Klaus Scholder (January 12, 1930 – April 10, 1985) was a German ecclesiastical historian, professor of history at the University of Tübingen.

Life
Scholder was the son of Erlangen professor of Chemistry Rudolf Scholder. After his high school graduation, he studied Germanistics and Theology at the University of Tübingen and at Göttingen. After his academic promotion and his ordination as an evangelical pastor, he worked for the FDP's Bundestag faction. In 1958 he took up a post with the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg and at first was a parish steward at Bad Überkingen, only to move on to the Evangelical Priory of Tübingen in 1959. After his habilitation he worked as a private docent at the University of Tübingen and in 1968 received a professorship for Ecclesiastic Order.

His work focussed on the Kirchenkampf, the intra-confessional struggle of German Christians during Hitler's Third Reich, on which he wrote Die Kirchen und das Dritte Reich (The Churches and the Third Reich). The two volumes are still considered a standard on the topic in Germany. A third volume was completed posthumously in 2001 by his student Gerhard Besier, now Director of the Hannah Arendt Institute for Research into Totalitarianism in Dresden.

Political activities
Influenced by Karl Georg Pfleiderer, Scholder joined the FDP/DVP. He was a major contributor to the cultural and religious points of view in the FDP's "Berlin Agenda" of 1957. In the late 1960s he was chairman of the FDP/DVP Tübingen District Association. In the 1970s, he was vice chairman of the Friedrich Naumann Foundation.

Selected works
 Die Verwirklichung des Imaginativen in den Romanen Jean Pauls (The Incarnation of the Imaginative in the Novels by Jean Paul), dissertation, Tübingen 1956.
 Die Problematik der politischen Verantwortung in unserer jüngsten Geschichte (The Difficulty of political Responsibility within our most recent Past), 1959.
 Ursprünge und Probleme der Bibelkritik im 17. Jahrhundert (Origin and Problems of the Bible Criticism in the 17th Century), habilitation, Tübingen 1965.
 Die Kirchen und das Dritte Reich. Bd. 1: Vorgeschichte und Zeit der Illusionen, 1918–1934 (The Churches and the Third Reich, vol. 1: Case History and Time of Illusions). Berlin 1977.
 Karl Georg Pfleiderer: Der liberale Landrat, Politiker und Diplomat (K. G. Pfleiderer: the liberal District Administrator, Politician and Diplomat), Stuttgart 1979
 Die Kirchen und das Dritte Reich. Bd. 2: Das Jahr der Ernüchterung 1934 (The Churches and the Third Reich, vol. 2: 1934 - the Year of Disenchantment) (postum), Berlin 1985.
 Die Kirchen zwischen Republik und Gewaltherrschaft. Gesammelte Aufsätze (The Churches between Republic and Totalitarianism), ed. Karl Otmar von Aretin and Gerhard Besier, unshortened and corrected edition of the 1988 original, Berlin: Ullstein, 1991. .

References
Hildegard Hamm-Brücher, "Erinnerungen an einen christlichen, liberalen und süddeutschen Demokraten. Klaus Scholder zum Gedenken," in Liberal'', 1987, 2, pp. 97–103.

External links
 A brief biography and bibliography (in German)

1930 births
1985 deaths
Academic staff of the University of Tübingen
Historians of the Catholic Church
20th-century German historians
German male non-fiction writers

Klaus Scholder


Ivan Olbracht, born Kamil Zeman (6 January 1882 – 20 December 1952) was a Czech censor, writer, journalist and translator of German prose.

Biography
The son of writer Antal Stašek and his Jewish-born Catholic convert wife Kamila Schönfeldová. Olbracht studied law and philosophy in Prague and Berlin, he left before graduation, however, choosing the career of a journalist. In 1905, he first began editing a social-democratic workers' newspaper in Vienna (, Historical Papers), where he worked until 1916. When he first began publishing fiction, he primarily focused on stories and novels with a psychological theme. This phase of his writing life coincided with the First World War. His works after the War are an experimentation in blending fiction with real events.

Later, he became an editor in Prague (, The People's Right). In 1920, he spent six months living in the Soviet Union. The following year, he joined the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and began working for Rudé právo. He was twice imprisoned due to his communist views, first in 1926 (in Slezská Ostrava) and later in 1928 (in Pankrác Prison).

In 1929, together with six other writers, Olbracht signed a protest statement against the new leadership of the Communist Party. This resulted in his expulsion from the party and loss of his editorial post. Without political obligations or a job, he turned his attention entirely toward writing. The ensuing years were some of his most productive. Beginning in 1931, he started to travel regularly to Carpathian Ruthenia, in the east of Czechoslovakia. The region, which was inhabited mostly by Rusyn peasants and Jews, created a deep impression on him. His experiences there inspired some of his best works. His novel, Nikola Šuhaj loupežník (Nikola Šuhaj, Outlaw), published in 1933 was based on a real person. The story spoke of a peasant Robin Hood who robbed the rich to provide for the poor. The book eventually acquired the status of a folktale.

In 1934, he co-wrote the screenplay for Marijka nevěrnice (Marijka the Unfaithful). The following year, he published Hory a staletí (Mountains and Centuries), which was a combination of political ethnography and criticism of what he perceived as the Czechoslovak government's colonialist policies in Podkarpatská Rus. In 1937, his book Golet v údolí (Golet in the Valley) was published. The book consisted of three interwoven stories about Orthodox Jews. The longest of the stories was "Smutné oči Hany Karadžičové" (The Sad Eyes of Hana Karadžičová), a sad tale of a Jewish girl who is ostracized by her village for marrying an atheist Jew. "Golet in the Valley" was the last of his works. His books set in Carpathian Ruthenia are regarded as his best, reflecting his gift of combining documentary realism and fictional drama.

Fear of persecution drove him to the small town of Stříbřec during World War II. There he once again joined the Communist Party and was active in the resistance. He worked for a while in the Ministry of Information after the war. His writings during that period were limited to adaptations, including the retelling of Bible stories for children.

Selected works
 Anna the Proletarian (Anna Proletářka)
 The Strange Friendship of Jesenius the Actor (Podivné přátelství herce Jesenia)
 Nikolai Schuhaj, Highwayman (Nikola Šuhaj loupežník)
 Grilled mirror (Zamřížované zrcadlo)

Films
 Olbracht & Kolochava {2009}, director: Sergey Gubsky (Ukraine), ,

References

1882 births
1952 deaths
People from Semily
People from the Kingdom of Bohemia
Members of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Members of the Constituent National Assembly of Czechoslovakia
Czech communists
Czech male writers
Czech journalists
Czech translators
20th-century translators
20th-century journalists
Czech people of Jewish descent

Ivan Olbracht


Lake Elsinore is a natural freshwater lake in Riverside County, California, United States, located east of the Santa Ana Mountains and fed by the San Jacinto River. Originally named Laguna Grande by Spanish explorers, it was renamed for the town of Elsinore, established on its northeastern shore on April 9, 1888.

Lake levels have fluctuated greatly from dry spells to flooding. Lake Elsinore was home to Lake Shore Beach Club, an African American resort.

Limnology
Lake Elsinore is the largest natural freshwater lake in Southern California. With its own 750-mi2 (1,900-km2) watershed, it is situated at the lowest point within the San Jacinto River watershed of , at the terminus of the San Jacinto River. It is the terminal lake of a partially closed basin called the San Jacinto Basin.

Lake levels are healthy at an average of  above sea level with a volume of  that often fluctuates, although much has been done recently to prevent the lake from drying up, flooding, or becoming stagnant.

At , the lake will spill into the outflow channel on its northeastern shore, known properly as Temescal Wash, flowing northwest through Temescal Canyon and feeding Alberhill Creek, which joins Temescal Creek, which in turn dumps into the Santa Ana River just northwest of Corona.

Lake history
Lake Elsinore was seen by the Spanish Franciscan padre Juan Santiago, exploring eastward from the Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1797.  In 1810, the water level of the Laguna Grande was first described by a traveler as being little more than a swamp about a mile long.  Later in the early 19th century, the lake grew larger, providing Mexican rancheros, American trappers, the expedition of John C. Frémont, and the immigrants during the California Gold Rush a spot to camp and water their animals as they traveled along the southern shore of the lake on what later became the Southern Emigrant Trail and the route of the Butterfield Overland Mail.  The lake and the Laguna Rancho adobe built near the lake on its southwest shore at its western corner was described by Benjamin Ignatius Hayes, who stayed there overnight on January 27–28, 1850:

In about 15 miles reach some timber where the hills approach near, apparently the termination of the valley of Temecula, a sort of low divide over which we enter into another valley. In both these is much good soil, although in the latter more of the wiry grass and more marshy, some little evergreen oak among the hills.

