density of the fluid (kg/m3),  is the impeller speed  (rpm), and  is the diameter (m).  In practice, the maximum torque capacity is limited by the mechanical characteristics of the materials used in the converter's components, as well as the ability of the converter to dissipate heat (often through water cooling).  As an aid to strength, reliability and economy of production, most automotive converter housings are of welded construction.  Industrial units are usually assembled with bolted housings, a design feature that eases the process of inspection and repair, but adds to the cost of producing the converter.

In high performance, racing and heavy duty commercial converters, the pump and turbine may be further strengthened by a process called furnace brazing, in which molten brass is drawn into seams and joints to produce a stronger bond between the blades, hubs and annular ring(s). Because the furnace brazing process creates a small radius at the point where a blade meets with a hub or annular ring, a theoretical decrease in turbulence will occur, resulting in a corresponding increase in efficiency.

Overloading a converter can result in several failure modes, some of them potentially dangerous in nature:

Overheating: Continuous high levels of slippage may overwhelm the converter's ability to dissipate heat, resulting in damage to the elastomer seals that retain fluid inside the converter.  A prime example in passenger cars would be getting stuck in snow or mud and having to rock the vehicle forward and backward to gain momentum by going back and forth from drive to reverse using significant power. The transmission fluid will quickly overheat, not to mention the repeated impacts on the stator clutch (next topic). Also, overheating transmission fluid causes it to lose viscosity and damage the transmission. Such abuse can in rare cases cause the torque converter to leak and eventually stop functioning due to lack of fluid.
Stator clutch seizure: The inner and outer elements of the one-way stator clutch become permanently locked together, thus preventing the stator from rotating during the coupling phase.  Most often, seizure is precipitated by severe loading and subsequent distortion of the clutch components.  Eventually, galling of the mating parts occurs, which triggers seizure.  A converter with a seized stator clutch will exhibit very poor efficiency during the coupling phase, and in a motor vehicle, fuel consumption will drastically increase.  Converter overheating under such conditions will usually occur if continued operation is attempted.
Stator clutch breakage: A very abrupt application of power, as in putting the transmission in neutral and increasing engine RPMs before engaging a gear (commonly called a "neutral start"), can cause shock loading of the stator clutch, resulting in breakage.  If this occurs, the stator will freely counter-rotate in the direction opposite to that of the pump and almost no power transmission will take place.  In an automobile, the effect is similar to a severe case of transmission slippage and the vehicle is all but incapable of moving under its own power.
Blade deformation and fragmentation: If subjected to abrupt loading or excessive heating of the converter, pump and/or turbine blades may be deformed, separated from their hubs and/or annular rings, or may break up into fragments.  At the least, such a failure will result in a significant loss of efficiency, producing symptoms similar (although less pronounced) to those accompanying stator clutch failure.  In extreme cases, catastrophic destruction of the converter will occur.
Ballooning: Prolonged operation under excessive loading, very abrupt application of load, or operating a torque converter at very high RPM may cause the shape of the converter's housing to be physically distorted due to internal pressure and/or the stress imposed by inertia.  Under extreme conditions, ballooning will cause the converter housing to rupture, resulting in the violent dispersal of hot oil and metal fragments over a wide area.'Manufacturers

Current
 Aisin AW, used in automobiles
 Allison Transmission, used in bus, refuse, fire, construction, distribution, military and specialty applications
 BorgWarner, used in automobiles
 Exedy, used in automobiles
 Isuzu, used in automobiles
 Jatco, used in automobiles
 LuK USA LLC, produces Torque Converters for Ford, GM, Allison Transmission, and Hyundai
 Subaru, used in automobiles
 Twin Disc, used in vehicle, marine and oilfield applications
 Valeo, produces Torque converter for Ford, GM, Mazda, Subaru
 Voith turbo transmissions, used in many diesel locomotives and diesel multiple units
 ZF Friedrichshafen, automobiles, forestry machines,  popular in city bus applications

Past
 Lysholm-Smith, named after its inventor, Alf Lysholm, produced by Leyland Motors and used in buses from 1933 to 1939 and also some British Rail Derby Lightweight and Ulster Transport Authority diesel multiple units
 Mekydro, used in British Rail Class 35 Hymek'' locomotives.
 Packard, used in the Ultramatic automobile transmission system
 Rolls-Royce (Twin Disc), used in some British United Traction diesel multiple units
 Vickers-Coates

See also

 Clutch
 Fluid coupling
 Servomechanism
 Torque amplifier
 Transmission (mechanics)
 Water brake

References

External links

 HowStuffWorks article on torque converters
 YouTube video about torque converters

Variators
Mechanical power control
Mechanical power transmission
Continuously variable transmissions
Automotive transmission technologies
Torque

Torque converter


Les Retrouvailles is the fifth studio album by French musician Yann Tiersen.  Released in 2005 through Ici, d'ailleurs... record label, it features a number of high-profile guest vocalists, both French and Anglophone alike: Christophe Miossec, Dominique A, Elizabeth Fraser (of the Cocteau Twins), Jane Birkin, and Stuart Staples (of the Tindersticks).  As is customary with his albums, Tiersen showcases his multi-instrumental skills, which on the album encompasses the accordion, piano, mandolin, and harpsichord, among others.

