Ngāti Awa is a Māori iwi (tribe) centred in the eastern Bay of Plenty Region of New Zealand. It is made of 22 hapū (subtribes), with 15,258 people claiming affiliation to the iwi in 2006. The Ngāti Awa people are primarily located in towns on the Rangitaiki Plain, including Whakatāne, Kawerau, Edgecumbe, Te Teko and Matatā. Two urban hapū also exist in Auckland (Ngāti Awa-ki-Tamaki) and Wellington (Ngāti Awa-ki-Poneke).

History

Early history

Ngāti Awa traces its origins to the arrival of Māori settlers on the Mātaatua waka (canoe). The Mātaatua settlers established settlements in the Bay of Plenty and Northland. Initially, the tribe controlled a large area in Northland, but conflicts with other northern iwi resulted in a southward migration. One group eventually settled in the eastern Bay of Plenty, whose descendants would eventually found the iwi.

Awanuiarangi II is recognised as the eponymous ancestor of Ngāti Awa. Awanuiarangi II was a chief descended from Toroa, captain of the Mātaatua. Descendants of Awanuiarangi II eventually formed their own iwi, Ngāti Awa, named after their ancestor.

Tribal and land wars

Ngāti Awa was frequently at war with neighbouring iwi, including those with similar ancestry. Ngāti Awa initially had good trading relations with European settlers. However, the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s resulted in the British Crown confiscating more than 1,000 km² of Ngāti Awa land.

For more than a century afterwards, Ngāti Awa remained an aggrieved, struggling people. However, in 1999, the Waitangi Tribunal determined that the confiscation of Ngāti Awa land in the New Zealand Wars by the British Crown was illegal, and in 2003 a settlement was reached between Ngāti Awa and the New Zealand Government.

In the nineteenth century Ngāti Pūkeko were considered a separate iwi, but they are currently considered a hapū of Ngāti Awa.

Government settlement

In 2003, following almost ten years of negotiations between the New Zealand Government and Ngāti Awa, a settlement was announced and reparations were made to the iwi. In summary:
The New Zealand Government ('the Crown') acknowledged and apologised for the illegal confiscation of Ngāti Awa land during the New Zealand Wars
The Crown paid NZ$42.39 million in reparations to Ngāti Awa
The Crown agreed to return control of seven sites of historical and cultural significance to the iwi
Three locations were renamed in accordance with original Ngāti Awa place names.
On settlement the Ngāti Awa Research Centre that was established in 1989 to generate research for the Waitangi Tribunal claim became Ngāti Awa Research and Archives.

Hapū and marae

Whakatāne hapū

The following hapū are based around Whakatāne and Coastlands:

 Ngāti Hokopū, based at Te Hokowhitu a Tū ki te Rāhui marae and Te Hokowhitu a Tūmatauenga wharenui, and at Te Whare o Toroa marae
 Ngāti Wharepaia, based at Te Hokowhitu a Tū ki te Rāhui marae and Te Hokowhitu a Tūmatauenga wharenui and Te Whare o Toroa marae
 Te Patuwai me Ngāti Maumoana, based at Toroa marae
 Warahoe, based at Tokitareke marae and Te Puna o Te Orohi wharenui
 Ngāi Te Rangihouhiri II, based at Te Rangihouhiri II marae
 Ngāi Taiwhakaea II, based at Taiwhakaea marae and Taiwhakaea II wharenui

Poroporo hapū

The following hapū are based around Poroporo and Paroa:

 Ngāti Pūkeko, based at Pūkeko marae
 Ngāti Rangataua, based at Rangataua marae
 Ngāti Tamapare, based at Rewatu marae and Ueimua wharenui
 Te Whānau o Tariao Tapuke, based at Rangimarie marae and Rarawhati wharenui
 Ngāti Hikakino, based at Puawairua marae

Te Teko hapū

The following hapū are based around Te Teko and Edgecumbe:

 Ngā Maihi, based at Tūteao marae
 Ngāi Tamaoki, based at Ruaihona marae
 Ngāi Tamawera, based at Uiraroa marae
 Ngāti Hāmua, based at Te Māpou marae and Rongotangiawa wharenui
 Te Pahipoto, based at Kokohinau (Tuhimata) marae and Oruatapare wharenui
 Tuariki, based at Tuariki marae
 Te Kahupāke, based in the area of Te Teko

Matatā and Motiti hapū

The following hapū are based around Matatā and on Motiti Island:

 Te Tāwera, based at Iramoko marae and Te Paetata wharenui, in Matatā
 Te Patuwai me Ngāti Maumoana, based at Te Hinga o te Ra marae, and at Te Rua Kopiha marae and Tamatea ki te Huatahi wharenui, on Motiti Island

Urban hapū

The following urban hapū are affiliated with Ngāti Awa:

 Ngāti Awa ki Poneke, based at Te Tumu Herenga Waka marae at Victoria University in Wellington
 Ngāti Awa ki Tāmaki Makaurau, based at Mātaatua marae and Awanuiarangi wharenui, at Māngere in Auckland

Governance

Te Rūnanga o Ngāti Awa

Te Rūnanga o Ngāti Awa became the new governing body of the iwi in 2005. Representatives from the Rūnanga were responsible for negotiating the settlement with the government on behalf of Ngāti Awa. Based in Whakatāne, the rūnanga manages the financial assets of the iwi, and promotes cultural, educational and economic development in the region.

The trust manages the tribe's Treaty of Waitangi settlement under the Ngāti Awa Claims Settlement Act and is a body corporate for the tribe's land, under Te Runanga o Ngāti Awa Act. It represents the iwi in aquaculture and fisheries under the Māori Commercial Aquaculture Claims Settlement Act, and represents the iwi during resource consent consultation under the Resource Management Act. The trust is governed by one representative from each of the 22 hapū, and is based in Whakatāne.

Local government

The tribal area of the iwi is within the territory of Kawerau District Council and Whakatāne District Council.

It is also within the wider territory of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council.

Media

Sun FM

Sun FM is the radio station for Ngāti Awa. It was first known as Te Reo Irirangi o Te Manuka Tutāhi during a three-week AM trial run in 1990. It went to air as Tumeke FM in 6 April 1991, became Sun FM in 1994 to increase its advertising appeal, and between 1996 and 1999 worked to increase its Māori language content. The classic hits station broadcasts on  in Whakatāne.

Notable people

 Wepiha Apanui
 Leni Apisai
 Mere Broughton
 Catherine Carran
 Tāmati Coffey
 Samuel Horouta Emery
 Wira Gardiner
 Ngapiki Hakaraia
 Joe Harawira
 Matekoraha Te Peehi Jaram
 Georgina Kingi
 Karl Leonard
 Eruera Riini Manuera
 Hamiora Tumutara Te Tihi-o-te-whenua Pio
 Dan Pryor
 Kara Pryor
 Linda Tuhiwai Smith
 Albert Oliphant Stewart
 Te Hura Te Taiwhakaripi
 Maata Te Taiawatea Rangitukehu
 Eruera Hamiora Tumutara
 Gugi Waaka
 Te Kari Waaka
 Carin Wilson

See also
List of iwi
Ngā Mānawa

References

Iwi and hapū

Ngāti Awa


Pel's flying squirrel or Pel's scaly-tailed squirrel (Anomalurus pelii) is a species of rodent in the family Anomaluridae. It is found in Liberia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana, where it lives in lowland tropical rainforests. It is named after Hendrik Pel.

History
The tropical forests of Africa were little explored by Europeans before the nineteenth century. Colugos and flying squirrels had been known from south eastern Asia and gliding marsupials from Australia earlier than this, but the discovery of the scaly-tailed squirrels of equatorial Africa was not made till the 1840s. British zoologist and collector Louis Fraser exploring the Niger basin brought a specimen of Lord Derby's scaly-tailed squirrel (Anomalurus derbianus) back to Britain. Compared to the previously known flying squirrels, this had two rows of large scales on the underside of the basal part of its tail. The flying membrane stretched from wrist to ankle and was supported by a cartilaginous strip which had its origin at the elbow. (The east Asian flying squirrels have a similar cartilage strip, but it terminates at the wrist.) The scaly tailed squirrels had an additional membrane extending from the ankle to part-way along the tail, and when extended, the membrane formed a straight line from heel to heel.

Ten years later, a specimen of another species, Pel's flying squirrel, was brought to Europe and showed similar anatomical features. The hands and feet had the digits close together with strongly curved nails. The tail was also unusual in that the free part resembled the shape of a feather, with the large cornified scales a prominent feature on the underside. The animal's fur was described as soft and supple, without any spines.

Description
Pel's flying squirrel is a large species, with a head-and-body length of  and a tail of . It weighs between
The upper parts are mainly black, with some white patches, while the underparts are white. The margin of the patagium, the membrane joining the wrist with the ankle, is partly white, and that of the uropatagium, joining the ankles and tail, is all white. The ears are of average size and partly naked, the forefeet are mostly black, the hind feet often have white patches and the tail is plume-like.

Distribution and habitat
Pel's flying squirrel is native to West Africa where its range includes eastern Liberia, southern Ivory Coast and southwestern Ghana. It occurs in the tropical rainforest at low altitudes, particularly where there are tall, emergent trees and palms trees, in areas with annual precipitation in the range . However, it appreciates separate trees that are not wreathed in lianas, because when it emerges from its den at night, it needs space to glide down to lower levels to feed.

