Benjamin Jowett (, modern variant ; 15 April 1817 – 1 October 1893) was an English tutor and administrative reformer in the University of Oxford, a theologian, an Anglican cleric, and a translator of Plato and Thucydides. He was Master of Balliol College, Oxford.

Early life

Jowett was born in Camberwell, London, the third of nine children. His father was a furrier originally from a Yorkshire family that, for three generations, had been supporters of the Evangelical movement in the Church of England, and an author of a metrical translation of the Old Testament Psalms. His mother, Isabella Langhorne (1790–1869), was related to John Langhorne, the poet and translator of Plutarch. At the age of 12, Jowett was placed on the foundation of St Paul's School (then in St Paul's Churchyard) where he soon gained a reputation as a precocious classical scholar. Aged 18 he was awarded an open scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford, where he remained for the rest of his life. He began his studies in 1836, and was quickly recognised as one of the leading Oxford dons of his generation, made a Fellow while still an undergraduate in 1838; he graduated with first-class honours in 1839. This was at the height of the Oxford Tractarian movement: through the friendship of W. G. Ward he was drawn for a time in the direction of High Anglicanism; but a stronger and more lasting influence was that of the Arnold school, represented by A. P. Stanley. The controversy caused Jowett to withdraw from High Table at college to lodgings in Broad Street.

Heretical controversialist

As early as 1839, Stanley had joined with Archibald Campbell Tait, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, in advocating certain university reforms. From 1846 onwards, Jowett threw himself into this movement, which in 1848 became general amongst the younger and more thoughtful fellows, until it took effect in the commission of 1850 and the act of 1854. Jowett then concentrated on theology: he spent the summers of 1845 and 1846 in Germany with Stanley, and became an eager student of German criticism and speculation. His views became more than radical, they were heretical, which severely curtailed prospects for advancement within the walls of the conformity of Anglican Oxford. Amongst the writings of that period he was most impressed by those of F. C. Baur. But he never ceased to exercise an independent judgement, and his work on St Paul, which appeared in 1855, was the result of much original reflection and inquiry.

Jowett found a friend and correspondent in Florence Nightingale, but whether there was any romantic attachment is unclear. It has been suggested that he belatedly proposed marriage, but was rejected, and lived the latter part of his life in regret that he never knew matrimonial bliss. Jowett's didactic and pedagogic nature tended him towards instruction of her complicated character accusing her of exaggeration, an emotional intensity occasioned by hysteria. He was a father figure, paternalistic towards a deeply conservative woman, religious, self-censoring and strict in her conduct. Another educational reform, the opening of the Indian Civil Service to competition, took place at the same time, and Jowett was one of the commission. He had two brothers, William and Alfred who had served and died in India, and he never ceased to take a deep and practical interest in Indian affairs. After the Second Royal Commission in May 1859 he called Philomela 'the Governess of Governors of India' for her robust dealings with the poor conditions in Calcutta "the natives themselves...educated to cleanliness & health by the enforcement of sanitary regulations in the large towns." When an old man he visited Claydons, where Margaret Verney donated him a print portrait of Florence which he later bequested in his will to Somerville College. A. Sorabji, an Indian writer, was a student barrister at Somerville College in 1890s, when the Master of Balliol, pointing to the picture declared her love for him: the story was never confirmed. In another story entirely Margot Tennant later wife of Henry Asquith, befriended Jowett, only to learn that he had had a "violent...very violent" relationship with Nightingale. Jowett was an éminence grise of liberal theology but could be somewhat chaotic in his recollections.

Oxford career

Jowett was appointed to the Regius Professorship of Greek in autumn 1855. He had been a tutor of Balliol and an Anglican cleric since 1842 and had devoted himself to the work of tuition: his pupils became his friends for life. He discerned their capabilities and taught them to know themselves. This made him a reputation as "the great tutor".

A great disappointment, his repulse for the mastership of Balliol, also in 1854, appears to have roused him into the completion of his book on The Epistles of St Paul. This work, described by one of his friends as "a miracle of boldness", is full of originality and suggestiveness, but its publication awakened against him a storm of theological opposition from the Orthodox Evangelicals, which followed him more or less through life. Instead of yielding to this, he joined with Henry Bristow Wilson and Rowland Williams, who had been similarly attacked, in the production of the volume known as Essays and Reviews. This appeared in 1860 and gave rise to a strong outbreak of criticism. Jowett's loyalty to those who were prosecuted on this account was no less characteristic than his persistent silence while the augmentation of his salary as Greek professor was withheld. This persecution was continued until 1865, when E. A. Freeman and Charles Elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the conditions of the professorship had occurred, and Christ Church, Oxford, raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Jowett was one of the recipients of Nightingale's three volume work Suggestions for Thought for proof-reading and criticism. In the third volume of Essays and Reviews he contributed On the Interpretation of Scripture in which he attempted to reconcile her assertion that religion was law and could be unified with science. Her radical thoughts on women's place in the home, and his departure from liberal Anglican theology helped to block for a decade his career advancement to the Mastership of Balliol. By 1860, he was already Regius Professor of Greek and a Fellow of Balliol, but an increase in his stipend was withheld. While the work gained fulsome praise from philosopher-politician John Stuart Mill, it profoundly shook the more traditional establishment's fervent belief that the working-classes would continue to worship in parish churches. Recognition that this was no longer so, was just one of the theological departures. In October 1862 he was invited to Oak Hill Park to offer Florence the sacrament. Accepting the prospect with relish, he nonetheless consulted with Archbishop Tait for permission. Many of his letters to her and Mrs Bracebridge have survived; their religion was tinged with a mutual respect for their shared common interests and intellectual gifts. Also included is an unflattering description of a middle-aged man.

Height of intellectual powers

Meanwhile, Jowett's influence at Oxford had steadily increased; he had his favourites. It culminated when the country clergy, provoked by the final acquittal of the essayists, had voted in convocation against the endowment of the Greek chair. Jowett's pupils, who were now drawn from the university at large, supported him with enthusiasm. He made friends with the Freemantles (related to Gladstone's minister, Grant Duff), and the Verneys at Claydons. On holiday in Derbyshire he would write to them and Florence, describing his findings at Lea Hurst in 1864. One historian has identified his relations with her as being most intense between 1863 and 1866: in April 1864, he had advised Florence Nightingale to prevent Garibaldi, her world-famous guest, from stirring up trouble in Italy. This coincided with a big philosophical argument in which they were poles apart: there were three major pieces of sanitary legislation, the Contagious Diseases Acts, which in 1870 came under fire from Josephine Butler, a feminist and social reformer, who wished their repeal. The rational theologian in Jowett warned Nightingale to ignore those "on the wrong tack". Rising incidents of venereal disease posed a moral question about whether to regulate prostitution, when men still might die from the infection. Policing of the health conditions became a case for which women's rights campaigners demanded repeal, and they launched a vociferous attack in the press on Jowett, amongst others. He was a compassionate man, visiting the selfless Hilary Bonham Carter (dying from cancer) in May 1865, administering his own brand of prayer and kindness. He was a staunch critic of the Poor Laws that condemned the poor, sick, and vulnerable to appalling degradation, leaving people to starve. In London alone in 1866 there were 21,500 patients with no trained nurses. But his influence could be profound. In 1874, he criticised Florence's impending Report of Land Tenure in India to the extent that it was never published, because she "could lose influence".

In the midst of other labours, Jowett had been quietly exerting his influence so as to conciliate all shades of liberal opinion, and bring them to bear upon the abolition of the theological test, which was still required for the M.A. and other degrees, as well as for university and college offices. He spoke upon this question at an important meeting in London on 10 June 1864, which laid the ground for the Universities Tests Act 1871. Directly after, as Master of Balliol College, he made the college "a sort of heaven on earth". The liberal reforms to college commenced radical scientific enquiries into the nature of man's existence, questioning on the basis of empirical data the meaning of Christianity and its very existence. The shock waves reverberated through the liberal establishment, into the founding of the Labour Party and the New Liberalism of the Great War.

In connection with the Greek professorship, Jowett had undertaken a work on Plato which grew into a complete translation of the Dialogues with introductory essays, for which Florence Nightingale's criticism was gratefully received. At this he laboured in vacation time for at least ten years. He argued that platonic love between men was devoid of sexual activity, though Walter Pater would later disagree. He showed no interest in offering his own opinion on God or theology in his translations, in several editions, of Plato's works. The educated middle-classes were looking for an answer to how Plato could be relevant to Victorians. But his interest in theology had not abated, and his thoughts found an outlet in occasional preaching. The university pulpit, indeed, was closed to him, but several congregations in London delighted in his sermons, and from 1866 until the year of his death he preached annually in Westminster Abbey, where Stanley had become Dean in 1863. Three volumes of selected sermons were published posthumously. The years 1865–70 were occupied with assiduous teaching and writing.

Amongst his pupils at Balliol were men destined to high positions in the state, whose parents had thus shown their confidence in the supposed heretic, and gratitude on this account was added to other motives for his unsparing efforts in tuition. Robert Scott, Master of Balliol College, was promoted to the deanery of Rochester in 1870, and Jowett, finally after years of trying, was elected to the vacant Mastership by the fellows of Balliol. Jowett attributed this arrangement to his liberal friend Robert Lowe, afterwards Lord Sherbrooke (at that time a member of Gladstone's ministry). From the vantage-ground of this long-coveted position, the Plato was published in 1871. It had a great and well-deserved success. While scholars criticized particular renderings (and there were many small errors to be removed in subsequent editions), it was generally agreed that he had succeeded in making Plato an English classic.

From 1866, his authority in Balliol had been paramount, and various reforms in college had been due to his initiative. The opposing minority were now powerless, and the younger fellows who had been his pupils were more inclined to follow him than others would have been. There was no obstacle to the continued exercise of his firm and reasonable will. He still knew the undergraduates individually, and watched their progress with a vigilant eye. His influence in the university was less assured. The pulpit of St Mary's, the university church, was no longer closed to him, but the success of Balliol in the schools gave rise to jealousy in other colleges, and old prejudices did not suddenly give way; while a new movement in favour of "the endowment of research" ran counter to his immediate purposes.