Les Retrouvailles also includes a DVD featuring a short film entitled La Traversée, directed by Aurelie du Boys, which documents the making of the album and incorporates an animated video for the non-album track, "Le Train," and also live versions of a handful of songs.

Track listing
Music and lyrics written by Yann Tiersen, except where noted.

 "Western" - 2:23
 "Kala" (Fraser, Tiersen) - 4:09 (Sung by Elizabeth Fraser)
 "Loin des villes" - 3:19
 "La Veillée" - 3:11
 "Plus d'hiver" - 2:23 (Sung by Jane Birkin)
 "A ceux qui sont malades par mer calme" - 3:30
 "A Secret Place" (Staples, Tiersen) - 3:26 (Sung by Stuart A. Staples)
 "Le Matin" - 1:58
 "Les Enfants" - 2:00
 "Le Jour de l'ouverture" (Ané, Miossec, Tiersen) - 3:38 (Sung by Miossec and Dominique A)
 "La Boulange" - 2:46
 "La Plage" - 1:57
 "Mary" - 3:38 (Sung by Elizabeth Fraser)
 "7:PM" - 2:40
 "Les Retrouvailles" - 1:30
 "La Jetée" - 1:05

Personnel
Yann Tiersen – accordion, alto saxophone, banjo, bass, Bontempi, carillon, cello, clavecin, double bass, drums, ebow, Fender Rhodes, guitar, Korg synthesizer, mandolin, marimba, melodica, organ, percussion, piano, toy piano, vibraphone, violone
Elizabeth Fraser - vocals on "Kala" and "Mary"
Jane Birkin - vocals on "Plus d'hiver"
Stuart A. Staples - vocals on "A Secret Place"
Dominique A - vocals on "Le Jour de l'ouverture"
Miossec - vocals on "Le Jour de l'ouverture"
Jean-François Assy - violoncello on "Kala", "La Veillée", "A Secret Place", and "La Boulange"
Orchestre National de Paris on "Kala", "La Veillée", "Le Jour De L'Ouverture", "Mary", and "Les Retrouvailles"
Frederic Dessus - violin on "La Veillée", "Plus d'hiver" and "Mary"
Guillaume Fontanarosa - violin on "La Veillée", "Plus d'hiver" and "Mary"
Bertrand Causse - vertical viola on "La Veillée", "Plus d'hiver", and "Mary"
Anne Causse Biragnet - violoncello on "La Veillée", "Plus d'hiver", and "Mary"
Armelle Legoff - violin on "Plus d'hiver" and "Mary"
Frédéric Haffner - violin on "Plus d'hiver" and "Mary"
Elliott - flute on "Les Enfants"
Ludovic Morillon - drums on "La Boulange"
Christine Ott - ondes Martenot on "La Boulange"

Charts

Certifications

References

2005 albums
Yann Tiersen albums

Les Retrouvailles


Ramanathapuram district is one of the 37 districts in Tamil Nadu. Indian President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was born there. It is located in south east direction of tamilnadu.It is coastal area with more palmyra trees. It is famous for its fishing and Production of palm sap, palm sugar,palm jaggery etc.It is one of the biggest districts in tamilnadu by area space.Most of the people doing agriculture as their main occupation.

Main cities

Paramakudi, Kamuthi, Sayalkudi,Ramanathapuram, Uchipuli, Mandapam, Rameswaram area the main cities of Ramanathapuram district.

Pilgrim centres

● Sri Ramanathaswamy temple, Rameswaram

● Sri kothandaramar temple, Dhanushkodi road, Rameswaram

● Sri bhadrakali amman temple, Rameswaram

● Sri Nambunayaki amman temple, Rameswaram

●Sri Mangalanathar temple, Thiru uthirakosamangai

●Sri Aadhi jaganathaperumal temple, Thirupullani

● Sri Sethu bandhana Aanjaneyar temple, Sethukarai

● Erwadi dargha, Erwadi

● Sri Veiluganatha Vinayar temple, Uppoor

●Sri Muthalamman Temple, Paramakudi

Tourist places

Agni theertham,Rameswaram, Arichalmunai,Dhanushkodi, Pamban bridge, Kundhukal, Villoondi theertham, Kushi beach, Thalaithoppu beach,Ramar patham etc.

Railway stations in Ramanathapuram district

 Sudiyur-சூடியூர்-सूडियूर्
 Paramakudi-பரமக்குடி-परमक्कुडि
 Sathirakudi-சத்திரக்குடி-सत्तिरक्कुडि
 Ramanathapuram-இராமநாதபுரம்-रामनाथपुरम्
 Valantharavai -வாலாந்தரவை-वालान्तरवै
 Uchippuli-உச்சிப்புளி-उच्चिप्पुळि
 Mandapam Camp-மண்டபம் கேம்ப்-मण्डपम् केम्प्
 Mandapam-மண்டபம்-मण्डपम्
 Pamban-பாம்பன்-पाम्बन्
 Rameswaram -இராமேஸ்வரம்-रामेश्वरम्

Ramanathapuram district


Princess Ebba Bernadotte (née Ebba Henrietta Munck af Fulkila; 24 October 1858 – 16 October 1946), was a Swedish noble, lady-in-waiting and a titular princess, the spouse of Prince Oscar Bernadotte.