Come to the Laguna, two miles from the divide. Some good young grass, great deal of elder on its banks; as we rode along frequent flocks of geese rose from the shore; many shots at them; none brought down. The water of the Laguna is saltish, the animals cannot drink it; if they could, such a sheet of fresh water here would be invaluable to the owner of this land. As we were moving along the lake, an Indian overtook us, running as if to catch up with us; said he was from Temecula and going to the mines; had a little pinole tied up in a handkerchief; spoke Spanish, seemed disposed to be communicative.

At sunset the moon rises behind the snowy peaks to the eastward and is reflected on the lake. Wild sage; the lake has evidently once, near the house, been with a much broader basin. How is it supplied with water? Clover around it. The house is a substantial adobe.  A small stream seems to enter it on the east. A low range of hills nearly surrounds the lake, higher where we are encamped on the southern side. The lake valley seems to be higher than that of Temecula.  …Two or three men at this house; their wives seem to be Indians.

Road firm and good, gently ascending for a mile or more from the lake; then uneven, occasionally sandy, to Temescal.

As a result of the Great Flood of 1862, the level of the lake was very high, and the Union Army created a post at the lake to graze and water their horses.  In the great 1862–65 drought, most of the cattle in Southern California died and the lake level fell, especially during 1866 and 1867, when practically no rain fell. However, the lake was full again in 1872, when it overflowed down its outlet through Temescal Canyon.

After 1872, the lake again evaporated to a very low level, but the great rains in the winter of 1883–84 filled it to overflowing in three weeks. Descriptions of the lake at this time say that large willow trees surrounding the former low-water shore line stood  or more below the high-water level and were of such size that they must have been 30 or more years old. This indicated the high water of the 1860s and 1870s must have been of a very short duration.

The rainfall until 1893 was greater than normal, and the lake remained high and overflowed naturally on three or four occasions during that time.  The lake water was purchased by the Temescal Water Company for the irrigation of land in Corona, California. Its outlet channel was deepened, permitting gravity flow down the natural channel of Temescal Canyon to Corona for a year or more after the water level sank below the natural elevation of its outlet. As the lake surface continued to recede, a pumping plant was installed, and pumping was continued a few seasons, but the concentration of salts in the lake, due to the evaporation and lack of rainfall, soon made the water unfit for irrigation, and the project was abandoned by the company.

After 1893, the lake's water level sank almost continuously for nearly 10 years, with a slight rise every winter. Heavier precipitation, beginning in 1903, gradually filled the lake to about half the depth above its minimum level since 1883.  Then in January, 1916, a flood rapidly raised the level to overflowing.

The lake hosted teams for Olympic training and high-speed boat racing in the 1920s. The lake went dry in the mid-1930s, but refilled by 1938.

The lake ran dry during most of the 1950s and was refilled in the early 1960s. More than a week of heavy rains in 1980 flooded the lake, destroying surrounding homes and businesses. Since then a multimillion-dollar project has been put into place to maintain the water at a consistent level, allowing for homes to be built close to the lake.  In 2007, an aeration system was added to prevent fish kills in the lake's ecosystem.

Description
Lake Elsinore sits in a basin, the Elsinore Valley, a graben rift valley and part of the Elsinore Trough. It is the largest sag pond in the Elsinore Fault Zone. It lies beyond the northwestern extremity of the Temecula Valley, cut off from its Santa Margarita River watershed by a slight ridge running across the valley south of the lake between the Sedco Hills and the Elsinore Mountains to the west, part of the larger Santa Ana Mountain Range to the west and northwest of the valley.

On the west side of the lake are many small arroyos, such as the Lakeland Village Channel, which drains canyons whose source is on the east slope of the Elsinore Mountains.  Lake Elsinore's northwestern shore rises to the foothills of the Santa Ana Mountains and the saddle between them and the Clevelin Hills, which closely enclose the lake along its northeastern shore until they decline and end short near the shore of the Temescal Creek outlet from the lake that passes through downtown Lake Elsinore.  Two of its larger tributaries come into the north shore of the lake from the Santa Ana Mountains, Leach Canyon Creek, and McVicker Canyon Creek.

The lake south of the Temescal Creek outlet lies in an open area at the mouth of its major tributary, the San Jacinto River, distantly bounded to the east by the Tuscany Hills and south of the river by the Sedco Hills both part of the range of the Temescal Mountains.  Much of lake basin has been cut off from the lake and river by a flood-control levee, which only permits the isolated section to fill after an extremely large rainfall event raises the lake over the level of the overflow spillway, north of the baseball stadium.

Discharge
Lake Elsinore Valley, and the San Jacinto Basin that is its tributary, is a partially closed drainage basin, part of the Great Basin Divide. Its watershed is normally endorheic, but sometimes flows into the Santa Ana River watershed during periods of high water following heavy rainfall or snow melt.  It discharges water through the Elsinore Spillway Channel outlet to Temescal Creek when the lake reaches the level of that outlet at 1,255 ft (383 m). Temescal Creek, flows through Warm Springs Valley and Walker Canyon into the Temescal Wash, which in turn flows through the northern Elsinore Trough to the Santa Ana River in such conditions. In recent years, efforts to maintain the lake at a stable high level have made these flows occur more frequently and for a longer duration during the year.

See also

 List of lakes in California

References

Further reading

External links
 Elsinore, San Diego Co. Cal. Compliments of Wm. Varcoe & Co. Real Estate Dealers, Elsinore, Cal. (1887), "Lake Elsinore – 1280 feet above the sea, taken from mountain 1700 feet above the lake."  Note lower left starts, "This representation of Lake Elsinore Valley, although in a primitive state of advancement, it being three years ago without population, will serve to convey to the mind of the observer some idea of the resplendent future in store for this Chautauqua of Southern California.".  from Huntingon Digital Library website hdl.huntington.org.  Note Lake level depicted is accurate, it was full and overflowed several times between 1884 and 1893.
  Google Maps: Lake Elsinore

Lake E
Lake Elsinore
Lakes of California
Lakes of Riverside County, California
San Jacinto River (California)
Tributaries of Temescal Creek
Lakes of Southern California

Lake Elsinore


Silius Titus (1623–1704), of Bushey, was an English politician, Captain of Deal Castle, and Groom of the Bedchamber to King Charles II. Colonel Titus was an organiser in the attempted escape of King Charles I from Carisbrooke Castle.

Early life
He was born in London, the son of Silas Titus, a salter and Constatia (Constance) Colley. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he matriculated in 1638, and the Middle Temple.

Killing No Murder

Titus began his political aspirations by writing a pamphlet titled Killing No Murder in 1657 during The Protectorate period of the English Interregnum era of English history. The pamphlet advocated the assassination of Oliver Cromwell.  Due to the danger involved in writing such a politically charged opinion against the Protector, Killing No Murder was published under the pseudonym 'William Allen'.

Cromwell was said to have been so disturbed after the publication of Killing No Murder that he never spent more than two nights in the same place and always took extreme precaution in planning his travel.

Titus's authorship of this pamphlet has been disputed in some circles; it has also been attributed to Edward Sexby, or a man by the real name of William Allen. These attributions are usually unfounded as King Charles II awarded Titus the title of Groom of the Bedchamber for his service in authoring the work.

Political life
Silius Titus first took up arms for the Parliament. Although he was a strong Presbyterian Titus became an ardent Royalist devoted to Charles I and King Charles II.

He became a member of parliament, successively representing Ludgershall (1660), Lostwithiel (1670–1678), Hertfordshire (1678–1679), Huntingdonshire (1679–1685) and Ludlow (1691–1695).

Though not eloquent, he would often illustrate his speeches with a humor that rendered them effective. For instance, when it was complained that Titus made sport of the House of Commons of England, he retorted that "things were not necessarily serious because they were dull". Once again, when Charles II offered to impose limitations on a Roman Catholic Church sovereign rather than exclude his brother from the throne, Titus likened such a plan to "having a lion in the lobby and then voting to secure ourselves by letting him in and chaining him, rather than by keeping him out".