Meanwhile, the tutorships in other colleges, and some of the headships also, were being filled with Balliol men, and Jowett's former pupils were prominent in both houses of parliament and at the bar. He continued the practice, which he had commenced in 1848, of taking with him a small party of undergraduates in vacation time, and working with them in one of his favourite haunts, at Askrigg in Wensleydale, or Tummel Bridget or later at West Malvern. Included in this list was Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge who became recognised as equal to the great classical scholar Theodor Mommsen. The new hall (1876), the organ there, entirely his gift (1835) and the cricket ground (1889), remain as external monuments of the master's activity. Neither business nor the many claims of friendship interrupted literary work. The six or seven weeks of the long vacation, during which he had pupils with him, were mainly employed in writing. The translation of Aristotle's Politics, the revision of Plato, and, above all, the translation of Thucydides many times revised, occupied several years. The edition of the Republic, undertaken in 1856, remained unfinished, but was continued with the help of Professor Lewis Campbell.

Other literary plans were not to take effect – an Essay on the Religions of the World, a Commentary on the Gospels, a Life of Christ, a volume on Moral Ideas. Such plans were frustrated, not only by his practical avocations, but by his determination to finish what he had begun, and the fastidious self-criticism which it took so long to satisfy. The book on Morals might, however, have been written but for the heavy burden of the vice-chancellorship, which he was induced to accept in 1882, by the hope, only partially fulfilled, of securing many improvements for Oxford University. The Vice-Chancellor was ex officio a delegate of the Oxford University Press, where he hoped to effect much; and a plan for draining the Thames Valley, which he had now the power of initiating, was one on which his mind had dwelt for many years.

However, one plan that certainly came to fruition to great applause was the co-operation with Florence Nightingale to bring a lecture tour to Oxford for undergraduates training in the agricultural sciences for the Indian Civil Service. It was supported by economist Arnold Toynbee, also at Balliol, and W R Robertson, Principal of Madras Agricultural College. For the first time, Indians would receive a proper education in the technical aspects of forestry and farming.

Later life and death

The exhausting labours of the vice-chancellorship were followed by illness (1887); after this he relinquished the hope of producing any great original writing. His literary industry was thenceforth confined to a commentary on the Republic of Plato, and some essays on Aristotle which were to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the Politics. The essays which should have accompanied the translation of Thucydides were never written. Jowett, who never married, died on 1 October 1893 in Oxford. The funeral was one of the most impressive ever seen in that city. The pall-bearers were seven heads of colleges and the provost of Eton, all old pupils.

Theologian, tutor, university reformer, renowned Master of an Oxford college, Jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding generations was his greatness as a moral teacher. Many of the most prominent Englishmen of the day were his pupils and owed much of what they were to his precept and example, his penetrative sympathy, his insistent criticism, and his unwearying friendship. Seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued with so clear a recognition of practical limitations. "Dear (tho perfidious) Professor" Jowett's theological work was transitional; yet has an element of permanence, "Mr Jowett put as much of his genius into Plato as Plato did into Mr Jowett', eulogised Florence Nightingale on her old friend.

As has been said of another thinker, he was "one of those deeply religious men who, when crude theological notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new life into theology by wider and more humane ideas." In earlier life he had been a zealous student of Immanuel Kant and G. W. F. Hegel, and to the end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic spirit; but he had little confidence in metaphysical systems, and sought rather to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life. As a classical scholar, his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the neglect of minutiae, but he had the higher merit of interpreting ideas. A well-known Balliol rhyme about him runs:

Jowett is buried in St Sepulchre's Cemetery off Walton Street in Oxford.

Publications
An extensive bibliography of works by and about Benjamin Jowett has been produced by Prof. Colin Tyler (Centre for Idealism and the New Liberalism at the University of Hull, UK). It can be downloaded at: https://idealismandnewliberalism.org/bibliographies/

Legacy

 Jowett Walk in central Oxford is named after him.
 He appears as "Dr Jenkinson" in The New Republic, by William Hurrell Mallock.
 Jowett appears briefly as a character in Louis Auchincloss's novel The Rector of Justin (1964).
 Jowett also appears as a minor character in Tom Stoppard's play The Invention of Love (1997).
 The Great Jowett was a 1939 radio play based on his life, written by Graham Greene.

See also

 History of translation

Notes

References

Sources

 John Bibby: HOTS: History of Teaching Statistics for original documents.

Further reading

External links

 Works at Open Library

 Grave of Benjamin Jowett in St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford, with biography
 Works at Christian Classics Ethereal Library

 Catalogue of the Jowett Papers at Balliol College Archives & Manuscripts, University of Oxford

1817 births
1893 deaths
People from Camberwell
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
English classical scholars
English theologians
English Anglican theologians
English Anglicans
Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford
Masters of Balliol College, Oxford
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Oxford
English translators
Regius Professors of Greek (University of Oxford)
British scholars of ancient Greek philosophy
Translators of philosophy
19th-century British translators
English essayists
Translators of Ancient Greek texts
19th-century English essayists
Burials at St Sepulchre's Cemetery

Benjamin Jowett


In pair production, a photon creates an electron positron pair. In the process of photons scattering in air (e.g. in lightning discharges), the most important interaction is the scattering of photons at the nuclei of atoms or molecules. The full quantum mechanical process of pair production can be described by the quadruply differential cross section given here:

with

This expression can be derived by using a quantum mechanical symmetry between pair production and Bremsstrahlung.  is the atomic number,  the fine structure constant,  the reduced Planck's constant and  the speed of light. The kinetic energies  of the positron and electron relate to their total energies  and momenta  via

Conservation of energy yields

The momentum  of the virtual photon between incident photon and nucleus is:

where the directions are given via:

where  is the momentum of the incident photon.

In order to analyse the relation between the photon energy  and the emission angle  between photon and positron, Köhn and Ebert integrated  the quadruply differential cross section over  and . The double differential cross section is:

with

and

This cross section can be applied in Monte Carlo simulations. An analysis of this expression shows that positrons are mainly emitted in the direction of the incident photon.

References

Quantum mechanics
Particle physics

Quantum mechanical scattering of photon and nucleus


Team Polti was an Italian professional cycling team. It became an independent team in 1994, after the separation of Lampre-Polti, and was active until 2000. Team Polti began in 1994 with Gianluigi Stanga as directeur sportif and Vittorio Algeri and Claudio Corti as managers. The team used Fausto Coppi bikes. Other directeur sportifs included Giosuè Zenoni, Antonio Bevilacqua and Giovanni Fidanza. Team Polti gave Richard Virenque a chance after he was ejected from the 1998 Tour de France and while maintaining his innocence, his former teammates at Festina admitted taking EPO. Virenque joined Team Polti for the 1999 and 2000 seasons where he won the Mountains classification at the 1999 and 2000 Tour de France.
In July 2007, Former Team Polti rider Jörg Jaksche admitted use of performance-enhancing products and alleged that this began when he was competing with Team Polti in 1997. Jaksche alleged that directeur sportif Gianluigi Stanga introduced him to EPO during the Tour de Suisse in 1997. Stanga immediately denied the accusations.
Throughout its seven-year history, the team rode Fausto Coppi branded bikes and Santini provided the team with their striking cycling kit.

Major wins
Stage 1, 20 and Points classification 1994 Tour de France Abdoujaparov
Stage 9 1995 Tour de France Outschakov
 Stage 16 2000 Tour de France Richard Virenque
Stage 10, Points and sprint classification 1994 Giro d'Italia Abdoujaparov
 Stage 13 1999 Giro d'Italia Richard Virenque
 Stage 12 2000 Giro d'Italia Enrico Cassani
 1994 road race champion Dirk Baldinger
  1996 Time trial champion Georg Totschnig
  1997 Military road race champion Jörg Jaksche
  1997 Military Time trial champion Romāns Vainšteins
 1994 Tour of Flanders Gianni Bugno
 1995 Scheldeprijs Rossano Brasi
 1995 Amstel Gold Race Mauro Gianetti
 1995 Liège–Bastogne–Liège Mauro Gianetti
 HEW Cyclassics 1996 and 1999 Rossano Brasi and Mirko Celestino
 1999 Giro di Lombardia Mirko Celestino

References

External links

Defunct cycling teams based in Italy
Cycling teams based in Italy
Cycling teams established in 1994
Cycling teams disestablished in 2000

Team Polti


Angoun Amim Kelea (Khoxi Cararachi)

We made a vow

Type: Mando

Source: J.A.A. Fernandes, vulgo: André Xett (1884-1980).

Musical form: Ternary

Literary form: Monologue

Translated by Olivinho Gomes, (1943-),

Angoun amim kelea ti rê dogainim,

Both of us made that solemn vow,

Gofant dorun rhorleaum ami ducanim,

We wept our sorrows in each other´s lap,

Kalzam amchim gutlailelim chintnanim,

Our hearts were wrapped up in thought,

Duspot amchi keli kota amcheam gorcheanim.

But, alas! We were wrecked by our dear ones.

Chusmo/ Refrain:

Koxi cazarachi nidducai gorcheanchi,

Our desire for love, envy of our dear ones,

Birmot fut'toli tumcam amchea mogachi.

You will suffer the ill-effects of our love.

Amchim chintnam azun ublimnam,

Our thoughts did not yet vanish into thin air,

Rogtachim dukam amchim con'nem puslimnam,

None wiped our tears of blood,

Ekamecac segred amcho gomblo nam,

We did not fathom the secret in our hearts,

Devan amche churchure math pun kele nam.

God did not take pity on us at all.

Siole Sant Antoninchea mazar,

In Siolim, in St. Anthony´s Square,

Bass amim diloli zauncheac cazar,

We had pledged our troth to marry,

Donian Devac korun nomoscar,

Bowing in adoration to God, the Almighty,

Xirap gallun dorieachea larar sodtaumsuscar.

We curse the waves of the sea and sigh with pity.

Polleiat

Goemche Mandde

Sondorbh

Konknni
Mandde
Romi panam

Angoun Amim Kelea (Khoxi Cararachi) - Mando


Stuttgart–Augsburg new and upgraded line is a proposed German railway project.

The 2003 federal transport plan included it as an urgent project.  It includes a new high-speed line between Stuttgart and Ulm with a maximum speed of 250 km/h, parallel to the existing Stuttgart–Ulm line and an upgraded Ulm–Augsburg line with a design speed of up to 200 km/h.  On 19 July 2007 it was announced by the Federal Government, the State of Baden-Württemberg and Deutsche Bahn AG that the project had been officially approved. The estimated cost of the whole project is € 4.088 billion, with funding to be provided by Deutsche Bahn (€ 1,469 million), Federal Government and the European Union (€ 1,229 million), Baden-Württemberg (€ 824 million), Stuttgart city (€ 239 million) Stuttgart region (€ 100 million) and the owners of Stuttgart Airport (€ 100 million).