Life

She was the daughter of Finnish-born noble Colonel Carl Jacob Munck af Fulkila and Baroness Henrica Cederström. She served as lady-in-waiting to the Crown Princess, Victoria of Baden, who in 1885 visited her brother-in-law in Amsterdam, where he was to undergo a medical examination for a heart difficulty.

Marriage

Ebba and Oscar visited the Norwegian sailor church during their stay in Amsterdam and fell in love: Ebba was religious and influenced Oscar in this regard. When Oscar told his family that he wished to marry Ebba, they were scandalized and he was forced to take a two-year consideration period, and Ebba was dismissed as a lady-in-waiting. In 1887, Oscar told his family that he had not changed his mind, and the Royal House gave its consent to the marriage on condition that Oscar's brothers signed a document promising that they should never enter a similar marriage, which they did.

On January 21, 1888, a ball was arranged at the Royal Palace of Stockholm, where Ebba and Oscar were allowed to dance with each other, and on 29 January 1888, the engagement was formally announced. The match was regarded as a great sorrow within the royal house, but it received a lot of sympathy from the public. It was said that a bridge had been placed between the people and the Royal House: "The Munck bridge", and the fact that Oscar had to give up his royal title made people say that the King no longer had four sons but only three, as one of them "married and had to quit". When the couple left Stockholm, a large crowd had gathered on the train station to see them off and show their support.

Ebba and Oscar were married 15 March 1888 in Saint Stephens Church in Bournemouth in England by the vicar Gustaf Beskow, who was close to the Queen, Sophia of Nassau, in the presence of Oscar's mother, Queen Sophia, two of his brothers, Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland and Prince Eugen, Duke of Närke, and his cousin, the Danish Crown princess, Louise of Sweden, as well as Ebba's mother and brother. In Sweden she was given the unclarified title of "Princess Bernadotte" instead of the royal "Princess of Sweden".

Later life
After her marriage, Ebba Bernadotte devoted her life to Christian charity. The couple lived a simple life in Stockholm away from the royal court and was regarded with great sympathy due to the circumstances of their marriage. Their relationship was described as happy, and they devoted themselves to their common interests in religion and Christian influenced social work.

Ebba Bernadotte was a member of a number of different Christian charitable organisations: in 1894, she became a member of the Lapska missionens vänner ('Friends of the Sami Mission'), in 1897–1912 she was a board member of the Kristliga föreningens av unga kvinnor ('Christian Society For Young Women') and in 1900, she became chairperson of Bokpåsemissionen för sjömän ('Bookbag-Mission For Sailors'), which had its meetings in her home.

References

Further reading

1858 births
1946 deaths
Swedish nobility
Swedish ladies-in-waiting
Swedish princesses
Swedish maids of honour
Ebba
Morganatic spouses
Swedish philanthropists
19th-century philanthropists
20th-century philanthropists
Swedish people of Finnish descent

Ebba Bernadotte


Differdange (;   or (locally)  ;  ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg,  west from the country's capital. It lies near the borders with Belgium and France and it is located in the canton of Esch-sur-Alzette. With a population of around 26,000, Differdange is the country's third largest city. It is also the main town of the commune, and other towns within the commune include Lasauvage, Niederkorn, Fousbann, and Oberkorn.

Differdange is an industrial town that was home to much of Luxembourg's steel production, much of its development occurred during its heyday. Today, Differdange still remains an important industrial center, with ArcelorMittal, the world's largest steel producer, retaining the ARBED steel plant in the town.

Notable landmarks in Differdange include the Maison de Soins de Differdange, an ancient Cistercian abbey dating back to 1235 and the Differdange Castle, located on a hill in the centre of the town, which dates from 1577 and is now used by Miami University. As such, Differdange is home to Miami University's Dolibois European Center, the university's European campus branch where students study abroad.

Differdange is also home to football team FC Differdange 03.

Populated places

Differdange (commune seat)
Lasauvage
Niederkorn
Oberkorn
Fousbann

History

The Cistercian Era

The era of the Cistercian cathedrals and abbeys was in full swing during the thirteenth century and Differdange did not deviate from this pattern. In 1235, Alexandre de Soleuvre founded the abbey of Differdange, which he donated to the order of Cîteaux. Initially, the Cistercian abbey welcomed only sisters from the nobility of Luxembourg. Subsequently, women from the Lorraine region of France and the present province of Luxembourg in Wallonia also made their vows at Differdange.

In 1552, the abbey was plundered and sacked by French soldiers. However, it was during the French invasion of Luxembourg that the abbey and the town experienced real raids and innumerable rampages.

