Housesitter is a 1992 American romantic comedy film directed by Frank Oz, written by Mark Stein, and starring Steve Martin and Goldie Hawn. The premise involves a woman with con-artist tendencies who worms her way into the life of a reserved architect by claiming to be his wife.

Plot
Newton Davis (Steve Martin) is a struggling architect. After building his dream house for himself and his longtime girlfriend Becky (Dana Delany) in his hometown, he is crushed when she refuses to marry him. He is unable to bring himself to live in the house, and leaves it abandoned and with a debt he cannot afford. Three months later, Newton meets a waitress named Gwen (Goldie Hawn) at a Hungarian restaurant in Boston. Believing that she cannot speak English, he spills out his sob story about Becky and the abandoned house. After the restaurant closes for the night, Newton learns she merely pretended to be Hungarian, and can speak English. He walks her home, which turns out to be a small apartment upstairs at the restaurant. They end up having sex.

The next morning, Gwen finds that Newton left in the middle of the night. However, he unintentionally left behind the drawing of the house he'd built for Becky. Interest piqued by the drawing, Gwen takes a bus ride out to see the house. She is charmed by it, and decides to move in. Gwen goes to the town's general store, where she charges her groceries to the "Newton Davis" account. When questioned about this, Gwen, who it becomes clear is a natural liar, says that she is Newton's wife. Gwen meets Becky, and spins a lengthy romantic story about how they fell in love, which surprises and impresses Becky. Gwen also meets Newton's parents, who are heartbroken that Newton got "married" without telling them, but Gwen manages to smooth things over with them with her charm.

Soon after, Newton travels to his hometown and is shocked to see that his house is lived in. When he finds out what Gwen has done he is initially furious, but he soon sees the potential in her being there. Gwen starts creating all sorts of opportunities for Newton: mending his relationship with his parents, helping out with his career by befriending Newton's boss and highlighting his long-ignored talent, and making Becky jealous. Newton and Gwen come to an agreement in which Gwen will help Newton win Becky, and in return she'll get all the furniture in the house. Through their time together, Newton begins to rely more on Gwen beyond their agreement, and Gwen starts to feel attached to her life with Newton. It is also revealed that Gwen became a compulsive liar in order to escape from what she feels is her own inadequate background, and that she has "changed" her life numerous times.

The film culminates with a reception held at the house in which the sub-plots of Newton's career, family and affections for Becky are brought together. Annoyed with Becky for her superior and suspicious attitude, Gwen confronts her in front of everyone, accusing her of trying to win Newton back. Gwen storms out of the house in tears, and Newton follows her, thinking it is still part of the plan. Outside alone, Newton praises Gwen for her brilliance, but Gwen replies that she wanted their marriage to work. Her feelings for him are apparent. Newton's boss gives him the promotion. Newton watches, confused, as Gwen leaves. Becky takes the opportunity to make a move on Newton, and asks whether all of Gwen's elaborate stories were real. Newton answers that they were all true and chases after Gwen.

Newton stops Gwen as she is about to board a bus to leave town. Although she resists, Newton follows her example and begins telling an outlandish romantic story of something they "did", which makes Gwen decide to stay. The film ends on the note of Newton and Gwen being happily married and living together in the house. As Newton and Gwen go into the house together, the final spoken words are of Newton saying "I love you, Gwen" and Gwen replying, "Actually, it's Jessica."

Cast
 Steve Martin as Newton Davis
 Goldie Hawn as Gwen Duncle/Buckley/Phillips
 Dana Delany as Becky Metcalf
 Julie Harris as Edna Davis
 Donald Moffat as George Davis
 Peter MacNicol as Marty
 Richard B. Shull as Ralph / Bernie Duncle
 Ken Cheeseman as Harv
 Laurel Cronin as Mary / Mary Duncle
 Roy Cooper as Winston Moseby
 Christopher Durang as Reverend Lipton

Production
According to Rotten Tomatoes, the house featured in the film was designed by New York architects Trumbull & Associates. Christopher Lukenbeal's 1995 master's thesis A Geography in Film, A Geography of Film cites Debra Wassman of Trumbull: "the house is the real star of the film". The 1800-square-foot, three-bedroom home won the House Beautiful/American Wood Council Award for Best Small House of 1990 and blueprints were available for purchase from Princeton Architectural Press.

The role of Gwen Phillips was initially offered to Meg Ryan, who pulled out due to creative differences.

Principal photography ran from August to October 1991, and took place in Massachusetts, with filming locations including Boston, Concord, and Cohasset.

Release and reception
Housesitter received mixed reviews from critics, as it holds a 36% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 22 reviews. Noted film critic Roger Ebert, gave it three stars saying, "this is one of [Goldie Hawn's] best performances" and praised her and Steve Martin's impeccable comic timing.

Vincent Canby of The New York Times opined that the film is "a cardboard vehicle in which Steve Martin and Goldie Hawn ride up front, doing what each does with great talent and occasional vigor, and a lot of very able character actors sit in the back, kibitzing and adding local color." Gene Siskel wrote that the film was "a one-note comedy with screwball aspirations [that] is amusing while it sets up its premise [and then] attempts to recycle the premise into a story." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called the film "an occasionally amusing screwball farce made by people whose screws are barely loose at all."

The film was released theatrically on June 12, 1992, after being moved back from an initial May 8 release date, and performed reasonably well for a low-key comedy film. It earned $9.1 million on its opening weekend and $58.5 million for its entire domestic theatrical run, grossing a total of $94.9 million worldwide.

The film was released on DVD on July 22, 1998 and eventually on Blu-ray on April 16, 2019.

References

External links

1992 films
1992 romantic comedy films
1990s screwball comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American screwball comedy films
1990s English-language films
Films about architecture
Films directed by Frank Oz
Films produced by Brian Grazer
Films set in Boston
Films set in Massachusetts
Films shot in Boston
Films shot in Massachusetts
Films scored by Miles Goodman
Imagine Entertainment films
Universal Pictures films
1990s American films

Housesitter


David Kellogg Lewis (September 28, 1941 – October 14, 2001) was an American philosopher who is widely regarded as one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century. Lewis taught briefly at UCLA and then at Princeton University from 1970 until his death. He is closely associated with Australia, whose philosophical community he visited almost annually for more than 30 years.

Lewis made significant contributions in philosophy of mind, philosophy of probability, epistemology, philosophical logic, aesthetics, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of time and philosophy of science. In most of these fields he is considered among the most important figures of recent decades. But Lewis is most famous for his work in metaphysics, philosophy of language and semantics, in which his books On the Plurality of Worlds (1986) and Counterfactuals (1973) are considered classics. His works on the logic and semantics of counterfactual conditionals are broadly used by philosophers and linguists along with a competing account from Robert Stalnaker; together the Stalnaker–Lewis theory of counterfactuals has become perhaps the most pervasive and influential account of its type in the philosophical and linguistic literature. His metaphysics incorporated seminal contributions to quantified modal logic, the development of counterpart theory, counterfactual causation, and the position called "Humean supervenience". Most comprehensively in On the Plurality of Worlds, Lewis defended modal realism: the view that possible worlds exist as concrete entities in logical space, and that our world is one among many equally real possible ones.

Early life and education
Lewis was born in Oberlin, Ohio, to John D. Lewis, a professor of government at Oberlin College, and Ruth Ewart Kellogg Lewis, a medieval historian. He was the grandson of the Presbyterian minister Edwin Henry Kellogg and the great-grandson of the Presbyterian missionary and Hindi expert Samuel H. Kellogg.

Lewis attended Oberlin High School, where he attended college lectures in chemistry. He went on to Swarthmore College and spent a year at Oxford University (1959–60), where he was tutored by Iris Murdoch and attended lectures by Gilbert Ryle, H. P. Grice, P. F. Strawson, and J. L. Austin. His year at Oxford played an important role in his decision to study philosophy. Lewis received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1967, where he studied under W. V. O. Quine, whose views he would later dispute. It was there he took a seminar with the Australian philosopher J. J. C. Smart. Smart recalled, "I taught David Lewis, or rather, he taught me."

Lewis joined the philosophy department at the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1966. In 1970, he moved to Princeton University, where he spent the remainder of his career.

Early work on convention
Lewis's first monograph was Convention: A Philosophical Study (1969), which is based on his doctoral dissertation and uses concepts of game theory to analyze the nature of social conventions; it won the American Philosophical Association's first Franklin Matchette Prize for the best book published in philosophy by a philosopher under 40. Lewis claimed that social conventions, such as the convention in most states that one drives on the right (not on the left), the convention that the original caller will re-call if a phone conversation is interrupted, etc., are solutions to so-called "'co-ordination problems'". Co-ordination problems were at the time of Lewis's book an under-discussed kind of game-theoretical problem; most game-theoretical discussion had centered on problems where the participants are in conflict, such as the prisoner's dilemma.

Co-ordination problems are problematic, for, though the participants have common interests, there are several solutions. Sometimes one of the solutions is "salient", a concept invented by the game-theorist and economist Thomas Schelling (by whom Lewis was much inspired). For example, a co-ordination problem that has the form of a meeting may have a salient solution if there is only one possible spot to meet in town. But in most cases, we must rely on what Lewis calls "precedent" for a salient solution. If both participants know that a particular co-ordination problem, say "which side should we drive on?", has been solved in the same way numerous times before, both know that both know this, both know that both know that both know this, etc. (this particular state Lewis calls common knowledge, and it has since been much discussed by philosophers and game theorists), then they will easily solve the problem. That they have solved the problem successfully will be seen by even more people, and thus the convention will spread in the society. A convention is thus a behavioral regularity that sustains itself because it serves the interests of everyone involved. Another important feature of a convention is that a convention could be entirely different: one could just as well drive on the left; it is more or less arbitrary that one drives on the right in the US, for example.

Lewis's main goal in the book, however, was not simply to provide an account of convention but rather to investigate the "platitude that language is ruled by convention" (Convention, p. 1.) The book's last two chapters (Signalling Systems and Conventions of Language; cf. also "Languages and Language", 1975) make the case that a population's use of a language consists of conventions of truthfulness and trust among its members. Lewis recasts in this framework notions such as truth and analyticity, claiming that they are better understood as relations between sentences and a language rather than as properties of sentences.

