Gunnar Nordström (12 March 1881, Helsinki – 24 December 1923, Helsinki) was a Finnish physicist. He is best known for his theory of gravitation, which was a competitor of Albert Einstein's general relativity. In 1914, Nordström added a space dimension to his theory. This described gravity and electromagnetism at the same time. Unluckily, Theodor Kaluza and Oskar Klein have got most attetion on this subject. Nordström is not well known in his own home country, but what he has done is known well in other countries. Some Finnish authors call Nordström as Finnish Einstein.

Nordström was born in Helsinki, the capital of Finland during the time when Finland was part of Russian Empire). He studied at University of Helsinki and completed his dissertation in 1908. Before this, he studied for some time in Göttingen where he met the world's best scientists. After this, he became a professor at the university. In 1910, he started his trip in Europe. He visited at Zürich, Berlin, Vienna, and Leyden. During his time in the Netherlands, he married Cornelia van Leeuwen. They had three children.

Nordström was very close friend to Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. He died at Helsinki in 1923 because of radioactivity. In that time, radioactivity was thought to have healing effects.

1881 births
1923 deaths

Physicists
Scientists from Helsinki

Gunnar Nordström


For movie, TV, radio, or theatrical adaptations of the novel see:

1914: Anna Karenina (1914 movie), a Russian adaptation directed by Vladimir Gardin.
1915: Anna Karenina (1915 movie), an American version starring Danish actress Betty Nansen.
1927: Love (1927 movie), an American version, starring Greta Garbo and directed by Edmund Goulding.  This version featured significant changes from the novel and had two different endings, with a happy one for American audiences.
1935: Anna Karenina (1935 movie), the most famous and critically acclaimed version, starring Greta Garbo and Fredric March and directed by Clarence Brown.
1944: A radio adaptation on The Screen Guild Theater starring Ingrid Bergman and Gregory Peck. Ingrid Bergman also did a Theater Guild on the Air adaptation in 1948.
1948: Anna Karenina (1948 movie) starring Vivien Leigh, Ralph Richardson and directed by Julien Duvivier.
1953: Anna Karenina (1953 movie), a Russian version directed by Tatyana Lukashevich.
1961: Anna Karenina (TV programme), a BBC Television adaptation directed by Rudolph Cartier, starring Sean Connery and Claire Bloom.
1967: Anna Karenina (1967 movie), a Russian version directed by Aleksandr Zarkhi.
1971: Anna Karenina (ballet), a ballet by Rodion Konstantinovich Shchedrin.
1977: Anna Karenina (1977 TV serial), a 10 part British TV miniseries directed by Basil Coleman.
1985: Anna Karenina (1985 movie), a TV Movie starring Jacqueline Bisset and Christopher Reeve, directed by Simon Langton.
1992: Anna Karenina (musical), an ill-fated Broadway musical adaptation.
1997: Anna Karenina (1997 movie), the first US version to be filmed on location in Russia, directed by Bernard Rose and starring Sophie Marceau and Sean Bean.
1997: A 4 part BBC radio production starring Toby Stephens
2000: Anna Karenina (2000 TV serial), a 4 part British TV adaptation directed by David Blair.
2005: Anna Karenina (2005 ballet), a Russian ballet in 2 acts choreoraphed by Boris Eifman.
2007: Anna Karenina (2007 opera), an American opera with music by David Carlson from a libretto by Colin Graham which premiered in April 2007 at Florida Grand Opera starring Kelly Kaduce as Anna.
2009: Anna Karenina (2009 movie), a Russian mini-series by Sergei Solovyov.
For the cruiseferry, see M/S Anna Karenina

References

Anna Karenina (disambiguation)


Slobomir (Cyrillic: Слобомир) is a new town project in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located on the Drina River near Bijeljina, part of the Bijeljina municipality. It was founded by Slobodan Pavlović, a Bosnian Serb businessman.

According to Pavlović, it is supposed to be one of the major cities of post-war Bosnia-Herzegovina. The city is planned be located in two countries, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia, with the majority of it in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The city's name is a combination of its founder's name, Slobodan Pavlović, and his wife's name, Mira. Conveniently, its name means "the city of freedom and peace", from the words "sloboda", meaning freedom, and "mir", meaning peace.

The city is under construction on both sides of the Drina River, next to a major road from Bijeljina to Bogatić, in the vicinity of "Pavlović's bridge" which connects Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia.