Titus also served King James II but later transferred his allegiance to William III. During his life he held a number of royal appointments: Keeper of Deal Castle (1661–1669), Colonel of the Cinque Ports Militia (1661–1669), Commissioner for Assessment for Middlesex (1661–1663), for Kent (1664–1669), for Leicestershire (1673–1679), for Hertfordshire (1673–1680), and for Huntingdonshire (1677–1680), assistant, Royal Adventurers into Africa (1663), assistant, Royal Fishing Company (1664), captain of a company in the Admiral's Regiment (1666), Privy Councillor (1688), Commissioner for Trade and Plantations (1688–1674), Conservator of the Bedford Level (1679-death), deputy-lieutenant of Hertfordshire (1680–1681, 1687–1689, 1701-death) and Commissioner for Inquiry into Recusancy Fines (1687).

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in January 1669.

When he died in 1704, Titus was buried at Bushey. He had married c. 1645 Katherine, daughter of James Winstanley, Counsellor-at-law, of Gray's Inn and Braunstone, Leicestershire.

Mentioned in Samuel Pepys' Diary
Captain Titus was mentioned in the diary kept by Samuel Pepys on two occasions. The following excerpts come from the entries of those days.

 7 May 1660
"Very great deal of company come today, among others Mr. Bellasses, Sir Thomas Lenthropp, Sir Henry Chichley, Colonel Philip Honiwood, and Captain Titus, the last of whom my Lord showed all our cabins, and I suppose he is to take notice what room there will be for the King's entertainment."
 11 October 1664
"This day with great joy Captain Titus told us the particulars of the French's expedition against Gigery upon the Barbary Coast, in the Straights, with 6,000 chosen men. They have taken the Fort of Gigery, wherein were five men and three guns, which makes the whole story of the King of France's policy and power to be laughed at."

References

External links

 Edgar Allan Poe Marginalia – Part IV
 Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life
 University of Western Ontario: Books Online

1623 births
1704 deaths
Members of the British Royal Household
English civil servants
British monarchists
Captains of Deal Castle
English Presbyterians of the Interregnum (England)
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
Members of the Privy Council of England
Fellows of the Royal Society
English MPs 1660
English MPs 1661–1679
English MPs 1679
English MPs 1680–1681
English MPs 1681
English MPs 1690–1695
Members of the Parliament of England (pre-1707) for constituencies in Huntingdonshire
Members of the Parliament of England for Hertfordshire
Grooms of the Chamber

Silius Titus


The "heat index" (HI, also "humiture") is a measurement which combines air temperature and relative humidity as being the human-perceived equivalent temperature — how hot it feels. The result is also known as the "felt air temperature" or "apparent temperature". For example, when the temperature is  with very high humidity, the heat index can be about .

The human body normally cools itself by perspiration, or sweating, which evaporates and carries heat away from the body. However, when the relative humidity is high, then the evaporation rate is reduced, so heat is removed from the body at a lower rate, causing it to retain more heat than it would in dry air. Measurements have been taken based on subjective descriptions of how hot subjects feel for a given temperature and humidity, allowing an index to be made which relates one temperature and humidity combination, to another, at a higher temperature in drier air.

The heat index was developed in 1978 by George Winterling as the "humiture" and was adopted by the National Weather Service a year later. It is derived from work carried out by Robert G. Steadman. Like the wind chill index, the heat index contains assumptions about the human body mass and height, clothing, amount of physical activity, thickness of blood, sunlight and ultraviolet radiation exposure, and the wind speed. Large deviations from the typical values will result in heat-index values which do not accurately reflect the perceived temperature.

In Canada, the similar humidex is used in place of the heat index. The humidex differs from the heat index in using the dew point rather than the relative humidity.

The heat index is defined so as to equal the actual air temperature when the partial pressure of water vapor is equal to a baseline value of 1.6 kPa. At standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa), this baseline corresponds to a dew point of 14 °C (57 °F) and a mixing ratio of 0.01 (10 g of water vapor per kilogram of dry air). This corresponds to an air temperature of 25°C and relative humidity of 50% in the sea-level psychrometric chart.

At high temperatures, the level of relative humidity needed to make the heat index higher than the actual temperature is lower than at cooler temperatures. For example, at approximately 27 °C (80 °F), the heat index will agree with the actual temperature if the relative humidity is 45%, but at about 43°C (110°F), any relative-humidity reading above 17% will make the Heat Index higher than 43°C (110 °F).

The heat index is calculated only if the actual temperature is above 27 °C (80 °F), dew point temperatures greater than 12 °C (54 °F), and relative humidities higher than 40%. The heat index and humidex figures are based on temperature measurements taken in the shade and not the sun, so extra care must be taken while in the sun.

Sometimes the heat index and the wind chill are denoted collectively by the single terms "apparent temperature" or "relative outdoor temperature".

Related pages
Humidex
Wind chill

References

Other websites
"Frequently Asked Questions" , MSC, 2004.

Weather measurements
Meteorology
1978 establishments

Heat index


Thomas Tuke Hollway (2 October 1906 – 30 July 1971) was the 36th Premier of Victoria, and the first to be born in the 20th century. He held office from 1947 to 1950, and again for a short period in 1952. He was originally a member and the leader of the United Australia Party (UAP) in Victoria, and was the inaugural leader of the UAP's successor, the Victorian division of the Liberal Party, but split from the Liberals after a dispute over electoral reform issues.

Early life
Thomas Tuke Hollway was born in Ballarat, the son of local merchant of the same name who would go on to become mayor of Ballarat, and Annie Nicholl. He was educated locally, at the Macarthur Street School and Church of England Grammar School. He studied arts and law at the University of Melbourne's Trinity College, and was admitted to practice as a solicitor in 1928, joining the Ballarat firm R. J. Gribble.

Political career

Early career
Hollway was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly at the 1932 Victorian state election, representing the seat of Ballarat. At the time of his election, aged 25, he was the youngest member of any Australian parliament.

In 1940, he was made UAP party secretary and whip, and in the same year deputy leader of the UAP. On 23 November 1940, UAP leader Sir Stanley Argyle died, and Hollway was elected party leader on 3 December. In February 1942, whilst retaining his seat in parliament and the party leadership, Hollway enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force. He trained as an intelligence officer and served as a Flying Officer in Papua, before being discharged and transferred to the reserves in July 1943.

In Albert Dunstan's second wartime government (1943–1945) Hollway was Deputy Premier of Victoria.

The UAP was brought under the Liberal Party of Australia banner in 1945 and Hollway became the inaugural leader of its Victorian division.

Premier of Victoria
At the 1947 state election held on 8 November, Hollway led a Liberal–Country coalition to defeat the incumbent Labor administration of John Cain Sr. Hollway became Premier—at 41, he was among the youngest Premiers Victoria has ever had.

However, the coalition supporting him was not strong. In March 1949, the Victorian division of the Liberal Party renamed itself the Liberal and Country Party in an attempt to absorb the Country Party's supporters. In September six members of the Country Party defected to the LCP, further deepening the rift between the allies.

The Country Party's leader John McDonald was Hollway's initial Deputy Premier, however he was sacked as deputy in December 1948 after criticising Hollway's negotiations with the Trades Hall Council over transport strikes.

The coalition between the Liberals and Country Party was dissolved.

Hollway led the Liberal Party to victory in the 13 May 1950 state election, gaining the most seats of any party, and having supply support from the Country Party. However this minority government arrangement was not to last for long.

Hollway lost office on 27 June 1950, when he was overthrown by the Country Party under McDonald. This occurred when the Labor Party agreed to support a minority Country Party government. Hollway advised the Governor of Victoria, Sir Dallas Brooks to dissolve parliament again citing what he called "a great electoral fraud", but Brooks refused, and appointed McDonald to form a government.

Electoral reform plan and party expulsion
During his period as opposition leader, Hollway became a firm advocate of electoral reform. He considered Victoria's electoral system to be heavily rurally-biased, and suggested redrawing the state's electoral boundaries to emulate Tasmania's, that is, to follow the federal electoral divisions which were less malapportioned. His proposal was called the "two-for-one system", where each of Victoria's 33 federal electorates would be divided into two for the purposes of the state's lower house elections. The Hollway Plan, if implemented, would have seriously reduced the representation of the Country Party, and as such was supported by the Labor party as well as several on the Liberal side. Hollway convinced the state executive of the Liberal and Country Party to endorse his reform proposals, however there was considerable dissent in the party, particularly from members who feared losing their seats in the redistribution.

Hollway attempted to contain the divisions in his party, but on 4 December 1951, the party moved against him and his deputy Trevor Oldham, overthrowing their leadership and replacing them with Les Norman and Henry Bolte. The vote was close (21 to 19), and three members who were likely to have supported Hollway in the ballot were absent.