Ecology
Pel's flying squirrel is wholly nocturnal, spending the day in a hole in a tree and only emerging after dark. It feeds on bark, supplemented with fruits, flowers and leaves. It usually occurs in pairs, but as many as six individuals have been found sharing the same nesting site in a tree. If disturbed in its den, this squirrel snaps its teeth and hisses, and the sound may be amplified by the acoustics of the hollow tree. Given its large size, bold colouration and aggressive behaviour, this species may be able to drive off potential predators such as birds of prey, small carnivores and primates, and compete successfully with hornbills for nest sites.

The reproduction of this species is poorly known. In Ghana, litters seem to occur twice a year, in April and September, with two or three young in each litter, occasionally four. A copulatory plug is present in the vagina during pregnancy and the young are fully furred and have their eyes open at birth. The young remain in the nest and both parents bring them food.

Status
The tropical forests where this flying squirrel lives are under threat because of timber harvesting and the conversion of the land to agricultural use. The animal is also under threat from hunters and is sometimes to be seen on sale as bushmeat in markets. As a secretive, nocturnal species, its population size and natural history are little known, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and has rated it as "least concern".

References

Dieterlen, F. 2005. Family Anomaluridae. Pp. 1532–1534 in Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

External links

Pel's flying squirrel
Mammals of West Africa
Pel's flying squirrel
Taxa named by Hermann Schlegel
Taxa named by Salomon Müller
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot

Pel's flying squirrel


Sheriffmuir (or Sheriff Muir; Scottish Gaelic: Sliabh an t-Siorraim), the site of the inconclusive 1715 Battle of Sheriffmuir (part of the Jacobite rising of 1715), lies on the slopes of the Ochil Hills in Scotland, just inside the Perthshire border.  The "Sheriffmuir Inn", which overlooks the battle site, used to house Hercules the wrestling bear for which it is well known.

Single-track roads from the site lead to Dunblane, Greenloaning, Stirling and the A9 near Blackford.  A monument to the battle stands next to the Dunblane road a few hundred yards from the site. Part of the British comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail was filmed there.

  (Sheriffmuir)
  (battle monument)

Mountains and hills of Stirling (council area)

Sheriffmuir


Werner Andreas Albert (10 January 1935 – 10 November 2019) was a German-born Australian conductor.

Personal life
Albert was born in Weinheim. He began his studies in musicology and history, and later studied conducting with Herbert von Karajan and Hans Rosbaud. He became an Australian citizen in the late 1990s.

Career
After Albert's 1961 debut with the Heidelberg Chamber Orchestra, he became chief conductor of the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie. He later served as chief conductor of the Gulbenkian Orchestra in Lisbon and the Nuremberg Symphony in Germany. He was chief conductor of the Bavarian State Youth Orchestra for more than 20 years and was also senior lecturer of the Meistersinger Conservatorium in Nuremberg. He was also the permanent guest conductor of the Radio Symphony Orchestras in Cologne, Frankfurt, and Berlin, and of the Bamberg Symphony.

Since 1981, Albert regularly conducted in Australia. He was named principal conductor of the Queensland Symphony Orchestra, and he conducted all six Symphony Australia orchestras. Albert toured in the United States, South America, China, Japan, and most European countries. He conducted in Beijing, and at Triphony Hall and Tokyo Opera City Concert Hall in Japan with the New Japan Philharmonic and the Tokyo City Symphony Orchestra.

Albert made over 600 recordings for radio, and approximately 100 CDs. In the process, he earned the distinction of the most recorded artist in Germany. He recorded the complete orchestral repertoire of Paul Hindemith, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Hans Pfitzner, and Benjamin Frankel. He had a project on recordings and live performances of Siegfried Wagner, son of Richard Wagner.

Albert directed the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Conducting Workshop for many years, as well as teaching selected Masters' students at the University of Queensland, where he was an adjunct professor. He was Principal Guest Conductor of the Southern Sinfonia since 2007.

Recognition
Albert was recognized by both the German Federal and Bavarian State Governments for his dedication to music. He held the title of member of the German Federal Cross of Merit, Erste Klasse (the German equivalent of the British Order of Merit), as well as the Bavarian Order of Merit.

References

External links
 Conductor's Website

1935 births
2019 deaths
German male conductors (music)
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Naturalised citizens of Australia
21st-century German conductors (music)
21st-century German male musicians
People from Weinheim

Werner Andreas Albert


Scott Goldstein is a writer, producer, and director based in Los Angeles. He has achieved success in broadcast journalism, prime time entertainment, interactive educational & museum exhibits and documentaries. He is the winner of two Emmy and Golden Globe Awards.

Early life
Scott Goldstein was born in the Washington Heights (now Hudson Heights) neighborhood of Manhattan. He attended PS 187, Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School, and Lake Forest College. His father, Meyer Goldstein, manufactured women's sportswear in New York's garment district. In the early 1950s, facing unauthorized work stoppages by the Teamsters Union, he was approached by and became a reluctant partner with Philadelphia mobster Harry Rosen (a.k.a. "Nig" Rosen) a lieutenant of underworld boss Meyer Lansky. His wife, Lenore Goldstein, was a longtime bookkeeper. Their eldest son, Laurence, was a book critic for The New York Times, a reporter for UPI, a producer for ABC News and NBC News, and co-author of Into Film with Jay Kauffman. He was killed at the age of 36 in a freak electrical accident while adjusting a television set at home in Leonia, New Jersey, on Feb 12, 1972.

Career

Career in news
While a senior at Columbia Grammar, Mr. Goldstein worked after school as a production assistant and writer of the 1am sign-off news at WABC-TV. This led to summer employment as a field producer for ABC news anchor Peter Jennings at the violent demonstrations in Grant Park at the 1968 Democratic National Convention and later as an assistant producer for the ABC News global pool coverage of the first Moon landing.  After graduating Lake Forest College as a philosophy major, he worked for the international news film agency Visnews (later Reuters Television) in London where he wrote and edited news stories syndicated to over one hundred countries.

After returning to the U.S., he was hired by KING-TV in Seattle as a writer, producer of the noon news, reporter and film critic. In 1973 he was hired by KNBC-TV in Los Angeles as a writer for Tom Brokaw, Tom Snyder and Jess Marlow.  Between 1974 and 1976, he produced and wrote the weekend news, election coverage and special projects for KGO-TV San Francisco and served as the station's key producer on the Patty Hearst kidnaping. He wrote and produced the special "Patty Hearst : A Case of Coercive Persuasion" that aired immediately after her trial ended.

In 1976 he was named Special Projects producer for WMAQ-TV Chicago. His "Last Deadline: The Death of the Chicago Daily News" was nominated for a Chicago Emmy award in 1977 as best news special.

In 1978 he returned to Los Angeles as West Coast Producer for the Today Show where he produced and wrote pieces for Jack Perkins, Boyd Matson, Tom Brokaw and Jane Pauley.  In 1981 he was named Producer, then Supervising Producer, of the Today Show in New York. He also field produced many of Today's specials including the Royal Wedding of Princess Diana, Today in Prime Time and Today Goes to College at the University of Michigan and Brown University.

Primetime television

In 1986 he made the switch from broadcast news to prime time drama.  For three years he served as producer of the critically acclaimed hit show "LA Law"; winning two Emmy and Golden Globe awards. He then joined Steven Bochco Productions in launching Doogie Howser, M.D. He was the program's supervising producer for the entire length of the series and directed numerous episodes with star Neil Patrick Harris.

After the show ended its run in 1993, Mr. Goldstein formed Scott Goldstein Productions (later SgpMedia). Its first project was a co-venture with the Museum of Television and Radio (now the Paley Center): Science Fiction: A Journey into the Unknown. The two-hour Fox network special, hosted by Dean Cain, Carrie Fisher, Leonard Nimoy, and William Shatner, was the definitive history of science fiction on television and focused on how the genre sheds light on the real world.

In 2002, he created one of the first live PBS Interactive Specials, Endgame: Ethics and Values In America, hosted by Carol Marin with Michael Josephson. It enabled viewers to enter the lives of fictional characters forced to make critical decisions with profound moral, ethical or social implications. The program was a combination of a dramatic film, a live studio audience and panel, interactivity on the Web, and sync-to-broadcast technology. It drew its inspiration from "The Point of View Diner"; an interactive exhibit he previously created for the Museum of Tolerance in Los Angeles

Multi-media and interactive museum exhibits

Mr. Goldstein created most of the core multi-media exhibits for the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Los Angeles Museum of Tolerance and New York Tolerance Center. These highly interactive exhibits empower the museum visitors to weigh in on important ethical and political issues.  More than 350,000 people, many of them students, visit the museum every year. The exhibits take many shapes and forms:

"The Point of View Diner":  an interactive experience set in a 1950s style diner with computer input terminals designed as juke boxes. The interactive films deal with situational ethics involving issues ranging from teen age drunk driving to free vs hate speech to gay bullying in high schools.

"The Millennium Machine": a multi-media exhibit set in a futuristic "time machine".  The videos examine the global abuse of women and children, the plight of political refugees, and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

"In Our Times": a multi screen look at global genocide throughout the ages with emphasis on human rights abuses in contemporary society,

Documentaries

Mr. Goldstein produced, wrote and directed the documentary Holocaust for the New York Tolerance Center. The film, narrated by Joe Mantegna, examines the reasons behind the mass slaughter of Jewish citizens and questions how Germany, arguably the world's most technologically sophisticated nation, could be reduced to barbarism.