The last abbess to direct the convent was Marie-Madeleine de Gourcy, who held office until 1796. After her mandate, the Order was then formally dissolved. The Abbey of Differdange was auctioned off in 1797 and subsequently  be bought by the commune of Differdange in 1929. In 1981 following its purchase by government of Luxembourg, the Differdange Abbey was transformed into a hospital and health center.

The Renaissance Era

The Differdange Castle is one of the only remaining landmarks from the Renaissance period in the area. Although it has no known origin since all traced manuscripts have disappeared, squire listed was Wilhelm de Differdange, named in documents dating from 1310. The castle is probably the earliest example in Luxembourg of a château built entirely in the Renaissance style. It was intended as a residence and a fortification. Differdange's descendants were extinguished in 1400 with the death of his last grandson.

In 1552, the castle underwent a disastrous fire, It was eventually restored and occupied by Anna of Isenburg.
In 1794, the French Revolutionary Army committed atrocities in Differdange and slaughtered many unarmed civilians before pillaging and burning the city.

The Iron City

Beginning in 1830,  Luxembourg's steel industry evolved from and artisan stage to an industrial stage. In 1896, two blast furnaces were erected in Differdange with the name of "Société Anonyme des Hauts-Fourneaux de Differdange". Subsequently, eight other blast furnaces were built, allowing the production of steel beams known at the time as "Differdinger".

On August 4, 1907, Differdange received its town status by William IV of Luxembourg.

During the 20th century, the industrial boom was at its peak, and the population of Differdange rose from less than 4,000 in 1890 to almost 18,000 by 1930.

In 1967, the "Société des Hauts-Fourneaux and Aciererie de Differdange" merged with several steel companies in Belgium and France to form ARBED, Luxembourg's largest steel company, which had numerous factories in Differdange.

Geography

The town is located in the plateau of the river Chiers, a tributary of the river Meuse which takes its source in the section of Oberkorn.

Differdange has an altitude of 293 meters, the highest point of the municipality being at 427,1m at Koufeld.

The commune spreads over 2,215 hectares.

Its territory borders France, through the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle in the basin of Longwy.

Population

Notable people

 Émile Krieps (1920–1998) a resistance leader, soldier, and politician
 Jean Portante (born 1950) a writer of novels, stories, plays, journalistic articles and poetry; resides in Paris
 Josiane Kartheiser (born 1950) a journalist, novelist, and writer
 Nico Helminger (born 1953) an author of poetry, novels, plays and libretti for operas
 Georges Hausemer (1957–2018) a writer of short stories, novels, travelogues and non-fictional works
 Jean-Claude Hollerich S.J. (born 1958) the current archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Luxembourg since 2011

 Sport
 Étienne Bausch (1901–1970) a footballer, competed at the 1924 Summer Olympics
 Émile Kolb (1902–1967) a footballer, competed at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics
 Bernard Fischer (1902–1971) a footballer, competed at the 1928 Summer Olympics
 Paul Feierstein (1903–1963) a footballer, competed at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics
 Michael Maurer (1904–??) a boxer who competed in the 1924 Summer Olympics
 Metty Logelin (1907–1999), a gymnast, competed at the 1928 Summer Olympics and the 1936 Summer Olympics
 Arnold Kieffer (1910–1991) a footballer, competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics
 Fernand Ciatti (1912–1989) a boxer, competed at the 1936 Summer Olympics
 Julien Darui (1916–1987) a French football goalkeeper
 Gusty Kemp (1917–1948) a footballer, played 20 times for the national team and competed at the 1936 Summer Olympics
 Paul Anen (1918–1978) a fencer, competed at the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics
 Jean-Fernand Leischen (1919–2017) a fencer, competed in three Summer Olympics
 Nicolas May (1927–2006) a footballer, competed in the 1948 Summer Olympics
 Josy Stoffel (born 1928) a retired gymnast, competed in five consecutive Summer Olympics in 1948, 1952, 1956, 1960 & 1964
 Rudy Kugeler (born 1928) a fencer, competed in the team épée at the 1960 Summer Olympics
 Ferd Lahure (born 1929) a footballer, competed in 1952 Summer Olympics
 Fernand Backes (born 1930) a boxer, competed at the 1952 Summer Olympics
 François Konter (1934–2018) a footballer, played 77 games for the national side
 Roger Menghi (born 1935) a fencer, competed in the individual épée event at the 1976 Summer Olympics
 Roby Hentges (born 1940) a former cyclist, competed in the individual road race at the 1960 Summer Olympics
 Alain Anen (born 1950) a fencer, competed in the individual and team épée events at the 1972 Summer Olympics

 Politics
 Nicholas Muller (1836–1917) a United States Representative from New York
 Yvonne Useldinger (1921–2009) a politician
 Marcelle Lentz-Cornette (1927–2008) a politician
 Fred Sunnen (1939–2014) a politician
 Johny Lahure (1942–2003) a politician.
 Félix Braz (born 1966) a politician, the current Minister of Justice