Hollway continued to advocate for electoral reform, and worked closely with the Labor Party to attempt to achieve it. He dismissed criticism of his negotiations with Labor with the assertion that his plan was for the good of the community, and transcended party politics. On 17 September 1952, Hollway moved a motion of no confidence against McDonald's government, which was defeated by a one-vote majority. The Liberals quickly moved to expel Hollway from the parliamentary party on 24 September, Norman stating that he had deliberately discredited the party while it was contesting two key by-elections. The expulsion motion carried 23 to 9, with seven members walking out of the party meeting in solidarity with Hollway.

Bribery accusations and Royal Commission
On 30 September 1952, LCP leader Les Norman told the Legislative Assembly that he was in possession of six affidavits testifying that a representative of Hollway had offered financial and political incentives to various members of the assembly in return for their support in his no-confidence motion against McDonald's government. The accusers included the Speaker, Sir Archie Michaelis, who said that he had been offered the post of Agent-General and immunity from opposition at the next state election.

Norman requested that McDonald immediately establish a Royal Commission to investigate the charges, although John Cain and the Labor Party made an unsuccessful bid to have a parliamentary select committee review the allegations. McDonald declared "The nature of the allegations is so serious and sinister that only the most effective and searching investigation should be considered by the House.", and announced that a Royal Commission (consisting of the Chief Justice Sir Edmund Herring, Justice Gavan Duffy and Justice Russell Martin) would be set up.

On 27 October 1952, Sir Edmund Herring adjourned the royal commission indefinitely, due to a legal technicality raised by Hollway's counsel, Eugene Gorman: Hollway had raised a writ for libel against The Age newspaper for claims made while reporting on the bribery allegations. Under the sub judice rule, as the matters under review by the commission were part of an ongoing court case, discussion of such matters could be deemed a contempt of court. Hollway later settled with The Age out of court, and the Royal Commission was never reconvened.

The 70-hour Premier and the Electoral Reform League
In October 1952, the Labor Party moved to defeat the McDonald government by working with two of Hollway's supporters in the Victorian Legislative Council to block supply in the upper house. Labor then informed the Governor that they would only grant supply to a minority government led by Hollway, and McDonald resigned as Premier.

On 23 October, Governor Brooks granted Hollway a commission to form a minority government with the seven former LCP members who supported him, with the backing of the Labor Party on confidence and supply. The Hollway ministry, consisting of seven of his supporters, was sworn in at noon on 28 October. Hollway's ministry was to be the most short-lived in Victorian history, surviving only four days (or seventy hours). On 31 October, Hollway requested a dissolution of parliament from the Governor. Brooks not only refused the request, but forced Hollway to resign and recommissioned McDonald as Premier. In addition, an election was called for 6 December. On the same day, Hollway and his supporters formalised their grouping, forming the Electoral Reform League to run as a party in the December election.

1952 and 1955 elections
The Electoral Reform League contested fifteen seats at the 1952 state election. In addition, Hollway announced that he would not contest Ballarat at the election, but would instead run for the seat of Glen Iris—the seat occupied by Les Norman, leader of his former party. Hollway was not expected to win against Norman, but then led the polling from the start of counting, defeating Norman easily. Cain's Labor Party won the election with the largest majority in its history, and the ERL won four seats (down from six).

The Cain government proceeded to implement Hollway's "two-for-one" electoral redistribution plan. Ironically, Hollway's seat of Glen Iris was one of the electorates abolished in the redistribution. With his electoral reform plans implemented, Hollway changed the name of his party grouping to the Victorian Liberal Party in October 1954. In the 1955 election, Hollway stood as a candidate for Ripponlea, but had lost his enthusiasm for campaigning as his electoral ideals had been fulfilled, and he was defeated by Edgar Tanner, the LCP candidate.

Later life
After his defeat, Hollway retired to Point Lonsdale where he was active in the local community. In later life he suffered from cirrhosis of the liver and died of a cerebral haemorrhage on 30 July 1971, 64 days short of his 65th birthday.

Further reading
 Paul Strangio and Brian Costar (eds.), The Premiers of Victoria: 1856–2006 (Federation Press, Sydney, 2006).
 Australian Dictionary of Biography Online

References

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1906 births
1971 deaths
Premiers of Victoria
Deputy Premiers of Victoria
United Australia Party members of the Parliament of Victoria
People educated at Trinity College (University of Melbourne)
Melbourne Law School alumni
Members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Vice-Presidents of the Board of Land and Works
Presidents of the Board of Land and Works
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Victoria
Independent members of the Parliament of Victoria
Leaders of the Opposition in Victoria (state)
Treasurers of Victoria
Attorneys-General of Victoria
Australian monarchists
Royal Australian Air Force officers
Royal Australian Air Force personnel of World War II
Politicians from Ballarat
Victorian Liberal Party members of the Parliament of Victoria
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Thomas Hollway


Smestow Valley Leisure Ride is an approximately  long cycle path linking Aldersley Leisure Village in Aldersley, Wolverhampton following the route of the disused Wombourne Branchline to the disused Wombourne railway station. From Wombourne station, the route follows the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal back to Aldersley Leisure Village forming a circular route. Refreshments are provided at both locations. The route passes near Wightwick Manor, Bratch Locks and the Old Station Tettenhall.

References
Smestow Valley Leisure Ride

Transport in Wolverhampton
Transport in Staffordshire
Rail trails in England
Tourist attractions in Wolverhampton
Tourist attractions in Staffordshire

Smestow Valley Leisure Ride


Theft: A Love Story is a novel by Australian writer Peter Carey. It won the 2006 Vance Palmer Prize, the Victorian Premier's Literary Award prize for fiction.

Plot Summary
Theft is the story of Michael "Butcher" Boone, an Australian artist whose career is having an early and comprehensive twilight. The novel alternates between the viewpoint of Butcher himself, and that of his "damaged two hundred and twenty pound brother" Hugh. "There is always Hugh," Butcher says, "and you cannot take a slash or park the truck without considering him." As the novel opens, Butcher is fresh out of jail for robbing his ex-wife of his own paintings, paintings that became hers when the marriage ended. Exiled to a remote house owned by a fussy former patron, Butcher is trying to get his career back on track, avoid his creditors and manage Hugh, when - on a stormy, flooding evening - he receives a visit from the mysterious Marlene, described by Hugh as "a GAMINE with tiny boobies and a silk dress you could have fitted in your pocket with your hanky".

Through marriage to Olivier Leibovitz, Marlene is the holder of the droit moral, the hereditary right to authenticate paintings, in this case those of Olivier's dead father, Jacques Leibovitz. Somehow, Butcher and Hugh's farmer neighbour has recently acquired a Leibovitz of mysterious provenance, and Marlene arrives, a vision in Manolo Blahniks tramping through knee-deep mud, to put a validating stamp on it, immediately sending its worth into the stratosphere.

Awards and nominations

Victorian Premier's Literary Award, The Vance Palmer Prize for Fiction, 2006: winner
Man Booker Prize, 2006: longlisted
Commonwealth Writers Prize, South East Asia and South Pacific Region, Best Book, 2007: shortlisted
Miles Franklin Literary Award, 2007: shortlisted
New South Wales Premier's Literary Awards, Christina Stead Prize for Fiction, 2007: winner
Australian Book Industry Awards (ABIA), Australian Literary Fiction Book of the Year, 2007: shortlisted
International Dublin Literary Award, 2008: longlisted

Reviews
 The Guardian: "..let me be entirely clear about this: Theft: A Love Story is a novel that will get right up your nose. Carey has produced a humane, gloriously Australian book of grand passion, bad breath and high mischief. It is a rudely brilliant, infuriatingly beautiful, belligerently profane work of art."
 The Washington Post: "Carey frames a story that shifts before our eyes -- maddeningly complex, hypnotically brilliant, entirely original."

References

2006 novels
Novels by Peter Carey (novelist)
Alfred A. Knopf books
Faber and Faber books

Theft: A Love Story


Music of the United Kingdom developed in the 1960s into one of the leading forms of popular music in the modern world. By the early 1960s the British had developed a viable national music industry and began to produce adapted forms of American music in Beat music and British blues which would be re-exported to America by bands such as The Beatles, The Animals and the Rolling Stones. This helped to make the dominant forms of popular music something of a shared Anglo-American creation, and led to the growing distinction between pop and rock music, which began to develop into diverse and creative subgenres that would characterise the form throughout the rest of the twentieth century.

