Eric R. Scerri (born August 30, 1953, son of Edward and Ines Scerri) is a chemist, writer and philosopher of science of Maltese origin. He is a lecturer at the University of California, Los Angeles; and the founder and editor-in-chief of Foundations of Chemistry, an international peer reviewed journal covering the history and philosophy of chemistry, and chemical education.

He is an authority on the history and philosophy of the periodic table and is the author and editor of several books in this and related fields. Scerri was a participant in the 2014 PBS documentary film, The Mystery of Matter.

Scerri attended Walpole Grammar School in Ealing.  He received his BSc from Westfield College (University of London), his Certificate in Postgraduate Study from the University of Cambridge, his MPhil from the University of Southampton, and his PhD from King's College London.

Research interests
Scerri's research has mainly been in the history and philosophy of chemistry, in particular on the question of the extent to which chemistry reduces to quantum mechanics.  He has specialized in the study of the periodic table of the elements, including its historical origins and its philosophical significance.  More recent writings have included critiques of claims for the emergence of chemistry and the existence of downward causation.

In addition to historical and philosophical work Scerri has published numerous articles in the chemical education literature, including accounts of the electronic structures of transition metals and the occurrence of anomalous electron configurations.

In A Tale of Seven Elements (2013) Scerri recounts the story of the discovery of the seven elements missing from the periodic table shortly after the turn of the 20th century, including the setbacks, misguided claims, and sometimes acrimonious priority debates and disputes.

In December 2015, Scerri was appointed by IUPAC as the chair of a project to make a recommendation on the composition of group 3—whether it should be the elements Sc, Y, La and Ac; or Sc, Y, Lu and Lr. In January 2021, the project issued a provisional report in IUPAC's news magazine Chemistry International suggesting Sc, Y, Lu and Lr. This accords with a previous IUPAC report from 1988, as well as a suggestion by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz in their Course of Theoretical Physics.

Most recently (2016) he proposed a new evolutionary approach to the philosophy of science based on seven case studies of little known scientists such as John Nicholson, Anton Van den Broek and Edmund Stoner. Scerri has argued that these lesser known figures are just as significant as the heroic personalities in that they constitute the missing gaps in a gradual evolutionary and organic growth in the body of scientific knowledge. Although he rejects the occurrence of scientific revolutions as envisioned by Thomas Kuhn, Scerri very much supports Kuhn's notion that scientific progress is non-teleological and that there is no approach towards an external truth.

Second editions of Scerri's two most cited books were published in 2019 and 2020.

Publications

Books
2020, What is a Chemical Element? co-edited with E. Ghibaudi, Oxford University Press, New York,
2020, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, New York,
2019, The Periodic Table: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, New York,
2018, Mendeleev to Oganesson: A Multidisciplinary Perspective on the Periodic Table, with co-editor G Restrepo, Oxford University Press, New York,
2016, A Tale of Seven Scientists, and a New Philosophy of Science, Oxford University Press, New York,
2016, Essays in the Philosophy of Chemistry, with co-editor Fisher G. Oxford University Press, New York,
2015, Philosophy of Chemistry: Growth of a New Discipline, with co-editor McIntyre L. Springer, Dordrecht, Berlin,
2013, A tale of seven elements, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2013, 30-second elements: The 50 most significant elements, each explained in half a minute, as editor, Metro Books, New York,
2011, The periodic table: A very short introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2009, Selected papers on the periodic table, Imperial College Press, London,
2008, Collected papers on philosophy of chemistry, Imperial College Press, London,
2007, The periodic table: Its story and its significance, Oxford University Press, New York,
2006, Philosophy of Chemistry: Synthesis of a New Discipline, with co-editors Baird D & McIntyre L, Springer, Dordrecht,

Articles
2022, In Praise of Triads, Foundations of Chemistry,24, 284-300.
2022, Various forms of the periodic table including the left-step table, the regularization of atomic number triads and first member anomalies, Chem Texts, 8, 6 (2022). 	https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-021-00157-8
2021, Integrating the History and Philosophy of Science and restoring the centrality of the Periodic Table into a college general chemistry course, Chimica Nella Scuola, 4, 16-23.
2021, Provisional report on Discussions on Group 3 of the Periodic Table, Chemistry International, January–March issue, 2021, 31-34.
2021, 'Reassessing the Notion of a Kuhnian Revolution: What Happened in 20th C. Chemistry, A Commentary on Wray's claim of the discovery of atomic number as a revolution in chemistry', in Interpreting Kuhn, B. Wray (ed.), Cambridge University Press.
2021, 'How was Nicholson's highly inconsistent atomic theory able to yield explanatory as well as predictive success?' in Contemporary Scientific Challenge from the History of Science, T.Lyons, P.Vickers, (eds.), Oxford University Press, New York.
2021, 'The impact of twentieth century physics on the periodic table and some remaining questions in the twenty-first century', in Giunta, C.J.; Mainz, V. V.; Girolami, G. S. Eds. 150 Years of the Periodic Table - A Commemorative Symposium; Perspectives on the History of Chemistry; Springer: Heidelberg
2020, 'On Chemical Natural Kinds', Journal for the General Philosophy of Science, 51, 427–445.
2020, 'Recent attempts to improve the periodic table', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 378: 20190300.http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0300
2020, 'The Periodic Table and the Turn to Practice', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science A, 79, 87-93.
2019, 'Happy Sesquicentennial to the Periodic Table', Scientific American, January 22.
idem, 'Looking backwards and forwards at the development of the periodic table', Chemistry International, January–March, 16-20.
idem, 'Happy 150th Birthday to the Periodic Table', Chemistry A European Journal, 25, 7410–7415.
idem, 'Five ideas in chemical education that must die', Foundations of Chemistry, 21, 61–69.
idem, 'Can Quantum Ideas Explain Chemistry's Greatest Icon?' Nature, 565, 557-558.
2018, 'How Should the Periodic System be Regarded?', The Rutherford Journal, vol. 5
idem., 'What Elements Belong in Group 3?', with coauthor Parsons W, in E R Scerri & G Restrepo (eds), Mendeleev to Oganesson, Oxford University Press, New York.
2017, 'The Gulf Between Chemistry and Philosophy of Chemistry, Then and Now', Structural Chemistry, 28, 1599-1605
idem., 'On the Madelung Rule', response to Marc Henry's "Super-Saturated Chemistry", Inference , March.
idem., 'El descubrimiento de la tabla periódica como un caso de descubrimiento simultáneo', Epistemologia e Historia de la Ciencia (Argentina), 1, 2.
2016, 'The Changing Views of a Philosopher of Chemistry on the Question of Reduction', in E R Scerri & G Fisher (eds), Essays in the Philosophy of Chemistry, Oxford University Press, New York
idem., 'Which Elements Belong to Group 3 of the Periodic Table', Chemistry International, Volume 38, Issue 2, Pages 22–23, March
2014, ''The discovery of the periodic table as a case of simultaneous discovery', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, vol. 373, no. 2037
2013, 'The trouble with the aufbau principle', Education in Chemistry, vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 24–26
2012, 'Mendeleev's periodic table is finally completed and what to do about group 3?', Chemistry International, vol. 34, no. 4
2010, 'Chemistry in its element – Lawrencium', Royal Society of Chemistry, viewed 30 December 2013
2009, 'Periodic change', Chemistry World, March, pp. 46–49
2007, 'The ambiguity of reduction', Hyle, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 67–81
idem., 'Trouble in the periodic table', Education in Chemistry, January, pp. 13–17
idem., 'Reduction and Emergence in Chemistry - Two Recent Approaches', "Philosophy of Science," 74, pp. 920–931
2005, 'Some Aspects of the Metaphysics of Chemistry and the Nature of the Elements', Hyle, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 127–145
2003, 'Hafnium', Chemical & Engineering News, vol. 81, no. 36, p. 138,
idem., 'Philosophy of Chemistry', Chemistry International, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 6–8
2001, 'Prediction and the periodic table', with coauthor Worrall J, Studies in history and philosophy of science, 32, no. 3, pp. 407–452
idem., 'The Recently Claimed Observation of Atomic Orbitals and Some Related Philosophical Issues', Philosophy of Science, 68, (proceedings), pp. S76–S78
1997, 'Has the Periodic Table Been Successfully Axiomatized?' Erkenntnis, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 229–243
idem., 'The Case for the Philosophy of Chemistry', with coauthor, McIntyre L, Synthese, vol. 111, pp. 213–232
1994, 'Has Chemistry Been at Least Approximately Reduced to Quantum Mechanics ?', Philosophy of Science, PSA Proceedings, vol. 1, pp. 160–170
1991, 'Chemistry, spectroscopy, and the question of reduction', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 122–126
idem., 'The Electronic Configuration Model, Quantum Mechanics and Reduction', British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 309–325
1986, 'The Tao of Chemistry', Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 106–107

References

External links
Home page of Eric Scerri
Foundations of Chemistry
Career Advice for Scientists from Eric Scerri

Interview with editor of Nature Chemistry
Mystery of Matter, 3-part Public Broadcast Television Series
 at Concordia University, Montreal (2012?)
 at University of Kansas, Lawrence (2012?)
Ten most influential chemists today (2020)

21st-century American philosophers
Alumni of King's College London
British expatriates in the United States
21st-century American chemists
People involved with the periodic table
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
American historians of philosophy
Philosophers of science
Living people
1953 births
Historians from California

Eric Scerri


Schindler's List is a 1993 American movie set in World War II, and directed by Steven Spielberg. It is based on Schindler's Ark, a 1982 book by Thomas Keneally. The movie and the book owe their names to the list of over a thousand Jews who worked in the title character's factory to rescue them from destruction by the Nazis .

Plot
It is about businessman Oskar Schindler who saves thousands of Jews from being killed in the Holocaust by putting them to work in a factory. His list was the list of Jews he wanted to save from the Nazi's in Nazi Occupied Poland, where Jews were normally sent to Concentration camps operated by the SS during the Holocaust from 1941 to 1945 .