The project consists of the following components:

Stuttgart 21 & Stuttgart–Wendlingen high-speed railway: replacement of the current Stuttgart terminal station by an underground through station connecting via the Filder tunnel to Stuttgart Airport.
Wendlingen-Ulm high-speed line: construction of a high-speed line through the Swabian Alb, largely paralleling the A 8, and reconstruction of the Danube bridge in Ulm to carry four tracks, in place of two.
Neu-Ulm 21: replacement of the Neu-Ulm station with a new underground station (opened in March 2007, estimated cost € 160 million euro).
Upgrading of the Neu-Ulm–Augsburg section of the Ulm–Augsburg line for speeds of up to 200 km/h.

The Stuttgart–Augsburg new and upgraded line is a component of the Magistrale for Europe from Paris to Budapest, which is supported by the European Union as part of its Trans-European Networks.  The European Union is providing up to 50 per cent of the planning phase of the project and is expected to fund ten per cent of its construction costs.

When complete, high-speed trains will take 28 minutes between Stuttgart and Ulm and trains between Stuttgart and Munich with stops in Ulm and Augsburg will take less than one and a half hours compared to more than two hours today. This is part of Deutsche Bahn's Netz 21 (network 21) concept, which envisages a reduction of the travel time between Frankfurt and Munich from over three and a half today to only two and a half hours in the future. The Stuttgart-Ulm section is expected to be completed in December 2025 (as of 2010 it was expected to be completed in 2020).

Notes

References

Railway lines in Baden-Württemberg
Railway lines in Bavaria
High-speed railway lines in Germany

Stuttgart–Augsburg new and upgraded railway


Henry Bowes Howard, 11th Earl of Suffolk, 4th Earl of Berkshire (1686 – 21 March 1757) was an English peer.

He was the son of Craven Howard and Mary Bowes. He married his full cousin Catherine Graham, daughter of Colonel James Grahme and Dorothy Howard (Dorothy and Craven were full siblings, both being children of William Howard, son of Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Berkshire), on 5 March 1708 or 1709. They had nine children:
Lady Diana Howard (13 January 1709 or 1710 – January 1712–13)
Henry Howard, Viscount Andover (31 December 1710 – 1717)
Hon.? James Howard (died young)
William Howard, Viscount Andover (1714–1756)
Lady Catherine Howard (b. 1716, died young)
Hon. Charles Howard (1719 – 28 September 1773)
Thomas Howard, 14th Earl of Suffolk (1721–1783)
Hon. Graham Howard (1723–1737)
Lady Frances Howard (b. 17 June 1725, died young)

On 12 April 1706, he succeeded his great-uncle, Thomas, as Earl of Berkshire. After the death of Henry Howard, 6th Earl of Suffolk in 1718, he was appointed Deputy Earl Marshal, an office he held until 1725. In 1745, he succeeded a distant cousin as Earl of Suffolk, and became Recorder of Lichfield in 1755. His son William having been killed in a chaise accident in the previous year, was succeeded on his death in 1757 by his grandson Henry.

External links
 The Peerage

1686 births
1757 deaths
Henry
Henry
Henry Howard, 11th Earl of Suffolk

Henry Howard, 11th Earl of Suffolk


Andrei Yevgenyevich Purgin (, born 26 January 1972) is a Ukrainian activist, cofounder of the Donetsk Republic organization along with Aleksandr Tsurkan and Oleg Frolov. Until 4 September 2015 he was the Chairman of the People's Council of the Donetsk People's Republic.

Biography
Born in Donetsk on 26 January 1972. In 1989 he entered the Donetsk State Technical University. From the  early 1990s until the mid-2000s he held about 70 jobs, including trading companies, charitable organizations and the Donetsk circus.

On 23 February 2005 (Soviet Army and Navy Day) Purgin participated in a protest of the Union of the Born by Revolution that established a small tent city at the Lenin Square in Donetsk. The protested issued a request consisting of 12 principles that included federalization of Ukraine, official status for the Russian language and other issues promoting the rights of the Russian-speaking population. The Donetsk District Court of Voroshilov Region ordered the tents to be removed.

At the end of 2005 (6 December 2005) Purgin already headed the newly organized movement Donetsk Republic that claimed its heritage from the Soviet puppet state Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic. The organization claimed to fight the "orange plague" of President Viktor Yushchenko. It was marginal.

In the winter of 2013, together with "titushky", Purgin dispersed supporters of Euromaidan in Donetsk; but in the heat of battle titushky beat him.

According to the Ukrainian Ministry of Internal Affairs Purgin was arrested by the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) on 19 March 2014, however, on 22 March 2014 he already was released. On 19 April 2014 Purgin was listed on the SBU wanted list for terrorism.

In the interview to "Informbyuro" on May 18, 2014, Purgin stated that on March 27, 1994, there was a referendum in Donetsk and Luhansk regions where 90% of population voted for federalization of Ukraine. He also acknowledged that the Donetsk Republic as organization included also National Bolsheviks mainly in Makiivka.

Purgin opposed some of the key points of the February 2015 Minsk II cease-fire agreement.

On 4 September 2015 Purgin was removed from the position of the Chairman of the People's Council of the unrecognized Donetsk People's Republic for "an attempt to disrupt a meeting of the People's Soviet and present false inflaming information". He was then detained for four days for reasons unknown to him. The new chairman of the Soviet became Denis Pushilin, his deputy. Pushilin denied Purgin's arrest. Observers claimed Purgin's dismissal was part of efforts of the Russian government to bring the Donetsk People's Republic to heel to observe the Minsk II agreement.

Sanctions
Sanctioned by the UK government in 2014 in relation to Russo-Ukrainian War.

References

External links
 Aslamova, D. Vice-Premier of the Donetsk People's Republic Andrei Purgin: Ukraine placed a cross on the Donets basin. It does not need people here. "Komsomolskaya Pravda". 8 July 2014.

1972 births
Living people
Donetsk National Technical University alumni
Pro-Russian people of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine
Politicians from Donetsk
Russian nationalists
People from the Donetsk People's Republic
Pro-Russian people of the war in Donbas
Fugitives wanted by Ukraine
Individuals designated as terrorist by the government of Ukraine
Russian individuals subject to European Union sanctions
Russian individuals subject to United Kingdom sanctions
Ukrainian collaborators with Russia

Andrei Purgin


is a shōjo manga by Hideko Mizuno first published in 1968 and made into a 29-episode anime television series in 1981 by Kokusai Eiga-sha and animated by Toei Animation. The anime was released in the English language in the United States in 1984 as Honey Honey. It was also broadcast in various European countries and in Latin America.

Story
The story begins in the city of Vienna in 1907, as the city holds a lavish birthday celebration for its beloved Princess Flora.  The princess entertains a variety of suitors from around the world who have come to propose marriage. Also on hand for the celebration is Phoenix, a handsome, suave jewel thief who has his eye on stealing the princess's precious gemstone, the "Smile of the Amazon," which the princess wears as a ring. Phoenix remarks that Flora, though renowned worldwide for her great beauty, wouldn't be nearly as beautiful without her ring.  Furious at the insult, Princess Flora then drops the ring holding her gemstone into a cooked fish and throws it out the window, to the shock of everyone present.

Meanwhile, a young teenaged orphan named Honey Honey is working as a waitress. Her pet cat and constant companion, Lily, spies the fish that the princess threw out the window and proceeds to eat the entire fish, thus swallowing the ring. Since Princess Flora has declared that whichever of her suitors successfully returns the ring to her shall become her husband, the princess's suitors and Phoenix immediately fan out all over the city pursuing Lily and her owner, Honey Honey.

Phoenix catches up with Honey and Lily and helps them hide from their pursuers. Honey proceeds to tell the handsome jewel thief the story of how she was orphaned and brought up in a convent, and of how she befriended Lily, who, like her, was abandoned. Phoenix then tries to persuade Honey to sell Lily to him, but Honey, who is still unaware that Lily has swallowed the princess's ring, furiously refuses (after driving Phoenix's initial offer of a million dollars up to ten million dollars, and then coming to her senses) and immediately flees. Honey and Lily hide in the basket of a hot-air balloon, which soon lifts off with Phoenix and Princess Flora's suitors still in hot pursuit. Thus begins an adventure in which Honey and Lily are pursued by Phoenix, Princess Flora, and her suitors to various cities around the world, including Paris, New York City, Oslo, London, Monte Carlo, Tokyo, and Gibraltar. Along the way, Honey falls in love with Phoenix and tries to keep Lily out of the clutches of the selfish, vain princess.

Eventually, Flora's ring is removed from Lily's body, but this is not the end of the story.  The series concludes with the discovery that Honey Honey is in fact Flora's younger sister, a princess of a very tiny Prussian country whose name is actually Priscilla. When she was captured by a nomadic people, who force young women to walk bare feet over a pit of hot coals to see if any one of them have revealed a tattoo of a rose on her foot, Honey Honey turned out to have that tattoo that they were searching for so long. Honey Honey is captured by the evil Slag, a man who caused her kingdom to be destroyed after going through an agonizing defeat. Slag takes Honey Honey into his castle within the Siberian wastelands. Honey Honey manages to escape with help from Phoenix, after he somehow managed to help a mystical alien with a flying saucer (which sort of explains the tunguska event in 1908). Sometime later Honey Honey is reunited with her father, who is working as a gardener for some Russian aristocrats in Moscow. Honey Honey, her father and Phoenix escape, but they are sold into slavery at Constantinopole. Honey Honey is bought by an Indian Sultan who is obsessed with magic tricks. Honey Honey gets her hands onto the Sultan's magic carpet, which she uses to fly into Japan and Los Angeles and finally to the show's climax in New York. At New York Princess Flora, her suitors, Phoenix and Honey Honey's father have managed to get into the city as well. The final episode also involves King Kong to be shown in the series, after it captures Princess Flora when it manages to break free from the show held by the Princess' suitors. Honey Honey manages to save Flora from King Kong by using her kind heart and sympathy. Honey Honey finally learns why everyone wanted Lily, and makes peace with Flora after their sisterhood is revealed at New York in the final episode. Honey Honey also marries Phoenix (the son of the nomadic tribe's leader, actually). Also in the end of the final episode, Princess Flora tosses the ring from the window a second time. Her servants start to chase a small dog, who swallowed the ring this time, by accident. However, they don't know that the ring was actually a fake.