Counterfactuals and modal realism

Lewis went on to publish Counterfactuals (1973), which gives a modal analysis of the truth conditions of counterfactual conditionals in possible world semantics and the governing logic for such statements. According to Lewis, the counterfactual "If kangaroos had no tails they would topple over" is true if in all worlds most similar to the actual world where the antecedent "if kangaroos had no tails" is true, the consequent that kangaroos in fact topple over is also true. Lewis introduced the now standard "would" conditional operator  □→ to capture these conditionals' logic. A sentence of the form A □→ C is true on Lewis's account for the same reasons given above. If there is a world maximally similar to ours where kangaroos lack tails but do not topple over, the counterfactual is false. The notion of similarity plays a crucial role in the analysis of the conditional. Intuitively, given the importance in our world of tails to kangaroos remaining upright, in the most similar worlds to ours where they have no tails they presumably topple over more frequently and so the counterfactual comes out true. This treatment of counterfactuals is closely related to an independently discovered account of conditionals by Robert Stalnaker, and so this kind of analysis is called Stalnaker-Lewis theory. The crucial areas of dispute between Stalnaker's account and Lewis's are whether these conditionals quantify over constant or variable domains (strict analysis vs. variable-domain analysis) and whether the Limit assumption should be included in the accompanying logic. Linguist Angelika Kratzer has developed a competing theory for counterfactual or subjunctive conditionals, "premise semantics", which aims to give a better heuristic for determining the truth of such statements in light of their often vague and context-sensitive meanings. Kratzer's premise semantics does not diverge from Lewis's for counterfactuals but aims to spread the analysis between context and similarity to give more accurate and concrete predictions for counterfactual truth conditions.

Realism about possible worlds
What made Lewis's views about counterfactuals controversial is that whereas Stalnaker treated possible worlds as imaginary entities, "made up" for the sake of theoretical convenience, Lewis adopted a position his formal account of counterfactuals did not commit him to, namely modal realism. On Lewis's formulation, when we speak of a world where I made the shot that in this world I missed, we are speaking of a world just as real as this one, and although we say that in that world I made the shot, more precisely it is not I but a counterpart of mine who was successful.

Lewis had already proposed this view in some of his earlier papers: "Counterpart Theory and Quantified Modal Logic" (1968), "Anselm and Actuality" (1970), and "Counterparts of Persons and their Bodies" (1971). The theory was widely considered implausible, but Lewis urged that it be taken seriously. Most often the idea that there exist infinitely many causally isolated universes, each as real as our own but different from it in some way, and that alluding to objects in this universe as necessary to explain what makes certain counterfactual statements true but not others, meets with what Lewis calls the "incredulous stare" (Lewis, On the Plurality of Worlds, 2005, pp. 135–137). He defends and elaborates his theory of extreme modal realism, while insisting that there is nothing extreme about it, in On the Plurality of Worlds (1986). Lewis acknowledges that his theory is contrary to common sense, but believes its advantages far outweigh this disadvantage, and that therefore we should not be hesitant to pay this price.

According to Lewis, "actual" is merely an indexical label we give a world when we are in it. Things are necessarily true when they are true in all possible worlds. (Lewis is not the first to speak of possible worlds in this context. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and C.I. Lewis, for example, both speak of possible worlds as a way of thinking about possibility and necessity, and some of David Kaplan's early work is on the counterpart theory. Lewis's original suggestion was that all possible worlds are equally concrete, and the world in which we find ourselves is no realer than any other possible world.)

Criticisms
This theory has faced a number of criticisms. In particular, it is not clear how we could know what goes on in other worlds. After all, they are causally disconnected from ours; we can't look into them to see what is going on there. A related objection is that, while people are concerned with what they could have done, they are not concerned with what people in other worlds, no matter how similar to them, do. As Saul Kripke once put it, a presidential candidate could not care less whether someone else, in another world, wins an election, but does care whether he himself could have won it (Kripke 1980, p. 45).

Another criticism of the realist approach to possible worlds is that it has an inflated ontology—by extending the property of concreteness to more than the singular actual world it multiplies theoretical entities beyond what should be necessary to its explanatory aims, thereby violating the principle of parsimony, Occam's razor. But the opposite position could be taken on the view that the modal realist reduces the categories of possible worlds by eliminating the special case of the actual world as the exception to possible worlds as simple abstractions.

Possible worlds are employed in the work of Kripke and many others, but not in the concrete sense Lewis propounded. While none of these alternative approaches has found anything near universal acceptance, very few philosophers accept Lewis's brand of modal realism.

Influence
At Princeton, Lewis was a mentor of young philosophers and trained dozens of successful figures in the field, including several current Princeton faculty members, as well as people now teaching at a number of the leading philosophy departments in the U.S. Among his prominent students were Robert Brandom, L. A. Paul, J. David Velleman, Peter Railton, Phillip Bricker, Cian Dorr, and Joshua Greene. His direct and indirect influence is evident in the work of many prominent philosophers of the current generation.

Later life and death

Lewis suffered from severe diabetes for much of his life, which eventually grew worse and led to kidney failure. In July 2000 he received a kidney transplant from his wife Stephanie. The transplant allowed him to work and travel for another year, before he died suddenly and unexpectedly from further complications of his diabetes, on October 14, 2001.

Since his death a number of posthumous papers have been published, on topics ranging from truth and causation to philosophy of physics. Lewisian Themes, a collection of papers on his philosophy, was published in 2004. A two-volume collection of his correspondence, Philosophical Letters of David K. Lewis, was published in 2020. A 2015 poll of philosophers conducted by Brian Leiter ranked Lewis the fourth most important Anglophone philosopher active between 1945 and 2000, behind only Quine, Kripke, and Rawls.

Works

Books
Convention: A Philosophical Study, Harvard University Press 1969.
Counterfactuals, Harvard University Press 1973; revised printing Blackwell 1986.
On the Plurality of Worlds, Blackwell 1986.
Parts of Classes, Blackwell 1991.

Lewis published five volumes containing 99 papers—almost all the papers he published in his lifetime. They discuss his counterfactual theory of causation, the concept of semantic score, a contextualist analysis of knowledge, and a dispositional value theory, among many other topics.
Philosophical Papers, Vol. I (1983) includes his early work on counterpart theory and the philosophy of language and of mind.
Philosophical Papers, Vol. II (1986) includes his work on counterfactuals, causation, and decision theory, where he promotes his principal principle about rational belief. Its preface discusses Humean supervenience, the name Lewis gave to his overarching philosophical project.
Papers in Philosophical Logic (1998).
Papers in Metaphysics and Epistemology (1999) contains "Elusive Knowledge" and "Naming the Colours", honored by being reprinted in the Philosopher's Annual for the year they were first published.
Papers in Ethics and Social Philosophy (2000).

Lewis's monograph Parts of Classes (1991), on the foundations of mathematics, sketched a reduction of set theory and Peano arithmetic to mereology and plural quantification. Very soon after its publication, Lewis became dissatisfied with some aspects of its argument; it is currently out of print (his paper "Mathematics is megethology", in Papers in Philosophical Logic, is partly a summary and partly a revision of "Parts of Classes").

Selected papers
 "Counterpart Theory and Quantified Modal Logic", Journal of Philosophy 65 (1968): pp. 113–126.
 "General semantics",  Synthese, 22(1) (1970): pp. 18–67.
 "Causation", Journal of Philosophy 70 (1973): pp. 556–67. Reprinted with postscripts in Philosophical Papers: Volume II (1986).
 "Semantic Analyses for Dyadic Deontic Logic" in Logical Theory and Semantic Analysis: Essays Dedicated to Stig Kanger on His Fiftieth Birthday, Reidel 1974.
 "The Paradoxes of Time Travel", American Philosophical Quarterly, April (1976): pp.  145–152.
 "Truth in Fiction", American Philosophical Quarterly 15 (1978): pp. 37–46.
 "How to Define Theoretical Terms", Journal of Philosophy 67 (1979): pp. 427–46.
 "Scorekeeping in a Language Game", Journal of Philosophical Logic 8 (1979): pp. 339–59.
 "Mad pain and Martian pain", Readings in the Philosophy of Psychology Vol. I. N. Block, ed. Harvard University Press (1980): pp. 216–222.
 "A Subjectivist's Guide to Objective Chance", in R. Jeffrey, ed., Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability: Volume II. Reprinted with postscripts in Philosophical Papers: Volume II (1986).
 "Are We Free to Break the Laws?" Theoria 47 (1981): pp. 113–21.
 "New Work for a Theory of Universals", Australasian Journal of Philosophy 61 (1983): pp. 343–77.
 "What Experience Teaches", in Mind and Cognition by William G. Lycan, (1990 Ed.) pp. 499–519. Article omitted from subsequent editions.
 "Elusive Knowledge", Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 74/4 (1996): pp. 549–567.

See also

 American philosophy
 Bayesian epistemology
 List of American philosophers
 Canberra Plan
 Causal model
 Conversational scoreboard
 Counterfactuals
 Extended modal realism
 Formal semantics (natural language)

 Lewis's triviality result
 Modal realism
 Possible world

References

Further reading

Nolan, Daniel Patrick (2005). David Lewis. Chesham [U.K.]: Acumen.
Loewer, Barry; Schaffer, Jonathan, eds. (2015). A Companion to David Lewis. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

External links

Photos from the weekend of the memorial service for David Lewis in Princeton, February 2002

1941 births
2001 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American philosophers
American logicians
American male non-fiction writers
American metaphysics writers
Analytic philosophers
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
Epistemologists
Harvard University alumni
Kidney transplant recipients
Metaphysicians
Philosophers of language
Philosophers of logic
Philosophers of mind
Princeton University faculty
Swarthmore College alumni
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers

David Lewis (philosopher)


Present Italian car number plates have black characters on a rectangular white background, with small blue side-fields as with European vehicle registration plates. The numbering scheme in use from 1994 is unrelated to the geographical provenance of the car. By law, Italian plates can only be made by the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, and are issued by local departments of the Italian Social Department.

History

1897–1901
The very first Italian plates had to have the owner's name and the local communal number visible.

1901–1905
These early Italian number plates gave the unabbreviated name of the place of origin, followed by a number, as GENOVA 83 and PADOVA 2. These were first plates to be made of metal and had to be manufactured by the car's owner. Today, only two plates of this time remain, GENOVA 83 and PADOVA 2, conserved in museums.

Schematic representation

1905–1927
Plates in this period were black-on-white. The registration number was a numeric code (in red), different for each province, and a progressive number on a single line, unique for that province (in black). E.g.  – 2993, where 63 is the code for Turin. Motorcycles had square plates.

A front plate was optional.

Schematic representation

1927–1976

In 1927, Benito Mussolini changed the number plates from white background with black digits, to black background with white digits and introduced the two letter provincial code for all provinces (except for Rome  that was allowed to have the full name on the number plate) instead of the number system used until 1927.

From 1927 to 1932, the progressive code was found before the provincial code on a single line. Then, the progressive code was moved before the provincial code in front plates and after it in rear plates.
Although Rome had the full name displayed on the number plates, in documents for practical purposes it uses the unofficial code RM.