Twin towns — sister cities

Differdange is twinned with:

 Ahlen, Germany
 Chaves, Portugal
 Fiuminata, Italy
 Longwy, France
 Oxford, United States
 Waterloo, Belgium

See also
Harmonie Municipale de la Ville de Differdange, a classical music ensemble, founded in 1884

References

External links

 Commune of Differdange official website

Cities in Luxembourg
Communes in Esch-sur-Alzette (canton)
Towns in Luxembourg
Miami University

Differdange


The Commonwealth of Kentucky has 29 official state emblems, as well as other designated places and events. The majority are determined by acts of the Kentucky General Assembly and recorded in Title I, Chapter 2 of the Kentucky Revised Statutes. The state's nickname – "The Bluegrass State" – is traditional, but has never been passed into law by the General Assembly. It does, however, appear on the state's license plates. Despite the nickname's popularity, the General Assembly has not designated bluegrass (or any other grass) as the official state grass.

The first symbol was the Seal of Kentucky, which was made official in 1792.  The original seal also contained the future state motto.  It served as the state's only emblem for over 130 years until the adoption of the state bird in 1926.  Enacted by law in 2010, the newest symbols of Kentucky are the state insect, the honey bee, and the state sports car, the Chevrolet Corvette.

Insignia

Species

Geology

Cultural

See also

References

General

Specific

State symbols
Kentucky
Symbols of Kentucky

List of Kentucky state symbols


Highs in the Mid-Sixties, Volume 6 (subtitled Michigan, Part 2) is a compilation album in the Highs in the Mid-Sixties series, featuring recordings that were released in Michigan.  Highs in the Mid-Sixties, Volume 5 and Highs in the Mid-Sixties, Volume 19 are other volumes in the series featuring bands from this state.

Release data
This album was released in 1984 as an LP by AIP Records (as #AIP-10011).

Notes on the tracks
The all-female band The Pleasure Seekers – pictured on the cover – feature Suzi Quatro (along with three of her sisters), who had later fame as both a rock musician and an actress on Happy Days.  Blues Co. on this album is the same band as the Blues Company on Highs in the Mid-Sixties, Volume 5.  Bobby Fuller's version of "Wine Wine Wine" is included on Pebbles, Volume 2. Friday at the Hideout is also the name of a compilation album of Detroit-area garage rock that was released in 2001 on Norton Records, featuring many of these bands and several of the tracks.

Track listing

Side 1

 Yorkshires: "And You're Mine" (Bruce Alpert), 2:21
 The Underdogs: "Friday at the Hideout" (Dave Leone), 2:10
 Jimmy Gilbert: "Believe What I Say" (Jimmy Gilbert), 2:36
 Jimmy Gilbert: "So Together We'll Live" (Jimmy Gilbert)
 The 4 of Us: "Feel a Whole Lot Better" (Gene Clark), 2:11
 The Masters of Stonehouse: "If You Treat Me Bad Again" (E. Drake), 2:33
 Renegades V: "Wine Wine Wine" (Allday/Shine/Schwartz/Debaub/Haufler), 2:27
 The Bossmen: "Fever of Love" (Jimmy Carver), 2:15

Side 2
 Blues Co.: "Love Machine" (Blues Co.), 2:50
 The Blokes: "All American Girl" (Schwab/Hack/Dick Wagner)
 The Underdogs: "Don't Pretend" (D. Whitehouse), 2:38
 The Chosen Few: "It Just Don't Rhyme" (Hamilton/Nephew), 2:30
 The Bed of Roses: "Hate" (The Bed of Roses), 2:20
 The Chocolate Pickles: "Hey You" (J. Boyar), 2:51
 The Pleasure Seekers: "Never Thought You'd Leave Me" (The Pleasure Seekers)
 Blues Co.: "She's Gone" (Tim Ward), 2:50

Pebbles (series) albums
1984 compilation albums
Music of Michigan

Highs in the Mid-Sixties, Volume 6


Operation Broken Trust, the largest investment fraud sweep by the Federal government of the United States, was conducted between August 16 and December 1, 2010. The stated purpose of the operation was to "root out and expose" investment scams within the U.S. and to educate the public. It was announced that the operation involved 343 criminal cases with damages of $8.3 billion and 189 civil cases with damages of $2.1 billion; more than 120,000 victims were affected.

Financial Fraud Enforcement Task Force
The inter-agency task force was set up by President Barack Obama in November 2009 to supersede President George W Bush's Corporate Fraud Task Force. At the December 6, 2010, press conference, participating agencies were represented by Attorney General Eric Holder for the United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Executive Assistant Director Shawn Henry, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Director of Enforcement Robert Khuzami, U.S. Postal Inspection Service (USPIS) Chief Postal Inspector Guy Cottrell, Deputy Chief Rick Raven of the Internal Revenue Service Criminal Investigation (IRS-CI), and Acting Director of Enforcement Vince McGonagle of the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC). Other participating agencies included the U.S. Secret Service and the National Association of Attorneys General.