Actors in the Cast

 Liam Neeson as Oskar Schindler
 Ben Kingsley as Itzhak Stern
 Ralph Fiennes as Amon Göth
 Caroline Goodall as Emilie Schindler
 Jonathan Sagall as Poldek Pfefferberg
 Embeth Davidtz as Helen Hirsch
 Małgorzata Gebel as Wiktoria Klonowska
 Mark Ivanir as Marcel Goldberg
 Beatrice Macola as Ingrid
 Andrzej Seweryn as Julian Scherner
 Friedrich von Thun as Rolf Czurda
 Jerzy Nowak as Investor
 Norbert Weisser as Albert Hujar
 Anna Mucha as Danka Dresner
 Adi Nitzan as Mila Pfefferberg
 Piotr Polk as Leo Rosner
 Rami Heuberger as Joseph Bau
 Ezra Dagan as Rabbi Menasha Lewartow
 Elina Löwensohn as Diana Reiter
 Hans-Jörg Assmann as Julius Madritsch
 Hans-Michael Rehberg as Rudolf Höß
 Daniel Del Ponte as Josef Mengele
 Oliwia Dąbrowska as the Girl in Red

Awards
Schindler's List featured on a number of "best of" lists, including the TIME magazine's Top Hundred as selected by critics Richard Corliss and Richard Schickel, Time Out magazine's 100 Greatest Films Centenary Poll conducted in 1995, and Leonard Maltin's "100 Must See Movies of the Century". The Vatican named Schindler's List among the most important 45 movies ever made. A Channel 4 poll named Schindler's List the ninth greatest movie of all time, and it ranked fourth in their 2005 war movies poll. The movie was named the best of 1993 by critics such as James Berardinelli, Roger Ebert, and Gene Siskel. The movie was designated by the Library of Congress in 2004 and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. Spielberg won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film for his work, and shared the Producers Guild of America Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture with co-producers Branko Lustig and Gerald R. Molen. Steven Zaillian won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Adapted Screenplay.

It was nominated for twelve Academy Awards, winning seven, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Original Score, and won numerous other awards, including seven BAFTAs and three Golden Globe Awards. The movie also won numerous other awards and nominations worldwide.

Impact
Among others such as Citizen Kane and Sunset Boulevard, it has been called one of the greatest movies ever. In 1998, the American Film Institute selected it as the ninth most popular of all time in their 100 Years... 100 Movies list.

In February 1997, NBC aired a version without cuts of the movie (in two parts), much to the upset of many viewers. It was the first time a television broadcast had ever received the TV-M rating (soon to be called TV-MA).

References

Other websites

 Filmsite's review of the movie
 Official site

1982 books
1993 drama movies
1990s biographical movies
1990s war movies
American biographical movies
American drama movies
American war movies
BAFTA Award winning movies
Best Picture Oscar
German-language movies
Golden Globe Award winning movies
Movies based on books
Movies directed by Steven Spielberg
Movies composed by John Williams
Movies set in the 1940s
Movies set in Poland
Kraków
Multilingual movies
United States National Film Registry movies
Holocaust movies
World War II movies
Universal Pictures movies

Schindler's List


Paulus Manker (born 25 January 1958) is an Austrian film director and actor, as well as an author and screenplay writer.

Manker is considered one of the most maverick German-speaking actors, and polarizes public opinion like scarcely no other. He is perceived as a "staggering all-round talent on the Austrian cultural scene."

Life
Manker is the son of actress  and theatre director Gustav Manker. He trained at the Max Reinhardt Drama School in Vienna, studying acting and directing. Manker made his film debut in Lemminge (Lemmings) (dir. Michael Haneke) in 1979.

Manker's initial engagements while still at drama school took him to the Viennese Burgtheater (1979, Arthur Schnitzler's Comedy of Seduction with set design by Hans Hollein and costumes by Karl Lagerfeld), then to the Vienna Festival (1980, The Last Days of Mankind by Karl Kraus), and on to participation in the "co-determination model" at the Schauspielhaus Frankfurt (1980/81), to the Thalia Theater in Hamburg (1982, Jean Genet's Deathwatch and also to the Residenztheater in Munich, where in 1983 he first worked with director Peter Zadek (Henrik Ibsen's The Master Builder with Barbara Sukowa), where he became a long-term member of Zadek's famous ensemble.

As a film actor, Manker first appeared in Lemmings in 1979 (directed by Michael Haneke). Then followed Exit – Don't Panic (1980) and The Locked-Out (1982, based on the novel by Elfriede Jelinek),  by Alexander Kluge (1983) and  (1984, also directed by Michael Haneke), as well as Luc Bondy's The Distant Land (1987), alongside Michel Piccoli.

In 1986, Peter Zadek invited Manker to join the famous ensemble at the Deutsches Schauspielhaus in Hamburg, of which he was a member from 1986 to 1989. Here, for the first time, he played on stage the leading role of anti-Semitic Jewish philosopher Otto Weininger in the play Weininger's Last Night by Joshua Sobol, which caused much furore. After that, he was Octavius Caesar in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar with Ulrich Tukur, Lindekuh in Frank Wedekind's Musik (Music) with Susanne Lothar, and slave trader Casti-Piani in Peter Zadek's legendary staging of Frank Wedekind's Lulu.

Manker first worked as a film director in 1985, and his film Schmutz (Dirt) premiered at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival in the Quinzaine des Réalisateurs. The film received several awards at other festivals, and was turned into a novel by Thorsten Becker. In 1988 there followed Weininger's Last Night, in 1992 The Eye of the Typhoon with German rock band Einstürzende Neubauten, in 1995 The Moor's Head, based on a screenplay by Michael Haneke with Gert Voss in his first film role, and Angela Winkler, then in 1996 the documentary film Hans Hollein – Everything is Architecture plus various short films including, in 2004, the portrait of his 80-year-old mother, actress Hilde Sochor.

"As a director, Manker experiments with psycho shockers (Dirt, Weininger's Last Night) and draws the audience into his aggressive multimedia theatre dramas. Manker's general theme is the creeping insanity of a society to which he holds up a distorting mirror."

Manker first worked as a director at the Vienna Volkstheater, with Weiningers Nacht (Weininger's Last Night) by Joshua Sobol, in which he himself also played the leading role, and which became his most famous role. The performance became Manker's greatest triumph to date, and he himself subsequently turned the play into a film. "One rarely comes across such a sensuously and intellectually exciting, enlightening, sensational film." (Simone Mahrenholz, Der Tagesspiegel)

In 1990, Manker returned to the Viennese Burgtheater under Claus Peymann, and took the role of Carlos in Peymann's production of Goethe's Clavigo (with Ulrich Mühe as Clavigo). He was also Bassanio in Peter Zadek's production of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice (with Gert Voss as Shylock and Eva Mattes as Portia), and Pozzo in Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot). In 1993, he staged Franz Molnar's Liliom at the Burgtheater, and in 1996 Bertolt Brecht's Threepenny Opera (with costumes by Vivienne Westwood).

Manker's performance as Shakespeare's Richard III (1997), staged by Peter Zadek at the Münchner Kammerspiele, generated most heated discussions, where conflict arose with the theatre and its director Dieter Dorn, whereupon the production was cancelled despite its huge success with the public. "A huge success is being dropped here, one which could have been played for years, merely out of pusillanimity." (Peter Zadek)

In 1996, Manker and Israeli writer Joshua Sobol, who became his most important artistic partner, created Alma – Widow of the four Arts at the former Sanatorium Purkersdorf, a simultaneous drama about artists' muse Alma Mahler-Werfel and her men, which became a cult play and has since been played every year at a different venue, having already crossed three continents and had over 400 performances in Vienna, Venice, Lisbon, Los Angeles, Berlin, Jerusalem and Prague. The production involves the audience interactively in the creation of their own theatrical experience, and they become "companions of the figures journeying through the travel-drama, themselves selecting the events, the path and the person whom they follow, thereby constructing, destroying and resurrecting their own version of the polydrama". Between 1997 and 1999, the play was filmed under the title Alma – Widow of the 4 Arts as a 3-part TV film. In the production, produced by Manker himself, Manker also has the role of the expressionist painter Oskar Kokoschka.

In 2000, with the cyber-show F@lco at the Viennese Ronacher Theatre, Manker and Sobol created a multimedia musical about the pop star Falco. Then in 2003, continuing the collaboration with Sobol, an invitation came from Tel Aviv to stage at the Cameri Theatre the premiere of Sobol's iWitness, the story of Franz Jägerstätter, who refused to enter military service and was hanged by the Nazis, a parallel to the soldiers of the Israeli army who refused to serve in the Occupied Territories. The production made the young Itay Tiran a star.

Manker played the suicidal organist in Joseph Vilsmaier's Brother of Sleep (1994), as well as playing in Michael Haneke's The Castle (1998) and in Code Unknown with Juliette Binoche (1999). He also performed in Michael Glawogger's film Slumming, a 2006 entry in the Berlin Film Festival competition section; in this film, with a "hyperplastic presence", Manker portrays homeless alcoholic Franz Kallmann in the style of a poète maudit, "truly setting his role on fire" (ARTE).

Paulus Manker engaged in more theatre work with Luc Bondy (Ödön von Horvath's Figaro Gets a Divorce, 1998), with Christoph Schlingensief (Foreigners Out! Schlingensief's Container, 2000) and on repeated occasions with Peter Zadek (White Rabbit in Alice in Wonderland, 1996, Polonius in Hamlet, with Angela Winkler and Otto Sander, Hamburg, 2000), The Jew of Malta (2001) as well as in plays by Botho Strauss.

In 2010 Manker appeared in the Salzburg Festival as Theseus in the acclaimed production of Jean Racine's Phèdre, playing alongside Sunnyi Melles. In the same year, he published a comprehensive book about his father, film director, set designer and theatre director Gustav Manker.

In 2010, Manker was awarded the prestigious Nestroy Audience Award.

Collaboration with Joshua Sobol
Israeli writer Joshua Sobol is Manker's most important artistic partner. Manker has been working with him since 1985, and together they have completed a whole series of projects intended to create new spatial realms and forms of theatrical experience.

In 1995, together with Niklas Frank, they adapted Frank's reckoning with his father Hans Frank, Hitler's governor-general in Poland. At the Theater an der Wien in Vienna, the audience was turned on a revolving stage from scene to scene, and with the aid of hydraulics, even taken down below stage. They called it a "horror train trip" and used film clips and documents from Frank's private family album.
In 1996, Manker and Sobol created their most successful project to date: Alma – Widow of the four Arts, an interactive drama about Alma Mahler-Werfel, in which over 50 scenes were played simultaneously in the rooms of the art-deco Sanatorium Purkersdorf outside Vienna. The show's 16-year history to date has taken the performance of Alma on tour to the various cities in which her life unfolded: Venice (2002), Lisbon (2003), Los Angeles (2004), Petronell near Vienna (2005), Berlin (2006), to Semmering in 2007, Jerusalem in 2009, from 2008 to 2010 to Vienna, and in 2011 in Prague.
In 2000 Sobol and Manker created a multimedia spectacle at the Viennese Ronacher Theatre: F@lco – A Cyber Show, about Austrian rock star Falco, which was presented on a stage built out into the auditorium in an @ shape in the form of a rock concert with laser, 3D animation and water screen, where the audience was directly involved and could smoke, eat and drink and join in the dancing. By way of contrast, the "remote" audience stood in the boxes, from where they could see both the play and the participating audience.