Anime distribution
The anime version of Honey Honey, produced by Kokusai Eiga-sha (Movie International Company) and animated by Toei Animation, lasted 29 half-hour episodes and was broadcast in Tokyo on Fuji TV and on affiliated stations KTV in Osaka and Hokkaido Cultural Broadcasting Saturdays at 18:00 local time from October 1981 to May 1982.  As the show was scheduled in non-network air time, other stations in the Fuji (CX) network were not obligated to carry it, and in other markets the show aired in different time slots or on non-Fuji affiliated stations. Minori Matsushima (Sayaka Yumi in Mazinger Z and Candice in Candy Candy) provided the voice of Honey Honey, Fuyumi Shiraishi (Mirai Yashima in Mobile Suit Gundam) voiced Princess Flora, and Phoenix was voiced by Makio Inoue.  Masaki Tsuji, previously a writer for the unrelated Cutie Honey and numerous other works (anime and otherwise), was the series' head writer, and Takeshi Shirado, a Toei veteran whose credits included Cutie Honey, Mazinger Z, Devilman and Space Battleship Yamato, served as series director.  Youko Seri, a pop singer who was popular throughout Asia at the time (particularly in China), sang the series' opening and ending themes.

The anime aired in the same Saturday-evening time slot as several popular Super Sentai shows, and achieved low ratings as a result; thus, the series was canceled early, and several manga storylines, including one in which Honey Honey visits Hollywood, did not appear in the anime.  However, the TV series would later achieve a fair amount of success in Europe and Latin America (although many of the character names were changed in the non-English dubs; i.e., Honey Honey is Pollen in French, Fiorellino in the first Italian dub, Favos de Mel in Portuguese, and Silvia in Spanish).

Dubbed into English by Sound International Corporation, with distribution by Modern Programs International, the anime series aired, uncut, in the United States on the CBN Cable Network (later known as The Family Channel) in 1984 and was also partially released on home video by Sony. Enoki Films U.S. currently holds the American license to the anime series.

Anime staff
 Original Story
 Hideko Mizuno
 Executive Producer
 Juzo Tsubota
 Chief Directors
 Takeshi Shirato, Yoshikata Nitta
 Episode Directors
 Takeshi Shirato, Minoru Hamada, Shoichi Yasumura, Hiromi Yamamoto, Yoshikata Nitta, Kozo Takagaki, Hiromichi Matano, Kazuya Miyazaki, Eikichi Kojika
 Script
 Masaki Tsuji, Shun'ichi Yukimuro, Toyohiro Ando, Naoko Miyake
 Character Designs
 Kozo Masanobe
 Animation Directors
 Takeshi Shirato, Akira Daikuhara, Akira Shinoda, Joji Kikuchi, Eiji Uemura, Hiroshi Iino, Nobumichi Kawamura
 Art Director
 Yoshiyuki Yamamoto
 Music
 Akihiro Komori
 Theme Song
 OP- Hāto wa Ōsuwagi, ED- Niji ni Shōjo, performed by Youko Seri
 Production
 Kokusai Eiga-sha (Movie International Co., Ltd.) / Toei Animation / Fuji TV

References

External links
 Enoki Films' Honey Honey anime page (English)

Television series set in the 1900s
Television shows set in Vienna
Television shows set in Austria
Television shows set in New York City
Television shows set in Paris
Television shows set in France
Television shows set in London
Television shows set in England
Television shows set in Norway
Television shows set in Oslo
Television shows set in Monaco
Television shows set in Tokyo
Television shows set in Japan
Television shows set in Gibraltar
1966 manga
1981 anime television series debuts
Adventure anime and manga
Drama anime and manga
Historical anime and manga
Fuji TV original programming
Romance anime and manga
Shōjo manga
Toei Animation television
1982 Japanese television series endings
Anime series based on manga

Honey Honey no Suteki na Bouken


Chirikure Chirikure (born 1962), is a Zimbabwean poet, songwriter, and writer. He is a graduate of the University of Zimbabwe and an Honorary Fellow of University of Iowa, US. He worked with one of Zimbabwe's leading publishing houses as an editor/publisher for 17 years, until 2002. He now runs a literary agency and also works as a performance poet, cultural consultant and translator.

Literary career
He has contributed some pieces in a Shona poetry anthology, Zviri Muchinokoro (2005, ZPH Publishers).

He has written and translated a number of children's stories and published some educational textbooks, and has also been an occasional contributor to the print media and ran a radio programme for young Shona writers.
Chirikure performs his poetry solo and/or with his mbira music ensemble. He has recorded an album of poetry and music, Napukeni (2002), with his colleagues, DeteMbira Group. He has also written lyrics for a number of leading Zimbabwean musicians and he occasionally performs with some of these musicians.

Prizes

All of Chirikure's poetry books received first prizes in the annual Zimbabwe writer of the year awards. His first volume, Rukuvhute, also received an Honorable Mention in the Noma Award for Publishing in Africa, in 1990.

His other book, Hakurarwi – We Shall not Sleep, was selected as one of the 75 Best Zimbabwean Books of the 20th Century in a competition run by the Zimbabwe International Book Fair in 2004. In that competition the same book got a prize as one of the best five Shona publications of the 20th century.
Chirikure has participated in several local and international festivals and symposia over the years. He is married and has three children.

Bibliography
Rukuvhute (poetry in Shona) (1989), Harare: College Press
Chamupupuri (poetry in Shona) (1994), Harare: College Press
Hakurarwi – We Shall not Sleep (poetry in Shona, with English translations) (1994), Baobab Books
Mavende aKiti (children's stories) (1989), Harare: College Press
Zimbabwe Junior Certificate Shona Revision (1989), Harare: College Press
Grade Seven Shona Revision (co-author), (1989), Harare: College Press
Zviri Muchinokoro (co-author; poetry anthology), (2004), Harare: ZPH Publishers
Aussicht auf eigene Schatten (poetry in Shona and English, with German translations) (2011), Heidelberg, Germany: Verlag Das Wunderhorn

Discography/audio recordings
Napukeni (album of mbira music and poetry) (2002), Tuku Music/ZMC, Harare
Ray of Hope (Compilation album of AIDS awareness music), Rooftop Promotions, Harare
Chisina Basa (album recorded in 2012), Rooftop Promotions, Harare

References

External links
 Chirikure Chirikure at Lyrikline.org, with audio of the author reading, Shona text, and translation.

1962 births
Living people
Zimbabwean poets
Zimbabwean male writers
Male poets
Zimbabwean musicians
Alumni of Bernard Mizeki College
University of Zimbabwe alumni
International Writing Program alumni
African poets

Chirikure Chirikure


Old Kannada or Halegannada () is the Kannada language which transformed from Purvada halegannada or Pre-old Kannada during the reign of the Kadambas of Banavasi (ancient royal dynasty of Karnataka 345–525 CE).

The Modern Kannada language has evolved in four phases over the years. From the Purva Halegannada in the 5th century (as per early epigraphic records), to the Halegannada (Old Kannada) between the 9th and 11th century, the Nadugannada (Middle Kannada) between the 12th and 17th century (as evidenced by Vachana literature), it has evolved to the present day Hosagannada (Modern Kannada) from 18th century to present. Hosagannada (Modern Kannada) is the official language of the state of Karnataka and is one of the 22 official national languages of the Republic of India and is the native language of approximately 65% of Karnataka's population.

Etymology
Halegannada is derived from two Kannada terms, haḷe and Kannaḍa. Haḷe, a prefix in Kannada, means old or ancient. Using the concept of sandhi found in Kannada grammar (which is also found in many other Indian languages), in which the sounds and spellings of two or more words are changed and combined, depending on those words and sounds, the k becomes g (ādeśa sandhi) and so haḷe and Kannaḍa together becomes Haḷegannaḍa.

Origin

Purvada HaleGannada (Pre-old Kannada)

A 5th century copper coin was discovered at Banavasi with an inscription in the Kannada script, one of the oldest such coins ever discovered.

In a report published by the Mysore Archaeological Department in 1936, Dr. M. H. Krishna, (the Director of Archaeology of the erstwhile Mysore state) who discovered the inscription in 1936 dated the inscription to 450 CE. This inscription in old-Kannada was found in Halmidi village near Hassan district. Many other inscriptions having Kannada words had been found like the Brahmagiri edict of 230 BCE by Ashoka. But this is the first full scale inscription in Kannada. Kannada was used in the inscriptions from the earliest times and the Halmidi inscription is considered to be the earliest epigraph written in Kannada.

This inscription is generally known as the Halmidi inscription and consists of sixteen lines carved on a sandstone pillar. It has been dated to 450 CE and demonstrates that Kannada was used as a language of administration at that time.

Dr K.V.Ramesh has hypothesized that, compared to possibly contemporaneous Sanskrit inscriptions, "Halmidi inscription has letters which are unsettled and uncultivated, no doubt giving an impression, or rather an illusion, even to the trained eye, that it is, in date, later than the period to which it really belongs, namely the fifth century A.D."

The original inscription is kept in the Office of the Director of Archaeology and Museums, Govt. of Karnataka, Mysore, and a fibreglass replica has been installed in Halmidi. A mantapa to house a fibreglass replica of the original inscription has been built at Halmidi village. The Government has begun to promote the village as a place of historical interest.

Evidence from edicts during the time of Ashoka the Great suggests that the Kannada script and its literature were influenced by Buddhist literature. The Halmidi inscription, the earliest attested full-length inscription in the Kannada language and script, is dated to 450 CE while the earliest available literary work, the Kavirajamarga, has been dated to 850 CE. References made in the Kavirajamarga, however, prove that Kannada literature flourished in the Chattana, Beddande and Melvadu metres during earlier centuries.

The 5th century Tamatekallu inscription of Chitradurga, and the Chikkamagaluru inscription of 500 CE are further examples.

Purvahalegannada grammar
The grammar of the ancient Kannada language was in general more complex than of modern Kannada which has some similarities of old Tamil and Sanskrit. Phonology wise, there was full use of the now obsolete letters ೞ (l̠a) and ಱ (r̠a) (i.e. same as in Tamil and Malayalam). Aspirated letters were not normally used.

Words (nouns and verbs etc.) were permitted to end in consonants, the permitted consonants being: ನ್ (n), ಣ್ (ṇ), ಲ್ (l), ಳ್ (ḷ), ೞ್ (l̠), ರ್ (r), ಱ್ (r̠), ಯ್ (y), and ಮ್ (m). If words were borrowed from Sanskrit, they were changed to fit the tongue and style of the Kannada language.