From 1932 to 1951, rear plates were squares 32.0 x 20.0 cm large and used a slightly altered Garamond font. Rear plates had the Fasces emblem next to the provincial from 1928 to 1944. After Mussolini's fall, from 1944 to 1948, the Association of War Maimed and Disabled printed the number plates and their symbol appeared instead of the Fasces.
In 1948 the Constitution of the Italian Republic was approved, so the Republic emblem appeared on the number plate on both rear and front plates but the format and font were kept from the previous period.

From 1951 to 1976, rear plates size was reduced to a square 27.5 × 20 cm large, and front plates was 26.2 × 5.7 cm, the front plates' design was also changed to have more linear characters and the Republic emblem was made smaller.
Note that single line rear registration plates (similar to the ones used by other European countries) were not available until 1976. The registration number was the provincial code, which is a two-letter code (exception: Rome's code is Roma), and a progressive code, unique for that province, up to 6 characters long. Between the provincial code and the first two digits was the Italian Republic emblem (a garland surrounding a five-pointed star with the letters "RI" in the middle of the star).

The progressive code for the first 999999 cars of the provinces was just a progressive number, not filled with initial zeroes; in the rear plate the last four digits were in the second row and the first ones (when present) in the first row.
For cars from 1000000, it was A00000-A99999, B00000-B99999 etc. Possible letters were, in this order, A B D E F G H K L M N P R S T U V Z X Y W. After that, it was 00000A-99999A, 00000D-99999D etc. Possible letters were, in this order, A D E F G H L M N P R S T V W X Y Z; then, the letter was moved to the second position, and then to third (same range as in second position).

Schematic representation

Front plate

1927–1932 rear plate

1976–1985

The front plate was kept intact as in the 1927-1976 period. The rear plate, instead, began to be manufactured in two pieces.
One, sized 10,7 × 33 cm, had black background with white digits, contained the progressive number and, in a very small font, the repetition of provincial code above and the Republic emblem.
The other had black background with orange letters and contained the official provincial code and had two variants.  One was 10,7 × 33 cm large, the other one was 10,7 × 20 cm large. Only one of the latter two was used depending on the type of plate holder that the plate was destined for: for a rectangular plate holder, the small provincial code piece was installed left of the progressive code, put together with rivets in specifically designed holes in the progressive code
For cars that were designed with the previous number plate holder (Square), or too small for a rectangular plate, the long provincial code piece was installed above the progressive code.
This change resolved the plate positioning problem on cars of foreign production, eventually the rectangular European system was preferred over the squared plate holder of Italian designed cars.

Schematic representations

1985–1994

In 1985, plates began to use black digits on white reflective background. Rear plates remained identical as in the 1976-1985 period. Front plates became larger (32.5 × 10.7 cm) but remained slightly smaller than rear plates.
The progressive code was moved after the provincial code, as it was already for rear plates.

The reflective background had an official code that appears on the background in small letters, PGS B1 or PGS A1.

(PGS means "Provveditorato Generale dello Stato" and A or B is the city where the reflective was made and 1-2 means white or yellow reflective)

This new system made so that provinces with less than 6 digits had to have a 0 in place of the missing digits  (LC 004239).

The highest combination reached with the 1927 system was MI 01D000 for the province of Milan in 28/02/1994, the same day plates using the new system started to be issued.

In 1994, the provinces that were instituted in 1992 (Lecco, Verbania, Vibo-Valentia, Lodi) were allowed to choose to issue either the old 1927 system plates (PP NNNNNN) or the 1994 standard (LL NNN LL), up to 12.000 plates until 1999.

Rear plate (rectangular)

Front plate

Rear plate (squared)

1994–present

From 28 February 1994, an entirely new numeration system was introduced which omitted any explicit reference to the place of origin. A simple alpha-numeric serial code takes the form AA 999 AA. Here 'A' can be any letter of the Latin alphabet except I, O, Q, U and is treated as a base-22 digit; 9 can be any decimal digit. e.g. AK 514 RH, AX 848 LK, BA 924 NS, etc. The three-digit number changes first, then the letters from right to left. So, first plate is AA 000 AA, followed by AA 001 AA...AA 999 AA, then AA 000 AB to AA 999 AZ, then AA 000 BA to AA 999 ZZ, then AB 000 AA to AZ 999 ZZ, then BA 000 AA to ZZ 999 ZZ.

Rear plates are no more in two pieces. Instead, a square plate can be chosen instead of the ordinary long one for vehicles with a squared plate holder. If the rear plate is square, the numbering scheme starts from ZA 000 AA, and is followed by ZA 001 AA...ZA 999 AA, then ZA 000 AB to ZA 999 AZ, then ZA 000 BA to ZA 999 ZZ, then ZB 000 AA to ZZ 999 ZZ.

In 1999, the plates were redesigned, starting from the serial number BB 000HH. The digits are thicker. The last decimal digit is now very close to the third letter. The standard European blue band has been added on the left side, with the European flag motif (12 yellow stars) and the country code I. Another blue band was added, on the right side, bearing a yellow circle with the year of registration (optional).

The two-letter provincial code is optionally present on the right band in capital letters. For the capital city of Rome, the word Roma replaces the two-digit provincial code.
Provincial codes are in capital letters except for three cases, where the second letter is expressed in small caps for the provincial codes of the autonomous provinces of Bolzano/Bozen (Bz) and Trento (Tn) and the autonomous region Aosta Valley (Ao), that are surmounted by the local coat of arms.

The reintroduction of the provincial code (although no longer as a compulsory element of the plate) was implemented because the 1994 suppression of the two-letter provincial codes proved extremely unpopular. Unlike before, the provincial code is not part of the registration number, which is the same for the whole nation. Despite an initial period of popularity, the right band remains empty in most cases.

Since 2003, the PGS B1 or PGS A1 code has been replaced by the code MEF B1 or MEF A1.

1994–1998 squared rear number plate

Special plates

Motorcycle plates

1994 standard

Motorcycles from 1999 have plates with two letters and five digits, starting from AA 00000. For these vehicles, the province codes are not used to avoid confusion (i.e. the plate after AF 99999 is AH 00000, because AG is the old provincial code for Agrigento). Plate size is .

Like cars, motorcycles have blue two lateral bands, on the left is the EU band with the circle of 12 stars and Italy's international code (I) . On the right, the blue band has a yellow circle with the year of matriculation (00=2000) and underneath, the optional provincial code sticker (Roma= Rome).

From 1994 to 1999, motorcycles didn't have the blue bands, and the first digit was on the right of the first two letters.

Due of the large quantity of old provincial system plates, the 1994 system motorcycles plates started to be distributed from 1996.

1994–1999 motorcycle standard

Former provincial code system (1927–1994)

From 1927 until 1994, motorcycles used to have, like cars, the Provincial Code instead of the two letters on two lines, followed by a maximum of 6 digits

From 1927 to 1932, Motorcycles used to have white digits on a black background and the provincial code was after the digits on the second line, in 1932 (to 1985) the motorcycle plates changed to a white background with blue digits, the provincial code was moved before the digits and like cars, Motorcycles used the Garamond font until 1951.

In 1951, motorcycles, unlike cars, had a font transition that was completed in 1963, when plates started to be made of plastic but keeping the old format.

From 1985 to 1994, motorcycles changed to a white reflective background and black digits and returned to be made of metal

Example of 1932-1985 Motorcycle plate from the province of Milan

1927–1932 motorcycle plate

1985–1994 motorcycle plate

Moped plates

Registration plates of small mopeds were introduced in 1994; before that date Italian mopeds had no plate at all. They were trapezoid-shaped and had a registration system based on a five letter-and-digit combination (treated as a 31-base numeric system), with the first two placed on top and the following three below (such as 47 A23 or K3 561 or 8X 4RF, whereby whole sets of series were assigned locally). In 2006 new moped plates were introduced; new plates have a rectangular shape measuring 12 by 14 cm. The registration shows six characters: the first is always "X" ("Y" for Local Police plates), the other five follows the same scheme as the old system; however the digit 1 and 0 and the letters A, E, I, O, Q and U are not used. Since 2012 old moped plates are no longer valid and have to be replaced by new ones.

The reason for the change was that with the old moped system, the plate could be transferred to another moped and was bound to the owner rather than the vehicle, whereas the new plates are bound to the vehicle.

Trailer plates

Car and truck trailers had two plates: the trailer's own one was quite small and bore the word "RIMORCHIO" (trailer) and a two letters-five digit code, the other had the same size of vehicles' rear plates and bore the same registration of the prime mover with black decal-characters on a retroflective yellow base. From February 2013 new trailer plates were introduced: they use the same pattern of standard vehicle plates, the numeric scheme is XL 000 LL where "L" is a generic letter, "0" is a digit and "X" is the reserved letter. Mover repetition plates are no longer needed on trailers registered with new plates, however they are still compulsory for old trailers with small plates and small unregistered "appendix trailers".

From 1932 to 1959 trailer plates were the same as car plates (white digits on a black background), only with the word "RIMORCHIO" under the numbers, written in italic.

After 1959 to 1985, the trailer plates were like the front vehicles number plates (black background with white digits), with the digits before the provincial code, with the word "RIMORCHIO" above the digits followed by the provincial code.

From 1985 until 1994 the trailer plates were enlarged, had black digits on a white reflective background with the provincial code before the digits and the word "RIMORCHIO" assumed red coloration. Until 1993 they had to be displayed on the right of the trailer.

Trailer plate schematic representation (2013)

1994–2013 trailer plate

1985–1994 trailer plate

1959–1985 trailer plate

1932–1959 Trailer plate

Police plates

Local police forces have the word "POLIZIA LOCALE" (local police) in blue. They have the same pattern as trailer and civilian plates, the scheme is YL 000 LL where "L" is a letter, "0" is a digit and the "Y" is the reserved letter (for motorcycles YL 00000, mopeds Y00 000). Unlike civilian plates they don't show up the code. National police plates have "POLIZIA" in red followed by letter, then numbers (formerly numbers only until 1983). Customs police plates start with prefix "GdiF" in red. The serial letters and three serial numbers are in black.

Pre-1983 National Police rear plate

Pre-1983 front National Police plate

Post-1983 National Police plate

Post-1983 Guardia di Finanza (customs) plate

2009 local police plates

Diplomatic plates

From 1932 to 1951, the diplomatic plates are square 32.0 x 22.0 cm,  white digits on a black background using the Garamond font with the "CD" prefix instead of the province followed by a max of 5 digits, the first two digits was the country's code.

From 1951 to 1976, the diplomatic plates are square 27.5 x 20.0 cm, white digits on black background, changed to a more linear font, but the system was identical from the previous period.

ex: CD 22843

From 1976 to 1985 the diplomatic plates are on a single line, black background with white digits, with the letters "CD" vertically aligned, followed by 5 digits, the first two represented the country, the other three a progressive number.