Film direction
 1985: Schmutz (Dirt) 1987 "Prize for the best director" and "Special recommendation for the soundtrack", Ghent / 1986 "Premio para a primeira obra", Troia 1986 / "Prix de la Commission Supérieure technique", Avoriaz / "Goldener Kader 1988", for cameraman Walter Kindler. Entered into the 15th Moscow International Film Festival.
 1988: Weiningers Nacht (Weininger's Last Night) Austrian entry for European Film Award 1990 / "Golden Romy 1990" (Best director)
 1992: Das Auge des Taifun (The Eye of the Typhoon) Documentary about a performance of Erich Wonder and Heiner Müller with German Rockband "Einstürzende Neubauten"
 1995: Der Kopf des Mohren (The Moor's Head) based on a screenplay by Michael Haneke, Fimfestival Cannes 1995 / Prize for Best Films Distribution (Brussels 1995) Interfilm-Prize (Max Ophüls Prize Saarbrücken) Opening film of the Salzburg Festival 1995 (Festival hall)
 1996: Hans Hollein – Everything is Architecture TV-documentary on Austrian architect Hans Hollein
 1997: Alma – The Widow of the 4 Arts (The life of Alma Mahler-Werfel)
 2004: Where Blade Runner meets Batman – Downtown Los Angeles
 2004: Die Seele brennt heut wieder sehr''' – Porträt Hilde Sochor (80)
 2005: Mozart in America (Mozart Minute)Films as an actor (selection)
 1979: Lemminge (dir. Michael Haneke), TV film
 1980: Exit... nur keine Panik (dir. Franz Novotny)
 1982: The Excluded (dir. Franz Novotny), TV film
 1983:  (dir. Alexander Kluge)
 1984:  (dir. Michael Haneke), TV film
 1987: The Distant Land (dir. Luc Bondy)
 1988: Sternberg - Shooting Star (dir. )
 1988: My 20th Century (dir. Ildikó Enyedi)
 1989:  (dir. Paulus Manker)
 1990: Common Death (dir. Michael Schottenberg), TV film
 1991:  (dir. Oliver Hirschbiegel), TV film
 1993:  (dir. )
 1994: Brother of Sleep (dir. Joseph Vilsmaier)
 1996: The Castle (dir. Michael Haneke), TV film
 1997: Alma (dir. Paulus Manker)
 1999: Code Inconnu (dir. Michael Haneke)
 2000:  (dir. Jo Baier), TV film
 2002:  (dir. ), TV film
 2002: Foreigners out! Schlingensiefs Container 2003:  (dir. Julian Pölsler), TV film
 2004:  (dir. )
 2006: Slumming (dir. Michael Glawogger)
 2014:  (dir. Urs Egger), TV film
 2015: Jack (dir. Elisabeth Scharang)
 2022: Schächten'' (dir. Thomas Roth)

References

External links

1958 births
Living people
20th-century Austrian people
21st-century Austrian people
Austrian film directors
German-language film directors
Austrian male stage actors
Male actors from Vienna
Austrian male film actors

Paulus Manker


François Rabelais ( ,  , ; born between 1483 and 1494; died 1553), has been called the first great French prose author. A humanist of the French Renaissance and Greek scholar, he offended both John Calvin and the hierarchy of the Catholic Church.  Though in his day he was best known as a physician, scholar, and diplomat, later he became better known as a satirist, for his depictions of the grotesque, and for his larger-than-life characters.

Both Ecclesiastical and anticlerical, Christian and a free thinker, a doctor and a bon vivant, the multiple facets of his personality sometimes seem contradictory. Caught up in the religious and political turmoil of the Reformation, Rabelais treated the great questions of his time in his novels. Assessments of his life and work have evolved over time depending on dominant paradigms of thought.

Rabelais admired Erasmus and like him is considered a Christian humanist. He was critical of medieval scholasticism, lampooning the abuses of powerful princes and popes, opposing them with Greco-Roman learning and popular culture. His taste for popular satire led John Calvin to attack him in 1550.

Rabelais is widely known for the first two volumes relating the childhoods of the giants Gargantua and Pantagruel written in the style of bildungsroman, his later works—the Third Book (which prefigures the philosophical novel) and the Fourth Book are considerably more erudite in tone.

His literary legacy is such that the word Rabelaisian designates something that is "marked by gross robust humor, extravagance of caricature, or bold naturalism".

Biography

Touraine countryside to monastic life
According to a tradition dating back to Roger de Gaignières (1642-1715), François Rabelais was the son of seneschal and lawyer Antoine Rabelais and was born at the estate of La Devinière in Seuilly in modern-day Indre-et-Loire near Chinon in Touraine, where a Rabelais museum can be found today. The exact dates of his birth (c. 1483-1494) and death (1553) are unknown, but most scholars accept his likely birthdate as being 1483.  His education was likely typical of the late medieval period: beginning with the trivium syllabus that included the study of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic before moving on to the quadrivium, which dealt with arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

In 1623, Jacques Bruneau de Tartifume wrote that Rabelais began his life as a novice of the Franciscan Order of Cordeliers, at the Convent of the Cordeliers, near Angers; however there is no direct evidence to support this theory.   By 1520, he was at Fontenay-le-Comte in Poitou where he became friends with Pierre Lamy, a fellow Franciscan, and corresponded with Guillaume Budé, who observed that he was already competent in law.  Following Erasmus' commentary on the original Greek version of the Gospel of Luke, the Sorbonne banned the study of Greek in 1523, believing that it encouraged "personal interpretation" of the New Testament.  As a result, both Lamy and Rabelais had their Greek books confiscated. Frustrated by the ban, Rabelais petitioned Pope Clement VII (1523–1534) and obtained an indult with the help of Bishop , and was able to leave the Franciscans for the Benedictine Order at Maillezais. At the Saint-Pierre-de-Maillezais abbey, he worked as a secretary to the bishop—a well-read prelate appointed by Francis I—and enjoyed his protection.

Doctor and author

Around 1527 he left the monastery without authorization, becoming an apostate until Pope Paul III absolved him of this crime, which carried with it the risk of severe sanctions, in 1536.  Until this time, church law forbade him to work as a doctor or surgeon.  J. Lesellier surmises that it was during the time he spent in Paris from 1528 to 1530 that two of his three children (François and Junie) were born. After Paris, Rabelais went to the University of Poitiers and then to the University of Montpellier to study medicine.  In 1532 he moved to Lyon, one of the intellectual centres of the Renaissance, and began working as a doctor at the hospital Hôtel-Dieu de Lyon. During his time in Lyon, he edited Latin works for the printer Sebastian Gryphius, and wrote a famous admiring letter to Erasmus to accompany the transmission of a Greek manuscript from the printer. Gryphius published Rabelais' translations and annotations of Hippocrates, Galen and Giovanni Manardo.  In 1537 he returned to Montpellier to pay the fees to obtain his licence to practice medicine (April 3) and obtained his doctorate the following month (May 22).  Upon his return to Lyon in the summer, he gave an anatomy lesson at Lyon's Hôtel-Dieu using the corpse of a hanged man, which Etienne Dolet described in his Carmina. It was through his work and scholarship in the field of medicine that Rabelais gained European fame.

In 1532, under the pseudonym Alcofribas Nasier (an anagram of François Rabelais), he published his first book, Pantagruel King of the Dipsodes, the first of his Gargantua series, primarily to supplement his income at the hospital.  The idea of basing an allegory on the lives of giants came to Rabelais from the folklore legend of les Grandes chroniques du grand et énorme géant Gargantua, which were sold by colporteurs and at the  as popular literature in the form of inexpensive pamphlets. The first edition of an almanac parodying the astrological predictions of the time called Pantagrueline prognostications appeared for the year 1533 from the press of Rabelais' publisher François Juste. It contained the name "Maître Alcofribas" in its full title.  The popular almanacs continued irregularly until the final 1542 edition, which was prepared for the "perpetual year".  From 1537, they were printed at the end of Juste's editions of Pantagruel. Pantagruelism is an "eat, drink and be merry" philosophy, which led his books into disfavor with the theologians but brought them popular success and the admiration of later critics for their focus on the body. This first book, critical of the existing monastic and educational system, contains the first known occurrence in French of the words encyclopédie, caballe, progrès, and utopie, among others. The book became popular, along with its 1534 prequel, which dealt with the life and exploits of Pantagruel's father Gargantua, and which was more infused with the politics of the day and overtly favorable to the monarchy than the preceding volume had been. The 1534 re-edition of Pantagruel contains many orthographic, grammatical, and typographical innovations, in particular the use of diacritics (accents, apostrophes, and diaereses), which was then new in French. Mireille Huchon ascribes this innovation in part to the influence of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia on French letters.

Travel to Italy

No clear evidence establishes when Jean du Bellay and Rabelais met. Nevertheless, when du Bellay was sent to Rome in January 1534 to convince Pope Clément VII not to excommunicate Henry VIII, he was accompanied by Rabelais, who worked as his secretary and personal physician until his return in April. During his stay, Rabelais found the city fascinating and decided to bring out a new edition of Bartolomeo Marliani's Topographia antiqua Romae with Sebastien Gryphe in Lyon.

Rabelais quietly left the Hôtel Dieu de Lyon on 13 February 1535 after receiving his salary, disappearing until August 1535 as a result of the tumultous Affair of the Placards, which led Francis I to issue an edict forbidding all printing in France.  Only the influence of the du Bellays allowed the printing presses to run again. In May, Jean du Bellay was named cardinal, and still with a diplomatic mission for Francis I, had Rabelais join him in Rome.  During this time, Rabelais was also working for Geoffroy d'Estissac's interests and maintained a correspondence with him through diplomatic channels (under royal seal as far as Poitiers). Three letters from Rabelais have survived. On 17 January 1536, Paul III issued a papal brief authorizing Rabelais to join a Benedictine monastery and practice medicine, as long as he refrained from surgery. Jean du Bellay having been named the abbot in commendam of the Saint-Maur Abbey, Rabelais arranged to be assigned there, knowing that the monks were to become secular clergy the following year.

In 1940, Rabelais lived for a short time in Turin as part of the household of du Bellay's brother, Guillaume. It was at this time that his two children were legitimized by Paul III, the same year that his third child (Théodule) died in Lyon at the age of two.
Rabelais also spent some time lying low, under periodic threat of being condemned of heresy depending upon the health of his various protectors.  In 1543, both Gargantua and Pantagruel were condemned by the Sorbonne, then a theological college.  Only the protection of du Bellay saved Rabelais after the condemnation of his novel by the Sorbonne. In June 1543 Rabelais became a Master of Requests. Between 1545 and 1547 François Rabelais lived in Metz, then a free imperial city and a republic, to escape the condemnation by the University of Paris. In 1547, he became curate of Saint-Christophe-du-Jambet in Maine and of Meudon near Paris.