Scope of the investigation
On December 6, 2010, the Task Force went public announcing that it had examined scams targeting  individual investors, not complex corporate fraud issues. In each case individual investors entrusted their money to individuals who presented "investment opportunities" promising superior returns. These investments were either fictitious or different from those claimed, and often involved Ponzi schemes. Affinity fraud was directed at the savings of trusting but often uninformed people. Scams included fraud in commodities, real estate, foreign exchanges, business opportunities, and market manipulation (such as pump and dump). Khuzami explained that "fraud by well-known companies or high-profile executives gets the biggest headlines, but other scams are equally devastating to hard working families and retirees", and stressed that law enforcement will "pursue fraud in whatever form."

Operation Broken Trust included cases that were investigated already during the Bush administration or before the formation of the task force, and many were well on the way to completion before the sweep began. Also, the mixing of criminal cases and civil cases led to overlap and double counting in the number of defendants, victims, and losses.

Reaction
Reactions to Holder's announcement about Operation Broken Trust were framed by the apparent lack of governmental efforts of prosecuting individuals who may bear  responsibility for the 2008 financial crisis, specifically since nobody at Lehman, Merrill Lynch, Citigroup, and Goldman Sachs (other than Fabrice Tourre) has been charged criminally. Thus it was criticized as allocating resources to the wrong arena, described as a "sideshow", and going for the "little fish". It was opined that rather than focusing on small-time operators, the government should prosecute individuals for their role in the 2008 financial crisis even if guilty verdicts were not assured; court proceedings would allow for transparency, serve as a deterrent, and provide lessons on how to prevent future grand scale fraud.

Results
At the time of the announcement on December 6, 2012 eighty-seven defendants had received prison sentences that in some cases exceeded 20 years. Particular prosecutions include Palm Polo Holdings Ltd, which was found not guilty after being charged with violations of the Clean Water Act. A former army captain was convicted of Honest Services fraud for taking bribes in Iraq.

References

External links
 StopFraud.gov, a US Government resource
 Judge Edmund F. Brennan: Photo and Biography
  U.S. Attorney Benjamin B. Wagner and the F.B.I. Field Office for Sacramento announce the arrest of local community members in relation to the Operation Broken Trust Investigation, Sacramento B Metro News Article from December 2010

2010 in economics
Pyramid and Ponzi schemes
Finance fraud
Crime in the United States
Corruption in the United States

Operation Broken Trust


RAF Innsworth was a non flying Royal Air Force station, located on the north side of the city of Gloucester in England. The station closed in March 2008 and for the last 13 years of its life it was the headquarters of Personnel and Training Command. The site was transferred to the British Army and renamed Imjin Barracks becoming the home of the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps in 2010.

History

Second World War

The station opened in 1940, the first unit based there being No 7 School of Technical Training who trained engine and airframe fitters and mechanics.  More than 2,000 officers and men were based at Innsworth by the time training began in earnest in 1941, this being delayed due to the arrival of 1500 RAF evacuees from Dunkirk.

In December 1941, No 2 WAAF Depot was opened at Innsworth and from then on the Station became increasingly associated with the Women's branch of the service. By the end of 1941 the strength of the Station had risen to more than 4,000 including trainees. Eventually it was decided to reserve the Station almost exclusively for WAAF training, including barrage balloon training amongst other vital roles.

Post-war
By the end of the war, nearly 5,000 people were living on the Station, three quarters of them WAAF. It retained its training role, with the opening of No. 2 RAF School of Cookery in 1948. It was also the home to No. 33 Wing RAF Regiment which deployed squadrons to emergencies in Cyprus and Northern Ireland. The station housed the Education Book Depot, which would have come in handy with both Nos. 7 & 13 Schools of Recruit Training. Innsworth was also the headquarters of No.4 Police District, and maintained a police presence up until very recently, when it was the HQ of PSS (WR).

In 1951, the headquarters of the RAF Record Office which had been based nearby in Gloucester and Barnwood, moved to the station and gained Group status.  Three years later in 1954 No. 5 Personnel Despatch Unit arrived, charged with the administration and processing of personnel selected for overseas service.

Just after the war ended, the RAF Base Accounts Office moved from York to Gloucester and grew into the Central Pay Office and became part of the RAF Personnel and Training Command, which formed in 1994, based at Innsworth. Many other changes have taken place at Innsworth over recent years; these include the formation of Personnel Management Agency, contractorisation of the Station Support Services and the transfer of certain administrative functions (RAF pay and pensions) to the tri Service, Armed Forces Personnel Administration Agency (AFPAA), all in 1997. In March / April 2005 the MOD Medals Office and Joint Casualty and Compassionate Centre (JCCC) were established at Innsworth under AFPAA management.

The station had always maintained a close association with the city of Gloucester, and on 7 April 1960, received the Honour of the Freedom of the City.  The station has subsequently also received the freedoms of the Borough of Tewkesbury on 28 April 1977 and the Borough of Cheltenham in October 1986.