In 1985 to 1995 the diplomatic plates have white reflective background with black digits, with blue letters and change to a CD 000 AA system, with the letters representing the country.
The Italian Republic emblem appears on top of the first two letters of the plate and on the top right the international white oval with a black letter representing Italy's international code (I)
Diplomatic plates have blue letters since 1985 and have 4 numbers to avoid confusion with the new civilian plates issued since 1994. These have the "CC" (Corpo Consolare), "CD" (Corpo Diplomatico) and four numbers, while "UN" (Nazioni Unite (Permanent)), "UNP" (Nazioni Unite (Specialists)), and "UNT" (Nazioni Unite (Transit)) plates have three. Scheme is CC 0000 AA or UNP 000 AA. The "AA" is a country code (blue) while "0" is a digit. Front and rear plates are identical and both measure 34 by 11 cm.

There are no diplomatic motorcycle plates used.

Military plates

Military plates have the prefixes EI (Esercito Italiano, Army), AM (Aeronautica Militare, Air Force) and MM (Marina Militare, Navy), all of them red, the trailers have the indication "RIMORCHIO". There is a code same as mentioned before, but it is small and it is black. The scheme is EI LL 000. While "EI" is the prefix, "LL" is a letter and "0" is a digit to prevent confusion with civilian plates issued from 1994. Between the letter and number there is a green dot. In 1980 Army plates adopted the 11 by 34 cm size for both front and rear plates, but more recent plates use the 1994-99 civilian plate standard for rear plates. Starting from 2004, historical military vehicles that no longer possess the original plate use instead the scheme EI VS 000, "VS" (Veicolo Storico) is colored green. Until 1995 army plates used an EI 000 AA system and before 1985 used an EI 000000 system with the same dimension of civilian plates (smaller front plate) where certain number ranges were reserved for types of vehicles EX: EI 900000 to EI 999999 were reserved to trailers and EI 400000 to 450000 were reserved for recon vehicles.
However, the pre-1979 numbers only system is still used for armored vehicles and tanks.

Current Army motorcycle plate

Current Army motorcycle plate

Current Army Trailer plates

1979–1995 Army Trailer plates

Pre–1979 Army Trailer plates

Red Cross plates

Have the prefix "CRI" (Croce Rossa Italiana) in red, the style is CRI 000LL (pre-2007 was CRI L000L, motorcycles CRI 00000), while "L" is a letter, and "0" is a number on a white reflective background. Between "CRI" and the other characters there is the Red Cross sign. They use the same style of pre-1999 plates; the final code of two-line plates always starts with the letter "Z".

Trailer plates have the word "RIMORCHIO" above the digits using a CRI 0000 system.

Before 1985 Red Cross plates had a dot after every number and had the same format of civilian plates (smaller front plate)

Until 1985 Red Cross plates were numbers only, after late Seventies ambulances had to have the L000L format, while service cars continued to have numbers only until 2002 where all new Red Cross vehicles had to have the L000L system.

Firefighters

Before 1938, firefighters vehicles used civilian plates

Since 1938 have the prefix "VF" (Vigili del Fuoco) in red . They have the same style and dimension of Port Authority plates, but they don't have text in the bottom section. Firefighters of autonomous regions use special Firefighters plates issued locally. Their schemes were VF 0L0 AA (formerly VF L00 AA), where "AA" at the end can be TN or BZ. Trailers have small red "R" between prefix and numbers.

Port Authority plates
Have the prefix "CP" (Capitaneria di Porto) in red. They have the text "GUARDIA COSTIERA" at the bottom. Those plates are considerably shorter than a standard one (circa 35 by 52mm), front and rear plates have the same size and square rear plates are not available.

Schematic representation

SMOM plates

Uses prefix "SMOM" (Sovrano militare ordine di Malta) in red, followed by two numbers (previously red). They have the text "SMOM" at the bottom. These plates used only by Sovereign Military Order of Malta members (only plate that was circulating on along with its diplomatic plate (code XA), being SMOM is a subject of international law.), and these plates were issued by Ministry of Defence.

Schematic representation

Temporary plates
These plates are used for vehicles temporarily circulating in Italy, but have to be exported, "EE" stands for "Escursionisti Esteri" (Foreign Hikers or temporary plates).

They have the same style of Diplomatic plates, but they start with "EE" (black) instead of "CD". The upper part of the plate has a small space for accommodating expiry date stickers.

From 1932 to 1951, they are square 32.0 x 22.0 cm, white digits on a black background with Garamond font, using an EE 00000 system.

From 1951 to 1976, they are square 27.5 x 20.0 cm, white digits on a black background with different font style and have the EE prefix instead of the province followed by a max of 5 digits ex: EE 10245

From 1976 to 1985, they are on a single line, white digits on a black background and the letters EE are vertically aligned, followed by a max of 5 digits.

From 1985, they are on a single line, black digits on white reflective background with the EE 000 AA system.

Motorcycles had the "EE" on the first line then 4 digits on the second line, white background with blue digits from 1932 to 1985 and have the sticker space above the republic emblem.From 1985 motorcycles have the prefix followed by a letter and a progressive number.

Schematic representation

Temporary series from 1976 to 1985

Temporary series from 1932 to 1976

Temporary motorcycle plates from 1932 to 1985

Temporary motorcycle plates from 1985

Agricultural plates
Agricultural machines have motorcycle-sized plates following the AA-0/00A scheme written in black on yellow.
Agricultural trailers have the text "RIM AGR." in red on the upper part. The style is same as the old trailer plates but background is yellow and the serial is AA-000A. Agricultural trailers have to show both their own plates and a prime mover repetition one.

Agricultural plates from 1994

Agricultural trailer plates from 1994

Agricultural trailer plates from 1985 to 1994

Agricultural trailer plates from 1959 to 1985

Agricultural plates from 1948 to 1985

Agricultural plates from 1985 to 1994

Repeater plate used from 1985 to 1994

Repeater plate from 1994

Road machinery plates

The style of these plates is LL LNNN. They are square, red on yellow background. They were introduced in 1992, until 1994 they used a LL LLNNN System, where the first two letters were the provincial code. Due of the low road machinery plates assigned, provinces had been distributing the old system plates over the course of many years before the new ones appeared.

Road machinery plate from 1992 to 1994

Current road machinery plate

1992–1994 trailed road machinery plate

Current trailed road machinery plate

Civil Defence plates

These plates only exist in autonomous regions, they have the prefix "PC" (Protezione Civile) in red and an alphanumeric serial chosen by local authorities (PC ZS0LL in Bolzano (where ZS stands for Zivilschutz in German), PC L00TN in Trento).
Cars of the national Civil Defence department have special plates bearing the "DPC" (Dipartimento della Protezione Civile) code followed by an alphanumeric serial (DPC L 0000) in Rome, while operative vehicles usually use civil plates. Emergency plates have the text at the top:"DIPARTIMENTO PROTEZIONE CIVILE RICOVERO DI EMERGENZA", then a provincial designator and four numbers.

Carabinieri plates

These plates have the prefix "CC" (Corpo di Carabinieri) in red from 2000 when the Carabinieri became an independent corp. The style is CC LL 000 where "CC" is a prefix, "LL" is a letter, and "0" is a digit. Motorcycles use a CC A0000 system.

Until 2000 "CC" plates didn't exist and used the Army (EI) plates and the first CC plates (which were re-adapted EI plates) had a CC separate piece put over the first part to cover up the "EI" code

Schematic representation

Motorcycle plate

Trolleybus plates
These plates' format is the two-letter provincial code, followed by the operator's logo and number (normally 3 digits). They use white digits on a blue background, and their size is 320 x 115 mm. Until the 1950s they were circulated along with normal car plates.

Test Plates
Testing plates have a square (16.5 by 16.5 cm) size and follows the format XX p X/XXXX (where "X" could be a letter or a digit ) arranged in two lines since 2003. They are the only kind of Italian plates whose code could be chosen by the owner.

These plates have a  "P" instead of the republic emblem that means Prova (Test)

These plates are usually used from car dealers to test the cars on the public road, for cars that don't have an insurance or don't have a regular number plate available. They can be transferred on other cars

From 1951 to 1976, testing plates used to be square, black background with white digits, in middle the word "PROVA" was written in red, followed by the provincial code, the official emblem and a progressive number.

From 1976 to 1985, these plates used to have black background with white digits on a single line, with the provincial code followed by a progressive number and the word "PROVA" vertically aligned by 90° degrees.

Until 1994, Test plates used to have the provincial code instead of the first two digits, followed by a random combination of letters and numbers. From 1994 to 2003, the plates used to be on a single line with two letters followed by the random digits.

Current Prova plate

1985–1994 Prova plate

Test series from 1948 to 1976

Test series from 1976 to 1985

Province codes

Province codes 1927 to present day

These abbreviations for the names of provinces are extensively used in contexts other than vehicle registration. For example, "Trino (VC)", to indicate a place called Trino in the province of Vercelli, could appear on letterheaded paper or in a postal address or in a guide book and very often on business cards and trade signs. The abbreviations even count as valid words in crosswords and in Scarabeo, the Italian version of the board game Scrabble. Sometimes, the code RM is used instead of Roma for the province of Rome, in postal addresses or documents.

Province codes 1905 to 1927

Defunct province codes (post-1927)

Statistics
Based on the data available in the Automobile Club d'Italia's database updated to the year 2017, the 44% of the vehicles immatriculated in Italy was powered by petrol, the 47% by diesel, and only a 9% was powered by a hybrid or bi-fuelled engine alimentation. Vehicles belonging to the emission classes from Euro 0 to Euro2 had a prevalence of petroil alimentation, while diesel engines were increasingly diffused in the Euro3 and Euro4 emission classes.

Diplomatic codes
 codes are not currently used. Q and U cannot be used in consular corps plates, as such they are Bold Italic.

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References

External links
 Plates in Rome provides detailed coverage of Italian number plates from 1903 onwards.
 License Plates of Italy Photos of Italy license plates and vehicles

Italy
Italy transport-related lists
Car number
 Registration plates

Vehicle registration plates of Italy


Tomás Manuel de Anchorena (29 November 1783 – 29 April 1847) was an Argentine statesman and lawyer. He was a representative to the Congress of Tucumán which on 9 July 1816 declared the Independence of Argentina.

Anchorena was born in Buenos Aires and studied at the Real Colegio de San Carlos, graduating as doctor in law at the University of Charcas around 1807. Upon his return he participated in the Buenos Aires Cabildo of 1810 and supported the revolutionary cause.

Anchorena served as secretary to General Manuel Belgrano and in 1815 he was elected by city of Buenos Aires to the Tucumán Congress, highly involved and present in 1816 for the declaration. He was active in the politics of Buenos Aires Province and served as government minister for foreign relations during the first term of Juan Manuel de Rosas.