With support from members of the prominent du Bellay family, Rabelais had received approval from King Francis I to continue to publish his collection on 19 September 1545 for six years. However, on 31 December 1546, the Tiers Livre joined the Sorbonne's list of banned books. After the king's death in 1547, the academic élite frowned upon Rabelais, and the Paris Parlement suspended the sale of The Fourth Book, published in 1552, despite Henry II having accorded him the royal privilege.  This suspension proved ineffective, for the time being, as the king reiterated his support for the book.

Rabelais resigned from the curacy in January 1553 and died in Paris later that year.

Novels

Gargantua and Pantagruel

Gargantua and Pantagruel relates the adventures of Gargantua and his son Pantagruel. The tales are adventurous and erudite, festive and gross, ecumenical, and rarely—if ever—solemn for long. The first book, chronologically, was Pantagruel: King of the Dipsodes and the Gargantua mentioned in the Prologue refers not to Rabelais' own work but to storybooks that were being sold at the Lyon fairs in the early 1530s. In the first chapter of the earliest book, Pantagruel's lineage is listed back 60 generations to a giant named Chalbroth. The narrator dismisses the skeptics of the time—who would have thought a giant far too large for Noah's Ark—stating that Hurtaly (the giant reigning during the flood and a great fan of soup) simply rode the Ark like a kid on a rocking horse, or like a fat Swiss guy on a cannon.

In the Prologue to Gargantua the narrator addresses the: "Most illustrious drinkers, and you the most precious pox-riddenfor to you and you alone are my writings dedicated ..." before turning to Plato's Banquet. An unprecedented syphilis epidemic had raged through Europe for over 30 years when the book was published, even the king of France was reputed to have been infected. Etion was the first giant in Pantagruel's list of ancestors to suffer from the disease.

Although most chapters are humorous, wildly fantastic and frequently absurd, a few relatively serious passages have become famous for expressing humanistic ideals of the time. In particular, the chapters on Gargantua's boyhood and Gargantua's paternal letter to Pantagruel present a quite detailed vision of education.

Thélème

In the second novel, Gargantua, M. Alcofribas narrates the Abbey of Thélème, built by the giant Gargantua. It differs markedly from the monastic norm, since it is open to both monks and nuns and has a swimming pool, maid service, and no clocks in sight. Only the good-looking are permitted to enter. The inscription at the gate first specifies who is not welcome: hypocrites, bigots, the pox-ridden, Goths, Magoths, straw-chewing law clerks, usurious grinches, old or officious judges, and burners of heretics. When the members are defined positively, the text becomes more inviting:
 Honour, praise, distraction
Herein lies subtraction
in the tuning up of joy.
To healthy bodies so employed
Do pass on this reaction:
Honour, praise, distraction

The Thélèmites in the abbey live according to a single rule:

DO WHAT YOU WANT

The Third Book

Published in 1546 under his own name with the privilège granted by Francis I for the first edition and by Henri II for the 1552 edition, The Third Book was condemned by the Sorbonne, like the previous tomes. In it, Rabelais revisited discussions he had had while working as a secretary to Geoffroy d'Estissac earlier in Fontenay–le–Comte, where la querelle des femmes had been a lively subject of debate. More recent exchanges with Marguerite de Navarre—possibly about the question of clandestine marriage and the Book of Tobit whose canonical status was being debated at the Council of Trent—led Rabelais to dedicate the book to her before she wrote the Heptameron.

In contrast to the two preceding chronicles, the dialogue between the characters is much more developed than the plot elements in the third book. In particular, the central question of the book, which Panurge and Pantagruel consider from multiple points of view, is an abstract one: whether Panurge should marry or not. Torn between the desire for a wife and the fear of being cuckolded, Panurge engages in divinatory methods, like dream interpretation and bibliomancy. He consults authorities vested with revealed knowledge, like the sibyl of Panzoust or the mute Nazdecabre, profane acquaintances, like the theologian Hippothadée or the philosopher Trouillogan, and even the jester Triboulet. It is likely that several of the characters refer to real people: Abel Lefranc argues that Hippothadée was Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, Rondibilis was the doctor Guillaume Rondelet, the esoteric Her Trippa corresponds to Cornelius Agrippa. One of the comic features of the story is the contradictory interpretations Pantagruel and Panurge get embroiled in, the first of which being the paradoxical encomium of debts in chapter III. The Third Book, deeply indebted to In Praise of Folly, contains the first-known attestation of the word paradoxe in French.

The more reflective tone shows the characters' evolution from the earlier tomes. Here Panurge is not as crafty as Pantagruel and is stubborn in his will to turn every sign to his advantage, refusing to listen to advice he had himself sought out. For example, when Her Trippa reads dark omens in his future marriage, Panurge accuses him of the same blind self-love (philautie) from which he seems to suffer. His erudition is more often put to work for pedantry than let to settle into wisdom. By contrast, Pantagruel's speech gains in weightiness by the third book, the exuberance of the young giant having faded.

At the end of the Third Book, the protagonists decide to set sail in search of a discussion with the Oracle of the Divine Bottle. The last chapters are focused on the praise of Pantagruelion, which combines properties of linen and hemp – a plant used in the 16th century for both the hangman's rope and medicinal purposes, being copiously loaded onto the ships. As a naturalist inspired by Pliny the Elder and Charles Estienne, the narrator intercedes in the story, first describing the plant in great detail, then waxing lyrical on its various qualities.

The Fourth Book
Rabelais began work on The Fourth Book while still in Metz.  He dropped off a manuscript containing eleven chapters and ending mid-sentence in Lyon on his way to Rome to work as Cardinal du Bellay's personal physician in 1548. According to Jean Plattard, this publication served two purposes:  first, it brought Rabelais some much-needed money; and second, it allowed him to respond to those who considered his work blasphemous. While the prologue denounced slanderers, the following chapters did not raise any polemical issues.  Already it contained some of the best-known episodes, including the storm at sea and Panurge's sheep. It was framed as an erratic odyssey, inspired both by the Argonauts and the news of Jacques Cartier's voyage to Canada.  The full version appeared in 1552, after Rabelais received a royal privilege on 6 Aug 1550 for the exclusive right to publish his work in French, Tuscan, Greek, and Latin.  This, he accomplished with the help of the young Cardinal of Châtillon (Odet de Coligny)—who would later convert to Protestantism and be excommunicated. Rabelais thanks the Cardinal for his help in the prefatory letter signed 28 January 1552 and, for the first time in the Pantagruel series, titled the prologue in his own name rather than using a pseudonym.

Use of language

The French Renaissance was a time of linguistic contact and debate. The first book of French, rather than Latin, grammar was published in 1530, followed nine years later by the language's first dictionary. Spelling was far less codified. Rabelais, as an educated reader of the day, preferred etymological spelling—preserving clues to the lineage of words—to more phonetic spellings which wash those traces away.

Rabelais' use of Latin, Greek, regional and dialectal terms, creative calquing, gloss, neologism and mis-translation was the fruit of the printing press having been invented less than a hundred years earlier. A doctor by trade, Rabelais was a prolific reader, who wrote a great deal about bodies and all they excrete or ingest. His fictional works are filled with multilingual, often sexual, puns, absurd creatures, bawdy songs and lists. Words and metaphors from Rabelais abound in modern French and some words have found their way into English, through Thomas Urquhart's unfinished 1693 translation, completed and considerably augmented by Peter Anthony Motteux by 1708. According to Radio-Canada, the novel Gargantua permanently added more than 800 words to the French language.

Scholarly views
Most scholars today agree that Rabelais wrote from a perspective of Christian humanism. This has not always been the case. Abel Lefranc, in his 1922 introduction to Pantagruel, depicted Rabelais as a militant anti-Christian atheist. On the contrary, M. A. Screech, like Lucien Febvre before him,  describes Rabelais as an Erasmian. While formally a Roman Catholic, Rabelais was a humanist, and favoured classical Antiquity over the "barbarous" Middle Ages, believing in the need for reform to return science and arts to their classical blossoming, and theology and the Church to their original Evangelical form as expressed in the Gospels. In particular, he was critical of monasticism. Rabelais criticised what he considered to be inauthentic Christian positions by both Catholics and Protestants, and was attacked and portrayed as a threat to religion or even an atheist by both. For example, "at the request of Catholic theologians, all four Pantagrueline chronicles were censured by either the Sorbonne, Parlement, or both". On the opposite end of the spectrum, John Calvin saw Rabelais as a representative of the numerous moderate evangelical humanists who, while "critical of contemporary Catholic institutions, doctrines, and conduct", did not go far enough; in addition, Calvin considered Rabelais' apparent mocking tone to be especially dangerous, since it could be easily misinterpreted as a rejection of the sacred truths themselves.

Timothy Hampton writes that "to a degree unequaled by the case of any other writer from the European Renaissance, the reception of Rabelais's work has involved dispute, critical disagreement, and ... scholarly wrangling ..." In particular, as pointed out by Bruno Braunrot, the traditional view of Rabelais as a humanist has been challenged by early post-structuralist analyses denying a single consistent ideological message of his text, and to some extent earlier by Marxist critiques such as Mikhail Bakhtin with his emphasis on the subversive folk roots of Rabelais' humour in medieval "carnival" culture. At present, however, "whatever controversy still surrounds Rabelais studies can be found above all in the application of feminist theories to Rabelais criticism", as he is alternately considered a misogynist or a feminist based on different episodes in his works.

An article by Edwin M. Duvall in Études rabelaisiennes 28 (1985) sparked a debate on the prologue of Gargantua in the pages of the Revue d'histoire littéraire de la France as to whether Rabelais intentionally hid higher meanings in his work, to be discovered through erudition and philology, or if instead the polyvalence of symbols was a poetic device meant to resist the reductive gloss.

 suggests that Panurge's description (in the Papimane Island episode in The Fourth Book) of the ill-effects of the pages of  decretals being used as toilet paper, targets, cones, and masks on whatever they touch was due to their misuse as material objects.  As the merry crew sail on from the island towards the Divine Bottle, in the subsequent episode, Pantagruel is content simply listening to the thawing words as they rain down on the boat, whereas Jeanneret observes that his companions focus instead on their colourful appearance while they are still frozen, hurrying to gather as many up as they can and offering to sell those they have collected.  The pilot describes the words as evidence of a great battle, and the narrator even wants to preserve some of the finest insults in oil.  Jeanneret observes that Pantagruel considers the exchange of words to be an act of love rather than a commercial exchange, argues that their artificial preservation is superfluous, and "insinuates that  books are petrified tombs, where the signs threaten to stop moving and, left to the devices of lazy readers, get shriveled down into simplistic meanings[,]" implying that "[a]ll writing carries within it the danger of the Decretals."