Rock music

Beat music

In the late 1950s, a flourishing culture of groups began to emerge, often out of the declining skiffle scene, in major urban centres in the UK like Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham and London. This was particularly true in Liverpool, where it has been estimated that there were around 350 different bands active, often playing ballrooms, concert halls and clubs. Beat bands were heavily influenced by American bands of the era, such as Buddy Holly and the Crickets (from which group The Beatles derived their name), as well as earlier British groups such as The Shadows. After the national success of the Beatles in Britain from 1962, a number of Liverpool performers were able to follow them into the charts, including Gerry and the Pacemakers, The Searchers, and Cilla Black. Among the most successful beat acts from Birmingham were The Spencer Davis Group and The Moody Blues. From London, the term Tottenham Sound was largely based around The Dave Clark Five, but other London bands that benefited from the beat boom of this era included the Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds. The first non-Liverpool, non-Brian Epstein-managed band to break through in the UK were Freddie and the Dreamers, who were based in Manchester, as were Herman's Hermits and The Hollies. The beat movement provided most of the bands responsible for the British Invasion of the American pop charts in the period after 1964, and furnished the model for many important developments in pop and rock music.

British Invasion

The British Invasion is a term used mainly in the United States to describe the large number of rock and roll, beat and pop performers from the United Kingdom who became popular in the U.S. from 1964 to 1966. After first running a story on 10 December 1963, CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite on 7 February 1964 ran a story about The Beatles' United States arrival in which the correspondent said "The British Invasion this time goes by the code name Beatlemania". A few days later they appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show. Seventy five per cent of Americans watching television that night viewed their appearance thus "launching" the invasion with a massive wave of chart success that would continue until they broke up in 1970. On 4 April 1964, the Beatles held the top five positions on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, the only time to date that any act has accomplished this feat. The Dave Clark Five followed the Beatles the very next week on the Ed Sullivan show, and appeared on the Sullivan show more than any other British band, 18 times. During the next two years, The Dave Clark Five, The Animals, Petula Clark, Manfred Mann, Peter and Gordon, Freddie and the Dreamers, Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders, Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones (had 8 #1 Billboard Hot 100 hits in the 1960s and 1970s), The Troggs, and Donovan would have one or more number one singles.

Other acts that were part of the invasion included The Who, and The Kinks. British Invasion acts influenced fashion, haircuts and manners of the 1960s of what was to be known as The Counterculture. In particular the Beatles movie A Hard Day's Night and fashions from Carnaby Street led American media to proclaim England as the centre of the music and fashion world. The success of British acts of the time caused American garage rock bands subsequently to change their sound and style. The influence continued on subsequent groups such as Big Star, Sparks and Todd Rundgren amongst others. The emergence of relatively homogeneous worldwide rock music styles about 1967 marked the end of the "invasion".

British blues boom

In parallel with Beat music, in the late 1950s and early 1960s a British blues scene was developing recreating the sounds of American R&B and later particularly the sounds of bluesmen Robert Johnson, Howling Wolf and Muddy Waters. It reached its height of mainstream popularity in the 1960s, when it developed a distinctive and influential style dominated by electric guitar and made international stars of several proponents of the genre including the Jimi Hendrix Experience, Cream (featuring Eric Clapton), the Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, Fleetwood Mac and Led Zeppelin. A number of these moved through blues-rock to different forms of rock music and as a result British blues helped to form many of the subgenres of rock, including psychedelic rock and heavy metal music. Since then direct interest in the blues in Britain has declined, but many of the key performers have returned to it in recent years, new acts have emerged and there have been a renewed interest in the genre.

Folk rock

British folk musicians of the early 60s were heavily influenced by American revival artists like Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger and later Bob Dylan and Joan Baez. This led indirectly to the subgenre of British progressive folk music, pioneered by performers like the Scottish Incredible String Band from 1967 and the distinctive folk baroque guitar style of players like Davy Graham, Martin Carthy, John Renbourn and Bert Jansch. Many progressive folk performers continued to retain a traditional element in their music, including Jansch and Renbourn, who with Jacqui McShee, Danny Thompson, and Terry Cox, formed Pentangle in 1967. Others totally abandoned the traditional element and in this area particularly important were the Scottish artists Donovan (who was most influenced by emerging progressive folk musicians in America like Bob Dylan) and the Incredible String Band, who from 1967 incorporated a range of influences including medieval and eastern music into their compositions. Some of this, particularly the Incredible String Band, has been seen as developing into the further subgenre of psych or psychedelic folk and had a considerable impact on progressive and psychedelic rock. There was a brief flowering of British progressive folk in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with groups like the Third Ear Band and Quintessence following the eastern Indian musical and more abstract work by group such as Comus, Dando Shaft, Trees, Spirogyra, Forest, and Jan Dukes De Grey, but commercial success was elusive for these bands and most had broken off, or moved in very different directions, by about 1973. From about 1967 there were also a number British bands, like Fairport Convention, who were directly influenced by American acts like the Byrds to play folk music on electric instruments.

British psychedelia

Psychedelic music is inspired or influenced by psychedelic culture and attempts to replicate and enhance the mind-altering experiences of hallucinogenic drugs. It particularly grew out of blues-rock and progressive folk music and drew on non-Western sources such as Indian music's ragas and sitars as well as studio effects and long instrumental passages and surreal lyrics. It emerged during the mid-1960s among progressive folk bands in Britain and the United States and rapidly moved into rock and pop music being taken up by acts including the Beatles, The Yardbirds, Cream and Pink Floyd. Psychedelic rock bridged the transition from early blues-rock to progressive rock, art rock, experimental rock, hard rock and eventually heavy metal that would become major genres in the 1970s.

Pop music

Around 1967, in the aftermath of the British Invasion, as blues-rock, emerging folk rock and some beat bands, including the Beatles, veered towards a more serious forms of music, with an emphasis on meaning, virtuosity and orientated towards the albums market, the term pop music began to be applied to rock and roll based music with more commercial aims, often with inconsequential lyrics, particularly simple love songs, and orientated towards the singles chart, continuing the tradition of traditional pop. Although some bands occupied territory that crossed the emerging rock/pop divide and were able to produce successes in both camps, including the Beatles and Rolling Stones, the British pop genre in the late 1960s would be dominated by individual singers like Sandie Shaw.

See also
 1960s in music
 Early British popular music
 Freakbeat
 Mod (subculture)
 Music Hall
 Music of the United Kingdom (1950s)
 Music of the United Kingdom (1970s)
 Music of the United Kingdom (1980s)
 Music of the United Kingdom (1990s)
 Music of the United Kingdom (2000s)
 Swinging London

References

Further reading
 Thompson, Gordon. Please Please Me: Sixties British Pop, Inside Out. Oxford University Press, 10 September 2008. .

1960s in British music
British music history

Music of the United Kingdom (1960s)


exit is a command on the terminal in many operating systems and scripting languages. It is used to stop all processes that are running in the terminal and close the terminal window. This is also the command to use to safely end all processes in the terminal.

Using this command will log the user out of his/her session in the terminal. Many scripting languages, like Perl and PHP uses this command.

Computer science

Exit (command)


Hills Creek State Park is a  Pennsylvania state park in Charleston Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania in the United States. Hills Creek Lake, a  man-made lake, is the focal point of the park. It is open for year-round recreation. Hills Creek State Park is in the Allegheny Plateau region of Pennsylvania, just north of U.S. Route 6 near the boroughs of Wellsboro and Mansfield.

History
Hills Creek State Park was opened for public use in 1953.  The land had previously been used as a pigment mine for the paint industry. The park is named for Hills Creek which runs through it and is dammed to make Hills Creek Lake.  Hills Creek gets its name from Captain William Hill, one of the first settlers in the area around 1820. In 2000 the park became part of the "Hills Creek State Park Complex", an administrative grouping of eight state parks in Potter and Tioga counties.

Hills Creek Lake
Hills Creek Lake is a  impoundment lake. An earthen dam was built by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania across Hills Creek in the early 1950s.  The dam is  high, and  long.

Before the dam was built much of the area that is now under water was flooded by beaver dams. Beavers are still abundant in Hills Creek State Park.

Hills Creek Lake is classified as a warm water fishery.  The waters are the home to many species of fish, including walleye, yellow perch, largemouth and smallmouth bass, bluegill, crappie, and muskellunge.  Anglers have reeled in some largemouth bass that weighed in at over eight pounds.

Ice fishing takes place on Hills Creek Lake during the winter months. Ice fishermen have brought in mostly yellow perch and bluegill as well as the occasional walleye.