In 2008, he produced, wrote, and directed the documentary Where I Stand: The Hank Greenspun Story.  The film, narrated in the first person by Anthony Hopkins, tells the previously untold story of Hank Greenspun, who was one of the last the fire breathing, give-'em-hell crusading newspaper publishers. His exploits included being P.R. man for Bugsy Siegel at the Flamingo Hotel; a convicted heavy arms runner to the Yishuv during  1948 Arab–Israeli War; and an indictment to incite, through his news column, the murder of Senator Joseph McCarthy. Using previously classified government records, the film reveals how Greenspun brought Howard Hughes into Las Vegas to buy out the mob and his secret relationship with the billionaire  that led to a break-in at his Las Vegas Sun office by the Watergate burglar s.  The film has won best documentary at numerous film festivals.

Personal life
Mr. Goldstein is separated from Susan Tick. The two met in Chicago covering the presidential election of Jimmy Carter in 1976 and were married two years later. Ms. Tick was formerly a news anchor/reporter for WMAQ and WFYR radio in Chicago. A television reporter for CNN, KNXT-TV, WPIX-TV and a studio executive at CBS Television and Sony Pictures Entertainment (Columbia, TriStar). They have two children, Cory and Molly. Cory holds a MFT degree and lives in Los Angeles.  Molly died at the age of 29 in 2020

Awards
 Chicago Emmy nominee (1977) "The Last Deadline: Death of the Chicago Daily News"
 Emmy Award (1987) Producer, Best Drama "LA Law"
 Emmy Award (1989) Producer, Best Drama " LA Law"
 Golden Globe Award (1986 )
 Golden Globe Award (1987)
 Best Documentary/Audience Choice Awards at numerous Jewish Film Festivals (2009–2011) including Seattle, San Diego, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Denver and Minneapolis

References

External links

 "Where I Stand: The Hank Greenspun Story" at the Internet Movie Database
 Science Fiction: A Journey Into the Unknown at the Internet Movie Database
 Point of View Diner / Millennium Machine at The Museum of Tolerance
 "Full-length documentary needs to be encyclopedic in length to cover Greenspun's span" at San Diego Jewish World
 "Moving documentary embodies Hank Greenspun, a Las Vegas character" at Las Vegas Review Journal
 Play It Again Podcast with Indie Filmmaker Scott Goldstein at  IndieFlix
 Hank Greenspun: 'Unbelievable' as fiction, but a true life story" at Las Vegas Sun
 Las Vegas One Television Interview with Scott Goldstein"

Living people
1949 births
American documentary filmmakers
Film producers from New York (state)
American television directors
Television producers from New York City
Film directors from New York City
Lake Forest College alumni
People from Washington Heights, Manhattan
Columbia Grammar & Preparatory School alumni

Scott Goldstein


Jujiro Matsuda (松田重次郎|Matsuda Jūjirō) (August 8, 1875 - Mairch 9, 1952) wis a Japanese industrialist an businessman who founded automaker Mazda Motor Corporation.

Early life
The son o a fisherman, Jujiro Matsuda wis born in Hiroshima. He wis apprenticed tae a blacksmith in Osaka at the age o fowerteen an invented the "Matsuda-type pump" in 1906. Later, he teuk ower management o the foundry at which he apprenticed an changed the name o the organisation tae "Matsuda Pump Partnership." He wis forced oot o his company, but stairtit an armament manufacturer suin efter - the eponymously named Matsuda Works. Matsuda wad see his fledgling company's fortunes improve when it wis commissioned as a supplier tae the Tsar o Roushie as well as manufacturing the Type 99 rifle for the Japanese military.

Toyo Kogyo an Mazda
Bi 1921, Jujiro Matsuda wis a wealthy man thanks tae his previous business ventures. He moved back tae Hiroshima when he wis asked tae tak ower management o floundering artificial cork manufacturer , which wis placed intae receivership bi its creditors when the mercat for artificial cork dried up follaein the end o Warld War I. The unprofitable cork business ceased, an Matsuda focused on tuil manufacturing. 1931 oversaw the introduction o the "Mazdago" motorized tricycle, manufactured in what is nou Fuchū ceety an the company, nou kent as Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd. (東洋工業株式会社|Tōyō Kōgyō Kabushiki Gaisha), wad set its focus on motor vehicle manufacturin.

The Toyo Kogyo headquarters saw hivy damage on August 6, 1945 upon the bombing o Hiroshima. The Fuchū ceety plant, 5.3 kilometers frae the site o the explosion wis left relatively unscathed an Matsuda offered its uise for the Hiroshima bureau o NHK.

Matsuda wis na accused o bein nor wis he charged as a war conspirator, an a revitalized Toyo Kogyo wis the main force behind repairing the damaged economy o Hiroshima follaein Warld War II. In 1950, Toyo Kogyo providit startup for a basebaa team, the Hiroshima Carp.

His adoptit son-in-law, Tsuneji Matsuda succeeded him as preses o Toyo Kogyo, an oversaw the expansion o its automobile division until 1979, when Ford Motor Company teuk a 25% equity stake in Toyo Kogyo.

The alliance wi Ford led tae the divestiture o shares frae the Matsuda faimily an the chynge o Toyo Kogyo intae Mazda Motor Corporation in 1984. The Matsuda faimily still awns a controlling interest in the Hiroshima Toyo Carp.

Matsuda dee'd on Mairch 9, 1952. For his contreibutions tae Hiroshima Prefecture, a bronze statue o Jujiro Matsuda wis creatit in 1965 bi Onomichi, Hiroshima native, sculptor Katsuzou Entsuba an wis erected at the Minami-ku pairk.

Mazda

Jujiro Matsuda


Google Wave is an internet application made by Google. Google describes Wave as an application which "lets you communicate and collaborate in real time". This means that Wave can be used for several people to edit a document at the same time, or for a group discussion. Waves can be used in a similar way to a forum, or just for emails and instant messaging between two or more people.

To use Google Wave in some browsers like Internet Explorer, you have to install Google Chrome Frame. This makes Internet explorer behave like Google Chrome on the Wave website. This is needed because Internet Explorer does not have enough features for Wave to work: it does not have full HTML5 support.

Google Wave was discontinued in 2010. It has been open sourced as Apache Wave.

References

Other websites
 Google Wave website

Google

Google Wave


Isaac Hawkins Browne, FRS (7 December 1745 – 30 May 1818) was a British Tory politician, industrialist, essayist, and a lord of the manor of Badger, Shropshire.

Family and education
He was the only son of the poet Isaac Hawkins Browne (1705–1760) and his wife, Jane, née Trimnell. He was educated at Westminster School and Hertford College, Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in July 1770.

Employer and squire

In 1774, Browne bought the manor of Badger from its absentee owner, Clement Kynnersley of Loxley, near Uttoxeter: the house was at that time rented to an ironmaster, William Ferriday. He also owned property at Malinslee in Dawley, Shropshire, now part of the town of Telford, which included Old Park. In 1790, he opened coal mines on his estate and leased enough land in Old Park to enable Thomas Botfield to build the Old Park ironworks there. Ferriday and Botfield had long been business partners in the Dawley and Madeley areas, for example in the Lightmoor Coalworks. Browne mixed and made money in the world of Industrial Revolution business men, while seeking access to the world of politics dominated by the landed gentry. Badger gave him the opportunity to create the rural lifestyle to which he aspired.

After making a grand tour in 1775–1776, he settled on his estates at Badger. Between 1779 and 1783, Browne had Badger Hall greatly extended, to a design by James Wyatt, and commissioned paintings for it from Robert Smirke. He also had Badger Dingle reshaped into a picturesque landscape devised by William Emes.

In 1784 he served as treasurer of the Salop Infirmary in Shrewsbury. Browne supported a Sunday School at Malinslee from 1799, and organised the building of a church there, St. Leonard, consecrated in 1805 and designed by Thomas Telford. This was intended to replace the parish church, but that was opened in 1818. It was probably he who initiated and financed one of the village schools at Badger: certainly it was said to be funded by the lord of the manor after his death, when his wife was in control. He also instituted coal allowances for the villagers.

Browne took great interest in the affairs of the parish of Badger, as he was bound to do, since he had the right to nominate the incumbent: he did not present, as the advowson strictly belonged to the Crown. Thomas Hartshorn had been rector from 1753, succeeding his father in the post. For most of that time he held two prebends of St. Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton: rural Hatherton, near Cannock, and Monmore, which included the growing town of Bilston. At Badger, communion was celebrated only five times a year. In 1780, after the death of Hartshorn, Browne had James Chelsum, a minor scholar, installed. Two years later, Chelsum added to his benefice at Badger the rectory of Droxford in Hampshire, and a chaplaincy at Lathbury in Buckinghamshire. He also took on numerous preaching posts, publishing his sermons. Although Browne must initially have trusted Chelsum, he clearly became disenchanted and arranged for his departure in 1795. Chelsum retained his other benefices until he died insane in 1801. Browne nominated in his place William Smith, who turned out to be an exemplary pastor, devoted solely to the parish and never absent for more than two weeks. Browne rewarded him with the valuable right to nominate his own successor.

Political career

Browne was appointed High Sheriff of Shropshire for 1783–1784.

From 1784, Browne was one of the members of Parliament for Bridgnorth, a pocket borough controlled by the Whitmores of Apley Hall. He served for six successive parliaments, until 1812, and supported the Tory ministries of William Pitt the younger, Henry Addington, the Duke of Portland, and Spencer Perceval. In 1803 he was named as one of the Commissioners of Highland Roads and Bridges.

Hansard records 11 contributions by Browne to parliamentary debate, most of them fairly short, between 1805 and 1809, when his speeches cease. (Reporting of debates was patchy before this time, so it is not certain how active he was earlier in his career.) He was clearly not a striking speaker. When he made one of his longer speeches in 1806, supporting funeral honours for Pitt, he was met by loud coughing.