References
 Profile by the House of Tucumán

1783 births
1847 deaths
Anchorena family
Members of the Congress of Tucumán
19th-century Argentine lawyers
Lawyers from Buenos Aires
Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery
University of Charcas alumni

Tomás de Anchorena


Emmanuel Garcia (born March 4, 1986 in Montreal, Quebec) is a Canadian former baseball player. He played six years in the minor leagues through 2010, and represented Canada at the Baseball World Cup and the Summer Olympics.

Career
Garcia signed as a free agent on September 2004, with the New York Mets . He signed as an infielder. He played in 2005 with the GCL Mets and surprised the league by hitting .339/.412/.409 with 17 steals in 18 tries and 43 runs in 45 games. He led the Gulf Coast League in runs, on-base percentage and hits (63, tied with Eduardo Pérez). He was third in the GCL in average behind Perez and Francisco Guzman, two points ahead of Matt Kutler. He was second to José Tábata in steals. Garcia was the GCL All-Star shortstop. Baseball America named him the #20 prospect in the GCL.

In 2006, Garcia played for the Kingsport Mets (.291/.373/.379, 19 SB in 25 attempts) and the Brooklyn Cyclones (.240/.316/.240 in 13 games). He led Appalachian League shortstops with 167 assists and was third in the Appy League in steals. He made the All-Star team as a utility man. Baseball America rated him the #11 prospect in the league.

The Montréal native batted .256/.339/.301 for the 2007 St. Lucie Mets in his first pro struggles. He stole 37 bases in 47 tries and split time between second base and shortstop. In the 2007 Baseball World Cup, Garcia started at shortstop for Canada ahead of former major leaguer Kevin Nicholson and responded very well by hitting .375/.524/.500. One problem was defense as he made four errors in five games, fielding .867. He spent the rest of the winter with the Waikiki BeachBoys, batting .348/.427/.485 with 8 steals in 9 tries.

Garcia's last year of professional baseball was in 2010 where he split time between the  St. Lucie Mets and the  Buffalo Bisons.

Beijing Olympics
Garcia played for Canada in the 2008 Final Olympic Qualification Tournament and was their shortstop as they finished first, earning a spot in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Garcia struggled at the plate in the field and at the plate in the qualifiers, hitting .240/.321/.240. He scored the winning run in their 10-inning victory over the German national team, reaching via error and coming home on a bases-loaded walk by Emerson Frostad.

Garcia was a late addition to Canada for the 2008 Olympics, replacing Pete Orr after Orr was called up to the majors. He hit .190/.292/.286 as Canada's starting shortstop, fielding .875. He contributed a RBI triple in a 5-4 loss to the Team USA.

Cancer
On June 2, 2010 The New York Mets sent an official letter from Major League Baseball informing Garcia he tested positive for high levels of human chorionic gonadotropin, which is illicitly used after an anabolic steroid cycle to jump-start the body's production of testosterone. Garcia's 50-game suspension would be announced unless he appealed. Garcia was diagnosed with testicular cancer seminoma (also known as pure seminoma or classical seminoma) which caused Garcia's test to be positive. He underwent surgery on June 23, 2010 at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center removing his right testicle. Beginning August 15, Garcia underwent daily radiotherapy treatments in Port St. Lucie for 30 days. Garcia is cancer-free as of March 16, 2011.

References
 Sources: 2007 Mets Media Guide, 2006–2008 Baseball Almanacs, MILB.com, IBAF site, Hawaii Winter Baseball
 Retrieved from "https://www.baseball-reference.com/bullpen/Emmanuel_Garcia"

1986 births
Baseball players from Montreal
Canadian expatriate baseball players in the United States
Living people
Gulf Coast Mets players
St. Lucie Mets players
Kingsport Mets players
Brooklyn Cyclones players
Waikiki Beach Boys players
Binghamton Mets players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players

Emmanuel Garcia


Chaim Zhitlowsky (Yiddish: חײם זשיטלאָװסקי; ) (April 19, 1865 – May 6, 1943) was a Jewish socialist, philosopher, social and political thinker, writer and literary critic born in Ushachy, Vitebsk Governorate, Russian Empire (present-day Usachy Raion, Vitebsk Region, Belarus).

He was a founding member of the Union of Russian Socialist Revolutionaries; a founding member and theoretician of the Socialist Revolutionary Party in Russia, and a key promoter of Yiddishism and Jewish Diaspora nationalism, which influenced the Jewish territorialist and nationalist movements. He was an advocate of Yiddish language,
culture and was a vice-president of the Czernowitz Yiddish Language Conference of 1908, which declared Yiddish to be "a national language of the Jewish people."

Biography

Early years
Chaim Zhitlowsky was born in 1865, in the small town of Ushachy, in the province of Vitebsk Governorate, the Russian Empire. When he was five years old, his parents moved to the capital of the province, Vitebsk. On his mother's side, he was descended from artisans and merchants, and on his father's, came from an aristocratic and well-educated family. His father, Joseph, studied to be a rabbi in the Yeshiva of Volozhin, but chose to become a merchant. Though an ardent Lubavich Chassid he was well versed in Haskalah (enlightenment) literature and reportedly often recited satiric Haskalah tales and poems in Yiddish and Hebrew at family gatherings.

Joseph Zhitlowsky's business prospered. He moved to a richer, more exclusive section of the city and kept an open house. A tutor of the Russian language was engaged for Chaim, but he continued his elementary religious studies at a kheyder. Soon Chaim became friendly with high school students of his neighbourhood and began to read Russian literature. During this period he made his first foray into literature: translating the Yiddish version of Uncle Tom's Cabin into Hebrew.

On his 13th birthday (his bar-mitzvah) Chaim made the acquaintance of Shloyme Rappaport, who was later to become S. Ansky, the famous author of The Dybuk. A warm, lifelong friendship developed between Zhitlowsky and Ansky, who had writing in common. For a short time they issued a handwritten (holographic) magazine called Vitebsk Bells.

Early activity
On entering the third grade of the Russian Gymnasium in 1879, Zhitlowsky came into contact with revolutionary circles, and, for a time, was estranged from Yiddish and other matters of Jewish interest, advocating for assimilation into Russian culture. He rethought his positions, however, by the pogroms of the early 1880s, which dissipated his cosmopolitan interests. He left the gymnasium, and went to Tula in 1881, and there was engaged in spreading Socialist Revolutionary propaganda. Shocked by the view of some members of that party who believed that pogroms were a step toward the liberation of the Russian people, he left the party. He turned, instead, to advocating for Jewish equality, and aligned with beliefs in the Diaspora Nationalist movement. When he returned to Vitebsk he became involved in the then rising Zionist movement. He was inspired by the vision of the Jewish colonies and a Jewish peasantry, but the religious character of that Zionism did not appeal to him. He sought to publish a magazine to propagandize "his idea"—a synthesis of Jewish nationalism and socialism. At first, his father was willing to finance this enterprise, but was talked out of it by an ardent Zionist friend.

In 1885, Zhitlowsky tried to found a Jewish section of the illegal Narodnya Volya party, but those in the central committee of the Narodnya Volya who believed in cosmopolitanism and assimilation defeated the Zhitlowsky project. This was a severe blow for the young Jewish revolutionary. His grandfather consoled him, pointing out the revolutionary character of the prophets, and of the great Jewish intellects of the later times. This quickened Zhitlowsky's interest in Jewish history. He soon established contact with a St. Petersburg group of the Narodnaya Volya.

His first work, a treatise in Russian entitled Thought of the Historical Fate of the Jewish People was published in Moscow in 1887 when he was twenty-two. (Shortly before that he had been banished by the police from St. Petersburg). The liberal Russian press enthusiastically greeted and responded warmly to his ideas, but was met with scant favour among Jewish critics, because it contained no solution to the problems it treated. Several suspected him of being a Christian missionary.

Zhitlowsky returned to Vitebsk for a short time, from there he went to Galicia, where it was much easier to preach Socialist doctrines among the Jewish masses. He became acquainted with a group of Jewish revolutionists from Zurich, who were engaged in disseminating radical literature in Yiddish.

He went to Berlin in 1888 and resumed his study of Jewish history, Marxism and philosophy. He was expelled from Germany under the anti-Socialist law, and moved to Zurich. He immediately became active, founding the non-partisan "Verein für Wissenschaft und Leben des Jüdischen Volkes," (Association for Science and Life of the Jewish People) for the purpose of inculcating nationalism and socialism among the Jewish masses. He engaged in debates between the orthodox and the adherents of the Narodnaya Volya. The latter evolved into the Social Revolutionary Party. He moved to Bern to study, earning his doctorate in 1892. Here, too, he founded an organization similar to the one in Zurich.

When famine broke out in Russia in 1891, he and Charles Rappaport founded a non-partisan organization to help the afflicted. The work was unsuccessful due to political differences between members.

The London newspaper Freie Welt (Free World) published his translation of two revolutionary poems. In 1892, The London Fund for Revolutionary Publication printed his Russian tract A Jew to Jews (Еврей к евреям), under the pseudonym of I. Khisin. In his first socialist pamphlet on a Jewish theme, he demanded national as well as civil equality for Jews, articulating his ideas on Judaism in Europe. He was also active in an organization which combated the "Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals," which caused controversy and was deemed anti-Semitic for calling Shechita (kosher slaughter of animals) animal cruelty.

Toward the latter part of 1893, Zhitlowsky, now a Ph.D., aided by Shloyme Rappaport, M. Rosenbaum and several other Russian radicals, founded the Federation of Russian Socialist Revolutionaries Abroad from which later developed the Socialist Revolutionary Party. The group opposed dogmatic Marxism. The newspaper The Russian Worker, appearing under Zhitlowsky's and Rappaport's editorship, spread propaganda among the masses. In 1898 the Verband published Zhitlowsky's theoretical work, Socialism and the Fight for Political Freedom, written under the pen name Gregorovich. In this work, he tried to synthesize the three principal currents of the Russian revolutionary movement. From time to time, he contributed to several well-known Russian magazines, such as Russkoye Bogastvo (Russian Wealth); articles on Marxism and philosophy in the Jewish—Russian Voskhod; and contributed also to Sozialistische Monatshefte (Socialist Monthly) and Deutsche Worte (German Words).