Swim at your own risk in Hills Creek Lake. A sandy beach is open from around Memorial Day until just after Labor Day.  A bathhouse and snack bar are also open for the public during the summer months. There are no lifeguards at the beach and swimmers are encouraged to use safe practices at all times.

Gas powered motors are prohibited on Hills Creek Lake.  Motorized boats must be powered by electric motors only.  Sailboats, rowboats, canoes, kayaks, and paddleboats are permitted on the waters of the lake. All boats must be properly registered with the state.

Camping
Hills Creek State Park has a 102-site camping area.  The campsites feature several different types of scenery, ranging from open grassy areas to forested areas highlighted by immense hemlock trees.  All of the campsites are within walking distance of warm showers, restrooms and water fountains.

Three cottages are available to rent by interested parties.  The cottages can sleep up to five people in single and double bunks.  The cottages have wooden floors, a porch that is heated by electricity, glass windows, picnic tables, and a fire ring.  All cottages have electric lights and outlets.

There are ten cabins at Hills Creek State Park.  The cabins are furnished and have a kitchen/dining area.  The cabins also have a shower and two bedrooms.  There are no linens or kitchen utensils.  Renters should bring their own.

Yurts are available for rent.  Each yurt, built on a wooden deck, sleeps four people in two bunk beds.  They also have a cooking stove, refrigerator, countertop, table and chairs, electric heat and outlets, a fire ring and picnic table and are near a water pump.

A campsite for large groups is on a peninsula in Hills Creek Lake.  The 40 person capacity area is equipped with picnic tables, a pavilion, fire ring, water and flush toilets.  Campers may use the showers near the RV campsite.  This campground, on the peninsula, is among some of the largest hemlock, beech, maple and ash trees in the park.

Wildlife
Hills Creek State Park is home to a variety of wild creatures. There is an active beaver colony near the shores of the lake. Other water loving animals such as the muskrat, wood duck and great blue heron can be seen in and around the waters of Hills Creek Lake. Birds of prey like the osprey and bald eagle can be seen soaring the skies to Hills Creek State Park. Woodland creatures also make a home in this park.  Black bear, wild turkey and white-tailed deer can be seen on occasion. Ruffed grouse, rabbits, and groundhogs are commonly seen. The sharp eyed bird watcher may even spy a pileated woodpecker. Hills Creek Lake is a stop over for migrating waterfowl like the loon, bufflehead and merganser.

Nearby state parks
The following state parks are within  of Hills Creek State Park:
Colton Point State Park (Tioga County)
Leonard Harrison State Park (Tioga County)
Mt. Pisgah State Park (Bradford County)
Pinnacle State Park and Golf Course  (New York)

References

External links

State parks of Pennsylvania
Parks in Tioga County, Pennsylvania
Allegheny Plateau
Campgrounds in Pennsylvania
Protected areas established in 1953
Protected areas of Tioga County, Pennsylvania
1953 establishments in Pennsylvania

Hills Creek State Park


The Fort Lauderdale Hurricane of 1947 was a very intense Atlantic hurricane. It affected the Bahamas, southern Florida and the Gulf Coast of the United States. The hurricane struck the Bahamas September 16, 1947, and Florida on September 18. In Florida, between 12 and 19 people died. On September 18 and 19 the storm cut into Louisiana. It also affected Mississippi. Thirty four people died from this hurricane in the Gulf Coast. 51 people died. The storm's winds reached 160 miles per hour, making this hurricane a Category 5.

1947 in the United States
Hurricanes in the United States
20th century in the Bahamas
1940s in Florida
20th century in Louisiana
20th century in Mississippi
September events

1947 Fort Lauderdale hurricane


A dome car is a type of railway passenger car that has a glass dome on the top of the car where passengers can ride and see in all directions around the train. It also can include features of a coach, lounge car, dining car, sleeping car or observation. Beginning in 1945, dome cars were primarily used in the United States and Canada, though a small number were constructed in Europe for Trans Europ Express service.

In North America, dome cars were manufactured by the Budd Company, Pullman Standard and American Car & Foundry. Southern Pacific Railroad built its own dome cars in its Sacramento, California, shops. In the 1990s Colorado Railcar began producing dome cars. Generally, seats in the dome were considered "non-revenue" like lounge car seats.

Configuration

A portion of the car, usually in the center of the car but offset towards one end, is split between two levels. The offset results in floorplans having a "long end" and a "short end" on the main level. Stairs then go up to the dome and down to the lower level, with the lower level below the dome usually offering restrooms or a small lounge area, while the upper portion is usually coach or lounge seating within a "bubble" of glass on the car's roof. Passengers in the upper portion of the dome are able to see in all directions from a vantage point above the train's roofline.

In the United States, the Union Pacific Railroad operated dome dining cars. These cars had a kitchen in the short end, with a pantry in half the space under the dome. The other half of the space under the dome was a private dining room for small groups. Between the pantry and kitchen there was a dumbwaiter to transfer items between the kitchen and the dining area in the dome portion of the car. The "long end" was the main dining area.

The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad operated mid-train dome-dormitory-buffet-lounge cars on its California Zephyr, Kansas City Zephyr and American Royal Zephyr, and dome-dormitory-coffee shop cars on its Denver Zephyr. The dormitory space was used by on-board train crew such as the dining car staff.

Several railroads operated dome sleeping cars. Those of the Northern Pacific Railway had four bedrooms in the "long end", four roomettes in the "short end" and four duplex single rooms under the dome.

The Wabash Railroad and Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad operated dome parlor cars for first class day service. Wabash's Blue Bird included a  Budd dome-parlor-observation as part of its original consist, and later added a Pullman-Standard dome-parlor car. The CB&Q operated dome-parlor-observation cars on the Twin Zephyrs, the Kansas City Zephyr and the Denver Zephyr.

Several railroads operated dome observation cars, usually at the rear of the train. These cars have a dome on top of the car with a rounded-end or flat-end rear "observation" section (on the main floor) where passengers can sit and look out at the receding scenery. These cars often have additional sleeping compartments under the dome and/or in the "short end" as well as a bar and/or additional lounge spaces.

The original California Zephyr, operated in part by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (CB&Q), referred to its car of this type as a Vista-Dome sleeper-lounge-observation, which had one drawing room and three double bedrooms as well as a dome and observation area. The Canadian Pacific Railway outfitted the 1955 Canadian with "Park"-series dome-sleeper-observations, most of which remain in service with Via Rail Canada.

Variations
While the partial dome cars were the most common, a number of variations on the dome car (typically called "observation" cars) were developed.  In particular the full length dome car, the dome lounge car, as well as the "transition" car stand out.  In the case of the former, the observation dome extended the full length of the car, with a lower level which contained a lounge or bar beneath it.  This type of car was used extensively by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe and Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (Milwaukee Road) railroads.

In 1956, the Santa Fe introduced Hi-Level cars on its El Capitan chair car train.  These were built like dome cars, with high floors along their length and a low section between their bogie trucks.  The lower level contained low entrance doors and restrooms on chair cars, kitchens on diners, and a wet bar on the "Top of the Cap" lounge cars (which were the only cars of the group that could be called dome cars). Most vestibules were on the upper level. Transition cars were similar to full length chair cars, save in one regard. These cars were intended to serve as a transition between regular rolling stock, and double deck stock.  To facilitate this, one vestibule of the car was lower, while the other was at the height of the upper vestibule of the double deck stock.  Amtrak utilized these cars for a time, primarily in situations where cars inherited from other railroads made up the bulk of Amtrak's rolling stock.  All these El Capitan cars were used heavily in the early days of Amtrak, and served as a pattern when Amtrak began to purchase, or produce, its own double deck cars.  The majority of transition cars were scrapped, though a few were kept in service and rebuilt into more "traditional" high-vestibule double-deck cars.

Dome lounge

A dome lounge is a type of domed railroad passenger car that includes lounge, cafe, dining or other space on the upper level or both levels of the car. Examples include both short (approximately half the length of the car, with the dome located just forward or just rearward of the car's center) and full (taking almost the entire length of the car). Some examples include sleeping compartments or coach seating.

Classic dome lounges (built during the streamliner era in the U.S. and Canada) include:
"Super Dome" full-length cars were built by Pullman-Standard in 1952 for the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific, also known as the Milwaukee Road, and operated in the railroad's Hiawatha passenger train fleet. Ten cars were initially constructed, with one of these destroyed in a derailment while on a test run and later rebuilt using new parts and parts salvaged from the original destroyed car.