In 1805 Browne spoke in support of a measure to force the payment of replacement curates when incumbent priests were absent. This was an issue of which he had bitter experience, of course. On this occasion he found himself on the opposite side to many of his Tory colleagues, who considered it an attack on ecclesiastical property rights. However, Browne's support for the pastoral work of the Church of England was accompanied by a virulent anti-Catholicism. In 1807 a bill was introduced to allow Catholics to serve in the armed forces, a very small initial modification to the Penal Laws that had excluded Catholics from public life. Browne said of Catholicism that "he considered its spirit to be as hostile to the liberties of this country, as any arbitrary power could be." He declared that Catholics already "had every thing they could wish for, excepting political power," and finished by saying:
"It had been the wisdom of our ancestors to restrain the executive power from conferring the highest offices upon Roman Catholics, and we ought to revere their memories, and also to do justice to posterity, by maintaining the fences which our ancestors had erected."

Browne was seldom a more than equivocal advocate of reform. In 1807 he rose to support a delay in the passing of the Slave Trade Act 1807, although he professed himself opposed to the trade. In fact, he had close family connections to the West Indies lobby. In 1809, commenting on a motion to re-establish a Finance Committee of the House, he delivered himself of a masterpiece of equivocation:

"Mr. I. H. Browne admitted many disagreeable circumstances had occurred in the Committee, but he believed from no ill intention in any one, nor from any desire to protract unnecessarily the time of the Committee. Many thought a reform as to the power and influence of the crown was necessary, and others that it was not; and he believed each party was actuated by what they really thought to be right. Many of the Committee thought the influence of the crown was the most valuable part of the constitution; of course those would not agree to diminish it: but though he did not exactly agree with either party on this head, and many others, he still thought every one had acted to the best of his judgment."

Browne was generally a defender of the established order, in many ways a typical country member of the unreformed Parliament, which he accepted implicitly as legitimate. In 1809 Browne denounced John Curwen's Reform Bill, which sought to outlaw the selling of seats in the House of Commons, "because it would have the effect of excluding a great portion of the wisdom and talents it possessed from that house." Bar-room banter about bribery and corruption was, in case incorrigible, so "in opposing it he trusted that he should not be considered as more a friend to corruption than any other Hon. member. The bill he thought could not be rejected too soon."

Literary work
Browne published an anthology of his father's poems in two volumes in 1768.

He also published many essays, anthologised in two main works.  The first, Essays, Religious and Moral were initially published anonymously in 1815 but his name was appended to later editions.  The second, Essays on Subjects of Important Inquiry in Metaphysics, Morals and Religion were published posthumously in 1822.

Marriages and death
Brown's first wife was Henrietta Hay, daughter of Edward Hay, a career diplomat, and granddaughter of George Hay, 8th Earl of Kinnoull, whom he married in 1788. Shortly after her death, in 1802, he married Elizabeth Boddington, daughter of Thomas Boddington, who outlived him by 21 years and to whom he left a life interest in the manor of Badger, although it was to pass to his nephew, R.H.Cheney on her death.

Browne, according to his epitaph in the parish church, "in 1812 voluntarily retired from public life" and died "after a gradual decline," in London aged 72 on 30 May 1818.

References

Sources

1745 births
1818 deaths
Tory MPs (pre-1834)
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1796–1800
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1806–1807
UK MPs 1807–1812
People educated at Westminster School, London
Alumni of Hertford College, Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Society
High Sheriffs of Shropshire
British businesspeople in the coal industry

Isaac Hawkins Browne (coal owner)


Celia Rees (born 17 June 1949) is an English author.

Celia Rees was born in Solihull, West Midlands and attended Tudor Grange Grammar School for Girls. She studied History and Politics at Warwick University and has a PGCE and a master's degree in Education from Birmingham University.

She became a teacher after leaving university and taught English in comprehensive schools in Coventry for sixteen years and this is when she began to write. Her intention was to 'write for teenagers, books that they would want to read, almost adult in style and content.' She left teaching in 1989. After working part-time in Further Education and as an Open Studies Lecturer for Warwick University, she became a full-time writer in 1997.

Celia is a regular tutor for the Arvon Foundation, is a member of the Society of Authors, and has been Chair of the Children's Writers and Illustrators Group. She is a member of the Scattered Authors Society and a Fellow of the English Association.

Celia lives with her husband, Terence Rees in Leamington Spa. She has one daughter, Catrin, who is a lawyer in London.

Writing
Celia Rees writes mainly for young adults and has written across a range of genre from thrillers, including her first novel, Every Step You Take (1993) to This Is Not Forgiveness (2012) to gothic and speculative fiction, beginning with the vampire novel, Blood Sinister (1996)) and ending (for the time being) with The Stone Testament (2007).

She is perhaps best known for her historical fiction. Witch Child (2000) was shortlisted for the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize (2001) and won the Prix Sorcières in France (2003). The sequel, Sorceress (2002), was shortlisted for the Whitbread (Costa) Children's Book Award; and Pirates! (2003) was shortlisted for the W.H. Smith Children's Book Award. Sovay followed in 2008 and The Fool's Girl in 2010

Celia Rees's novels have been translated into 28 languages. Her books for younger readers include The Bailey Game (1994) and the Trap in Time Trilogy (2001/2).

List of works
 Every Step You Take (1993)
 The Bailey Game (1994)
 Colour her Dead (1994)
 Blood Sinister (1996) *Anthologized with other Point Horror in Decayed (2001)
 Midnight Hour (1997)
 Ghost Chamber  (1997)
 The Vanished (1997)
 H Is for Haunting (1998)
 A Is for Apparition (1998)
 U Is for Unbeliever (1998)
 N Is for Nightmare (1998)
 T Is for Terror (1998)
 S Is for Shudder (1998)
 Soul Taker (1998)
 Truth or Dare (2000)
 The Cunning Man (2000)
 Witch Child (2000)
 Trap in Time Trilogy: Trap in Time (2001), City of Shadows (2002), and The Host Rides Out (2002)
 Sorceress (2002)
 Pirates! (2003)
 Wish House (2005)
 Stone Testament (2007)
 Sovay (2008)
 The Fool's Girl (2011)
 This Is Not Forgiveness (2012)
 Daughters of Time (2014)
 Glass Town Wars  (2019)

Notes

References

External links

 Official site
 Bloomsbury biography
 Complete list of works
 British Council

1949 births
Living people
English fantasy writers
English children's writers
English horror writers
People from Solihull
Alumni of the University of Warwick
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Fellows of the English Association

Celia Rees


Governance is the term for the way a group of people such as a country do things. Many groups create a government to decide how things are to be done. Governance is different from politics. Politics deals with people with different ideas working together to create an agreement about what to do, and governance is doing what politics decided needed to be done.Governance is also how government decision making affects people in that nation.

Government
Political science

Governance


The Neutrodyne radio receiver, invented in 1922 by Louis Hazeltine, was a particular type of tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver, in which the instability-causing inter-electrode capacitance of the triode RF tubes is cancelled out or "neutralized" to prevent parasitic oscillations which caused "squealing" or "howling" noises in the speakers of early radio sets.     In most designs, a small extra winding on each of the RF amplifiers' tuned anode coils was used to generate a small antiphase signal, which could be adjusted by special variable trim capacitors to cancel out the stray signal coupled to the grid via plate-to-grid capacitance.  The Neutrodyne circuit was popular in radio receivers until the 1930s, when it was superseded by the superheterodyne receiver.

History
The circuit was developed about 1922 by Harold Wheeler who worked in Louis Hazeltine's laboratory at Stevens Institute of Technology, so Hazeltine is usually given the credit.  The tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver, one of the most popular radio receiver designs of the time, consisted of several tuned radio frequency (RF) amplifier stages, followed by a detector and several audio amplifier stages.  A major defect of the TRF receiver was that, due to the high interelectrode capacitance of early triode vacuum tubes, feedback within the RF amplifier stages gave them a tendency to oscillate, creating unwanted radio frequency alternating currents.  These parasitic oscillations mixed with the carrier wave in the detector, creating heterodynes (beat notes) in the audio frequency range, which were heard as annoying whistles and howls from the speaker.

Hazeltine's innovation was to add a circuit to each radio frequency amplifier stage which fed back a small amount of energy from the plate (output) circuit to the grid (input) circuit with opposite phase to cancel ("neutralize") the feedback which was causing the oscillation.  This effectively prevented the high-pitched squeals that had plagued early radio sets.   A group of more than 20 companies known as the Independent Radio Manufacturers Association licensed the circuit from Hazeltine and manufactured "Neutrodyne" receivers throughout the 1920s.  At the time, RCA held a virtual monopoly over commercial radio receiver production due to its ownership of the rights to the Armstrong regenerative and superheterodyne circuits. The Neutrodyne ended this control, allowing competition. Compared to the technically superior superheterodyne the Neutrodyne was cheaper to build. As basically a TRF receiver, it was also considered easier for non-technical owners to use than the early superhets. After manufacture each tuned amplifier stage had to be neutralized, adjusted to cancel feedback; after this the set would not produce the parasitic oscillations which caused the objectionable noises. By 1927 some ten million of these receivers had been sold to consumers in North America.