In 1896, he organized the Group of Jewish Socialists Abroad, the purpose of which was to prepare revolutionary propaganda literature in Yiddish, with the Communist Manifesto as a beginning. For this revolutionary library, Zhitlowsky wrote an introduction entitled Yiddish—Why?. The Bund which published the booklet thought that Zhitlowsky's introduction was not sufficiently revolutionary and too nationalistic, because the author expressed the belief that the rebirth of the Yiddish language and literature would lead to the national and social awakening of the Jewish people. {{Citation needed|reason=lack of citations for last 2 paragraphs date=November 14 2022}}

Zhitlowsky attended the First Zionist Congress meeting at Basel in 1897. He was against founding a Zionist party, and believed in the necessity for a League for Jewish Colonization, a league that would appeal to all those opposed to Herzel's political Zionism. A day after the Congress, Zhitlowsky addressed the delegates and guests on Yiddish and the purposes of the Yiddish publishing house Zeit Geist, which had been founded by a group of Jewish intellectuals and revolutionaries. In this speech were first laid the foundations of Yiddishism, which subsequently became deeply rooted in Eastern Europe and America. He came into close relations with the Bund which published his pamphlet Zionism or Socialism? in 1898.

In 1900, Zhitlowsky and John Edelheim founded the Deutscher Academischer Soziale Wissenschafte (German Academy of Social Science). They also took over the magazine Sozialistische Monatshefte (Socialist Monthly).

He toured important European centres, making connections with revolutionary leaders of England, France, and Germany. The Deutscher Academischer Varlag existed several years. It was often attacked by orthodox Marxists because of the "revisionist" works published by him.

Territorialism
After the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 Zhitlowsky turned toward the territorialistic movement. He conceived the idea of a Jewish Sejm (parliament). At his initiative a group of radical nationalists and Zionists organized the Jewish Socialist Workers Party (commonly called the Sejmist party). In 1904, Zhitlowsky served as delegate at the International Socialist Congress in Amsterdam, and his fight that the Socialist Revolutionary Party should have a representative in the International Socialist Bureau ended victoriously.

When the first Yiddish daily in Russia, the St. Petersburg Frajnd, was founded, Zhitlowsky, under the pen name N. Gaydaroff, contributed a series of articles entitled The Jewish People and the Yiddish Language.

In 1904 Zhitlowsky and "Babushka" (Granny) Breshkovskaya were sent by the Socialist Revolutionary Party to America to collect funds for the party and carry on a propaganda of its ideas.

With the Party's permission, he gave lectures on various Jewish matters during his stay in America. At that time the Jewish radical intelligentsia in America was under the influence of socialist cosmopolitanism, which did not engage sympathetically with Jewish national problems, or the Yiddish language and culture. When Zhitlowsky in a series of lectures pointed out that there was no contradiction between progressive nationalism and the socialist ideal, he encountered strong opposition. Very soon, however, many of his erstwhile opponents turned into his most ardent partisans.

After a two-year sojourn in America, he returned to Europe. He spent some time in Galicia and then went to Russia, where his native province, Vitebsk, nominated him for Duma elections of 1906. The government refused to allow him to take his seat when elected. The reversal of this decision by the Senate came too late, for the Tsar had dissolved the Duma after only 73 days of session.

Zhitlowsky spent 1907 in Finland. With the aid of Gregory Gershuni, he engaged in a strong Socialist Revolutionary propaganda. He called a congress of socialist factions which leaned more closely to the Socialist Revolutionary ideology. This congress adopted several of his resolutions which increased the influence of the Sejmists (Parliamentarians). The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Sejmists sent him as their delegate to the International Socialist Congress at Stuttgart that year. Here he fought for the rights of these two parties in the International Socialist Bureau.

In 1908 he was sent to America by the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Sejmists, settling in New York. With the help of the following he had attracted among the radical Jewish intellectuals during his previous visit, Zhitlowsky founded a publishing house that issued a new monthly, Dos Naye Leben (The New Life). Under his editorship, the journal exercised great influence on Yiddish culture, including the development of free socialist thought, and became an organ of modern Yiddish literature; for the six years it existed (until 1914), Dos Naye Leben was a spiritual home of many Jewish publicists and scientists.

Zhitlowsky returned to Europe in 1908, where he participated in the Czernowitz Yiddish Language Conference. Under the leadership of its originators, Zhitlowsky, J. L. Perez and Nathan Birnbaum, the Conference for the first time declared Yiddish to be "a national language of the Jewish people." He returned to the United States after the conference to continue his activities in organizing secular Yiddish education.

Yiddish education
In 1909 Zhitlowsky raised (in his magazine Dos Naye Leben) the question of founding Yiddish secular schools in America.

In 1910 at the Convention of the Poale Zion Party in Montreal, Canada, that matter was placed by him on the order of the day, and there and then the inauguration of this type of school was proclaimed. The first Folkshul (people's school) in New York City was opened on 10 December 1910 at 143 Madison St., and Zhitlowsky took an active part in the growth of the school.

His influence was also very considerable in the creation, some years later, of the Jewish secular schools of the Workmen's Circle, despite the opposition of Abe Cahan, editor of The Jewish Daily Forward who advocated assimilation of Jewish workers into the general working class.

Later years
In 1912, thousands of Zhitlowsky's followers celebrated the 25th anniversary of his literary activity. Four volumes of his collected works, shortly followed by two others, were published in connection with this anniversary.

In 1913 publication of Dos Naye Leben ceased, and Zhitlowsky made a lecture tour of Jewish student colonies of the important academic centers in France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. He also visited Palestine in order to study the possibilities of widespread Jewish colonization there.

He returned to America at the outbreak of the World War I. Until then he had been a contributor to the Warheit (Truth), edited by L. A. Miller. He now joined the staff of the newly organized Day. He advocated for America's neutrality, and battled against the pro-German feelings of the man in the street and of the Yiddish press.

Zhitlowsky also joined the movement for a Jewish congress and when it was convened he played an important part in its deliberations. At the same time, he continued his tracts on philosophy and sociology in the Yiddish magazine Zukunft (Future).

In 1920, publication commenced of Die Zeit (The Times), a daily of the Poale Zion party, a party that Zhitlowsky had joined a few years before, and he became one of its major contributors. When the publication ceased in 1921, Zhitlowsky became a contributor of Der Tog (The Day).

In 1922, Zhitlowsky and Shmuel Niger renewed the publication of Dos Naye Leben. Its point of view remained unaltered. In 1923, when the magazine was discontinued, Zhitlowsky returned to Europe to complete The Spiritual Struggle of the Jewish People for Freedom. He visited Palestine and toured the Jewish centers in Poland, Lithuania, and Latvia between 1924 and 1925.

On 28 November 1925, Zhitlowsky's 60th birthday was celebrated at the Manhattan Opera House in New York. Similar celebrations were held in other American and European cities visited by Zhitlowsky. A Zhitlowsky memorial volume was published in Berlin containing articles and reminiscences of his intimate friends and disciples. At Zhitlowsky's suggestion, the proceeds from the book were given to the Yiddish Scientific Institute (YIVO) of Vilno, which Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, as well as Zhitlowsky, were members of its Honorary Board of Directors.

Through his and S. Ellsberg's initiative, the Yiddish Culture Society was founded in September 1929. The purpose of the organization was to unite all adherents of Yiddish to enable them to work in common for the development of Yiddish, the Yiddish school, and Yiddish culture in general. He was also one of the editors of the weekly Yiddish, issued by the Yiddish Culture Society.

When the Jewish-American Congress decided to resume activity on a democratic basis, Zhitlowsky at once engaged in its labours. He was one of the leaders of the Worker's Bloc, and supported the calling of a Jewish World Congress.

From 1936 until his death in 1943, he aligned with radical, pro-Soviet areas of the Jewish community such as the IWO (International Workers Order), the IKUF (Yidisher Kultur Farband -Yiddish Culture Society), and the ICOR (Association for Jewish Colonization in Soviet Union).

Other writings of Zhitlowsky include:
 Philosophy (published in 1910), the first Yiddish book to deal with the development of philosophic thought;
 a Yiddish translation of Friedrich Nietzsche's Also Sprach Zarathustra;
 an essay on Einstein's Theory of Relativity (published in Warsaw in 1930);
 two lectures on Science, Philosophy and Religion (published in 1931).

Death
Zhitlowsky died in Calgary, Canada, on May 6, 1943 while visiting on a lecture circuit. His funeral was held at the Manhattan Center on 34th Street in New York, NY.

Key achievements
In his monograph, Zhitlowsky; His Life and Work, Shmuel Niger made the following summary of Zhitlowsky's achievements:

In the world of universal ideas:
 Fought against dogmatism in philosophy in general, and in the philosophy of Dialectic Materialism, in particular.
 Strove to unite all elements of labor, factory workers, peasants, intellectual workers—in the struggle for socialism.
 Fought for the principles of autonomy and federalism as against centralization in the State.
 Theoretic and practical propaganda of Socialist Revolutionary ideas.

In the Jewish world:
 Fought for the secularization and separation of nationality from religion.
 Fought for progressive national culture, against assimilation and narrow nationalism.
 Theoretic proof of Galuth-nationalism.
 Synthesis of nationalism arid socialism, of Galuth-nationalism and territorialism.
 Influenced the programs of the Jewish nationalist parties.
 Interested radical Jewish intelligentsia in Yiddish cultural life and work.
 Helped to clarify and crystallize the Yiddish radical movement in America.
 Enriched Yiddish language and oratory. Propagated the idea of the new secular Yiddish school.
 Pioneer work in the field of scientific and philosophical literature in Yiddish.

This is a short summary of over a half of century of scientific, literary, journalistic work, and activity as a lecturer and publisher, all in the spirit of socialism and progressive nationalism among the Jewish masses in America and abroad.

Other information
In Yidn un Yiddishkayt (Jews and Jewishness, 1924), he sought to define the secular essence of Yiddishkeit, this time by calling forth the notions of racial contemporary theories.