"Big Dome" full-length cars built by the Budd Company in 1954 for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe for the railroad's passenger train fleet. Fourteen of these were built in two groups, one group of which included crew dormitory space on the lower level.

"Great Dome" full-length cars built by the Budd Company in 1956 for the Great Northern Railway for its Empire Builder train. Six of these were built; one of them was actually owned by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, over which the train operated between Chicago and the Twin Cities. One former Great Northern car number 1391, Ocean View, remains in Amtrak ownership.

"Pleasure Dome" short dome cars built by Pullman-Standard in 1950 for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe for its Super Chief train. The six cars had both lounge and dining facilities, including the unique "Turquoise Room", a small dining area identified by the turquoise Native American medallion displayed on one of the room's walls.

"Vista Dome" short dome cars built by the Budd Company for the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy for its Zephyr passenger trains. Examples included two dome-parlor-observations built in 1947 for the Twin Zephyrs; six dome-buffet-lounges and six dome-sleeper-observations built in 1949 for the California Zephyr; two dome-coach-buffet-lounges and two dome-parlor-observations built in 1953 for the Kansas City Zephyr; and two dome-buffet-lounges and two dome-parlor-observations built in 1956 for the Denver Zephyr. The California Zephyr cars included those built for the Denver & Rio Grande Western and the Western Pacific, which were partners with the CB&Q on the train's route between Chicago and the San Francisco Bay area.

"Vista Dome" short dome cars built for the Wabash Railroad. The Budd Company built a dome-parlor-observation in 1950 for the railroad's Blue Bird; Pullman-Standard built a dome-parlor for the same train in 1952.

"Astra Dome" short dome cars built by American Car & Foundry in 1955 for the Union Pacific Railroad and operated on the City of Los Angeles, City of Portland and other UP passenger trains. The railroad purchased 15 dome-lounge-observations.

"Skyline" dome-coach-buffet-lounges and "Park" dome-sleeper-observations built by the Budd Company in 1955 for the Canadian Pacific Railway. The CPR purchased 18 of each car type for its Canadian and Dominion passenger trains.

"Stairway to the Stars" cars constructed by the Southern Pacific Railroad for its Daylight passenger trains. The railroad built seven cars in its own shops, using components from retired cars and dome components supplied by the Budd Company. These cars were more accurately three-quarter-length domes, since the dome level was more than half the length of the car but did not extend the full length.

Waning years of original passenger train use
Most of these cars remained in service for their original owners up to the end of privately run passenger trains in North America in the 1970s. In the U.S., most cars moved on to Amtrak or to operators such as Auto Train. A few remained in business car service for their original railroads. In Canada, the entire Canadian Pacific fleet went to Via Rail.

History

Although the design of a dome car can be likened to a cupola caboose, the dome car's development is not directly related. The earliest documented predecessor of the dome car was first developed in the 1880s; known at the time as the "birdcage car", it was used on an 1882 sightseeing tour on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. In 1891, T. J. McBride received a patent for a car design called an "observation-sleeper"; illustrations of the design in Scientific American at the time showed a car with three observation domes. Canadian Pacific Railway used "tourist cars" with raised, glass-sided viewing cupolas on their trains through the Canadian Rocky Mountains in the 1920s.

These dome car designs did not prove successful, and further refinements to the idea didn't come for a few decades. The first successful dome cars were conceived by Cyrus Osborn of General Motors Electro-Motive Division (EMD). In 1944, while traveling in an EMD-built Denver & Rio Grande Western locomotive through Glenwood Canyon in Colorado, he recognized the wonderful views the passengers could enjoy from a panoramic dome. His idea was to provide a full 360-degree view from above the train in newly built "Vista-Dome" cars.

Mr. Osborn took the idea to the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (CB&Q). The CB&Q took a stainless steel Budd-built coach and rebuilt it at their shops in Aurora, Illinois, with the Vista Dome imagined and sketched by Cyrus Osborn. The dome area featured seats that were positioned lengthwise in the cabin facing double-pane windows which were designed to improve insulation. This first Vista Dome was called, appropriately, Silver Dome. On July 23, 1945, the car was tested in the consist of the Twin Cities Zephyr. Vista Domes quickly found their way into many Burlington Zephyr consists, culminating in 1949 with the inauguration of the California Zephyr.

Soon after Silver Dome entered service, railroad managers and passenger train executives met to discuss the merits of the dome car design. In the United States, domes could only be readily used on railroads west of the Mississippi, due to lower clearances in tunnels in the eastern USA. (In Canada, Canadian Pacific would run its domes from coast to coast.) The managers also noted that the passenger carrying space was regarded as non-revenue space because the managers believed that passengers would not want to spend their entire trip in the domes. These factors and the added costs of car construction in adding stairs, two levels of car floors and air conditioning increased the costs to railroads that chose to operate dome cars.

Despite the costs involved, Pullman completed the first four production dome cars for GM's Train of Tomorrow in 1947. The four cars, dubbed Astra Liners, included a coach, diner, sleeper and lounge-observation., were similar to Silver Dome and were displayed to the press on numerous private charters and to the public at the Chicago Railroad Fairs in 1948 and 1949 before they were sold to Union Pacific Railroad for use between Portland, Oregon and Seattle, Washington. Other passenger car manufacturers soon built their own dome car models to compete with Pullman; Budd's first domes, completed in Fall 1947, were the first to feature curved glass and full streamlining effects on the domes and entered service on the Burlington's Twin Zephyrs between Chicago and Minneapolis-St. Paul.  The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway was the first to operate dome cars east of Chicago in 1948 on their Pere Marquette District routes between Western Michigan and Chicago, and in 1949 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad became the first railroad to operate dome cars on the east coast when it introduced Pullman-built "Strata-Dome" coaches as part of the new consists for the Baltimore-Chicago Columbian. B&O also went so far as to add floodlights on the roofs of its dome cars to illuminate the scenery during nighttime travel.

On September 14, 1950, a monument was established at Glenwood Canyon. Called "Monument to an Idea", this monument celebrated the Vista Dome at the place where it was first inspired. In the late 1980s, the monument was moved to the Colorado Railroad Museum in Golden, Colorado, to make way for expansion of Interstate 70.

The first ten full-length domes were built by Pullman for the Milwaukee Road's Chicago-Seattle Olympian Hiawatha. The Milwaukee Road paid $320,000 each for their "Super Domes" and used them on that route until 1961, after which four cars remained in service between Chicago and the Twin Cities; these last four were sold to Amtrak upon its formation in 1971. Like most Pullman domes the Milwaukee domes were  tall rather than the Budd/ACF standard . The Santa Fe and Great Northern also bought full-length domes from Budd in 1954 and 1955. All but one of Santa Fe's cars were sold to Auto-Train in 1971.

As railroad passenger ridership declined in the late 1950s, some railroads retired dome cars due to the maintenance costs. Other railroads that had not purchased dome cars new bought them second hand. Illinois Central purchased several cars from Missouri Pacific and Canadian National bought several cars from Milwaukee Road, for example. Because of their enormous usage of sealed glass, the cooling of the cars required massive air conditioning capacity. Maintenance and repair of these cars was costly. Breakdown of the air conditioning system on the road, even in winter, could render a car unusable.

Since the 1980s, dome cars have become rare since Amtrak introduced Superliner bi-level passenger cars that are  tall over the length of the car (but at a stretch the Superliner lounge car could be considered a dome car). Dome cars are very popular on tourist railways and private charter rail services. Some railroad museums have preserved several dome cars. These cars are very popular with visitors who often remember the spectacular rides they had in these cars.

While the dome car is a mostly North American feature, a few also operated in the scenic areas of Europe. The German Federal Railway had five low-profile dome cars built in the early-to-mid 1960s for its "Rheingold" and "Rheinpfeil" trains. After being retired from regular service, these cars operated in excursion and charter service throughout Europe.

Current usage
Most dome lounges survive as of 2023. Some are in excursion train or dinner train service, while others are on display in museums. A few remain in business car service. Most of the original Canadian Pacific cars remain in service on the transcontinental Canadian train operated by Via Rail Canada.

Canada
Via Rail Canada operates the largest fleet (28) of true dome cars in the classic sense in that they offer a 360° view of the scenery. All were built by Budd for the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1954-1955 and transferred to Via service in 1978, where they continue in service.

The Ontario Northland Railway operates dome cars on the Polar Bear Express from Cochrane to Moosonee.