Closure

RAF drawdown
In 2005 it was announced that HQ Personnel and Training Command was to co-locate with HQ RAF Strike Command at RAF High Wycombe. The new collocated HQ's were subsequently merged to form Air Command and the decision was taken to close RAF Innsworth. The drawdown took place over the next three years with elements of the Personnel Management Agency moved to High Wycombe and RAF Cranwell and RAF Innsworth finally closed on 31 March 2008.

Transfer to British Army

Control of Innsworth was transferred to the British Army on 21 November 2008, when it was renamed Imjin Barracks. In 2010 the station also became home to the NATO Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, which  relocated to Innsworth from the Rheindahlen Military Complex in Germany.

References

Innsw
1940 establishments in the United Kingdom
Innswo
Organizations disestablished in 2008

RAF Innsworth


Hesperocallis is a genus of flowering plants that includes a single species, Hesperocallis undulata, the desert lily, found in the desert areas of the southwest of North America.

Hesperocallis has traditionally been classified in Liliaceae but until recently its relationships have been unclear. Other classifications have included it in Hemerocallidaceae or Funkiaceae.  In 1972, Hamilton Traub created the family Hesperocallidaceae with Hesperocallis as the sole included genus.  The APG II system includes it in the family Asparagaceae in the order Asparagales in the monocots clade but allows for the optional segregation of Hesperocallidaceae as a monophyletic family when several other families are likewise segregated.  Recent molecular systematic studies have confirmed a close relationship with Agave and its inclusion in family Agavaceae has been recommended (Pires et al. 2004).

 Hesperocallidaceae

Hesperocallis


Dispersion is the idea that the frequency of a wave influences its velocity (speed). Dispersion is most easily seen in the refraction of light, when all the colors inside white light become separated by a prism.

When a white beam is shone at the prism, all the colors in the light (color spectrum) are slowed when they meet the prism. Each color then refracts (bends) at a different angle, making us see a rainbow.

Dispersion is also important in telecommunication when different parts of a signal arrive at different times.

Wave physics

Dispersion


Swansea is a town in Bristol County in southeastern Massachusetts.
It is located at the mouth of the Taunton River, just west of Fall River,  south of Boston, and  southeast of Providence, Rhode Island. The population was 17,144 at the 2020 census. The villages of Hortonville, Barneyville and Ocean Grove are located in the town.

Swansea is a part of the South Coast region of Massachusetts which encompasses the cities and towns that surround Buzzards Bay (excluding the Elizabeth Islands, Bourne and Falmouth), Mount Hope Bay and the Sakonnet River.

History

Swansea was named for the Welsh city of Swansea, which had been the hometown of some original settlers. John Miles, the founder of the first Baptist Church in Wales, moved to Swansea .  William Brenton had purchased the land from Native Americans. Parts of its territory were originally part of Rehoboth, Massachusetts.

In 1667 the first Baptist church in Massachusetts relocated to Swansea from Rehoboth after experiencing religious intolerance there, and Swansea was incorporated as an independent town.  Initially, the town established a committee to assign rank of 1, 2, or 3 to the residents with the first getting 3 acres of land, the second 2, and the third 1.  The committee could promote and demote residents as it saw fit.  The system collapsed in 1681 when the committee voted to make five residents the highest rank and to make the rank hereditary. The town unanimously voted to abolish the system.

On June 20, 1675, the first Indian attack of King Philip's War had all 70 settlers confined to their stockade.  The attack had taken place at the Miles Garrison, near the Palmer River. By June 25 the entire town had been burned, although a handful of the colonists escaped to Taunton.  When the active war ended in 1676, the town was soon rebuilt. The Miles (or Myles) Garrison stood the test of time, but was demolished in the 1970s. The plot it was on remains overgrown, free from construction, and a commemorative marker was placed there by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1912.

After the war, many small industries, such as forges, ironworks and fisheries, opened up in the town.  Many would later leave, and there remains a large agricultural sector.

What is now Barrington, Rhode Island (part of Massachusetts until 1747) was separated from the rest of Swansea in 1717, over religious differences.

In the late 1890s, trolleys connected the town to Providence, Fall River and Taunton, and the town has retained a suburban residential feel. Today Swansea is well known for its retail areas.

Swansea gained national attention in 1985 when Mark Hoyle, a young hemophiliac who had contracted AIDS through a blood transfusion, was allowed to attend public schools by Jack McCarthy, Superintendent of Schools.  It was the first time in the U.S. that a student known to have the disease was allowed to enter public schools.  The case came to national attention around the same time as that of Ryan White in Indiana, and helped many children with HIV attend schools throughout the country.  Hoyle died one year later, and a new elementary school was named in his honor.

Geography
The town has a total area of , of which  is land and , or 9.67%, is water.  The town is bordered by Dighton on the northeast, Somerset on the east, Mount Hope Bay on the south, Warren, Rhode Island, on the southwest, Barrington, Rhode Island, on the west, and Seekonk and Rehoboth to the north.  Part of the town's border with Somerset is made up of the Lees River. The Cole, Kickamuit and Palmer rivers also pass through the town on their way south to Mount Hope Bay (for the Kickamuit, Cole and Lees rivers) and Narragansett Bay (for the Palmer).  The entire town is a part of the Narragansett Bay watershed area.  The town's neighborhoods include Barneyville, North Swansea, Swansea Village, Birch Swamp Corner, Hortonville, Luther Corner, South Swansea, Touissett, Ocean Grove, and Smokerise.  Swansea is  southeast of Providence and  south of Boston.