By the 1930s, advances in vacuum tube manufacturing had yielded the tetrode, which had reduced control grid to plate (Miller) capacitance. These advances made it possible to build TRF receivers that did not need neutralization,  but also made Edwin Armstrong's superheterodyne design practical for domestic receivers.   So the TRF circuit, including the Neutrodyne, became obsolete in radio receivers and was superseded by the superheterodyne design.

The Neutrodyne neutralization technique continues to be used in other applications to suppress parasitic oscillation, such as in RF power amplifiers in radio transmitters.

See also
Crystal Radio Receiver
Low IF Receiver
Regenerative Radio Receiver
Superheterodyne Receiver
Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver

References

External links
Louis Alan Hazeltine "Scanning the Past" the Proceedings of the IEEE Vol. 81, No. 4, April 1993
Neutralisation of Philco Neutrodyne-Plus Receivers
The Neutrodyne circuit

Radio electronics
History of radio
Receiver (radio)

Neutrodyne


An interchange a place where two freeways meet, or where a freeway and another road meet. An interchange has two levels so traffic going through does not meet. Different levels are connected by ramps. There are many different types of freeway interchanges. The two most common types of freeway interchanges are the diamond interchange and the cloverleaf interchange:

 A diamond interchange has four ramps that enter and leave the freeway at a small angle and meet the non-freeway at almost right angles. These ramps at the non-freeway can be controlled through stop signs or traffic signals. The name comes from the diamond-like shape.
 A cloverleaf interchange has eight ramps that handle all traffic without stop signs or traffic lights. To turn left, traffic goes in a 270° turn. The name comes from the four-leaf clover-like shape.

Roads
Bridge types

Interchange (road)


Greenbank is a residential district of south Edinburgh, Scotland. It is situated between the districts of Morningside and Oxgangs, i.e. slightly to the south-west of the heart of Morningside.

The older part of Greenbank consists largely of inter-war period detached houses and bungalows. Since 2003, modern flats and houses have been constructed on the site of the former City Hospital on Greenbank Drive, some of which incorporate parts of the Victorian contagious diseases isolation hospital. The area of the new development has become known as Greenbank Village.

Public transport
Public Transport is frequent with Lothian Buses operating scheduled services. Bus routes 5, 16, and 23 plus night service N16 all serve the area.

Areas of Edinburgh

Greenbank, Edinburgh


Harry W. Lawson Ice Arena and Gabel Natatorium is a 3,667-seat multi-purpose arena, and adjacent natatorium in Kalamazoo, Michigan, located on the far Southwest corner of Western Michigan University's main campus. The arena is a single-level, horseshoe-style arena with a concourse at the top. It is home to the Western Michigan Broncos men's ice hockey team, the WMU men's ice hockey club team, and the WMU synchronized skating club team. The arena is named after Harry W. Lawson, the founder of the hockey program at Western Michigan University. The Gabel Natatorium contains an olympic size swimming pool, diving facility, and is home to the WMU Swimming and Diving Club team.

From 1992 to 1994, while University Arena was being renovated, the basketball teams also called Lawson home.

History
With men's ice hockey slated to become a varsity sport at Western in 1973, the university needed to provide a suitable arena for the team. Prior to the arena and varsity status, the team would play their club games at an outdoor ice rink in Kalamazoo near the Crosstown Parkway. On November 15, 1974, Lawson Ice Arena opened its doors for the first time as the Broncos faced off against the Thunderbirds of Algoma University. The arena was named after Harry W. Lawson, a professor at Western Michigan who organized and founded the club hockey team in 1956, which eventually became the school's varsity team.

With the men's hockey team flourishing in the 1980s and early 1990s, the university began with a series of renovations. The first was a $1 million series of upgrades during summer 1993, when a new floor, boards and glass, and cooling system were installed in the arena. This was followed by a $250,000 renovation in 1997, when chair-back seating was added on the south side of the arena, club-style seating on the southwest corner of the arena above the ice resurfacer tunnel, and vinyl bleachers were installed. In 1998, the arena received a new $1 million metal roof, to replace the old, wooden roof. The next upgrade in 2006 was priced at $2.2 million, when both locker rooms were renovated, athletic training rooms were upgraded, and coach's quarters were added along with a film/meeting room. With the resurgence of the program around 2010, the next upgrade was in 2013 with a new scoreboard at center ice along with three video boards placed around the arena. The upgrades were financed by an anonymous donor, who gave the university $1 million for video board upgrades in Lawson and University Arenas.

In summer 2014, a city water main break flooded the basement with 6–8 feet of water, shutting down the arena for a couple weeks while repairs were made. Light damage was reported to the natatorium filtration system, along with the ice cooling system. Safety systems prevented further damage from occurring.

During the summer of 2016, Lawson again saw major renovations. The 25-year-old ice making system was replaced, new boards and glass were brought in, and the ventilation system was given an overhaul. The renovations allowed the arena to become LEEDS (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certified.

The arena's record attendance was set on Halloween (October 31), 1987, when a standing-room crowd of 5,168 watched the Broncos take on then CCHA rival, Michigan State.

New arena
In 2013, with rumors of a new ice arena swirling, Western Michigan athletic director Kathy Beauregard stated that Lawson will be the home of the Bronco's hockey team for the foreseeable future. She did not deny that renderings and feasibility studies were conducted, due to Lawson's age, and lack of fan amenities. Possible locations of a new arena could include downtown Kalamazoo (would be a multi-purpose facility), directly south of the current arena, or to the southeast corner of Stadium and Howard streets. But there is currently no plan to build a new arena. As of December 2017, Lawson Ice Arena is the oldest arena in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference, and the third smallest in capacity next to the Goggin Ice Center (3,200) in Oxford, Ohio and the Ed Robson Arena (3,407) in Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Tenants

Men's ice hockey

The men's hockey team has called Lawson home since its opening in 1974, and most of the facility upgrades have revolved around the hockey team. Almost all of the team's athletic and team training facilities are located within the arena. The arena is noted as one of the toughest to play within the NCHC, mainly due to the old-style design, and the Lawson Lunatics.

Lawson Lunatics
The official student section for the hockey team is known as the Lawson Lunatics. The whole east side of the arena is reserved for the student section, which normally brings 1,400 students to each game. The students were ranked as the No. 1 student section in college hockey, and were asked by the university in 2013 to tone down the chants due to numerous complaints. The students are one of the main reasons that many current and former players in the NCAA consider Lawson one of the toughest arenas to play in.

Men's and women's basketball

From 1992 to 1994, the Broncos' men's and women's basketball teams moved to Lawson while the University Arena was reconfigured and renovated. The teams also played at arenas in Grand Rapids and Kalamazoo.

Synchronized skating
The WMU synchronized skating team called Lawson home from 1999 to 2004. In 2004, the team's varsity status was revoked due to financial issues. As a result of the loss of varsity status, the team claimed club status, but still calls Lawson home.

Other events
Besides hockey, skating, and basketball, Lawson has hosted other events such as ice shows, professional boxing matches, and concerts. The arena also hosts travel and high school hockey games, and is used by the university for club and intramural hockey as well.

Gabel Natatorium
Within the complex and adjacent to the Lawson Ice Arena is the Gabel Natatorium, which contains an olympic sized swimming pool and diving tank. Home to the WMU club swimming and diving teams, the West Michigan Diving Academy, regional high school swim and dive teams (Hackett Catholic Prep High School, Mattawan High School, the natatorium is also used for lap swim, open swim, WMU for-credit courses offered by the Department of Health, Physical Education & Recreation, scuba lessons, learn-to-swim, engineering challenges, and pool party rental. The Western Michigan Broncos football team utilizes the pool for recovery workouts, rehabilitation, and outreach events. In 2016, the complex underwent a strategic LEED-certified renovation that enabled heat generated from the ice-making process to be captured and utilized for energy and cost-efficient heating of the pool.

References

External links
 Official website for Lawson Ice Arena and Gabel Natatorium

Indoor arenas in Michigan
Basketball venues in Michigan
College ice hockey venues in the United States
Indoor ice hockey venues in Michigan
Western Michigan Broncos basketball
Western Michigan Broncos men's ice hockey
Sports venues in Michigan
Buildings and structures in Kalamazoo, Michigan
Sports in Kalamazoo, Michigan
Sports venues completed in 1974
1974 establishments in Michigan

Lawson Arena


Battle of Sutjeska (also known as The Fifth Offensive) is a 1973 Yugoslav partisan film directed by Stipe Delić. It tells the story of the famous Battle of Sutjeska, the greatest engagement of the Yugoslav Partisan War. The film is one of the most expensive ever made in Yugoslavia. It was selected as the Yugoslav entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 46th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. It was also entered into the 8th Moscow International Film Festival where it won a Special Prize.

Plot
German-occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1943; under the faithful leadership of Marshal Tito, the Yugoslav Partisans have, for a number of years, put up a staunch fight against the occupying Axis powers. Despite being out-gunned, outmaneuvered and vastly outnumbered, they managed to recuperate in a harsh mountainous region called Durmitor in northern Montenegro. However, their respite is short-lived as the combined foreign and domestic Axis powers begin an encirclement offensive, outnumbering them 6:1. The Partisans have no choice but to fight their way out of the encirclement, then head towards eastern Bosnia. They finally clash with the Axis on the plains of Sutjeska in south-eastern Bosnia.

Various people are caught up in the fighting, such as a Dalmatian who lost all of his children during the war. As the fighting intensifies, the story and the scenes are drawn more and more into the colossal battle as both sides are forced into a conflict that can only be described as a living hell. Battle scenes are interlaced with the personal agonies and fates of the main characters, from supreme commanders to ordinary soldiers.