Citing Jean de La Bruyère, the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1911 declared that Rabelais was
... a revolutionary who attacked all the past, Scholasticism, the monks; his religion is scarcely more than that of a spiritually minded pagan. Less bold in political matters, he cared little for liberty; his ideal was a tyrant who loves peace. [...] His vocabulary is rich and picturesque, but licentious and filthy. In short, as La Bruyère says: "His book is a riddle which may be considered inexplicable. Where it is bad, it is beyond the worst; it has the charm of the rabble; where it is good it is excellent and exquisite; it may be the daintiest of dishes." As a whole it exercises a baneful influence.

In literature

In his 1759-1767 novel Tristram Shandy, Laurence Sterne quotes extensively from Rabelais. Alfred Jarry performed, from memory, hymns of Rabelais at Symbolist Rachilde's Tuesday salons, and worked for years on an unfinished libretto for an opera by Claude Terrasse based on Pantagruel. Anatole France gave lectures on Rabelais in Argentina. John Cowper Powys, D. B. Wyndham-Lewis, and Lucien Febvre (one of the founders of the French historical school Annales), all wrote books about him.

James Joyce included an allusion to "Master Francois somebody" in his 1922 novel Ulysses.

Mikhail Bakhtin, a Russian philosopher and critic, derived his concepts of the carnivalesque and grotesque body from the world of Rabelais. He points to the historical loss of communal spirit after the Medieval period and speaks of carnival laughter as an "expression of social consciousness".

Aldous Huxley admired Rabelais' work. Writing in 1929, he praised Rabelais, stating "Rabelais loved the bowels which Swift so malignantly hated. His was the true amor fati : he accepted reality in its entirety, accepted with gratitude and delight this amazingly improbable world."

George Orwell was not an admirer of Rabelais. Writing in 1940, he called him "an exceptionally perverse, morbid writer, a case for psychoanalysis". Milan Kundera, in a 2007 article in The New Yorker, commented on a list of the most notable works of French literature, noting with surprise and indignation that Rabelais was placed behind Charles de Gaulle's war memoirs, and was denied the "aura of a founding figure! Yet in the eyes of nearly every great novelist of our time he is, along with Cervantes, the founder of an entire art, the art of the novel". In the satirical musical The Music Man by Meredith Willson, the names "Chaucer! Rabelais! Balzac!" are presented by local gossips as evidence that the town librarian "advocates dirty books."

Rabelais is a pivotal figure in Kenzaburō Ōe's 1994 acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Honours, tributes and legacy

 The public university in Tours, France is named Université François Rabelais.
 Honoré de Balzac was inspired by the works of Rabelais to write Les Cent Contes Drolatiques (The Hundred Humorous Tales). Balzac also pays homage to Rabelais by quoting him in more than twenty novels and the short stories of La Comédie humaine (The Human Comedy). Michel Brix wrote of Balzac that he "is obviously a son or grandson of Rabelais... He has never hidden his admiration for the author of Gargantua, whom he cites in Le Cousin Pons as "the greatest mind of modern humanity". In his story of Zéro, Conte Fantastique published in La Silhouette on 3 October 1830, Balzac even adopted Rabelais's pseudonym (Alcofribas).
 Rabelais also left a tradition at the University of Montpellier's Faculty of Medicine: no graduating medic can undergo a convocation without taking an oath under Rabelais's robe. Further tributes are paid to him in other traditions of the university, such as its faluche, a distinctive student headcap which in Montpellier is styled in his honour, with four bands of colour emanating from its centre.
 Asteroid '5666 Rabelais' was named in honor of François Rabelais in 1982.
 In Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio's 2008 Nobel Prize lecture, Le Clézio referred to Rabelais as "the greatest writer in the French language".
 In France the moment at a restaurant when the waiter presents the bill is still sometimes called le quart d'heure de Rabelais (The fifteen minutes of Rabelais), in memory of a famous trick Rabelais used to get out of paying a tavern bill.

Works
 Gargantua and Pantagruel, a series of four or five books including:
  (1532)
 La vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua, usually called  (1534)
  (1546)
  (1552)
  (1564) whose authorship is contested (1532, 1533, 1535, 1537, 1542 ): parodic almanac, astrology (1549): description of the festivities organized by Jean du Bellay to celebrate the birth of Louis of Valois

 See also
 Rabelais and His World''
 Thomas Urquhart
 Peter Anthony Motteux, (works at wikisource)
The Great Mare
Rabelais Student Media

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

General reference

Commentary

Complete works

External links

 Rabelais.nl
 Rabelais et la Renaissance, sur le Portail de la Renaissance française (French)
 François Rabelais Museum on the Internet (French)
 Henry Émile Chevalier, Rabelais and his editors, 1868 (French)

15th-century births
1553 deaths
People from Indre-et-Loire
University of Poitiers alumni
University of Montpellier alumni
16th-century French physicians
16th-century French writers
16th-century male writers
Writers from Centre-Val de Loire
16th-century French novelists
Roman Catholic writers
French Benedictines
French Franciscans
French Roman Catholics
French Renaissance
French Renaissance humanists
Thelema
French male novelists
French male poets
French medical writers

François Rabelais


Senait Ghebrehiwet Mehari is an Eritrean-born German singer. She goes professionally by her single name "Senait". She is also known as Senait Mehari, although this is a common understanding and is due to the Europeanization of an Eritrean naming convention.

Biography
She was born in Asmera, Eritrea, on 3 December 1974 (exact year is unknown, it may be some years earlier or later) to an Eritrean father and Ethiopian mother. When she was six years old, her father sent her and her two elder half-sisters to the Eritrean Liberation Front as "Students of the Revolution". Three years later her uncle took the three girls to Sudan, where they lived with him for three years. When Senait was twelve years old, her father, who emigrated to Hamburg, Germany, sent for them writing songs around this time. She also wrote a sequel, Wüstenlied ("Desert Song"), about her visit to Eritrea. It was published in May 2006.

She released her first album, Mein Weg ("My Way") on November 11, 2005. The first single Hey Du ("Hey, You") is a romantic song. The theme of the album is autobiographical –the song Wenn die Nacht ("When the Night")- is about her dead grandmother; Kap Gheza is about a child who feels unloved, and Libbey is a love story.

Her autobiography Feuerherz ("Heart of Fire") was published in 2004. In February 2007, the 'Zapp' TV show on Germany's NDR channel accused Senait of fabricating some of its contents, notably that she served as a child soldier in Eritrea. She denies the allegations. The book has been translated into several languages. A homonyme film adaptation has been released in 2009.

Music career
She worked as a songwriter and background singer before launching her own career. Inside Germany her singles Leben/Aura became big hits in Germany in 2001. Aura was re-released early 2005 in new versions before of the release of her album. A nice tune, called Hiwet is available from her website feuerherz. Her song Herz aus Eis ("Heart of Ice") placed fourth in the German preselection for the Eurovision Song Contest of 2003.

Personal life
Senait is now living in Berlin.

References

External links
 Mehari's official homepage
 Official website to her book

German autobiographers
German pop singers
Musicians from Berlin
1974 births
Living people
People from Asmara
21st-century Eritrean women singers
Eritrean emigrants to Germany
21st-century German women singers

Senait Ghebrehiwet Mehari


Ammonium dichromate is an inorganic compound with the formula (NH4)2Cr2O7. In this compound, as in all chromates and dichromates, chromium is in a +6 oxidation state, commonly known as hexavalent chromium. It is a salt consisting of ammonium ions and dichromate ions.

Ammonium dichromate is sometimes known as Vesuvian Fire, because of its use in demonstrations of tabletop "volcanoes". However, this demonstration has become unpopular in schools due to the compound's carcinogenic nature. It has also been used in pyrotechnics and in the early days of photography.

Properties
At room temperature and pressure, the compound exists as orange, acidic crystals soluble in water and alcohol. It is formed by the action of chromic acid on ammonium hydroxide with subsequent crystallisation.

The (NH4)2Cr2O7 crystal (C2/c, z = 4) contains a single type of ammonium ion, at sites of symmetry C1(2,3). Each  centre is surrounded irregularly by eight oxygen atoms at N—O distances ranging from ca. 2.83 to ca. 3.17 Å, typical of hydrogen bonds.

Uses
It has been used in pyrotechnics and in the early days of photography as well as in lithography, as a source of pure nitrogen in the laboratory, and as a catalyst. It is also used as a mordant for dyeing pigments, in manufacturing of alizarin, chrome alum, leather tanning and oil purification.

Photosensitive films containing PVA, ammonium dichromate, and a phosphor are spin-coated as aqueous slurries in the production of the phosphor raster of television screens and other devices. The ammonium dichromate acts as the photoactive site.

Reactions

Tabletop volcanoes and thermal decomposition

The volcano demonstration involves igniting a pile of the salt, which initiates the following exothermic conversion:-

(s) → (s) + (g) + 4(g) (ΔH = −429.1±3 kcal/mol)

Like ammonium nitrate, it is thermodynamically unstable. Its decomposition reaction proceeds to completion once initiated, producing voluminous dark green powdered chromium(III) oxide. Not all of the ammonium dichromate decomposes in this reaction. When the green powder is brought into water a yellow/orange solution is obtained from left over ammonium dichromate.

Observations obtained using relatively high magnification microscopy during a kinetic study of the thermal decomposition of ammonium dichromate provided evidence that salt breakdown proceeds with the intervention of an intermediate liquid phase rather than a solid phase. The characteristic darkening of  crystals as a consequence of the onset of decomposition can be ascribed to the dissociative loss of ammonia accompanied by progressive anion condensation to , , etc., ultimately yielding . The  has been identified as a possible molten intermediate participating in  decomposition.

Oxidation reactions
Ammonium dichromate is a strong oxidising agent and reacts, often violently, with any reducing agent. The stronger the reducing agent, the more violent the reaction. It has also been used to promote the oxidation of alcohols and thiols. Ammonium dichromate, in the presence of Mg(HSO4)2 and wet SiO2 can act as a very efficient reagent for the oxidative coupling of thiols under solvent free conditions. The reactions produces reasonably good yields under relatively mild conditions. The compound is also used in the oxidation of aliphatic alcohols to their corresponding aldehydes and ketones in ZrCl4/wet SiO2 in solvent free conditions, again with relatively high yields.

Safety
Ammonium dichromate, like all chromium (VI) compounds, is highly toxic and a proven carcinogen. It is also a strong irritant.

Incidents
In sealed containers, ammonium dichromate is likely to explode if heated. In 1986, two workers were killed and 14 others injured at Diamond Shamrock Chemicals in Ashtabula, Ohio, when  of ammonium dichromate exploded as it was being dried in a heater.

References

External links

Ammonium compounds
Dichromates
Explosive chemicals
Light-sensitive chemicals
Oxidizing agents

Ammonium dichromate


Willis H. Schaefer (November 23, 1928 – June 30, 2007) was an American composer nominated for an Emmy Award for his work. He wrote background music for a number of popular television shows and composed over 700 commercials. His most famous track, "Fight! Fight! Fight!" was used in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, and Stephen Hillenburg changed the name of the track to "Now That We're Men", because he added lyrics to the song.