Nouns declined according to how they ended (i.e. which type of vowel or consonant). They were grouped into human and non-human (animate and inanimate). Examples of terminations of declension are: ಮ್, ಅನ್, ಅಳ್, ಅರ್, ಒನ್, ಒರ್, ಗಳ್, ಗೆ, ಅತ್ತಣಿಂ, ಇನ್, ಇಂದೆ, ಅಲ್, ಉಳ್ and ಒಳ್. Most terminations were suffixed to the 'oblique case' of nouns.

The plurals of human and non-human nouns differed; non-human nouns took the suffix ಗಳ್ whilst human nouns took the suffix ಅರ್. These two suffixes had tens and tens of varied forms. Occasionally, with human nouns and nouns normally taking only ಅರ್, double plurals were formed using both the suffixes e.g. ಜನ (person) + ಅರ್ + ಕಳ್ = ಜನರ್ಗಳ್ (people).

There was a large variety of personal pronouns. The first-person plural had a clusivity distinction, i.e. ನಾಂ – We (including person being talked to); ಎಂ – We (excluding person being talked to). There were three degrees of proximity distinction, usually shown by the three vowels: ಇ – proximate space; ಉ – intermediate space; ಅ – distant space.

Numbers and natural adjectives (i.e. true adjectives) were often compounded with nouns, in their ancient, crude forms. Examples of these crude forms are:
One – ಒರ್, ಓರ್; Two – ಇರ್, ಈರ್; Big – ಪೇರ್; Cold – ತಣ್. Examples of compounds are: ಓರಾನೆ – One elephant, ಇರ್ಮೆ – Two times/Twice, ಪೇರ್ಮರಂ – large tree, ತಣ್ಣೀರ್ – cold water

As of verbs, there was a large variety of native Kannada verbs. These verbs existed as verbal roots, which could be modified into conjugations, nouns etc. Many verbs existed which are now out of use. e.g. ಈ – To give; ಪೋರ್ – To fight; ಉಳ್ – To be, To possess.

Verbs were conjugated in the past and future. The present tense was a compound tense, and was artificial (i.e., it wasn't in the language originally); it was made using forms of the verb ಆಗು/ಆ (= to become). There was a negative mood (e.g. from ಕೇಳ್ – To listen, ಕೇಳೆನ್ = I do not listen, I have not listened, I won't listen). Note that the negative mood is devoid of time aspect, and could and can be used with a past, present, or future meaning. Apart from the negative mood, all tenses were formed using personal terminations attached to participles of verbs.

Causative verbs were formed using ಚು, ಸು, ಇಚು, ಇಸು, ಪು, (ದು – obsolete, only present in very ancient forms). The first two and last were originally used only in the past tenses, the middle two in the non-past (i.e. present), and the penultimate one in the future. This reflects the Dravidian linguistic trait of causativity combined with time aspect. This trait was eventually lost.

Appellative verbs also existed, which were nouns used as verbs by suffixing personal terminations, e.g. ಅರಸನ್ (king) + ಎನ್ (personal termination for 'I') = ಅರಸನೆನ್ (I am the king)

Nouns were formed from verbal roots using suffixes and these nouns were usually neuter gender and abstract in meaning, e.g. suffixes ಕೆ, ಗೆ, ವು, ವಿ, ಪು, ಪಿ, ಮೆ, ಅಲ್; Root ಕಲ್ (To learn) + ಪಿ (Suffix) = ಕಲ್ಪಿ (Knowledge, learning)
Also, negative nouns could be formed from negative verb-bases e.g. ಅಱಿಯ (Negative base of root ಅಱಿ, inferred meaning not-knowing, Literally: Yet-to-know) + ಮೆ (suffix) = ಅಱಿಯಮೆ (Lack of knowledge, Ignorance, Literally: Yet-to-know-ness)

Regarding adjectives, Kannada had and still has a few native words that can be classed as true adjectives. Apart from these, mentioned in 'Numbers and natural adjectives', Kannada used and uses the genitive of nouns and verbal derivatives as adjectives. e.g. ಚಿಕ್ಕದ ಕೂಸು – Small baby (literally: baby of smallness). It may be said that there are not real 'adjectives' in Kannada, as these can be called moreover, nouns of quality.

Halmidi textual analysis

The inscription is in verse form indicating the authors of the inscription had a good sense of the language structure. The inscription is written in pre-old Kannada (Purvada-halegannada), which later evolved into old Kannada (Halegannada), middle Kannada and eventually modern Kannada. The Halmidi inscription is the earliest evidence of the usage of Kannada as an administrative language.

Text

The pillar on which the inscription was written stands around  high. Its top has been carved into an arch, onto which the figure of a wheel has been carved, which is probably intended to represent the Sudarshana Chakra of Vishnu. The following lines are carved on the front of the pillar:

 jayati śri-pariṣvāṅga-śārṅga vyānatir-acytāḥ dānav-akṣṇōr-yugānt-āgniḥ śiṣṭānān=tu sudarśanaḥ
 namaḥ śrīmat=kadaṁbapan=tyāga-saṁpannan kalabhōranā ari ka-
 kustha-bhaṭṭōran=āḷe naridāviḷe-nāḍuḷ mṛgēśa-nā-
 gēndr-ābhiḷar=bhbhaṭahar=appor śrī mṛgēśa-nāgāhvaya-
 r=irrvar=ā baṭari-kul-āmala-vyōma-tārādhi-nāthann=aḷapa-
 gaṇa-paśupatiy=ā dakṣiṇāpatha-bahu-śata-havan=ā-
 havuduḷ paśupradāna-śauryyōdyama-bharitōn=dāna pa-
 śupatiyendu pogaḷeppoṭṭaṇa paśupati-
 nāmadhēyan=āsarakk=ella-bhaṭariyā prēmālaya-
 sutange sēndraka-bāṇ=ōbhayadēśad=ā vīra-puruṣa-samakṣa-
 de kēkaya-pallavaraṁ kād=eṟidu pettajayan=ā vija
 arasange bāḷgaḻcu palmaḍiuṁ mūḷivaḷuṁ ko-
 ṭṭār baṭāri-kuladōn=āḷa-kadamban kaḷadōn mahāpātakan
 irvvaruṁ saḻbaṅgadar vijārasaruṁ palmaḍige kuṟu-
 mbiḍi viṭṭār adān aḻivornge mahāpatakam svastiThe following line is carved on the pillar's left face:
 bhaṭṭarg=ī gaḻde oḍḍali ā pattondi viṭṭārakara

Epigraphy

While Kannada is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium CE as Halmidi script of Purvada HaleGannada (Pre-old Kannada), and literary Old Kannada Halekannada flourished in the 9th to 10th century Rashtrakuta Dynasty.

More than 800 inscriptions are found at Shravanabelagola dating from various points during the period from 600 to 1830 CE. A large number of these are found at Chandragiri, and the rest can be seen at Indragiri. Most of the inscriptions at Chandragiri date back to before the 10th century. The inscriptions include text in the Kannada, Sanskrit, Tamil, Marathi, Marwari and Mahajani languages. The second volume of Epigraphia Carnatica, written by Benjamin L. Rice is dedicated to the inscriptions found here. The inscriptions that are scattered around the area of Shravanabelagola are in various Halegannada (Old Kannada) and Purvadahalegannada (Pre-Old Kannada) characters. Some of these inscriptions mention the rise to power of the Gangas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagar empire and Mysore Wodeyars. These inscriptions have immensely helped modern scholars in properly understanding the nature, growth and development of the Kannada language and its literature.

The earliest full-length Kannada copper plates in Old Kannada script (early 8th century) belongs to the Alupa King Aluvarasa II from Belmannu, South Kanara district and displays the double crested fish, his royal emblem. The oldest well-preserved palm leaf manuscript is in Old Kannada and is that of Dhavala, dated to around the 9th century, preserved in the Jain Bhandar, Mudbidri, Dakshina Kannada district.[26] The manuscript contains 1478 leaves written using ink.

The written Kannada language has come under various religious and social influences in its 1600 years of known existence. Linguists generally divide the written form into four broad phases.

From the 9th to the 14th centuries, Kannada works were classified under Old Kannada (Halegannada). In this period Kannada showed a high level of maturity as a language of original literature. Mostly Jain and Saivite poets produced works in this period. This period saw the growth of Jain puranas and Virashaiva Vachana Sahitya or simply vachana, a unique and native form of literature which was the summary of contributions from all sections of society. Early Brahminical works also emerged from the 11th century. By the 10th century, Kannada had seen its greatest poets, such as Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, and its great prose writings such as the Vaddaradhane of Shivakotiacharya, indicating that a considerable volume of classical prose and poetry in Kannada had come into existence a few centuries before Kavirajamarga (c.850). Among existing landmarks in Kannada grammar, Nagavarma II's Karnataka-bhashabhushana (1145) and Kesiraja's Shabdamanidarpana (1260) are the oldest.

Epigraphia Carnatica by B.L.Rice published by the Mysore Archeology department in 12 volumes contains a study of inscriptions from 3rd century until the 19th century. These inscriptions belonged to different dynasties that ruled this region such as Kadambas, Western Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Vijayanagar kings, Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan and the Mysore Wodeyars. The inscriptions found were mainly written in Kannada language but some have been found to be written in languages like Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Urdu and even Persian and have been preserved digitally as a CD-ROM in 2005.

Information dissemination
Linguist Lingadevaru Halemane announcing the launching of the lecture series in Bangalore in June 2007 on Halegannada, noted that there was documentary proof about Kannada being existent even in 250 BCE, and that there were enough grounds for giving classical status to Kannada. The lecture series unveiled the indigenous wealth of the language, the stone inscriptions belonging to different periods, besides the folk and medicinal knowledge people possessed in this region in that age. This series of lectures would be extended to other parts of the state.

The central Government of India formed a new category of languages called Classical languages, in 2004. Tamil was the first to be classified so. Sanskrit was added to the category a year later. The four criteria to declare Kannada as a Classical language, stated below, which are stated to be fulfilled has prompted action to seek recognition from the Central Institute of Indian Languages

 Recorded history of over a thousand five hundred years
 High antiquity of a language's early texts
 An body of ancient literature, which is considered a valuable heritage by generation of speakers
 The literary tradition has to be original and not borrowed from another speech community and the language could be distinct from its "later and current" forms or it could be continuous.