The offensive ends in failure for the Axis, but the Partisans are in no mood to celebrate — they have suffered devastating losses. Still, on they march.

Cast
 Richard Burton as Josip Broz Tito
 Ljuba Tadić as Sava Kovačević
 Bata Živojinović as Nikola
 Miroljub Lešo as Boro
 Irene Papas as Boro's Mother
 Milena Dravić as Vera
 Bert Sotlar as Barba
 Boris Dvornik as Ivan
 Rade Marković as Radoš
 Ljubiša Samardžić as Stanojlo
 Milan Puzić as Member of the Partisan Headquarters
 Kole Angelovski as Stanojlo's Friend
 Stole Aranđelović as The Priest
 Relja Bašić as Capt. Stewart
 Branko Špoljar as Member of the General Staff
 Petar Banićević as Capt. William Deakin
 Günter Meisner as Gen. Rudolf Lüters
 Anton Diffring as Gen. Alexander Löhr
 Michael Cramer as Col. Wagner
 Orson Welles as Winston Churchill

See also
 List of submissions to the 46th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
 List of Yugoslav submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film

References

External links

1973 films
Films set in 1943
Yugoslav war films
Partisan films
War films set in Partisan Yugoslavia
World War II films based on actual events
Films set in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Serbo-Croatian-language films
1970s English-language films
English-language Yugoslav films
Films directed by Stipe Delić
Films with screenplays by Ugo Pirro
Films scored by Mikis Theodorakis
Films with screenplays by Wolf Mankowitz
Films about Josip Broz Tito
Yugoslav World War II films
1973 war films
Films about Yugoslav Resistance

Battle of Sutjeska (film)


In computer graphics, the X Window System used X BitMap (XBM), a plain text binary image format, for storing cursor and icon bitmaps used in the X GUI. The XBM format is superseded by XPM, which first appeared for X11 in 1989.

Format
XBM files differ markedly from most image files in that they take the form of C source files. This means that they can be compiled directly into an application without any preprocessing steps, but it also makes them far larger than their raw pixel data. The image data is encoded as a comma-separated list of byte values, each written in the C hexadecimal notation, '0x13' for example, so that multiple ASCII characters are used to express a single byte of image information.

XBM data consists of a series of static unsigned char arrays containing the monochrome pixel data.  When the format was in common use, an XBM typically appeared in headers (.h files) which featured one array per image stored in the header.  The following piece of C code exemplifies the XBM file Blarg displayed in the panel at right:

#define test_width 16
#define test_height 7
static unsigned char test_bits[] = {
0x13, 0x00, 0x15, 0x00, 0x93, 0xcd, 0x55, 0xa5, 0x93, 0xc5, 0x00, 0x80,
0x00, 0x60 };

In place of the usual image-file-format header, XBM files has two or four #define statements. The first two #defines specify the height and width of the bitmap in pixels. The second two, if any, specify the position of any hotspot within the bitmap.  (In the case of bitmapped cursors, the "hotspot" refers to the position of the cursor "point", generally at 0,0.)

XBM image data consists of a line of pixel values stored in a static array. Because a single bit represents each pixel (0 for white or 1 for black), each byte in the array contains the information for eight pixels, with the upper left pixel in the bitmap represented by the low bit of the first byte in the array.  If the image width does not match a multiple of 8, the extra bits in the last byte of each row are ignored.

Support

Some web browsers support displaying XBM images as a holdover from the early days of the World Wide Web, when XBM was the minimal non-proprietary image file format. The Arena web browser had full support since version 0.3.34 (25 July 1997). XBM support was removed from Internet Explorer 6, Mozilla Firefox 3.6, and WebKit-based browsers. There is a strong indication that Chromium (and therefore, also, Google Chrome) does not support XBM. Documentation for Opera 2.12 and 6.0 indicates that XBM was at least previously supported.

Some image viewers/converters, e.g., XnView, FFmpeg and IrfanView, support XBM. A 48×48 XBM can be converted to Ikon and eventually X-Face with Netpbm tools.

Despite having been superseded by the XPM format, XBM is still used by some modern but lightweight window managers like Openbox to define simple button images in a window's title bar, such as the iconify/minimize, restore, and maximize buttons. XBM is also used in embedded processing (microControllers) to display Icons used in GUIs. ImageMagick supports converting images both to and from XBM. GIMP may be used to create or modify images using the XBM format, and also supports converting images to and from the XBM format.

See also
 X PixMap (XPM)
 Xlib
 Portable Bit Map (PBM)

References

Graphics file formats
X Window System
Articles with example C code

X BitMap


Paul Scheffer-Boichorst (25 May 1843 in Elberfeld – 17 January 1902 in Berlin) was a German historian of the Middle Ages.

He studied history at the universities of Innsbruck, Göttingen and Berlin, receiving his doctorate from Leipzig University in 1867. Later on, he worked on the Monumenta Germaniae Historica project in Munich and Berlin. In 1875, he became an associate professor of history at the University of Giessen, then relocated to Strasbourg as a full professor during the following year. From 1890 onward, he taught classes at the University of Berlin.

He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. From 1891 to 1902 he was a member of the Central Directorate of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. He is credited for reconstruction of the Annales Patherbrunnenses.

Selected works
 Kaiser Friedrich' I. letzter streit mit der Kurie, 1866 – Emperor Frederick I. last quarrel with the Curia
 Annales Patherbrunnenses : eine verlorene Quellenschrift des zwölften Jahrhunderts aus Bruchstücken wiederhergestellt, 1870 – "Annales Patherbrunnenses"; a lost source of 12th century fragments recovered.
 Florentiner studien, 1874 – Florentine studies.
 Die Chronik des Dino Compagni. Kritik der Hegel'schen Schrift "Versuch einer Rettung", 1875 – The chronicle of Dino Compagni. Critique of Karl von Hegel's "Versuch einer Rettung".
 Die Neuordnung der Papstwahl durch Nikolaus II, 1877 – The reorganization of the papal election by Nicholas II.
 Aus Dantes Verbannung, 1882 – From Dante's exile.
 Zur Geschichte des XII. und XIII. Jahrhunderts : diplomatische Forschungen, 1897 – History of the 12th and 13th centuries: diplomatic research.
 Kirchengeschichtliche Forschungen, 1903 – Church history research.
 Ausgewählte Aufsätze und Besprechungen, 1905 – Selected essays and discussions.

References

1843 births
1902 deaths
People from Elberfeld
Academic staff of the University of Giessen
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
19th-century German historians
German medievalists
Writers from Wuppertal

Paul Scheffer-Boichorst


The  (, French Acrobatic Patrol), also called the Patrouille de France or PAF, is the aerobatics demonstration team of the French Air Force. They fly Franco-German Alpha Jet training airplanes. The PAF's aircraft are painted in three colours: blue, white, and red. These are the same colors as on the flag of France.

History
The Patrouille de France was created in 1947. The name first appeared in print for a 1953 aerial show in French Algeria. At this time, the PAF flew American fighter jets, specifically F-84Gs. Later, the team flew Mystère IVs. In 1964, the Air Force did not have enough money in its budget to continue the Patrouille de France, and disbanded it. But the Minister of Defence decided to bring the team back in 1965 because he liked it. They then flew French training aircraft, Fouga CM-170 Magister. They kept flying Fouga CM-170 Magisters until 1980. Since then, the PAF have flown on an Alpha Jets.

Team
Patrouille de France uses eight aircraft that all fly at the same time. A ninth reserve plane always stays on the ground, ready to take off.  The call sign of pilots is Athos like the character from the famous book The Three Musketeers. If all pilots have an important role, both the essential leader and his second, called Charognard (which is the French word for "scavenger") who present all the display.

A transport plane is always with the PAF for support. It is a twin-engine plane: Transall C.160 or Casa CN-235M.

Demonstrations
Because they are seen as ambassadors of France, the PAF go on display all over the world. Patrouille de France often performs in military parade performed to celebrate Bastille Day.  They fly over the Champs-Élysées on the morning of July 14. The aircraft unleash a plume of smoke lights. PAF often fly at the Paris Air Show, which is held at Le Bourget airport.

Other websites
 Official website.
 Patrouille de France on the official website of the French Air Force.

1947 establishments in Europe
French Air Force
1940s establishments in France

Patrouille de France


Robert N. Audi (born November 1941) is an American philosopher whose major work has focused on epistemology, ethics (especially on ethical intuitionism), rationality and the theory of action. He is O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame, and previously held a chair in the business school there. His 2005 book, The Good in the Right, updates and strengthens Rossian intuitionism and develops the epistemology of ethics. He has also written important works of political philosophy, particularly on the relationship between church and state. He is a past president of the American Philosophical Association and the Society of Christian Philosophers.

Audi's contributions to epistemology include his defense of fallibilistic foundationalism. Audi has expanded his theory of justification to non-doxastic states, e.g. desires and intentions, by developing a comprehensive account of rationality. A mental state is rational if it is "well-grounded" in a source of justification. Justification can come directly from experience (e.g. perception) or indirectly from other mental states that are themselves justified. Rationality is relative to a person's experiences, so what is rational to believe for one person may be irrational to believe for another. Audi has also developed an account of autonomy, which he characterizes as the self-governing power to bring reasons to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional attitudes. Self-legislation is necessary but not sufficient for autonomy since it lacks the power to govern by itself. Autonomy involves responding to reasons in a principled way by endorsing commitments to projects and practical principles.