Much of the town's retail businesses are located along the highways, with the area around the junction of U.S. Route 6 and Massachusetts Route 118 where the former Swansea Mall was located.  Just north of the mall are several office complexes), doctor's offices and other offices. The area along Route 103 between the Lees River and the Cole River is also an area for retail, with many smaller businesses lining the road.

Outside of the retail area (as well as the densely populated neighborhoods of Ocean Grove, South Swansea and Smokerise), much of the area is rural.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 15,901 people, 5,888 households, and 4,539 families residing in the town.  The population density was .  There were 6,070 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the town was 97.91% White, 0.38% African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.36% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.27% from other races, and 1.00% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.60% of the population.

There were 5,888 households, out of which 31.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.6% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.9% were non-families. 19.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.06.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 22.2% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 28.4% from 25 to 44, 27.0% from 45 to 64, and 15.7% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.9 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.3 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $52,524, and the median income for a family was $60,567. Males had a median income of $40,056 versus $27,072 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,776.  About 3.4% of families and 4.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.9% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

Government

On the state level, Swansea is a part of two state representative districts, the Fourth Bristol (including Rehoboth, Seekonk and part of Norton, Rep. Steve Howitt) and Fifth Bristol (including Dighton, Somerset and part of the city of Taunton, Rep. Patricia Haddad).  The town is part of the First Bristol and Plymouth state senatorial district, which includes the communities of Fall River, Freetown, Lakeville, Rochester, Somerset and Westport, currently Senator Michael Rodrigues (D-Westport) represents Swansea.  Swansea is patrolled by Troop D (Southeast District), 3rd (Dartmouth) Barracks of the Massachusetts State Police.  On the national level, the town is part of Massachusetts's 4th congressional district, which is represented by Jake Auchincloss.  The state's senior Senator is Elizabeth Warren  and the state's junior Senator is Edward Markey.

The town is governed by Selectmen and an Administrator.  Swansea also maintains the tradition of open Town Meetings.  As of 2001, total property values are assessed at $980 million, and property taxes amount to $15 million. The town operates on a budget of approximately $10 million, which does not include another $13.5 million spent on schools.

The town has four fire stations (the Central station being in South Swansea, with branch stations in North Swansea, Central Swansea and Ocean Grove), one library, a single police station, and a new post office.  The town has two playgrounds, as well as a town beach with a picnic area (near the mouth of the Cole), and the town conservation farm.

Education

Secondary
The Swansea Public Schools serve the town, with four elementary schools (Joseph G. Luther Elementary School at Luther's Corner, Gardner Elementary School in the South Swansea-Ocean Grove neighborhood, Elizabeth S. Brown Elementary School near the town center, and Mark Hoyle Elementary School in North Swansea), as well as Joseph Case Junior High School and Joseph Case High School, both located in the town center.  Case High School (as it is commonly known) has the school colors of maroon and gold, and its mascot is the Cardinal.  High school students also have the option of attending Diman Regional Vocational Technical High School in Fall River, or Bristol County Agricultural High School in Dighton.

There are two Christian schools in town, and there are also local Catholic schools in nearby Warren and Fall River.

Post-secondary
Eastern Nazarene College offers Adult Studies/LEAD classes in Swansea.

Transportation
The town is bisected by Interstate 195, U.S. Route 6, and state routes 103, 118 and 136. Swansea has two exits off I-195 serving the town, Exit 2 (Route 136) and 3 (Route 6 to Route 118).  In addition, Exit 4 (Route 103) in Somerset provides quick access to the Ocean Grove neighborhood.

Swansea is the western terminus of the Southeastern Regional Transit Authority (SRTA) bus line.  Regional bus service can be reached in Fall River, and the nearest regional rail service is in Providence.  The nearest national airline service can be reached at T. F. Green Airport in Rhode Island, and international service can be reached at Logan International Airport in Boston.

Notable people

Antone S. Aguiar Jr., politician
Benjamin Brown, politician
Benjamin Carpenter, military officer
Oliver Chace, businessman
Warren A. Cole, lawyer
Mark Anthony DeWolf, merchant
Bob Evans, wrestler
Joshua K. Ingalls, inventor
David Leite, writer
John Myles, founder of Swansea
David J. Place, politician
Cheryl Wheeler, musician
Thomas Willett, politician

References

Further reading

 History of Swansea, Massachusetts, 1667–1917, by Otis Olney Wright

External links

Town of Swansea official website

Towns in Bristol County, Massachusetts
Populated places established in 1667
1667 establishments in Plymouth Colony
Providence metropolitan area
Towns in Massachusetts
Populated coastal places in Massachusetts

Swansea, Massachusetts