Selected publications
 Gedanken über die geschichtlichen Schicksale der Juden, 1887 (in Russian)
 Der Traum fun a Lediggeher, London 1891
 Sozialismus und Kämpfe für politische Freiheit, 1898
 Das jüdische Volk und die jüdische Sprache, 1903
 Der Sozialismus und die nationale Frage, 1907 (in Yiddish)
 Die Philosophie, was sie ist und wie sie sich entwickelt hat, 2 vols. New York 1910, in Yiddish, 2. Aufl. 1920

Sources
"Zionism or Socialism" By Chaim Zhitlovsky.
"Our Language Question" By Chaim Zhitlovsky
"The Future of Our Youth In This Country and Assimilation" (English Translation) By Chaim Zhitlovsky.
"Kant's Critical Philosophy" excerpt from "Philosophy" By Chaim Zhitlovsky.
"Hobbes and Locke" excerpt from "Philosophy" by Chaim Zhitlovsky.
"Plato and Aristotle" excerpt from "Philosophy" by Chiam Zhitlovsky
"A Short Biography of His Life and Works"
"The Assimilation" By Chaim Zhitlovsky

References

Bibliography

 Melech Epstein, Profiles of Eleven. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1965.
 Zhitlowsky, Chaim, Collected Works. 1912 Gezamelte Shriften / Hayim Zshitlovski. Yubileum Oysgabe, V 1–4 Edition. New York: c1912-1919. 10 v, 21 cm. / 1641 (v. 1–10).
 Kogel, Renee and Katz, Zev, eds. Judaism in a Secular Age, Intl. Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, 1995., pp. 90–95 (excerpts from his essays "Death and Rebirth of Gods and Religion," "The National Poetic Rebirth of the Jewish People").
 Max Rosenfeld in Jewish Currents Reader, Jewish Currents, Inc. 1996, "Zhitlovsky: Philosopher of Jewish Secularism (essay)."
 Lucy S. Dawidowicz, ed. The Golden Tradition, Beacon Press, 1967, pp. 411–422, "The Jewish Factor in My Socialism" (essay by Zhitlovsky).
 Joseph Leftwich comp. and trans., The Way We Think, A. S. Barnes & Co., 1969. pp. 76–98, Zhitlovski essays: "Job-A Poem of Jewish Free Thought," "What Is Secular Jewish Culture?"
Kay Schweigmann-Greve, Die Überführung der religiösen jüdischen Tradition in Poesie und säkulare jüdische Nationalkultur bei Chaim Zhitlowsky. In: Randfiguren, Festschrift für Manfred Walther. Hannover 2005, Seite 65–101 (in German).
Kay Schweigmann-Greve, Jüdische Nationalität aus verweigerter Assimilation. Biographische Parallelen bei Moses Hess und Chajm Zhitlowsky und ihre ideologische Verarbeitung. In: Trumah, Journal of the Hochschule for Jewish Studies Heidelberg, Vol 17, 2007 p. 91–116 (in German).

External links
Papers of Chaim Zhitlowsky.; RG 208; YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, NY.

1865 births
1943 deaths
People from Ushachy District
People from Vitebsk Governorate
Belarusian Jews
Narodniks
Socialist Revolutionary Party politicians
Bundists
Jewish philosophers
Jewish Socialist Workers Party politicians

Chaim Zhitlowsky


Area codes 508 and 774 are area codes for Massachusetts. Area code 508 was created in 1988 as a split from 617. It initially covered the central, northeastern, and southern portions of the state (excluding the 617 area), but after it was split by 978 in 1997, it now covers the central and southeastern portions of the state, while 978 covers the central and northeastern portions. The towns it covers include but are not limited to Worcester, Plymouth, New Bedford, Framingham, Dartmouth, and Bridgewater. It was overlaid by 774 in 2001.

508
Massachusetts

Area codes 508 and 774


Sidney Arnandan or Arnondrin or Arnondin, better known as Sidney Arodin (March 29, 1901, Westwego, Louisiana - February 6, 1948, New Orleans) was an American jazz clarinetist and songwriter, best known for co-writing the pop standard "Lazy River" with Hoagy Carmichael.

Arodin began playing clarinet at age 15 and played at local New Orleans gatherings and on riverboats. He made his way to New York City and played with Johnny Stein's New Orleans Jazz Band from 1922. He played with Jimmy Durante in the middle of the decade, then returned to Louisiana to play with Wingy Manone and Sharkey Bonano. In the 1930s he worked with Louis Prima and with a reconstituted version of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings which also featured Manone. After 1941, Arodin's poor health prevented him from playing frequently live, but before this time he recorded with Johnnie Miller, Albert Brunies, Monk Hazel, and the Jones-Collins Astoria Hot Eight. The oft-repeated claim that many of his performances are mistakenly credited on original recordings to Charlie Cordella is unsubstantiated.

References

[ Sidney Arodin] at Allmusic
Sidney Arodin at Red Hot Jazz Archive

1901 births
1948 deaths
American jazz clarinetists
Songwriters from Louisiana
20th-century American musicians
People from Westwego, Louisiana
Jazz musicians from Louisiana
Jones & Collins Astoria Hot Eight members

Sidney Arodin


The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Edmonton is a Roman Catholic archdiocese in Alberta. It was created in 1912. The archdiocese covers Central Alberta, Edmonton Capital Region, and the middle and upper half of the Alberta's Rockies region. It has 129 parishes. The archdiocese's cathedral is St. Joseph's Basilica in Edmonton.

The archdiocese has two suffragan dioceses, both located in Alberta: the Diocese of Calgary and the Diocese of Saint Paul.

The current archbishop of Edmonton is Richard William Smith, since 2008.

Religion in Canada
Organizations based in Alberta
1912 establishments
1910s establishments in Canada

Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Edmonton


Loser () is the name of a mountain in the Ausseerland in Austria which has an elevation of 1,838 metres above sea level.

The mountain is the most prominent landmark of the Ausseerland. Among the locals, it is also known as the Ausseer Ohrwaschl (Aussee Ear) because of its shape. It is possible to almost reach the peak by car by using a toll road of 9 km. There is an extensive parking lot in front of the Loser Restaurant at an elevation of 1600 m, from where one can embark on various tours. The  (1643 m / 250 m × 100 m) is located close to the restaurant and is an attractive target for hiking which can be reached with just a little walking. From there onwards, one can reach the peak by passing the Loser-Fenster (Loser Window), a natural rock gate. One of the most important ski resorts of the Ausseerland is located on the Loser and spans about 1000 meters of elevation. During the descent, one passes a second gastronomic establishment, the Loserhütte at 1498 m.

Loser Solar Plant
The largest solar power plant of the Alps is located on the southern slope of Loser at an elevation of 1600 metres. The pure air, the usual absence of fog, and, in winter, reflection of sunlight from snow, create good conditions for obtaining electricity from sunlight in the mountains. The Loser plant was built from 1988 to 1989 and consists of 598 solar modules covering a total surface area of 263 m². Its original architect Abdur-Rahman Rana, designed the module's inclination of 60 degrees allows for a stable delivery of electricity throughout the year. Three generators (from the USA, Japan and Germany) produce about 30 kilowatts under optimal conditions, which enter the electrical network through a power inverter.

Gallery

External links
  Official site
  Solar plant - Loser (Energie AG)
  Touren

Mountains of Styria
Totes Gebirge
Mountains of the Alps

Loser (mountain)


Hungarian Slovenes (Slovene: Madžarski Slovenci, ) are an autochthonous ethnic and linguistic Slovene minority living in Hungary. The largest groups are the Rába Slovenes (, dialectically: vogrski Slovenci, bákerski Slovenci, porábski Slovenci) in the Rába Valley in Hungary between the town of Szentgotthárd and the borders with Slovenia and Austria. They speak the Prekmurje Slovene dialect. Outside the Rába Valley, Slovenes mainly live in the Szombathely region and in Budapest.

History

The ancestors of modern Slovenes have lived in the western part of the Carpathian basin since at least the 6th century AD; their presence thus dates back to before the Magyars came into the region. They formed the Slavic Balaton Principality and were later incorporated in Arnulf's Kingdom of Carantania which extended to most of modern south-eastern Austria, southern Hungary and northern Croatia. After the Hungarian invasion in the late 9th century, most of the local Slavs were magyarized. Between the 11th and 12th century, the current linguistic and ethnic border between the Hungarian and Slovene people was established.

In the 10th century, the western border of the Kingdom of Hungary was fixed on the river Mura, so the region between the Mura and the Rába rivers, known in Slovene as Slovenska krajina and in Hungarian as Vendvidék, inhabited by Slovenes, remained in Hungary. After World War One, there was a failed attempt by a small group of Hungarian Slovenes to acquire independence (see Slovene March and Mura Republic). In 1919, the  majority of the region was annexed to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed to Yugoslavia), and became known under the name of Prekmurje. Only a small portion in the Vas County, in the triangle between the northern border of Slovenia, the Raba river and Austria, remained in Hungary.

In 1920, the number of Slovenes that had remained in Hungary was estimated at around 7,000, but in the next decades many of them emigrated to other Hungarian cities, mostly to Budapest. In 2001, there were around 5,000 Slovenes in Hungary, of whom only around 3,000 remained in their original settlement zone in western Vas county, with others living mostly in larger urban areas.

Language and terminology

The Hungarian Slovenes speak a specific dialect of Slovene (the Prekmurje Slovene), which is almost identical with the dialect spoken in the Prekmurje region of Slovenia. The traditional Magyar name for the Slovenes used to be Vendek or Vends; as a result, many Slovenes in Hungary accepted this name as a common denomination, although in their dialect, they always referred to themselves as Slovenes (Slovenci). In the last decades of the 19th century, and especially during the Horthy regime, the denomination "Wends" was used in order to emphasize the difference between the Hungarian Slovenes and other Slovenes, including attempts in creating a separate identity.

Religion

Differently from their counterparts in Prekmurje, where there is a significant Lutheran minority, almost all Rába Slovenes are Roman Catholic, with religion playing an important role in their local traditions and communal life.

Slovenes in Somogy
In the 17th and 18th century numerous Slovene families from Vas County settled down in Somogy County. According to research, there were 16 Slovene settlements in three country districts (Csurgó, Nagyatád, Marcali). The Slovenes came to Somogy County from what is now known as Prekmurje in two waves: the first was caused by Ottoman attacks around 1600 and the second took place in the 18th century, when they escaped persecution of their Protestant faith. In most cases, the Slovenes who immigrated to Somogy gradually became assimilated into the local Hungarian surroundings. Today, only a few indications that evoke the historic presence of Slovenes in Somogy County still exist. Among them, the most evident is the local cuisine.

The other most relevant reminiscence of Slovene presence is the wedding custom in Tarany, where the figure of the guest caller at weddings, still present in the local traditions of the Slovenes from the Rába and those from the Prekmurje region in Slovenia, has been maintained. Both in Tarany and in the Rába Region the guest caller is dressed in a robe decorated with knitting. In addition, he carries a stick with a hedgehog fur wrapped round its bottom. The customs at the deathbed, the vigile and funerals are also similar. Furthermore, the descendants of the Slovenes in Somogy do not observe the typical Hungarian Easter Monday custom, in which men and boys douse women and girls with Eau de Cologne, otherwise typical in the region.

Whereas the Slovenes from the Rába Region still maintain their language and culture, the consciousness of the inhabitants of Tarany about their ancestors is in constant decrease. In the 2001 Hungarian census, just 44 people declared themselves Slovene in the Somogy County.