Life
Audi earned his BA from Colgate University and his MA and PhD from the University of Michigan.  He taught initially at the University of Texas at Austin, and then for many years as the Charles J. Mach University Professor of Philosophy at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln before moving to University of Notre Dame as Professor of Philosophy, Professor of Management, and the David E. Gallo Chair in Ethics. In 2009 he vacated the Gallo Chair and took a chair as John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy. He has served as General Editor of the First Edition (1995) and Second Edition (1999) of The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. He has also served as the general editor for "Modern Readings in Epistemology", as well as for "Modern readings in Metaphysics".
In an interview for the Brooklyn Friends School of which he's an alumnus (year 1959), he revealed that his interest in philosophy came from his father, a businessman and Lebanese immigrant with an interest in philosophy and history. His mother, a medical doctor and faculty at NYU Medical School, was also an influence. "'Both liked to explain and comment on things,' Robert mused, 'and they often entertained people from the diplomatic world and medicine who argued about politics, religion and ideas in general.'" Audi was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2018.

Philosophical work

Epistemology
Audi has defended a position he calls "fallibilistic foundationalism." He thinks that the foundationalist response is the only tenable option of the epistemic regress argument. This states that if every belief has to be justified by some other, then the only options are four: infinite regress, circularity, stopping at a belief that is not knowledge, and stopping at a basic belief that is itself justified. If the only alternative is the fourth, then if one has knowledge, one has foundational knowledge.
Audi considers that foundationalism is usually taken to be infallible. That is, it is normally associated with the view that knowledge is founded on basic beliefs that are axiomatic and necessarily true, and that the rest of knowledge is deduced from this set of beliefs. Audi thinks that foundationalism may be fallible, in the sense that the suprastructure of beliefs may be derived inductively from the basic beliefs, and hence may be fallible. He also thinks that basic beliefs need not be necessary truths, but merely have some structure which makes epistemic transition possible. For example, the belief that one is in the presence of an object arises causally from visual perception.

Rationality
The main account of Audi's theory of rationality is laid out in his book "The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality". He develops a comprehensive account of rationality that covers both the theoretical and the practical side of rationality. Theoretical rationality concerns beliefs and counts towards truth while practical rationality covers desires, intentions, and actions and counts towards goodness.

Ground
The notion of a ground plays a central role for rationality: a mental state is rational if it is "well-grounded" in a source of justification. For example, the perceptual experience of a tree when looking outside the window can ground the belief that there is a tree outside. A ground can psychologically support a mental state. Mental states may be supported by several grounds at the same time. Audi compares such a mental state to a porch that is supported by various pillars. For a mental state to be rational, it has to be well-grounded, i.e. be supported by an adequate ground. Irrational mental states, on the other hand, lack a sufficient ground.

Foundation and superstructure
Audi is committed to a form of foundationalism: the idea that justified beliefs, or in his case, rational states in general, can be divided into two groups: the foundation and the superstructure. The mental states in the superstructure receive their justification from other rational mental states while the foundational mental states receive their justification from a more basic source. These relations result in a hierarchy: justification is conveyed from the basic sources to the foundational mental states and transmitted from the foundational mental states to the mental states in the superstructure. For example, the above-mentioned belief that there is a tree outside is foundational since it is based on a basic source: perception. Knowing that trees grow in soil, we may deduce that there is soil outside. This belief is equally rational, being supported by an adequate ground, but it belongs to the superstructure since its rationality is grounded in the rationality of another belief. Desires, like beliefs, form a hierarchy: intrinsic desires are at the foundation while instrumental desires belong to the superstructure. In order to link the instrumental desire to the intrinsic desire and extra element is needed: a belief that the fulfillment of the instrumental desire is a means to the fulfillment of the intrinsic desire. Audi's foundationalism is different from what he terms "Cartesian foundationalism" in the sense that all justification, including justification from basic sources, is defeasible. The Cartesian view, on the other hand, ascribes certainty and infallibility to the foundational mental states.

Beliefs and desires
Audi asserts that all the basic sources providing justification for the foundational mental states come from experience. As for beliefs, there are four types of experience that act as sources: perception, memory, introspection, and rational intuition. The main basic source of the rationality of desires, on the other hand, comes in the form of hedonic experience: the experience of pleasure and pain. So, for example, a desire to eat ice-cream is rational if it is based on experiences in which the agent enjoyed the taste of ice-cream, and irrational if it lacks such a support. Because of its dependence on experience, rationality can be defined as a kind of responsiveness to experience.

Actions
Actions, in contrast to beliefs and desires, don't have a source of justification of their own. Their rationality is grounded in the rationality of other states instead: in the rationality of beliefs and desires. Desires motivate actions. Beliefs are needed here, as in the case of instrumental desires, to bridge a gap and link two elements. The link needed is that the execution of the action will contribute to the fulfillment of the desire. So, for example, the intrinsic desire for ice-cream can motivate a person to perform the action of going to the freezer to get some. But in addition a belief is needed: that the freezer contains ice-cream. The rationality of the action depends on the rationality of both the desire and the belief. If there is no good reason to believe that the freezer contains ice-cream then the belief is irrational. Irrational beliefs can't transmit justification, so the action is also irrational.

Persons
Audi distinguishes the focal rationality of individual mental states from the global rationality of persons. Global rationality has a derivative status: it depends on the focal rationality. Or more precisely: "Global rationality is reached when a person has a sufficiently integrated system of sufficiently well-grounded propositional attitudes, emotions, and actions". This allows for a certain number of irrational attitudes: global rationality doesn't require perfect rationality.

Truth and relativity
That a belief is rational doesn't entail that it is true. This is the case, for example, when the experiences that act as the source of a belief are illusory without the subject being aware of this. In such cases, it is rational to have a false belief and it would be irrational to have a true belief.

Rationality is relative in the sense that it depends on the experience of the person in question. Since different people undergo different experiences, what is rational to believe for one person may be irrational to believe for another person.

Criticism
Gilbert Harman has criticized Audi's account of rationality because of its reliance on experience as the ultimate source of justification. As he points out, our experience at any moment is very narrow compared to all the unconscious beliefs we carry with us all the time: beliefs about word meanings, acquaintances, historical dates, etc. So our experience at any time can only justify a very small number of the beliefs we have. This would mean that the great majority of our beliefs are irrational most of the time. This apparent consequence of Audi's account is opposed to the common-sense view that most people are rational at least some if not most of the time.

Autonomy
Robert Audi characterizes autonomy as the self-governing power to bring reasons to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional attitudes. Traditionally, autonomy is only concerned with practical matters. But, as Audi's definition suggests, autonomy may be applied to responding to reasons at large, not just to practical reasons. Autonomy is closely related to freedom but the two can come apart. An example would be a political prisoner who is forced to make a statement in favor of his opponents in order to ensure that his loved ones are not harmed. As Audi points out, the prisoner lacks freedom but still has autonomy since his statement, though not reflecting his political ideals, is still an expression of his commitment to his loved ones.

Self-legislation
Autonomy is often equated with self-legislation in the Kantian tradition. Self-legislation may be interpreted as laying down laws or principles that are to be followed. Audi agrees with this school in the sense that we should bring reasons to bear in a principled way. Responding to reasons by mere whim may still be considered free but not autonomous. A commitment to principles and projects, on the other hand, provides autonomous agents with an identity over time and gives them a sense of the kind of persons they want to be. But autonomy is neutral as to which principles or projects the agent endorses. So different autonomous agents may follow very different principles.

Self-government
But, as Audi points out, self-legislation is not sufficient for autonomy since laws that don't have any practical impact don't constitute autonomy. Some form of motivational force or executive power is necessary in order to get from mere self-legislation to self-government. This motivation may be inherent in the corresponding practical judgment itself, a position known as motivational internalism, or may come to the practical judgment externally in the form of some desire independent of the judgment, as motivational externalism holds.

Reasons
In the Humean tradition, intrinsic desires are the reasons the autonomous agent should respond to. This theory is called instrumentalism. Given this outlook, autonomy would be the "capacity to subordinate one's conduct to one's strongest desire(s)" with the goal of satisfying as many desires as possible. One of the problems of instrumentalism is that it lacks the resources to distinguish between good and bad intrinsic desires. For example, if someone finds himself with an intrinsic desire to hurt others, instrumentalism recommends that he should try to do so as efficiently as possible. Audi suggests that we should adopt a position known as axiological objectivism in order to avoid this counterintuitive conclusion. The central idea of this outlook is that objective values, and not subjective desires, are the sources of normativity and therefore determine what we should do. Reason can, through rational reflection, arrive at ideals of conduct in the light of these objective values, for example, to promote pleasure and to impede pain in oneself and others. The autonomous person would endorse the ideals arrived at and realize them in her behavior.

Selected bibliography

Monographs
 Belief, Justification, and Knowledge: An Introduction to Epistemology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1988, .
 Action, Intention, and Reason. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993, .
 The Structure of Justification. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993, .
 Moral Knowledge and Ethical Character. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, .
 Epistemology: A Contemporary Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1998, .  Second edition: 2002, . Third edition: 2010, .
 Religious Commitment and Secular Reason. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000, .
 The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, .
 The Good in the Right: A Theory of Intuition and Intrinsic Value. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004, .
 Practical Reasoning and Ethical Decision. London: Routledge, 2006, .
 Moral Value and Human Diversity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008, .
 Business Ethics and Ethical Business. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009, .
 Reasons, Rights, and Values. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015, .