The city's plans include a Pavlović Tower, intended to be the biggest building on the Balkan peninsula with 37 floors.

The largest completed buildings are Slobomir P University, the Pavlović International Bank, and the Slobomir duty-free zone.

External links
 Slobomir - City of Freedom & Peace
 Radio Television Slobomir
 Slobomir P University

Cities and towns in Republika Srpska
Populated places in Mačva District
Bijeljina
Planned communities
New towns started in the 2000s

Slobomir


Tagi was the ruler/mayor of ancient Ginti–(Gintikirmil), of the 14th century BC Amarna letters. Tagi's name is a Hurrian hypocoristicon for the word beautiful.

Tagi was the father-in-law of Milkilu, mayor of ancient Gazru-(modern Gezer), (one of three mayors). Tagi was the author of 3 short, but complete Amarna letters, EA 264-66, (EA  for 'el Amarna'), and Tagi is also referenced in two other letters. The authored letters are written to the pharaoh of Egypt.

The 3 letters of Tagi

EA 264: "The ubiquitous king"-(Caravans)
To the king, m[y] lord: Message of Tagi, you[r] servant. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord, 7 times and 7 times. As I am the servant of the king, I tried to assemble a caravan, with my brother in charge, but he barely escaped being killed. He is unable to send my caravan to the king, my lord. Ask your commissioner if my brother did not barely escape being killed. Moreover, as far as we are concerned, it is to you that my eyes (are directed). Should we go up into the sky: (ša-me-ma), or should we go down into the netherworld, our head: (ru-šu-nu), is in your hand. So now I try herewith to send my caravan to the king, my lord, with a partner of mine in charge. May the king, my lord, be informed that I serve the king and am on my guard. —EA 264, lines 1-25 (complete)

EA 265: "A gift acknowledged"
Letter two of three letters by Tagi of Ginti, (Gintikirmil).
To the king, my lord: Message of Tagi, your servant. I fall at the feet of the king, my lord. My own man I sent along with [ ... ] to see the face of the king, my lord. [And] the king, my lord, [s]ent a present to me in the care of Tahmaya, and Tahmaya gave (me) a gold goblet and 1[2 se]ts of linen garments. For the information [of the kin]g, my lord.  —EA 265, lines 1-15 (~complete)

EA 266: "And there was light"
Besides the prostration formula phrasing, letter no. 266 contains two phrases referring to the pharaoh. See: Phrases and Quotations
[S]ay [to] the king, [my] lo[rd], my [g]od, my {Sun]: Message of Tag[i, your servant], the dirt at [your] fe[et]. I fall] at the feet of the king, [my] lor[d], my god, my Sun, 7 times and 7 times. I looked [th]is way, and I l[oo]ked [th]at way, and there was no [li]ght. Then I looked [to]wards the king, [my lord, and the]re was light. I am [ind]eed deter[min]ed to serve the king, my lord. A brick many move fro[m u]nder [its] par[tner]-("partner brick"); still I will not move from [un]der the feet [of the k]ing, my lord. I herewith se[nd] [ha]rness(es) [for a pa]ir of hor[ses, and] a bow, and [a qu]ive[r], [a s]pea[r, c]over[rs, t]o the king, [my] l[ord].  —EA 266, lines 1-33 (complete, with damaged cuneiform–characters, (or missing))

See also
Amarna letters–phrases and quotations
Tahmaya, a commissioner

External links
A minor discussion of "Šame"-(Sky/Heaven): "dingir A-num AN-e, dingir Anum,  Šamê"--(the Cuneiform); See: Dingir

References
Moran, William L. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. (softcover, )

Amarna letters writers
Canaanite people
14th-century BC mayors

Tagi of Ginti


Palais Esterházy is a baroque palace in Vienna, Austria, owned by the noble Esterházy family. It houses a famous and popular restaurant in the former wine cellars, called Esterházykeller.

The Palace is one of two with the same name in Vienna. This particular Palais Esterházy is on Wallnerstraße (the other one is on Kärntner Straße). At one time there were 14 different properties on this site. The first prince began building between 1685 and 1695. It was between 1806 and 1820 that it got the appearance we know today. In the 20th century, the family hardly used it. After renovations in the post World War II period, most parts were leased out.

See also
 Palais Harrach
 List of restaurants in Vienna

References

Esterházy family
Buildings and structures in Innere Stadt
Esterhazy
Restaurants in Vienna

Palais Esterházy


The Battle of Munfordville (also known as the Battle of Green River) was an engagement in Munfordville, Kentucky during the American Civil War. Victory there allowed the Confederates to temporarily strengthen their hold on the region and impair Union supply lines.