Early life and career
Schaefer was born in Kenosha, Wisconsin in 1928. His father, Helmut Schaefer, was a founder of the Kenosha Symphony Orchestra. Schaefer was educated at Mary D. Bradford High School in Kenosha, De Paul University (B.M.), and Northwestern University (M.A. and some work toward a Doctor of Music degree).

His first credits as a film and television composer date from 1948. He served during the Korean War with the United States Fifth Army Band as an arranger and assistant conductor writing music for Radio Free Europe and the Voice of America.

Composer and arranger
Schaefer returned to composing themes for television after the Korean War with Gunsmoke and The Phil Silvers Show. In following decades, he would compose background music for many popular television programs including  I Dream of Jeannie, The Flintstones, The Flying Nun, Hogan's Heroes, The Jetsons and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.

Schaefer arranged and recorded music for over 700 commercials winning three Clio Awards. He also helped arrange music for the It's a Small World ride for Disney. In 1978, his work on the Disney TV movie The Skytrap was nominated for an Emmy for best score.

His last credited work was the track "Now That We're Men" on The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie soundtrack of 2004.  (The music is his APM cue "Fight! Fight! Fight! (a)"). He died of cancer in a nursing home in Cathedral City near Palm Springs, California.

References

1928 births
2007 deaths
American male composers
Musicians from Palm Springs, California
Musicians from Kenosha, Wisconsin
Deaths from cancer in California
DePaul University alumni
Bienen School of Music alumni
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians

Will Schaefer


In Egyptian mythology, Geb is the god of the earth. Geb is the husband and brother of the sky goddess Nut and the father of Osiris, Isis, Nephthys,  Horus the Elder, and Set. When Seth and Horus (Osiris' son) fought to become the king of Egypt, Geb made Horus the ruler of the living. Geb's parents are Tefnut and Shu. Geb and Nut together formed the permanent boundary between the primeval waters and the newly created world. The ancient Egyptians believed that earthquakes were Geb's laughter.

The animals of Geb are a snake and a goose (a goose is sometimes depicted on Geb's head). Geb is sometimes equivalent to Greek titan Kronos.Geb is also god of vegetation.  Geb is part of the second generation in the Ennead (group of nine gods) of Heliopolis.

He was the third divine ruler among the gods; the human pharaohs claimed to be descended from him, and the royal throne was referred to as "the throne of Geb."

Family
The story of how Shu, Geb, and Nut were separated in order to create the cosmos is now being interpreted in more human terms; exposing the hostility and sexual jealousy. Between the father-son jealousy and Shu rebelling against the divine order, Geb challenges Shu's leadership. Geb takes Shu's wife, Tefnut, as his chief queen, separating Shu from his sister-wife. Just as Shu had previously done to him. In the book of the Heavenly Cow, it is implied that Geb is the heir of the departing sun god. After Geb passed on the throne to Osiris, his son, he then took on a role of a judge in the Divine Tribunal of the gods.

In the Heliopolitan Ennead (a group of nine gods created in the beginning by the one god Atum or Ra), Geb is the husband of Nut, the sky or visible daytime and nightly firmament, the son of the earlier primordial elements Tefnut (moisture) and Shu ('emptiness'), and the father to the four lesser gods of the system – Osiris, Seth, Isis and Nephthys. In this context, Geb was believed to have originally been engaged with Nut and had to be separated from her by Shu, god of the air. Consequently, in mythological depictions, Geb was shown as a man reclining, sometimes with his phallus still pointed towards Nut. Geb and Nut together formed the permanent boundary between the primeval waters and the newly created world.

Worship
In Geb's temple, priests fed him everyday like many of the other gods. When gifts were given, people were allowed to go to the gate or the forecourt. The priests would collect gifts that the ordinary Egyptians gave to the gods. Priests would pray to honor Geb for the people who came to the temple. The temple was made out of big stone columns that supported a great big hall. There were also very big gates that opened up to the Great Hall. The rooms or chambers were lit by candles, and incense would make the rooms smell nice and clean the air in the temple. The chambers gradually decreased in size as priests went in and created a mysterious feeling. The priests then found the chapel in the shrine, which contained the Naos (a naos is a small shrine) which had the statue of Geb.

Physical appearance

Geb's symbol was a goose and his skin was sometimes green, representing the Nile River or black representing rich soil for vegetation. Geb was depicted as a man wearing the crown of the North and other times he wore the crown of the South of Egypt. Geb also sometimes wore a white crown or a goose on his head representing the earth. Geb held a staff in his left hand and in his right hand he usually held an ankh, which is the hieroglyph that meant life. Not only did Geb wear a goose on top of his head but sometimes his would be covered by a goose head.

Names
Geb was so powerful that when he laughed, he made earthquakes start. That is why he was named the Great Cackler. Just like other gods, Geb was very strong and could live a long time. To show his powers for making life from the earth, Geb is sometimes drawn with flowers coming out of his elbow. He had many names which were Geb, Gebb, Seb, Sebb, Keb, and Kebb.

References

 Remler, Pat. Egyptian Mythology A to Z
 Ackroyd Peter. Kingdom of the Dead
 Nardo, Don. Egyptian Mythology
 DiBiasi-Kay, Jennifer

Egyptian gods and goddesses

Geb


Used Car Expert (UsedCarExpert.co.uk) is published by SDO Media Ltd, which publishes other car and automotive financial advice sites.

Background
Founded in 2005, UsedCarExpert.co.uk (or .com/.net) is a used car buying advice site for UK motorists, visited and read by around 4m car buyers per annum.

Car Buying Advice
They have a dedicated research program that uncovers the common car faults on used cars and publishes ways for the layman to spot and avoid these faults when buying a used car.

Their used car price guide is the first consumer price guide to show real average mileages and regional price adjustment.

They also have a significant used car review section, used car facts and figures resource and used cars for sale, both of which are regularly cited in the media.

Between 2008 and 2010 Used Car Expert published a magazine version of their website price guide and car reviews which sold in WH Smith and other newsagents around the UK, competing against What Car? and Parkers price guides. The magazine was endorsed by TV used car guru Mike Brewer.

Media Credits

 Used Car Expert was cited as consumer champion on BBC TV Show "Rip-Off Britain"
 A Used Car Expert employee answered used car buyers questions throughout 2007 and 2008 on Sunday Times Website, Times Online
 He was also quoted on BBC online in relation to the British Motor Show  and interviewed on BBC TV and online in relation to car insurance valuations
 Used Car Expert was Radio 2's website of the day
 Used Car Expert is regularly quoted in the regional press, such as the Liverpool Echo, Daily Record, The Eastern Daily Press and many others.
 Used Car Expert advice was quoted in Shortlist magazine about future classic cars
 Used Car Expert price and depreciation analysis used in the Telegraph
 Used Car Expert advice cited in Confused.com used car review
 Used Car Expert advice cited Daily Post North Wales used car review
 Used Car Expert cam belt advice cited Cambridge news
 Used Car Expert used car regional market price report featured in a 'This Is Hull' news story
 Used Car Expert used car regional market price report featured in an Exchange & Mart news story
 Used Car Expert used car regional market price report featured in a RAC news story
 Used Car Expert used car regional market price report featured in a Yahoo / Press Association news story
Used Car Expert's car price depreciation data used by The Mirror daily newspaper in the UK on 13 April 2012 to compile a top 10 list of car that lose the most and least money over 3 years
 Used Car Expert's car depreciation index features in Telegraph news story
 Used Car Expert's regional car price analysis features in MSN  news story
 Used Car Expert's analysis of regional differences in UK car prices in features in AOL news story
 Used Car Expert's analysis of regional differences in UK car prices in features in MSN Money news story
 Used Car Expert's analysis of regional differences in UK car prices is reported by ITV
 Used Car Expert's analysis of car prices in the South West makes is reported by ITV West Country
 Used Car Expert's analysis of regional differences in UK car prices is reported by GreenFlag
 Used Car Expert's analysis of regional differences in UK car prices is reported by the RAC
 Used Car Expert's analysis of car prices in the South West makes is reported by Plymouth's Herald

Other media credits include the now defunct News of the World, BBC Radio Oxford, BBC Radio London, Radio 5.

References

Automotive websites
Used car market

Used car expert


Ceann is an American rock band from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Most commonly known for their song "Pittsburgh Makes Me Drunk". Their influences include Pat McCurdy, The Kingston Trio, Great Big Sea, Cake, The Pogues, Johnny Cash, Flogging Molly, Ween, They Might Be Giants, The Town Pants, Barenaked Ladies and Willie Nelson.

History

Patrick Halloran and Marc Wisnosky started the band in college. They wanted to play some Irish songs at a party on St. Patrick's Day, so they learned a few of the classic Irish pub tunes and wrote a couple of original Pittsburgh-themed Irish songs. They started off by playing at an open mic event. They began to play about fifteen to twenty Irish songs and then would eventually switch to songs by 'N Sync, Hanson, Snoop Dogg, NWA.

Ceann formed as an Irish rock band in Pittsburgh in 2005 with the release of their first album of all-original material Almost Irish. Before that, Ceann was an acoustic trio consisting of Halloran, Wisnosky, and James G. Telfer IV, that played Irish pub music across the northeast. Ceann continued to mix fun Irish music with their popular originals. While some of Ceann's songs revolve around the culture of being Irish Americans, many of Ceann's most popular songs have distinctively more contemporary themes. Their songs appeal far beyond the normal reach of Irish music and have given them access to unprecedented markets for an Irish band. As one of the only Irish bands to find success on commercial radio, Ceann's fan base has grown as quickly outside of Irish music circles as quickly as it's grown within them. Their cross market appeal allowed them to be featured at Irish festivals and at non-Irish music festivals to equal success.

On February 1, 2011 lead singer Patrick Halloran was killed in a car accident in Vermont. The remaining members of Ceann, along with past members, played together at Halloran's memorial service.

In the summer of 2013, various Ceann members got together in Pittsburgh, PA, New York, NY, and Virginia Beach, VA to play shows in support of the tribute album The Legend of Handsome Pat, a compilation of songs written by Halloran and recorded by various artists. Produced by Halloran's brother, Brian Halloran, the album features contributions by Brian Halloran, Ceann, Paul Tabachneck, The Hang Lows, Icewagon Flu, Scythian, The Havers, Peanut Butter & Julie, The Fighting Jamesons, Cruel Seamus, and Patrick Halloran.

Name

Ceann is pronounced "Key-ANN". It means head. The original name was Ceann na Caca, which is Gaelic for "Head of Poop." It wasn't supposed to be funny or clever. Ceann was only going to play one show to parody The Pogues' original name, Pogue Mahone, which means "kiss my ass". They realized that some people became hesitant to book them because of the name, so they shortened it to Ceann.