Co-authored books and edited volumes
 Rationality, religious belief, and moral commitment: new essays in the philosophy of religion (with William J. Wainwright). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986, .
 Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy.  Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995, .  Second edition: 1999, .
 Religion in the Public Square: The Place of Religious Convictions in Public Debate (with Nicholas Wolterstorff). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997, .
 Rationality, rules, and ideals: critical essays on Bernard Gert's Moral Theory (with Walter Sinnott-Armstrong).  Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002, .

See also
 American philosophy
 Christian philosophy
 List of American philosophers

Notes

Further reading
 Timmons, Mark, John Greco, and Alfred R. Mele. Rationality and the Good: Critical Essays on the Ethics and Epistemology of Robert Audi. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007, .
 Hernandez, Jill Graper, with an introduction by Robert Audi, The New Intuitionism.  London, UK:  Continuum, 2011, .

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Robert Audi


An éclair is a long, thin pastry that is filled with a cream and topped with icing. The icing is often of chocolate, but it can also be caramel or taste like Turkish coffee.

Its name comes from the French word for lightning.

Desserts

Éclair


Vasil Bollano (, Vasilis Bolanos, born July 7, 1958) is the chairman of Omonoia and representative of the Greeks living in Albania.

History

In 2007, Bollano asserted that the Greek community of Albania deserved the same rights as the Albanians in Kosovo. On April 21, 2009 he was sentenced to six months in prison and a 3800 euro fine, for removing road signs in the municipality. Bollano objected to the signs, which had been installed by national authorities, because they were written in Albanian only, and not in Greek also. Bollano appealed against the decision arguing that the installment of road signs was a matter of municipal jurisdiction, and the appeal court overturned the initial sentence.

In December 2009, after investigation of Vlora department of prosecutions, he was indicted for abuse of power and falsification of official documents after issuing illegal building permits along the Albanian southern coast.

On May 24, 2010, a bomb exploded on Bollano's apartment, causing damage to his house and nearby parked cars. The former mayor's house also  came under attack during the previous elections.

Bollano was the former mayor of Himara municipality, in Southwestern Albania. An ethnic Greek, Vasil Bollano is the president of Omonoia, which represents the rights of Albania's Greek minority, as well as a member of the Unity for Human Rights Party. On May 8, 2011, he lost in the local elections to  Jorgo Goro of the Socialist Party. Although Bollano lost the elections, his coalition secured the greatest number of seats in the municipal council.

References

Mayors of places in Albania
Living people
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1958 births

Vasil Bollano


Robert Forke,  (April 6, 1860 – February 2, 1934) was a Canadian politician. He was elected as Member of Parliament for Brandon in 1921. In 1922, he replaced Thomas Crerar as leader of the Progressive Party of Canada. Forke served as a cabinet minister in the government of William Lyon Mackenzie King.

Life and career
Forke was born in Gordon in Berwickshire, Scotland, and was educated at public school in Westruther. He moved to Canada in 1882, and worked as a farmer. Forke was the reeve of Pipestone in Manitoba for twenty years before entering federal politics, and served as Secretary-Treasurer of the Union of Manitoba Municipalities for eleven years.

He was initially a supporter of the Liberal Party of Canada, and campaigned for the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba as a candidate of the provincial Liberal Party in a by-election held on January 9, 1909. He lost to Harvey Simpson of the Conservative Party by 206 votes. Forke later became involved in the agrarian political movement, and joined the Progressive Party.

He was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada in the 1921 election, defeating his Conservative and Liberal opponents in Brandon by a significant majority. The Progressives won 63 seats in a 235-member parliament, and held the potential balance of power in an evenly divided house. Soon after the election, Forke was part of delegation to Ottawa led by party leader Thomas Crerar, seeking policy concessions from the governing Liberals in return for parliamentary support.  He was named parliamentary Whip for the Manitoba Progressives in early 1922.

In his classic study of the Progressive Party in Canada, historian W.L. Morton described Forke as "a bluff amiable Scots Canadian of transparent honest and transcendent modesty", and "a western agrarian Liberal who hoped to redeem the federal Liberal party but who thought continued Progressive independence a necessary means to that end".  This moderate position was shared by Crerar, but opposed by the more radical wing of the party based in Alberta.

After Crerar proved unable to hold the Progressive Party together, Forke was elected the party's executive chairman and house leader on November 11, 1922. Some reports indicate that he defeated Joseph Shaw in a vote of assembled delegates, though Shaw claimed he withdrew before a vote took place. The change in leadership brought little change in policy direction, and Crerar remained an important organizer for the party.

In 1923, Forke moved an amendment to W.S. Fielding's budget, called for dramatic reductions in tariff rates. This was defeated, although two backbench Liberals voted with the Progressives. One year later, Forke refused to support a similar motion from J.S. Woodsworth which could have brought the government down.

Forke served as Progressive Party leader at a time when the party, which never had a strong central organization to begin with, was fragmenting into a series of smaller factions. Several Members of Parliament left the Progressive caucus between 1922 and 1925, including the radical "Ginger Group" on the left and tacit Liberal Party supporters on the right.  Forke attempted to maintain party unity, although the party's internal contradictions may have ultimately made this task impossible.

For the 1925 federal election, Forke issued a party manifesto which described both of the "old parties" as ineffective, and opposed formal alignment with the Liberals. Forke himself only campaigned in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and the Progressive effort as a whole was weaker than in 1921.  The party fell to 24 seats, all of which located west of Ontario. Forke was personally re-elected in Brandon, though by a greatly reduced margin.

The Conservative Party emerged as the largest parliamentary group in the election but did not win a majority of seats, leaving the Progressives in a kingmaker position. After a series of negotiations, and with Forke's personal encouragement, the Progressive caucus agreed to support the Liberals under Mackenzie King. Forke favoured cabinet representation for his party, but this was rejected by the Alberta wing. Forke was retained as Progressive house leader at a meeting in early 1926, although Alberta representative Henry Elvins Spencer was chosen as the new party secretary.

Morton speculates that Forke and the Manitoba Progressive MPs were reconciled to a Liberal-Progressive fusion by this time, and argues that it was only the Customs Scandal which prevented this from happening in the 1925-26 parliament. Forke resigned as Progressive house leader on June 30, 1926, one day after Mackenzie King resigned as Prime Minister.

Conservative leader Arthur Meighen was nominated by the Governor-General to replace King as Prime Minister, but Meighen's government soon fell on a confidence measure when the Progressive refused to support him. The Progressive Party did not fight the 1926 election as a united force, and instead fragmented into a series of provincial organizations which followed different strategies. The Manitoba Progressives forged an electoral alliance with the Liberals, elected seven members on a "Liberal-Progressive" ticket, and made arrangements in other ridings to avoid vote-splitting against the Conservatives.

Forke was one of the seven Liberal-Progressives returned for Manitoba. This bloc of MPs insisted on remaining a separate parliamentary group, but caucused with the Liberals and were seated as a group on the Liberal benches. The alliance of the two parties was confirmed on September 25, 1926, when Forke was appointed Minister of Immigration and Colonization with the consent of the Liberal-Progressive caucus.  He held this position for over three years, and was appointed by Mackenzie King to the Senate of Canada on December 30, 1929.

Forke served as a "Liberal-Progressive" Senator until his death in 1934.

Notes

  W.L. Morton, The Progressive Party in Canada, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1950, rev. 1967), p. 135.
  Morton, p. 152.
  Morton, pp. 164–165.
  Morton, p. 184, 190-191.
  Morton, pp. 194–98, 207.
  Morton, pp. 240, 243.
  Morton, pp. 247–249.
  Morton, pp. 256–257.
  Morton, p. 271

External links

An article containing primary documents relating to Robert Forke

Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Manitoba
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Robert Forke


The Shahadah (, ) is the first pillar of Islam. The saying is "Lā ʾIlāha ʾIllā Allah, Muḥammadun Rasūl Allah", meaning "There is no deity but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God".

In one of the many ayahs (proofs, evidence, verses, signs, revelations, etc.) within the Quran. The ayah says 3:18

3:18

شَهِدَ ٱللَّهُ أَنَّهُۥ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ وَٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةُ وَأُو۟لُوا۟ ٱلْعِلْمِ قَآئِمًۢا بِٱلْقِسْطِ ۚ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ١٨

  Allâh bears witness that Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), and the angels, and those having knowledge (also give this witness); (He always) maintains His creation in Justice. Lâ ilâha illa Huwa (none has the right to be worshipped but He), the All-Mighty, the All-Wise.

Arabic words and phrases
Islamic theology

Shahada


Adam Hope (8 January 1813 – 7 August 1882) was a Canadian businessman and senator. "Adam Hope was trained in mathematics, bookkeeping, and German, studies that were all useful for what his father anticipated would be his pursuits as a merchant." Born to a prosperous Scottish tenant farming family in Dirleton parish, Adam Hope worked as a clerk in a sawmill in Leith, the port of Edinburgh, from 1828 until emigrating to North America. He migrated from Scotland in 1834, settling in Upper Canada. Adam Hope sent his father sixty-six letters, vivid and detailed, which trace Hope's passage across the Atlantic and efforts to settle in Upper Canada. A Liberal, he was appointed to the Senate of Canada on 3 January 1877 on the recommendation of Alexander Mackenzie. He represented the senatorial division of Hamilton, Ontario until his death. In 2007, Adam Crerar edited the selected letters of Adam Hope, written to his father in Scotland between 1834 and 1845. This collection of letters totals approximately 200,000 words, and represents one of the single richest accounts of Upper Canada in the 1830s and 1840s, touching on telling aspects of colonial politics, religion, society, economics, and communications. This edited compilation was published as part of the Champlain Society's General Series.

References

1813 births
1882 deaths
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Adam Hope