The classical tag equates a language to all ancient languages of the world. This is a qualification that helps in the establishment of its research and teaching chairs in any university in the world. It also provides a larger spectrum for its study and research, creates a large number of young researchers and ensures republication of out-of-print classic literature.

An Expert Committee comprising eminent researchers, distinguished academicians, reputed scholars, well known historians and renowned linguists prepared a report by collecting all the documents and credentials to prove the claim of its antiquity. This document was submitted to the Committee of Linguistic Experts set up in November 2004 by the Government of India for recognition of Kannada as a classical language. The Expert Committee Report of the Government of Karnataka titled "Experts Report submitted to the Government of Karnataka on the subject of the recognition of Kannada as a classical Language" published in February 2007 by Kannada Pustaka Pradhikara of The Department of Kannada and Culture, Government of Karnataka, M.S. Building, Bangalore.

The Expert Committee of the Government of India has examined the above submissions made in the report of the Karnataka Government, and vide their Notification No 2-16-/2004-Akademics dated 31 October 2008 have stated that "It is hereby notified that the "Telugu Language" and the "Kannnada Language" satisfy the above x criteria and will henceforth be classified as 'Classical Languages'. The notification is subject to the decision in Writ Petition no 18180 of 2008 in the High Court of jurisdiction at Madras.
A newspaper report has confirmed the fact that the Government of India has accorded, on 31 October 2008, the Classical Language status to Kannada and Telugu languages based on the recommendation of the nine-member Committee of Linguistic Experts.

See also
Telugu-Kannada script
Kadamba script
Kannada language
Kannada literature

References

External links
 Epigraphia Carnatica, online copy of the 1898 edition. (archive.org)

External sources
 The Expert Committee Report of the Government of Karnataka titled "Experts Report submitted to the Government of Karnataka on the subject of the recognition of Kannada as a classical Language" published in February 2007 by Kannada Pustaka Pradhikara of The Department of Kannada and Culture, Government of Karnataka, M.S. Building, Bangalore.
 Government of India Notification No 2-16-/2004-Akademics dated 31 October 2008.

Kannada language
Languages attested from the 5th century
History of Karnataka

Old Kannada


A lunar calendar is a calendar that is based on the phases of the Moon. Because there are slightly more than twelve lunar months (29.53 days each) in a solar year, the period of 12 lunar months (354.37 days) is sometimes referred to as a lunar year.

A common purely lunar calendar is the Islamic calendar. It is calculated from one crescent moon to the next crescent moon. A feature of the Islamic calendar is that a year is always 12 months. So the months are not linked with the seasons. They drift each solar year by 11 to 12 days. It comes back to the position it had in relation to the solar year approximately every 33 Islamic years. It is used mainly for religious purposes, but in Saudi Arabia it is the official calendar. Other lunar calendars often include extra months added occasionally to synchronize it with the solar calendar.

The oldest known lunar calendar was found in Scotland. It dates back to around 8,000 BC.

References

Moon
Calendars

Lunar calendar


A Trebuchet was a device used in wars and sieges in the Middle Ages. It could be used to throw stones at ramparts, trying to break them down. It could also be used to throw things over the walls of a city. These could be corpses of animals or people that had died of the plague. Trebuchets were more accurate than other medieval catapults. Trebuchets were first made in China in the 4th century BC.

How it works
The trebuchet works in a simple way. The basket of the trebuchet is filled with heavy rocks.  This acts as a counterweight for the other end, which is usually filled with one large rock.  Several men arm the trebuchet by raising the counterweight up and the firing arm down.  At this point the arm is released, the heavy basket swings down and the arm swings up, launching the rock far and fast.
The sling adds an additional 10-15 feet of arm length and gives the projectile a whip like speed then releases. The sling gives the projectile most of its speed.

Other websites

 Secrets of Lost Empires: Medieval Siege (building of and history of trebuchets), from the NOVA website
 article on Trebuchet Mechanics  (in PDF format)
 The Finnish Trebuchet
 Homemade Trebuchet
 Homemade Spring Trebuchet
 Medieval Trébuchet
 Animated Trebuchet
 Evolution of Sling Weapons

Weapons

Trebuchet


In the board game chess, the players each start with 16 Chess pieces. The way that the pieces move are defined by both tradition and by FIDE, the international chess federation.

 1 king
 1 queen
 2 rooks
 2 bishops
 2 knights
 8 pawns

The bottom-right square of the board for each player must be a light-square, Chess is a wonderful game that challenges the mind.

Summary

Pawn - A pawn can only move ahead to the opponents side of the board. It cannot go back a square. A pawn is placed on each square in front of a player's pieces in the beginning of a game. All of White's pawns start on the second rank. All of Black's pawns start on the seventh rank. Each player begins with eight pawns. In most cases, a pawn can only move one square up. However, a pawn that has not moved at all during the game can move up by two squares.

If an enemy piece is straight in front of a pawn, the pawn cannot capture that piece. Pawns have a special way to capture. A pawn can capture an enemy piece which is on the diagonal square to the left or right of the square in front of it. This is the only time a pawn can move to a square that is not straight in front of it.

If a pawn reaches the end of the board, it is removed and replaced by any other piece the player chooses, except a king or pawn.

If a pawn moves two squares on its first move, it may be taken (on the opponent's next move only) by an enemy pawn as if it had only moved one square. This is called "en passant" (French for "in passing"). A pawn is worth 1 point.

Bishop - A bishop can move any number of squares diagonally, meaning, if you pretend the bishop is in the middle of a big X, it can move to any square along the lines of the X. Because of this, a bishop will be on the same colored squares for the whole game. At the start, a bishop is placed on the third from the left and third from the right of the row of pieces closest to each player. A bishop is worth 3 points.

Knight - The knight is special because it is the only piece than can jump over other pieces. When a knight moves, first it goes two squares in one of the four ways a rook can move. Then the knight ends its move by going one square to the side. The knight is said to move in the shape of an L. See the picture (picture is coming). It "jumps over" the pieces on its way to its new square, and does not capture them, but the knight will capture an enemy piece if it lands on one. Knights are placed at the second and seventh squares on the rows closest to each player, between the rooks and the bishops. A knight is worth 3 points.

Rook - A rook can move any number of squares: left or right on the ranks, and up & down on the files.  Rooks start at the far left and far right squares in the row closest to each player, next to the knights. A rook is worth 5 points.

Queen - The queen combines the moves of a bishop and a rook. The queen is placed next to the king on a square of its own colour. Thus the two queens exactly face each other at the start. The queen is worth 9 points.

King - The king starts next to the queen. The king can move to one of the eight squares around it. It is limited as an active piece, but always is vulnerable to attack. No numerical value can be put on it.

A king may perform a special move known as "castling". This is when a king moves two spaces towards a rook, and the rook moves to the square on the other side of the king. This may not be done if:
 There are any pieces (friend or enemy) between the squares the king moves to.
 Either the king or rook have moved during the game
 The king, or any square the king moves through, is threatened by an enemy piece. The king must not castle into check.

References

Chess piece


Og ( ;  ; ) according to the Hebrew Bible and other sources, was an Amorite king of Bashan who was slain along with his army by Moses and his men at the battle of Edrei. In Arabic literature he is referred to as ʿŪj ibn ʿAnāq (, "Og son of Anaq," Anaq being a daughter of Adam in Islamic tradition).

Og is introduced in the Book of Numbers. Like his neighbor Sihon of Heshbon, whom Moses had previously conquered at the battle of Jahaz, he was an Amorite king, the ruler of Bashan, which contained sixty walled cities and many unwalled towns, with his capital at Ashtaroth (probably modern Tell Ashtara, where there still exists a  mound).

The Book of Numbers, Chapter 21, and Deuteronomy, Chapter 3, continues:
Next we turned and headed for the land of Bashan, where King Og and his entire army attacked us at Edrei. But the Lord told me, "Do not be afraid of him, for I have given you victory over Og and his entire army, and I will give you all his land. Treat him just as you treated King Sihon of the Amorites, who ruled in Heshbon."

So the Lord our God handed King Og and all his people over to us, and we killed them all. Not a single person survived. We conquered all sixty of his towns—the entire Argob region in his kingdom of Bashan. Not a single town escaped our conquest. These towns were all fortified with high walls and barred gates. We also took many unwalled villages at the same time. We completely destroyed the kingdom of Bashan, just as we had destroyed King Sihon of Heshbon. We destroyed all the people in every town we conquered—men, women, and children alike. But we kept all the livestock for ourselves and took plunder from all the towns.

So we took the land of the two Amorite kings east of the Jordan River—all the way from the Arnon Gorge to Mount Hermon. (Mount Hermon is called Sirion by the Sidonians, and the Amorites call it Senir.) We had now conquered all the cities on the plateau and all Gilead and Bashan, as far as the towns of Salecah and Edrei, which were part of Og's kingdom in Bashan. (King Og of Bashan was the last survivor of the giant Rephaites. His bed was made of iron and was more than thirteen feet long and six feet wide. It can still be seen in the Ammonite city of Rabbah.)

Og's destruction is told in Psalms 135:11 and 136:20 as one of many great victories for the nation of Israel, and the Book of Amos 2:9 may refer to Og as "the Amorite" whose height was like the height of the cedars and whose strength was like that of the oaks. The text states that he was the last giant of the Rephaites. His stature made him sleep on an iron bed, which was about 9 cubits in length.

Og and the Rephaim

In Deuteronomy 3:11, and later in the book of Numbers and Joshua, Og is called the last of the Rephaim. Rephaim is a Hebrew word for giants. Deuteronomy 3:11 declares that his "bedstead" (translated in some texts as "sarcophagus") of iron is "nine cubits in length and four cubits in width", which is  according to the standard cubit of a man. It goes on to say that at the royal city of Rabbah of the Ammonites, his giant bedstead could still be seen as a novelty at the time the narrative was written. If the giant king's bedstead was built in proportion to his size as most beds are, he may have been between  in height. However, later Rabbinic tradition has it, that the length of his bedstead was measured with the cubits of Og himself.

Michael S. Heiser argues that the reference to Og's bed is a link to the sacred marriage bed of Marduk, and so the dimensions are not a reliable indicator of Og's size.