The Canadian National Railway operates a former Great Northern dome coach in its business car fleet.

In 2018, Canadian Pacific acquired ex-Southern Pacific dome car #3605.  It was rebuilt and repainted into Canadian Pacific's Tuscan red and gold livery, and renamed 'Selkirk' while retaining its road number.  The car is now being used on the business train as well as the Royal Canadian Pacific excursion train.

The Orford Express dinner/excursion train, which operates out of Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada, includes a former Northern Pacific dome sleeper.

India
Indian Railways (IR) is currently using 41 Vistadome coaches in different railway zones of the country. IR planned to introduce 49 more Vistadome coaches by the end of 2021 to meet the growing demand of tourists.

Panama
The Panama Canal Railway operates a 1950s-vintage dome car originally built by Southern Pacific on its route between Panama City and Colón alongside the Panama Canal.

United States
Manufacturing companies such as Colorado Railcar have built modern dome cars with updated versions of original dome design, used by American Orient Express, Holland America, Princess Tours, Alaska Railroad, Royal Caribbean, Via Rail Canada and Rocky Mountaineer Railtours. Several of the private railroad cars available for charter listed on the American Association of Private Railroad Car Owners' website have domes.

A new generation of dome lounges currently operate in cruise train service in Alaska and Canada. These do not necessarily use the traditional dome design, but are more similar to the bi-level design first seen in commuter-style "gallery" cars on U.S. railroads in the 1950s and on the "Hi-Level" cars built by the Budd Company in 1956 for the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe El Capitan train.

Most of these cars were constructed by Colorado Railcar Company of Fort Lupton, Colorado. Some early versions were built by Tillamook Railcar of Tillamook, Oregon, which operated out of an old U.S. Navy airship hangar at the Tillamook Airport. The owner of Tillamook Railcar later went on to form Colorado Railcar. These early versions were reconstructed from retired commuter "gallery" cars. More recent ones were built new, and several of these are longer and taller than the classic passenger car design.

Amtrak operated one dome car, #10031. It is a Budd full-length dome car, former Great Northern Railway #1391 "Ocean View" up until 2019. Painted in Phase III paint, it is used on special services such as the Oakland to Reno  "Reno Fun Train", or the Seattle to Leavenworth "Snow Train". Amtrak has also operated the car in fall foliage service on the New York-Montreal "Adirondack" and on several of its Chicago-based regional trains. In the summertime, dome car #10031 is used on the single level Pacific Surfliner trainset. Another dome car Amtrak used (no longer in service) was on the Capitol Limited, possibly removed when the train switched to Superliner I & II cars. The Ocean View dome car has since been sold to Paxrail.

In addition, the following railroads and tourist railways operate one or more domes:
 Silver Dome is on display at the Mad River and NKP Railroad Museum in Bellevue, Ohio.
 The Grand Canyon Railway operates dome coaches between Williams, Arizona and the south rim of the Grand Canyon. These are former Great Northern, Northern Pacific and Denver & Rio Grande Western cars. It also has a former Great Northern full-length dome lounge from the former American Orient Express fleet.
 The Western Pacific Railroad Museum at Portola, California, rosters several Budd-built Vista-Dome cars from the original California Zephyr train. These are being restored as part of the museum's Zephyr Project, a program to re-create the CZ experience.
 The Napa Valley Wine Train operates a 1952-vintage Pullman-Standard Super Dome lounge originally built for the Milwaukee Road, which it uses as one of its dining areas on its daily service.
 The Alaska Railroad operates older, traditional dome cars on several trains, in addition to the newer custom-built Ultra Dome cars found on its Denali Star train between Anchorage and Fairbanks.
 The Union Pacific Railroad operates several traditional dome cars as part of its business and excursion car fleet. These cars include dome coaches, dome dining cars and dome lounges, and all were once part of the railroad's famed "City" fleet of passenger trains. These cars often appear in special trains pulled by the railroad's two historic preserved steam locomotives, 4-8-4 "Northern" #844 and 4-8-8-4 "Big Boy" #4014.
 The Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway (BNSF) has two dome lounge cars, a former Santa Fe car "Bay View" and a former Great Northern car, "Glacier View" in its business car fleet. Bay View often appears on the employee appreciation excursions which operate on each BNSF operating division every few years while Glacier View is used as a lounge on business and officers' specials. Glacier View was rebuilt with a large observation window on the rear much like the lounge car "William Barstow Strong".
 The Royal Gorge Route Railroad and the Rio Grande Scenic Railroad operate former Santa Fe, Great Northern and Milwaukee Road full-length domes in excursion service on their respective routes in central and southern Colorado. A unique feature of the Rio Grande Scenic service is the chance to ride in a modern dome car behind a vintage steam locomotive.
 The Mount Hood Railroad operates a former Santa Fe full-length dome lounge on its excursion trains out of Hood River, Ore.
 The Kansas City Southern Railway operates two former Union Pacific domes, a coach and a dining car, in its business car fleet.
 The Branson Scenic Railroad in Missouri owns several former CB&Q domes and operates a dome car on all excursions.
 The Conway Scenic Railroad in New Hampshire operates a former Great Northern Railway dome coach on the Crawford Notch train.
 The Cafe Lafayette Dinner Train in New Hampshire includes a former Missouri Pacific dome coach.
 The Delaware & Ulster Railroad operates a former Missouri Pacific dome coach on its "Rip Van Winkle Flyer" dinner train in New York's Catskill Mountains.
 The Reading, Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad operates two former Milwaukee Road Super Dome lounges in its business car/excursion fleet.
 The Arkansas & Missouri Railroad operates a former Western Pacific Budd dome coach in excursion service. This car was originally built for the California Zephyr and later used on the original Auto Train, as part of the Pacific Starlight Dinner Train on BC Rail, and for the Ontario Northland Railway.
 The Saratoga & North Creek Railway operates several ex-Santa Fe Budd dome lounges in passenger service between Saratoga Springs and North Creek, N.Y.
 The Santa Cruz & Monterey Bay Railroad operated a former Santa Fe Budd dome lounge on its 2012 "Train To Christmas Town" excursions between Watsonville and Santa Cruz, Calif., and ran a former Union Pacific dome diner on its 2013 trips. The dome diner, as well as a former Milwaukee Road dome lounge and a former Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe dome lounge, are part of the former Spirit of Washington Dinner Train consist that was acquired by the railroad's parent company.
 Iowa Pacific Holdings is the parent company for the Saratoga & North Creek and the Santa Cruz & Monterey Bay, as well as the Mount Hood Railroad and the Rio Grande Scenic Railroad, two other dome operators listed here.
 Iowa Pacific also operates Pullman Rail Journeys on the Amtrak City of New Orleans route between Chicago and New Orleans. This consist includes a former Santa Fe Budd dome lounge configured for dining service, and the company also has a former Northern Pacific dome-sleeper available for this service.
 Pan Am Railways operates a former Wabash dome coach on its business car train.
 The Heart of Dixie Railroad Museum operates a Missouri Pacific Railroad Planetarium Dome coach on its Calera & Shelby Railroad. The coach was built as MP 892 in 1948, renumbered to MP 592 in 1968. After being purchased by the Illinois Central, it was renumbered 2202. The museum purchased the car for steam excursion service in 1972 keeping the 2202 but replacing Illinois Central on the letter boards with Heart of Dixie. In 2015, the Heart of Dixie Railroad Museum restored the car's exterior to its original MP 892 colors and numbering.
 Norfolk Southern Railway operates a full dome as part of its executive office car train (OCS). Former ATSF, the dome was last owned by Conrail for its own OCS train and was acquired by NS during the Conrail acquisition.
 The Indiana DOT funded Hoosier State, operated by Amtrak, had used equipment provided by Iowa Pacific which included a Budd ex-Santa Fe dome lounge, until early 2018.

Documentary
Dome rail travel was highlighted in the PBS-aired program Dome Car Magic. Produced by award-winning Richard Luckin, it is narrated by actor Michael Gross and chronicles the history of the railroad sightseeing cars, from Burlington's 1945 "Silver Dome" to the full-length models operating today in Alaska and Canada.

See also

 Bilevel car
 List of North American dome cars
 Observation car
 Park series
 Passenger car (rail)
 Skytop Lounge
 Sun Lounge
 Superliner (railcar)

References

External links

 Dome Observation history
Web Lurkers DOME.main
Luxury Under Glass / The Ultradome Experience
Napa Valley Wine Train: Our Train

Passenger railroad cars

Kintetsu (Japan) Vista Car

Dome car