Sound
Five to six guys of ambiguous descent playing something that may or may not sound like Irish music. Some people say we sound like or may be influenced by the following bands: Cake, Stephen Lynch, Johnny Cash, Flogging Molly, Ween, Great Big Sea, They Might Be Giants, Barenaked Ladies, Black 47, The Pogues.

Members
Patrick Halloran (1999–2011), vocals, guitar
Jeffrey A Hoag (2005–present), mandolin, acoustic/electric guitar, vocals, banjo, harmonica
Brian Halloran (2011–present), vocals, guitar & (2008–2009) bass guitar
Scott Taylor (2005–present), drums, vocals
Tom Snodgrass (2009–present), bass guitar
Dan Rusnak (2008–present), baritone saxophone
Greg Sloan (2008–present), alto saxophone
Brian Fitzgerald (2010–present), electric violin
Patrick "Tricky" Manion (2008–2010, 2011–present), fiddle
John Shea (2004–2006), drums
James Gleason (2004–2006), banjo
James G. Telfer, IV (2000–2008), bass guitar, fiddle, bodhran, vocals
Marc Wisnosky (1999–present), vocals, tin whistle, bodhran, Irish tenor banjo

Discography

Key'-anna 'Ka-ka, n. – 2001
 Us Drunk Live – 2003
 Almost Irish – 2006
Rave, Rant, Lose Pants – 2007
Making Friends – 2008
It's Not Hard – 2009
Last One's Standing – 2010
 The Legend of Handsome Pat – 2013 (contributed "The Sun is My Least Favorite Star')

References

Musical groups established in 2005
Rock music groups from Pennsylvania
Musical groups from Pittsburgh
2005 establishments in Pennsylvania

Ceann


The Bété are an Ivory Coast group with strong cultural and artistic links to the Dan, the We (Gwere) and the Guro, among others. The Bété are a tribe of the Kru ethnic group. There are 93 distinct subgroups within the Bété group.

Culture
Bété communities consist of subsistence farmers, but base most of their culture around hunting. Social control was exercised by the leading member of individual lineages (several in each village) who exercises judicial and financial power within the community.

Bété are known for their focus on individual rights. A male "chief" is chosen by the people based on the criterion of wisdom. This leader stays in power until his death or any wrongdoing. Bete women are known for being outspoken.

Religion
Historically, spiritual authority was wielded with an array of paraphernalia, notably including the "gre" mask, a horned and decorated creation (originating with the We) designed to instill terror in the onlooker, to quell social unrest, and to be worn when meting out justice after conflict.

Statuary is uncommon, and is based around feminine iconography that refers to a mythical mother figure. No recognized liturgical function was found, although some reports indicate that a pair of figures was often placed under a village rain shelter to represent its founders. This evocation of a primeval couple has widespread resonance in African culture. Rare figures with exaggerated genitalia are probably linked to a magico-religious fertility appeal. Alternatively, they may have constituted a more general role, evoking or celebrating the fertility of the village/land, its founders or the forest from which the people made their living.

Today much of the population is Christian.

Marriage
Traditionally, Bete men traveled outside of the village to find marriage partners. Choosing a partner within the ethnicity is not allowed because of the belief that the village is a family unit. Ethnically diverse marriages therefore are strongly encouraged. Before dating begins men ask about the woman's family to prevent an intra-familial match. Marriage is forbidden if the couple is related in any way. Husbands remain in their home village after marriage. Wives are assigned the husband's ethnic identity. The husband is expected to provide a home and land (usually inherited) for his wife.

The marriage is discussed only among the bride and groom and is meant to be a surprise for the parents, particularly the woman's parents. The date of the wedding is set and the wife's family is invited to the groom's village to celebrate. The woman's family then visits to make sure the woman is marrying of her own free will. This is a polite formality. When she has said that she is sure of her decision, then congratulations are welcomed. The wedding ceremony takes one week. Each day is a celebration of the bride and she is treated royally.

Polygamy is practiced by wealthier and older men. Husbands typically have no more than three wives. When a man decides to marry again, the first wife becomes a sort of mother to her. The original wife may choose to become the head of the group of wives. This is a common practice but not an obligation. Any wife may choose to separate if her husband marries another woman. The original wife may attempt to make the second wife feel unwelcome to make her leave instead. Alternatively, the wives get along.

Divorce is very common. A wife can leave her husband and return to her home village whenever she chooses without notice or explanation. The husband in turn can choose to kick his wife out. Counseling among friends is very common in marital disputes.

Traditions are mostly practiced by people still living in villages. When the children move to cities, they usually adopt modern traditions.

Notable people
 Abraham Gneki Guié
 Brice Dja Djédjé
 Cyril Domoraud
 Gervinho
 Hervé Guy
 Jean-Jacques Gosso
 Igor Lolo
 Koffi Kouao
 Soumahoro Bangaly
 Bonaventure Kalou
 Salomon Kalou
 Eric Bailly
 Franck Kessié
 Serge Aurier
 Maxwel Cornet
 Max Gradel
 Didier Drogba
 Johan Djourou
 Laurent Gbagbo
 Frédéric Bruly Bouabré
 Simon Adingra

See also
Bété language

References
Bacquart, J. 1998/2000. The Tribal Arts of Africa. Thames and Hudson.

Ethnic groups in Ivory Coast

Bété people


The Dunbar Apartments, also known as the Paul Laurence Dunbar Garden Apartments or Dunbar Garden Apartments, is a complex of buildings located on West 149th and West 150th Streets between Frederick Douglass Boulevard/Macombs Place and Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. They were built by John D. Rockefeller Jr. from 1926 to 1928 to provide housing for African Americans, and was the first large cooperative aimed at that demographic. The buildings were designed by architect Andrew J. Thomas and were named in honor of the noted African American poet Paul Laurence Dunbar.

The complex consists of six separate buildings with a total of 511 apartments (as constructed) and occupies an entire city block. The buildings center around an interior garden courtyard, with each building "U"-shaped so that every apartment receives easy air flow and direct sunlight at some point during the day.  The Dunbar is considered the "first large garden-complex in Manhattan."

The complex was designated a New York City Landmark in 1970, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

History and description

The Dunbar Apartments were constructed as an experiment in housing reform, to alleviate the housing shortage in Harlem and to provide housing for African Americans.  Rather than being set up as rental apartments, the complex was a housing cooperative. Tenants were required to pay a down payment of $50 per room, and then $14.50 per room per month, much of which went towards a mortgage on the space. In 22 years, if payments were all made on time, the tenant would own the apartment.  The project was both the first large cooperative aimed at African Americans, and also New York City's first large garden apartment complex.

The original tenants were primarily middle class, and inexpensive childcare was provided on-site to support working mothers. However, the building opened in 1928, and the Great Depression began just a year later. The management of the complex was forced to loosen a number of cooperative rules in order to allow people to, for example, take in lodgers. Even so, too many tenants failed to make their payments and the buildings defaulted on their mortgage to Rockefeller.  He foreclosed in 1936, and a year later the buildings were converted to rental units.

In June 2013, the Dunbar Apartments were sold to the Brooklyn-based developer E&M Associates.  Plans were set in motion to upgrade the facilities and establish the Dunbar as one of the premier upscale complexes in Upper Manhattan.  These plans include renovating the vacant apartments, updating and refurbishing the interior courtyard and garden, and the addition of a variety of amenities including a fitness center, playground, additional security and a doorman.  The contract was acquired by Samuel Berry and Andrew Melohn of Douglas Elliman working in conjunction with Fredrik Eklund.

Notable residents
Noted personalities to live in the Dunbar Apartments include leaders of the Civil Rights Movement such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Paul Robeson, Noah D. Thompson, and A. Philip Randolph, author William Melvin Kelley, entertainer Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, poet Countee Cullen, and the explorer Matthew Henson.

See also
List of New York City Landmarks
National Register of Historic Places listings in New York County, New York

References
Notes

Bibliography
Tritter, Thorin. "The Growth and Decline of Harlem's Housing" in Afro-Americans in New York Life and History (January 31, 1998)

External links

A. Philip Randolph (1889–1979), labor leader, civil rights leader National Park Service – Historic places of the civil rights movement

Harlem
Residential buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan
Historic American Buildings Survey in New York (state)
Residential buildings completed in 1926
Condominiums and housing cooperatives in Manhattan
Former cooperatives of the United States
Apartment buildings in New York City
New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan

Dunbar Apartments


A warrant is a writ that permits someone to take a specific legal action. Most often the writ is from a judge. It is used by law enforcement to take actions such as searching for evidence, making an arrest or seizing property.

Search warrant
In the United States, in order for police and other law enforcement personnel to search for evidence, they need a warrant. They must also have probable cause (a good reason to believe they will find evidence of a crime). A search warrant must be signed by a judge or magistrate. The officer must provide a sworn statement of fact called an affidavit. If the judge or magistrate believes the affidavit establishes probable cause, he or she approves the warrant. A warrant is usually for a specific period of time and spells out exactly what the officers may search for and seize.

Arrest warrant

United States
In many cases an arrest warrant is not needed. If a police officer personally sees someone committing a crime, the officer may arrest that individual without a warrant. An officer may also arrest someone if they have probable cause to believe the person had committed or were about to commit a crime. For example, a police officer is notified a bank has just been robbed and is given a description of the suspect. The single robber left in a dark blue Ford Mustang. The officer stops a dark blue Ford Mustang with bags of money on the back seat (in plain sight) and the driver matches the description. The officer believes he has probable cause and arrests the driver.

If the person is in his (or her) own home and the crime is not a serious one, an officer needs an arrest warrant.

European Union
In the European Union a European Arrest Warrant (EAW) is most often used between member countries in place of a lengthy extradition process. These came into effect on 1 January 2004. Since that time they are used to arrest dangerous criminals who flee across borders in Europe.

Japan
In Japan, an officer may arrest a person they believe may have committed a crime. They can detain the person for up to 48 hours. The police are required to inform the person why they were arrested. During the 48 hour period, the person may be brought before a prosecutor if the police have enough evidence. If the prosecutor believes the evidence is enough, they request a warrant of detention before a judge within 24 hours. The defendant appears before the judge when the warrant is requested. The case may be dropped for lack of evidence either before the prosecutor or before the judge.

References

Documents
Legal terms

Warrant (law)


Science Commons (SC) was a Creative Commons project for designing strategies and tools for faster, more efficient web-enabled scientific research. The organization's goals were to identify unnecessary barriers to research, craft policy guidelines and legal agreements to lower those barriers, and develop technology to make research data and materials easier to find and use. Its overarching goal was to speed the translation of data into discovery and thereby the value of research.