Frequent Slovene names in Hungary
 Doncsecz (Dončec)
 Bajzek (Bajzek)
 Szvétecz (Svetec)
 Gyécsek (Geček)
 Sulics (Šulič)
 Korpics (Korpič)
 Pavlics (Pavlič)

Prominent Slovenes in Hungary
 Mihály Bakos (c. 1742 – 1803)
 Károly Doncsecz (1918–2002)
 Tibor Gécsek (born 1964)
 József Kossics (1788–1867)
 István Küzmics (c.1723 – 1779)
 Ágoston Pável (1886–1946)
 Antal Rogán (born 1972)
 Antal Stevanecz (1861–1921)

See also
 Demographics of Hungary
 List of Slovene writers and poets in Hungary
 Republic of Prekmurje
 Slovene Lands
 Slovenes in Somogy
 Wendish question
 Slovene March (Kingdom of Hungary)
 Prekmurje
 Prekmurje Slovenes

References

Bibliography
 Mária Mukics: Changing World - The Hungarian Slovenes (Változó Világ - A magyarországi szlovének) Press Publica

External links

Ethnic groups in Hungary
Slovenian diaspora

Hungarian Slovenes


An image sensor is an electronic device that can record an image. Usually, image sensors work by detecting the level, and intensity of light. Most sensors work on visible light and infrared light. There are special sensors which can detect X-Rays and Gamma Radiation. There are different ways in which to build such sensors: In 2020, the most common sensor technologies were CCD and CMOS.

Sensors

Image sensor


José Eleuterio González Mendoza (20 February 1813, in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico – 4 April 1888), was a Mexican physician and philanthropist, founder of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León (UANL) and the Hospital Universitario José Eleuterio González. His father was Matías Gonzalez, an officer of the Royalist Army and his mother was Josefa Mendoza de Gonzalez.

Education
When Gonzalez Mendoza was 5 years old his father was killed in the Mexican Independence War. He was sent to live with one of his maternal uncles who agreed to educate him until his 12th birthday. When he turned 12 he was enrolled in the local seminar where he was taught etymology, literature, theology and philosophy. After five years in the seminar he decided to enroll in the Medical School of Guadalajara. It was there where he would have his first encounter with the medical profession while working as a teacher assistant at the San Juan de Dios hospital. While working at the hospital he met Friar Gabriel Maria Jimenéz who was from Monterrey, Nuevo León. Gonzalez Mendoza treated Jimenez during a little more than a year for Jimenez was sick with tuberculosis. During this time they became close friends and when Jimenez needed to go to San Luis Potosí for additional treatment he asked Gonzalez Mendoza to come with him. Jimenez promised him a position in a hospital in San Luis Potosí that was run by his order. Since Gonzalez uncle had died recently and his finances were in poor shape he decided to take on Jimenez offer.

Professional career
He arrived in San Luis Potosí on 7 October 1830 and he found a job as second practitioner at the local hospital. He was assigned as an apprentice to Dr. Pablo Caudriello and Dr. Pascual Aranda. After some years the health of his friend Jimenez started to worsen and he agreed to accompany him to Monterrey so he could spend some time with his family,

He arrived in Monterrey 12 November 1833 and found a job as first practitioner on the Hospital del Rosario which was the only hospital in the city. This hospital was maintained by the local bishop Belaunzarán. The bishop was impressed by the devotion of the doctor towards the friar and named him interim director of the hospital when the current director had to leave the city. However this position was beyond his training and thus it forced him to learn without having an appropriate teacher.

On 1 April 1835 he started the pharmacology class due to the lack of trained pharmacists in the city. This lessons are considered the first medical education taught in the state of Nuevo León The first class consisted of only 4 students who took their lessons in the hospital's pharmacy. After a couple of years Gonzalez Mendoza graduated them out of his own accord for there was no formal medical school or university in the city.

On 6 January 1836 Gonzalez Mendoza got married with Carmen Arredondo. She was the daughter of General Joaquin Arredondo. Arredondo was military chief of the oriental internal provinces during the independence war. The marriage only lasted 6 years and they had no children. After the divorce, Gonzalez Mendoza became absorbed in his work.

On march the 8th of 1842, he finally obtained his medical degree after passing the exam given by the sanitary commission. One month after having attained his title he founded the Curso de Ciencias Médicas using the study program used by the Escuela de Medicina de Mexico. Four out of his first five students finished their medical education in other institutions elsewhere in Mexico. The fifth student, Blas María Diez finished his under Gonzalez Mendoza and became the first medical graduate of the state of Nuevo León.

In 1851 he was elected president of the local sanitary commission Two years later Gonzalez Mendoza started an obstetrics course that was open to men and women alike. In 1859 he helped found the Colegio Civil (predecessor to the UANL, the first public university in the region and was named head of the Medical School. He also founded the Hospital Civil which served the poor and was the primary practice place for the medical school.

During the first year of the medical school classes were held in a room of what used to be the bishop's house, which was seized by the government during the Reform War. The faculty consisted of 6 teachers who were responsible for 15 students. During 1865 and 1866 the school had to close due to the presence of the French army in the city. During this time classes were held clandestinely in the teachers private homes.

During the occupation by the French army, Gonzalez Mendoza met Count Liverman, an Austrian physician who was impressed by his efforts to maintain the medical school. The Count nominated him to the Order of Guadalupe, one of the Mexican Imperial Orders and Emperor Maximilian accepted to present Gonzalez Mendoza the award, however he declined the honor.

When Monterrey was retaken by the republican army under the command of general Mariano Escobedo the school was allowed to resume normal classes. Gonzalez Mendoza was in good standing with the republican army after having delivered President Benito Juárez son while he was visiting Monterrey. Because of this presidential connection he was proposed as Governor. He was elected on various occasions including once as an interim.

In his later days Gonzalez Mendoza was almost blind because of complications after a cataract surgery. He was also diagnosed with a non-specified hepatic affection in 1883. He continued his supervision of the hospital and medical school assisted by other teachers. He died on 4 April 1888 and was buried in the chapel within the Civil Hospital. His mortal remains have twice been moved. Currently he is buried in the grounds of the medical school of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León where a monument was built in his honor.

References

1813 births
1888 deaths
Autonomous University of Nuevo León
People from Guadalajara, Jalisco
People from Monterrey
19th-century Mexican physicians
Mexican philanthropists
19th-century philanthropists

José Eleuterio González


Portrait o Ronald Reagan is an oil paintin by Everett Raymond Kinsler. It is thocht to be Kinsler's greatest wirk. It wis paintit in 1992 after Reagan left office. It measures 61 × 50.8 cm (24 × 20 in). It hangs in the White House. This is the official presidential portrait o Reagan.

American pentins
Ronald Reagan
20th century pentins

Portrait o Ronald Reagan


John de Southeray (1364 - 1383) was an illegitimate son of King Edward III of England by his mistress Alice Perrers. He was the oldest of Perrers' three acknowledged illegitimate children by her royal lover. He was knighted in April 1377, alongside the future King Richard II. That same year, he was married to Maud Percy, a daughter of Henry de Percy, 3rd Baron Percy; she divorced him in 1380, claiming she had not consented to the marriage.

During the abortive Castilian campaign led by his half-brother the Earl of Cambridge in 1381, John led a contingent of English soldiers. After his troops went unpaid, John led them in a mutiny; he may have been only a figurehead for the mutineers, though, as he (unlike the other conspirators) went unpunished afterwards.

References

1364 births
1383 deaths
Illegitimate children of English monarchs
John de Southeray
English knights

John de Southeray


Superman: The Man of Steel is a 1989 video game featuring the DC Comics character Superman. It was developed and published by UK software company Tynesoft under license from First Star Software.

Gameplay

The game is split into distinct levels including 3D flying, overhead vertical scrolling and side scrolling sections. The sections were so different that they are almost like different games. The number of sections depended on format (e.g. part seven is missing from some versions). Sections are linked by comic book graphics telling the story.

The first level is a pseudo-3D forward scrolling flying level (similar to Space Harrier) where Superman, en route from Metropolis to S.T.A.R. Labs, is attacked by Darkseid's Para-Demons.

Part two is set on a ship where Lois Lane is being held hostage by terrorists. This takes the form of a side scrolling fighting game with Superman fighting off terrorists to reach and free Lois.

The third part is an overhead view vertical scrolling section set in space where Superman must escort a Space Shuttle, manned by Professor Gorwin, through an asteroid and Kryptonite field, to the S.T.A.R. Lab Satellite.

The fourth is another side-scrolling level. Set inside the satellite, Superman must battle the faulty Robot Defence System which has mistaken Superman for an enemy intruder.

The fifth part is set outside the satellite when another asteroid field approaches. Gameplay is identical to level three.

Part six is similar to parts three and five but rather than asteroids, Superman must fly to an enemy satellite which is disrupting the signals from the S.T.A.R. Lab Satellite. On the way, he must battle Darkseid's Mini-Robots and a large boss robot.

Part seven is set outside the enemy satellite, now identified as belonging to Lex Luthor. Superman uses telescopic sight to identify and attack weak spots while avoiding the satellite's defences.

The eighth and final part is set inside Lex's satellite. Similar to part four, Superman must battle defence robots in a side-scrolling level. The object of the game is to destroy the 'geo-disruptor' found at the end of the level.

History and release
Tynesoft had ported and published First Star's Boulder Dash and Spy vs. Spy for Acorn platforms in the UK and were looking for other licenses. First Star held the home computer rights to Superman (which they had used for Superman: The Game). Tynesoft developed an entirely new game on as many different computers as possible. Versions were released for most home computer platforms of the day including Atari ST, Amiga, PC, Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, MSX, BBC Micro and Acorn Electron. It is claimed a version for the Apple II was also created for the US market, but there has been no evidence it was ever published or released. The game was published by First Star in the US and distributed by Capstone Software.

Critical reaction
The 16-bit versions generally received moderately favourable reviews. The One praised the game's incorporation of the style of the comic book source but found gameplay to be frustrating, particularly having to play the sub games in sequence. It gave a score of 69% for the Amiga version and 66% for the Atari ST version. Amiga Computing similarly praised the look of the game while also pointing out the "top notch" sound, awarding an overall score of 62%.

Reception of the 8-bit versions of the game was much more mixed. While still praising the presentation and graphics, Zzap!64 gave the C64 version an overall score of 39%, complaining of the lightweight nature of the sub games and the "tedious" multi-load. This was a particular problem when loading from tape as there was a lengthy load between each level and to start a new game, the tape would need to be rewound to the correct position for the first level. Crash gave the Spectrum version 35% with praise only being given to the sound. Even the graphics in this version came in for criticism including the "matchstick figure" representing Superman in the sideways scrolling section. Electron User was much more positive about the Acorn Electron version, giving an overall score of 8/10, but still criticised the multi-load and the frustrating gameplay.

References

External links
 Superman: The Man of Steel at Lemon64
 Superman: The Man of Steel at World of Spectrum

1989 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Apple II games
Atari ST games
BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games
Commodore 64 games
DOS games
First Star Software games
MSX games
Single-player video games
Superhero video games
Superman video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by David Whittaker
Video games set in the United States
ZX Spectrum games
Tynesoft games

Superman: The Man of Steel (1989 video game)