It is noteworthy that the region north of the river Jabbok, or Bashan, "the land of Rephaim", contains hundreds of megalithic stone tombs (dolmen) dating from the 5th to 3rd millennia BC. In 1918, Gustav Dalman discovered in the neighborhood of Amman, Jordan (Amman is built on the ancient city of Rabbah of Ammon) a noteworthy dolmen which matched the approximate dimensions of Og's bed as described in the Bible. Such ancient rock burials are seldom seen west of the Jordan river, and the only other concentration of these megaliths are to be found in the hills of Judah in the vicinity of Hebron, where the giant sons of Anak were said to have lived (Numbers 13:33).

Og in non-Biblical inscriptions

A reference to "Og" appears in a Phoenician inscription from Byblos (Byblos 13) published in 1974 by Wolfgang Rölling in "Eine neue phoenizische Inschrift aus Byblos", (Neue Ephemeris für Semitische Epigraphik, vol 2, 1–15 and plate 1). It appears in a damaged 7-line funerary inscription that Rölling dates to around 500 BC, and appears to say that if someone disturbs the bones of the occupant, "the mighty Og will avenge me."

A possible connection to Og and the Rephaim kings of Bashan can also be made with the much older Canaanite Ugaritic text KTU 1.108 from the 13th century B.C., which uses the term "king" in association with the root /rp/ or "Rapah" (the Rephaim of the Bible) and geographic place names that probably correspond to the cities of Ashtaroth and Edrei in the Bible, and with which king Og is expressly said to have ruled from (Deuteronomy 1:4; Joshua 9:10; 12:4; 13:12, 31). The clay tablet from Ugarit KTU 1.108  reads in whole, "May Rapiu, King of Eternity, drink [w]ine, yea, may he drink, the powerful and noble [god], the god enthroned in Ashtarat, the god who rules in Edrei, whom men hymn and honour with music on the lyre and the flute, on drum and cymbals, with castanets of ivory, among the goodly companions of Kothar. And may Anat the power<ful> drink, the mistress of kingship, the mistress of dominion, the mistress of the high heavens, [the mistre]ss of the earth." Og's existence and true identity is disputed.

In the Talmud
The Jewish Talmud embellishes the story, stating that Og was so large that he sought the destruction of the Israelites by uprooting a mountain so large, that it would have crushed the entire Israelite encampment. The Lord caused a swarm of ants to dig away the center of the mountain, which was resting on Og's head. The mountain then fell onto Og's shoulders. As Og attempted to lift the mountain off himself, the Lord caused Og's teeth to lengthen outward, becoming embedded into the mountain that was now surrounding his head. Moses, fulfilling Yahweh's injunction not to fear him, seized a stick of ten cubits length, and jumped a similar vertical distance, succeeding in striking Og in the ankle. Og fell down and died upon hitting the ground.
Many great rabbis, notably Shlomo ibn Aderet, have explained this story in an allegorical manner.

In Islam

'Uj ibn Anaq ('Ûj ibn 'Anâq) is a giant in Islamic mythology. Uj is not namely mentioned in the Quran or canonical hadiths. The origins of this character lay in Jewish folklore and the Old Testament, e.g. king Og. He takes his matronymic from his mother ʿAnāq who begat him after an incestuous affair.

Famous and much-painted episodes include his fight with the Prophet Moses (see Musa va 'Uj), and his fishing and frying of whales, while he stands just about knee-deep in the ocean.

"Ogias the Giant"
The 2nd-century BC apocryphal book "Ogias the Giant" or "The Book of Giants" depicts the adventures of a giant named Ogias who fought a great dragon, and who was supposedly either identical with the Biblical Og or was Og's father.

The book enjoyed considerable currency for several centuries, especially due to having been taken up by the Manichaean religion.

Hurtaly
In Pantagruel, Rabelais lists Hurtaly (a version of Og) as one of Pantagruel's ancestors. He describes Hurtaly as sitting astride the Ark, saving it from shipwreck by guiding it with his feet as the grateful Noah and his family feed him through the chimney.

See also
 Goliath
 Anakim
 Bergelmir
 Finger of Og
 Moses in rabbinic literature

References

External links

Og in Jewish Encyclopedia

Further reading
Kosman, Admiel. "The Story of a Giant Story: The Winding Way of Og King of Bashan in the Jewish Aggadic Tradition'", in: HUCA 73, (2002) pp. 157–90.

Amorite kings
Book of Numbers people
Giants in Islam
Giants in the Hebrew Bible
Massacres in the Bible
People of the Quran
People whose existence is disputed
Rephaites
Monarchs in the Torah

Og


A rebellion is when people refuse to obey orders and fight against authority. Those who do this are "rebels". They may be citizens of a country who try to take over the government by force because they do not trust the current system. Some rebels in history were slaves who fought back against their masters or against slavery in general. Leaders of slave rebellions include Spartacus and Nat Turner.

The Zhou dynasty in China feared rebellion. Rulers of other Chinese states that were captured live were made to with their families in the Zhou capital, Anyang. However, this way failed to stop rebellion because groups of lords were brought together that could rebel. The Zhou dynasty declined because other lords who were ruling parts of China rebelled.

Rebellion is a usual method of secession.

Rebellion

Rebellion


Steven Jeffrey Ostro (March 9, 1946 – December 15, 2008) was an American scientist specializing in radar astronomy. He worked at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Ostro led radar observations of numerous asteroids, as well as the moons of Jupiter and Saturn, Saturn's rings, and Mars and its satellites. As of May 2008, Ostro and his collaborators had detected 222 near-Earth asteroids (including 130 potentially hazardous objects and 24 binaries) and 118 main belt objects with radar.

He died December 15, 2008, due to complications related to cancer. He has been remembered fondly by his colleagues for both his personal and professional contributions.

Education and employment
Ostro received an A.B. in liberal arts and a B.S. in ceramic science from Rutgers University in 1969, a Master's in engineering physics from Cornell University in 1974, and his Ph.D in planetary science from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1978. At MIT, Ostro was advised by Gordon Pettengill and Irwin I. Shapiro and studied the radar scattering properties of Saturn's rings and the Galilean satellites using the Arecibo Observatory.

After completing his graduate work and a year in postdoctoral research at MIT, Ostro served as an assistant professor of astronomy at Cornell before moving to JPL in 1984. Ostro headed JPL's Asteroid Radar group, and was a member of the Cassini–Huygens RADAR team, studying the moons of Saturn. In 2008, Ostro was elected a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union, awarded for acknowledged eminence in the Earth and Space sciences.

Asteroid radar astronomy

Much of Ostro's career focused on the development of asteroid radar astronomy. In early experiments, such as the first radar detection of Ceres, radar observations of asteroids were restricted to measurements of Doppler shifts and radar cross-sections. Beginning in the early 1980s, Ostro led the development of radar imaging and shape-reconstruction techniques, first determining only outer limits of targets' shapes, then deriving three-dimensional shape models.

From August 19 to 22 of 1989, Ostro and Scott Hudson observed the contact binary 4769 Castalia from the Arecibo Observatory, producing the first resolved radar images of an asteroid, which they later used to construct a model of the object. Following the further development of imaging and shape reconstruction techniques by Ostro, Hudson, and Christopher Magri, and the upgrade of Arecibo in the mid-1990s, the number of radar observations increased dramatically.

Asteroid impact hazard
Ostro was an early participant in discussion of the asteroid impact hazard, placing particular emphasis on the need to characterize asteroids before any deflection attempt. In a paper with Carl Sagan, Ostro noted that while the asteroid impact hazard is a long-term risk to any civilization, the risk associated with maintaining an active deflection program is higher, because it is just as easy to deflect an asteroid to impact Earth as to prevent it from doing so. Ostro advocated for continued funding of the Arecibo Planetary Radar, on both hazard and scientific grounds.

Notable asteroids observed by Ostro include
216 Kleopatra – a large main-belt asteroid, the first asteroid confirmed to have a surface composition of nickel-iron.
1986 DA – the first near-Earth asteroid confirmed to be metallic. The estimated amount of platinum-group metals in 1986 DA is comparable to that in the Bushveld Igneous Complex, the largest source on Earth's surface.
4769 Castalia –  the first near-Earth asteroid imaged well enough to determine its shape, which is two distinct 0.9 km lobes in contact (a contact binary).
4179 Toutatis – a contact binary asteroid that is in a non-principal axis rotation state.
 – a large near-Earth asteroid that rotates exceptionally slowly.
 – a very small (30 m wide) asteroid that spins so quickly that it has negative effective gravity.
66391 Moshup – one of the first binary near-Earth asteroids known. The shape of the primary (alpha) has been determined by inversion of radar images. This enabled studies of the orbital evolution of the secondary (beta), which is in turn coupled to the system's orbit around the Sun by radiation forces.
6489 Golevka – the first asteroid for which the Yarkovsky effect (radiation force changing the orbit) was measured.
1950 DA – an approximately 1 km wide asteroid with a possible Earth impact in 2880.
99942 Apophis – a near-Earth asteroid that will pass within geosynchronous orbit in 2029.  Radar astrometry from observations by Ostro's group have been essential to predicting Apophis' trajectory.

To explore the dynamical implications of these observations in detail, Ostro collaborated with Steven Chesley, Jon D. Giorgini, Scott Hudson, Jean-Luc Margot, and Daniel J. Scheeres.

Radar provides extremely accurate measurement of the positions and velocities of target objects, and such astrometry of near-Earth objects has been recognized as crucial to dealing with the impact hazard.  In many cases, radar astrometry has excluded possible Earth impacts from trajectory predictions years before optical astrometry would have been able to do so.

Work on other objects
Ostro worked on radar observations of the icy satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, particularly with the Cassini-Huygens RADAR instrument. Radar observations of Mars' moons, Phobos and Deimos, have refined knowledge of their orbits and show that their surfaces are coated with very low density (~1 g/cm3) material, most likely fine-grain dust, to a depth of several meters.

Honors

Awards
 Gerard P. Kuiper Prize from the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences (2003)
 NASA Distinguished Service Medal, posthumous (2010)
 NASA Medals for Exceptional Scientific Achievement (1991 and 2004)

Eponym
 3169 Ostro, asteroid named after Ostro in 1981

Erdős Number
Three, through Robert Connelly and Peter J. Cameron

References

External links

1946 births
2008 deaths
People from Somerville, New Jersey
American astronomers
Rutgers University alumni
Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Cornell University faculty
People associated with radar
NASA people
Fellows of the American Geophysical Union

Steven J. Ostro


The Nietzsche Archive (German: Nietzsche-Archiv) is the first organization that dedicated itself to archive and document the life and work of the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, all sourced from Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, the philosopher's sister.