Science Commons was located at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in the Ray and Maria Stata Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

History

Creative Commons launched the Science Commons project in early 2005. The project sought to achieve for science what Creative Commons had achieved for the world of culture, art and educational material: to ease unnecessary legal and technical barriers to sharing, to promote innovation, and to provide easy, high quality tools that let individuals and organizations specify the terms under which they wished to share their material.

In 2009, Creative Commons terminated the Science Commons project.

Projects

Biological Materials Transfer Project

The Biological Materials Transfer Project, a Material transfer agreement (MTA), developed and deployed standard, modular contracts to lower the costs of transferring biological materials such as DNA, cell lines, model animals and more. The MTA project covered transfer between non-profit institutions, as well as offering transaction solutions to transfers between non-profit entities and for-profit institutions. It integrated existing standard agreements and new Science Commons contracts into a Web-deployed suite, with the goal of developing a transaction system along the lines of Amazon or eBay by using the licensing as a discovery mechanism for materials.

This metadata driven approach is based on the success of the Creative Commons licensing integration into search engines, further allowing for and facilitating the integration of materials licensing into the research literature itself and databases. The hope being that scientists would eventually be only one click away from accessing and/or ordering the materials referenced in the scholarly literature as they perform their research. Unfortunately, the MTA project's tools were not adopted by more than a very small percentage of the scientific community while Science Commons was active and, for all practical purposes, died out when the Science Commons project folded.

Neurocommons

Science Commons' Neurocommons project set out to create an Open Source knowledge management platform for biological research. The platform combined open access materials (making up the knowledgebase) and open source software (in the form of an analytic platform). The software was still under development when the project ended.

Scholar's Copyright Project

The Scholar's Copyright was developed with Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition designed to lower the barriers to Open Access (OA) by reducing transaction costs and eliminating contract proliferation by offering tools and resources catering to both methods of achieving Open Access. The Scholar's Copyright Addendum is still in use by SPARC

Open Access Data Protocol
The Science Commons Open Access Data Protocol was a method for ensuring that scientific databases can be legally integrated with one another. The protocol was not a license or legal tool, but instead a methodology and best practices document for creating such legal tools in the future, and marking data in the public domain for machine-assisted discovery.

References

External links

Creative Commons
  (Former official site)
MIT Libraries Podcast with Creative Commons VP for Science John Wilbanks
Popular Science interview with Creative Commons VP for Science John Wilbanks

Copyright law organizations
Creative Commons
Scientific organizations based in the United States
Scientific organizations established in 2005
Organizations disestablished in 2009
Open science
Scholarly communication

Science Commons


The Historical Dictionary Project of the Hebrew Language (HDP) (Hebrew: מִפְעַל הַמִּלּוֹן הַהִיסְטוֹרִי) is a long-term research undertaking of the Academy of the Hebrew Language. According to the Academy's website, "The overarching goal of the HDP is to present the history and development of the Hebrew lexicon, from the earliest occurrences of words down through their most recent documentation." It aims to encompass the entire Hebrew lexicon throughout its history; that is, to present every Hebrew word in its morphological, semantical, and contextual development from its first appearance in written texts to the present.

The editorial board consists of Prof. Chaim E. Cohen, editor-in-chief; Prof. Steven (Shmuel) Fassberg, associate editor; and Dr. Gabriel Birnbaum, writer of the entries.

Origins

As early as 1937, the president of Va'ad HaLashon ("The Language Committee", which later became the Academy of the Hebrew Language), Prof. Naftali Herz Tur-Sinai, proposed the establishment of "a large endeavor which prepares an academic dictionary of our language, in all of the periods and evolutions that it has endured from the moment it is documented, until today." A formal decision to undertake the HDP was taken in 1955.

Preparation

The HDP is based on Hebrew texts up until 1100 CE, and large selections of Hebrew literature from the period thereafter until the founding of the State of Israel. As much scholarly attention had already been given to the Hebrew Bible and the Pseudepigrapha, it was decided to begin with texts from the post-biblical period. The database thus reflects more than 2000 years of Hebrew writing. Such a project requires a large textual database, and the HDP was one of the first in the world to develop and use a computerized concordance. In 2005, some fifty years after commencement, it was decided there was enough material to begin the writing of entries.

Sources

The Academy initially debated as to whether it should create a series of dictionaries according to periods or literary genres, or whether it should work towards a single integrated work. In 1959 it was decided that there would be one central dictionary containing all periods, i.e., ancient, medieval and modern Hebrew literature. Material was first gathered from ancient literature written between 200 BCE and 1100 CE, and later, modern literature from 1750 onwards. Sources include material discovered at the Cairo Genizah. Material from Karaite sources is also included, and material from Samaritan sources may be added in the future. Compilation of the list of documentary sources for the dictionary was completed in 1963 with the publication of Sefer ha-Meqorot [Source Book] for sources "from the canonization of the Bible until the conclusion of the Geonic period." The Source Book serves as the foundation for all work on the dictionary.

Database

Work on the HDP is based on the best available manuscripts of the texts, which are entered into the database and then analyzed. In those cases where there are several extant manuscripts, the clearest and most complete manuscript is selected for incorporation into the dictionary.

In 1982 the Academy published a sample entry for the dictionary based on the triliteral root ערב. The 88-page entry was published in the Academy's journal "Leshonenu" ("Our Language").

In 2010, the database of Hebrew texts from the post-biblical period down through the 11th century, and the database of modern texts from 1750 onwards, were united into a single database. This database serves as an archive of not only individual words, but also complete texts that have been carefully copied from their source. In addition to enabling grammatical analyses and concordance searches, the archives also contain unique corpora, such as Hebrew poetry from the 11th century. The database is accessible to the public.

The database draws upon some 4,300 Hebrew sources, from the classic Rabbinic literature period (2nd century BCE) through the Geonic period (11th century CE) to 1947. Literary strata and genres represented include the Dead Sea Scrolls, inscriptions, Talmud and Midrash, Geonic literature, prayer and piyyut, Karaite literature, science, deeds, colophons, amulets, and the like. Essentially a concordance, the online resource accesses all the words in the database and enables retrieval of citations according to roots, lemmata, and declined forms or combinations, as well as of specific texts by title, author, date, or literary genre. It is updated as new research becomes available and as more old texts are discovered.

As of 7 June 2010, the twenty-million word database contained 4,056 Hebrew roots. Of its 54,807 entries, 14,592 are nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and 13,979 are verbs. The balance consists of personal names, numbers, prepositions and similar lexical items. The size of the database on that date was about 40 gigabytes. The complete lexical archive will contain at least 25 million quotations.

References

External links
 Historical Dictionary Project at the Academy of the Hebrew Language.

Three samples of the entry for the triliteral root ערב a b c
 The Historical Dictionary of the Hebrew Language, Literary & Linguistic Computing, Vol. 4, Issue 4, 1989, Pages 271-273. Retrieved 2012-07-02.
 The Historical Dictionary of the Hebrew Language, Kernerman Dictionary News, Number 12, July 2004.
 Academy of the Hebrew Language at Jewish Virtual Library.
 Israeli scholars set out to compile the ultimate Hebrew dictionary, Ha'aretz, April 10, 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-02.

Hebrew dictionaries
Historical dictionaries


Antipass Kwari (born 1975) is a Zimbabwean cyclist. He was the 2005 Zimbabwe mountainbike champion and represented his country  at the 2007 African Mountainbike Championships which were held in Windhoek, Namibia where he placed 8th, in doing so Kwari qualified for the 2008 Olympic Games held in Beijing, where he finished 48th in the men's cross country race.

In 2007, Kwari and the Zimbabwe Mountain Bike team created history when they became the very first Zimbabwe Mountain Bike team to race in an official UCI international race. They competed at the 2007 UCI African MTB Championship, which was held in Windhoek. Zimbabwe had in previous seasons raced in the road cycling discipline but never at mountain biking.

See also
 Zimbabwe Cycling Federation

References

External links

Zimbabwean male cyclists
Living people
Zimbabwean mountain bikers
1975 births
Olympic cyclists for Zimbabwe
Cyclists at the 2008 Summer Olympics

Antipass Kwari


Lieutenant General Richard Phillip Klocko (February 26, 1915 – April 19, 2011) was an American Air Force lieutenant general and command pilot who was director, Defense Communications Agency, Washington, D.C.

Biography
Klocko was born in Dunkirk, New York, in 1915. He graduated from Dunkirk High School in 1933, received a congressional appointment to the U.S. Military Academy and graduated from there in 1937. After graduation, he completed primary and advanced flying training in October 1938.

The general's first assignment in the Army Air Corps was a -year tour with the 36th Pursuit Squadron, Langley Field, Va. In January 1941, he was transferred to the 36th Pursuit Group at Losey Field, Puerto Rico, where he served until June 1942. At that time he was reassigned to England where he served in the Headquarters European Theater of Operations until October 1942.

In October 1942, he was assigned to command the 350th Fighter Group being formed in England. Klocko readied the unit, equipped with P-39 fighters, for combat and moved to North Africa to support the invasion. In February 1943, while on a special mission over enemy lines, dropping messages to isolated units, he was taken a prisoner of war. For this special mission, Klocko received the Silver Star from the commanding general of the 1st Armored Division. He remained a prisoner of war in Germany until April 1945.

Following the end of the war, Klocko was assigned to the War Department General Staff, Washington, D.C., from August 1945 to October 1947. He was then appointed chief, Supplemental Research Branch, Director of Intelligence, Headquarters U.S. Air Force. From August 1949 to July 1950 Klocko attended the Air War College, and from July 1950 until July 1952, he served both as an instructor and member of the Air War College faculty.

Klocko remained at Maxwell Air Force Base, Ala., until July 1954 serving as a member of the Graduate Study Group, working on policy and doctrine for Air Force operations.

Klocko was then assigned to the U.S. Air Force Security Service, Kelly Air Force Base, Texas, as deputy chief of staff operations. He served in this capacity until June 30, 1955, when he was reassigned as chief of staff, U.S. Air Force Security Service, a position he held until July 1956. During these assignments, he received the Legion of Merit for his contribution to the Security Service mission.

In July 1956, Klocko was appointed commander, 6900th Security Wing, Frankfurt, Germany. He commanded the wing until August 1960. During this assignment he was promoted to brigadier general. In August 1960, Klocko was reassigned as deputy commander, U.S. Air Force Security Service. He was promoted to major general in January 1962 and became commander of U.S. Air Force Security Service on Sept. 1, 1962.

His decorations include the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, Silver Star, Legion of Merit with two oak leaf clusters, Bronze Star Medal, Air Medal with two oak leaf clusters and the Army Commendation Medal with oak leaf cluster.

Died on April 19, 2011, in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, He was buried at the West Point Cemetery.

References

1915 births
2011 deaths
American prisoners of war in World War II
Air War College alumni
Burials at West Point Cemetery
United States Air Force generals
Recipients of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Silver Star
People from Dunkirk, New York
United States Military Academy alumni

Richard P. Klocko