The Nietzsche Archive was founded in 1894 in Naumburg, Germany, and found a permanent location at Weimar. Its history until the middle of the 20th century was closely tied to its founder and chief for many years, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, the philosopher's sister. Though from its inception the archive came under much criticism for doctoring, or even forging, documents to support certain ideological purposes, the Archive was, until the end of the Second World War, a location of central importance for Nietzsche's reception in Germany. In the GDR it was affiliated with the  (National Research and Memorial Sites of Classical German Literature in Weimar), and formally dissolved in 1956. Its holdings were made accessible for western researchers, most notably Mazzino Montinari, who replaced the dubious old Archiv's Nietzsche editions with new ones. In the GDR, however, Nietzsche was still a forbidden author, with all of his works being banned.

Since German reunification, the archive's holdings are in possession of the , now called the Klassik Stiftung Weimar. The archive's domicile, the Villa Silberblick, is now a museum.

History

Objectives
Elisabeth Förster planned the establishment of a Nietzsche Archive after returning to Germany from Paraguay in the Fall of 1893. The purpose of the archive was to collect resources to keep them from being scattered and to secure a monopoly over their value—not unusual at that time.

From the beginning of the 1890s, the reception of Nietzsche's works in the German-speaking world grew enormously. The Nietzsche Archive attempted to attain the legal rights of interpretation of Friedrich Nietzsche and his philosophies in public discussions. Not only did Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche's biographies serve these discussions, but also a multitude of journals and newspaper articles which came from the archive and the surrounding areas. Förster-Nietzsche had already collected documents from her admired brother since her youth and then began to buy up all of his mail correspondences for a substantial sum. These letters were therefore also published directly and indirectly by the archive alongside Nietzsche's works. Another reason for the publishing frenzy from the archive and its monopolization of Nietzsche's work might also have been to earn large profits from them.

References

External links
 Nietzsche Archive
 Friedrich Nietzsche College

Libraries in Germany
Friedrich Nietzsche
Buildings and structures in Weimar
Culture in Weimar
Libraries established in 1894

Nietzsche Archive


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E

Википедие:Кучф ломань вастт/En


A flight number, when combined with the name of the airline and the date, identifies a particular flight. This callsign should not be confused with the tail number of the aircraft, although both can be used as a call-sign as used in general aviation. A particular aircraft may fly several different flights in one day, and different aircraft may be used for the same flight number on successive days.

Sometimes when an airplane has an accident, the airline will retire the flight number and replace it with a new number.

Aviation

Flight number


Phencyclidine (a shortened version of the chemical name phenylcyclohexylpiperidine), usually called PCP, is an illegal drug. PCP is called a hallucinogenic drug: it causes people to hallucinate, and see, hear, and sense things that are not real. PCP is neurotoxic. It causes changes to the brain that can leave permanent damage. Before people started using PCP as an illegal drug, it was used as an anesthetic.

PCP is a white powder, made of tiny crystals. It dissolves easily in water or alcohol. PCP has many slang or 'street names'; the most common is "angel dust". Other slang names for PCP are angel hair, angel mist, aurora borealis, black whack, crystal, cyclones, devil dust, dummy dust, embalming fluid, hallucinogen, horse tranquilizer, jet fuel, magic dust, rocket fuel, or star dust. PCP is sometimes mixed with marijuana and called love boat or killer weed. PCP can also be mixed with crack; this is called "space basing". Cigarettes can also be dipped in PCP; this is called a sherm.

History
PCP was created after World War II as a surgical anesthetic. It worked well, but there were serious side effects: hallucinations, jumbled speech, and delirium. Around the mid-to-late 1960s, the drug sprang up on the streets of San Francisco as a "Peace Pill." People soon realized that it was a very dangerous drug. In the San Francisco area, the use of PCP died out before the 1970s. At the same time, the drug was becoming more common in New York, and it spread quickly there. However, its use in this area died out, like in San Francisco. The United States made it illegal to use PCP for any reason, or to make the drug, because of its serious effects.

Effects
People can have many different effects from using PCP. The drug can affect the central nervous system (the brain and major nerves).  This can cause many changes in the brain and body.

Changes in feeling and thinking
 Euphoria (feeling very happy)
 Loss of inhibitions which normally keep people from doing things that are dangerous or inappropriate
 Anxiety or paranoia (feeling very worried or scared)
 Feeling disoriented: a person is confused and may not know who they are, where they are, or what is happening
 Thinking problems: the person is not able to think clearly, and when they talk they may not make sense
 Feeling dissociated: disconnected with the people and things going on around them

Changes in senses
PCP often causes major changes in what a person senses (what he feels, sees, hears, smells, or tastes).  For example:
 Feeling weightless (the person feels like he weighs nothing and is floating)
 Auditory hallucinations (hearing things that are not there)
 Visual hallucinations (seeing things that are not there)

Changes in the body
 Feeling restless
 Feeling tired
 Tachycardia (high heart rate)
 Hypertension (high blood pressure)
 Excess salivation (where the body makes more saliva, or spit, than usual)
 Sweating
 Numbness
 Staggering (not being able to walk straight)
 Being unable to speak clearly
 Fever
 Muscle rigidity (where the muscles become very stiff).
PCP can also cause people to have a lot of energy, feel and act stronger than usual, and not feel pain.

How the drug is used
PCP can be eaten, snorted, injected (shot into the body using a needle), or smoked. A person can take a low, medium, or high dose of PCP, and he will have different effects depending on which dose he takes. Low doses can cause a person to feel euphoric (very happy), relaxed, numb, detached from his own body, anxious, or confused. At low doses, people can also have sensory distortions (changes in how they hear, see, taste, smell, or feel things); amnesia (where the person cannot remember things normally); speech which does not make sense; blurred vision; or a blank stare. Medium doses can cause confusion, agitation, analgesia (not feeling pain), fever, excessive salivation, and "schizophrenic-type" behavior. High doses can cause seizures, respiratory failure (where the breathing systems in the body stop working), coma, fever, stroke, or death.

Addiction
People who use PCP can get physically or psychologically (mentally) addicted to the drug. If an addicted person suddenly stops taking PCP, he will get withdrawal symptoms, like diarrhea, chills, and tremors (uncontrollable shaking in part of the body). In the brain, PCP affects multiple neurotransmitter systems. (Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the brain.) For example, it keeps the brain from getting rid of extra dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. These are all very important neurotransmitters in the brain. PCP can also affect some types of opioid receptors in the brain. It also inhibits (or blocks) the action of glutamate by blocking NMDA (N-methyl d-aspartate) receptors. Prescription drugs like diazepam (Valium), haloperidol (Haldol), and phentolamine may be used to help manage some of PCP's effects.

References

Illegal drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Antihistamines
Psychoactive drugs

Phencyclidine


Hans Rickheit (born January 12, 1973) is an American cartoonist.

Biography
Rickheit was originally a resident of Ashburnham, Massachusetts. He originally self-published minicomics which presented dark vignettes and short stories, many of them directly inspired by dreams. He also produced short films, mostly through community television stations.

Rickheit followed these up with a longer work, Kill, Kill, Kill. In the late 1990s, Rickheit moved to the Boston area where he was deeply involved with the Zeitgeist Gallery located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. With the support and assistance of the gallery's owner, Alan Nidle, he started a publication the short-lived publication Cambridge Inferno for more general audiences as a vehicle to showcase local cartoonists. He was also the gallery's projectionist, and programmed series' and comics festivals there and in the greater Boston area. He also dabbled in music and performance art, playing "Doctor Selenium" in a performance collaboration with musician Katt Hernandez, and working on Empire S.N.A.F.U. Restoration Project events.

In 2001, he self-published the first edition of his original graphic novel Chloe. A Xeric Foundation grant enabled him to produce a second and revised trade paperback edition of Chloe which received wider distribution and favorable reviews by the comics press. In 2003, Rickheit produced a color wraparound cover for the zine The Comics Interpreter, which in that issue also published a long interview with him. More recently, Rickheit has had short stories published in a number of alternative small press comics anthologies and periodicals and in The Stranger weekly.

Rickheit relocated in Philadelphia after the Zeitgeist Gallery shut down in 2006, where he still released the occasional issue of Chrome Fetus, his showcase for his own shorter works. From 2001 to 2009 he made performance art and designed album cover art for Katt Hernandez, as well as designing cover art for Psychotic Quartet and most recently Archer Spade. The Squirrel Machine is his longest graphic novel to date. It was published by Fantagraphics Books in 2009 and subsequently translated into several languages.

In early 2010, he returned to rural Massachusetts to live in a town so remote that it does not exist on most maps. He presently creates Ectopiary and Cochlea and Eustachia, both webcomics released semi-irregularly. Folly, a collection of his earlier short works, was released by Fantagraphics Books in April 2012.

References
 Biography

External links
 Ectopiary webcomic
 Cochlea and Eustachia webcomic
 Hans Rickheit at Home a video at Fantagraphics.com
 Katt Hernandez: Unlovely an album covered designed by Rickheit

American cartoonists
American comics artists
American performance artists
American webcomic creators
American comics writers
1973 births
Living people
People from Ashburnham, Massachusetts
Alternative cartoonists

Hans Rickheit


The Criollos (singular: Criollo) were a social class in the caste system of the overseas colonies established by Spain in the 16th century, especially in Latin America. The name was used for people of pure or mostly Spanish blood, but who were born in the colony.

The Criollo class was seen as lower than the Peninsulares. Peninsulares were the people who lived in the colony, but were born in Spain. Criollos were higher status/rank than all other castes. Examples of other castes are people of mixed descent, Amerindians, and enslaved Africans.

The term Criollo is often translated into English as Creole.  However, the word "creole" is also used for many ethnic groups around the world who have no historic connection to Spain or to any colonial system.

Criollos and the wars of independence
Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs. They gave the American provinces great independence. The situation changed with the Bourbon Reforms during the reign of Charles III.

Spain needed to get more money from its colonies for the European and global wars it was fighting so it could maintain the Spanish Empire. The Crown made the Penisulares more important, and they took over many administrative offices which had been filled by Criollos. At the same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the lower ranks of the clergy, who were mostly Criollos.

By the 19th century, this unfair policy of giving people born in Spain more rights led the Criollos to rebel against Spanish rule.   The revolution was also inspired by the examples of the American and French revolutions against their kings. With increasing support of the other castes, they started to fight Spain in for independence (1809–1826).

References

Ethnic groups in South America
History of South America
16th-century establishments

Criollo people