Battle
On August 26, 1862, Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg's army left Chattanooga, Tennessee and marched north through Sparta, TN and then to Glasgow, KY. Pursued by Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell's Union Army, Bragg approached Munfordville, a station on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad and the location of an 1,800 foot long railroad bridge crossing Green River, in mid-September. Col. John T. Wilder commanded the Union garrison at Munfordville, which consisted of three regiments behind extensive fortifications.

Wilder's force was first approached by Brig. Gen. James R. Chalmers who marched on Munfordville from Cave City, KY without orders. Chalmers had received an erroneous report from cavalry under Kirby Smith that the federal force in Munfordville had "not more than 1,800 men, entirely raw troops, and that they were fortifying their position, but that the railroad and telegraph had been destroyed in their rear, cutting them off completely from all communication and re-enforcements." Upon arriving on September 14, Chalmers demanded a surrender, which was rejected, and then proceeded to launch frontal assaults that were repulsed by the federal defenders. Chalmers' brigade suffered 288 casualties in the attacks before retreating back to Cave City.

Braxton Bragg was angry at Chalmers for his "unauthorized and injudicious" assault, but determined to force Munfordville's surrender nonetheless. Bragg believed that leaving Munfordville intact would "throw a gloom upon the whole army…[but forcing its surrender would] turn defeat into victory." Thus Bragg's army made a forced march of 25–35 miles the night of September 15–16 to Munfordville.

Late on September 16, realizing that Buell's forces were near and not wishing to kill or injure innocent civilians, the Confederates sent another demand for surrender. Wilder entered enemy lines under a flag of truce, and Confederate Maj. Gen. Simon B. Buckner escorted him to view the Confederate strength to convince him resistance was futile. Realizing the odds he faced (45 cannon and 25,000+ infantry), Wilder agreed to surrender. The formal ceremony took place the next day as the paroled federals marched out of Munfordville with new uniforms.  W.L. Trask, a Confederate soldier, said the federals "were well clothed, looked fat and sleek and clean and neat and were in strange contrast to our own hungry, ragged and dirty looking rebels."

Despite the capture of over 4,000 federals and stores of supplies at Munfordville, the victory did little for the Confederates other than slow them down. Author Kenneth W. Noe said "Unless he [Bragg] intended to fight it out along the Green River, an idea that flickered only briefly under duress, Munfordville was a three-day distraction the Confederate cause could ill afford." The incident is a good example of how Bragg had little overall vision for the campaign and instead simply reacted from event to event.

National Register of Historic Places

Three places in the National Register of Historic Places are related to the battle.

Battle of Munfordville site
The entire battlefield is listed in the National Register as the Battle of Munfordville Site.  This includes the Green River Bridge designed by Albert Fink and built by the Louisville & Nashville Railroad in 1859, Fort Craig, a union-built star shaped wood and earthen fort, a small cemetery at the northern edge of the battlefield, and other buildings existing at the time.

Smith Monument
The Colonel Robert A. Smith Monument near the river is part of the battlefield historic site and separately listed as well. A monument to Colonel Smith also exists in Dean Cemetery in his home town of Edinburgh, Scotland.

Unknown Soldier
The Unknown Confederate Soldier Monument in Horse Cave marks the grave of a Louisiana soldier accidentally killed while clearing timber for the Confederate advance.

Battlefield Preservation

The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved about 135 acres of the Munfordville Battlefield as of mid-2023.

See also
 List of battles fought in Kentucky

References

 National Park Service battle description
 Munfordville battlefield preservation
 CWSAC Report Update - Kentucky

Confederate Heartland Offensive
Battles of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Confederate victories of the American Civil War
Hart County, Kentucky
Battles of the American Civil War in Kentucky
1862 in Kentucky
1862 in the American Civil War
Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Kentucky
National Register of Historic Places in Hart County, Kentucky
American Civil War on the National Register of Historic Places
September 1862 events

Battle of Munfordville


The Audrey Hepburn semi-postal was a semi-postal postage stamp issued in Germany in 2001 and showing Audrey Hepburn. It was forbidden by the family of the actress.

The Deutsche Post (German Post) authorities changed the stamp for one depicting a film roll. The complete series included other famous actors such as Charlie Chaplin, Marilyn Monroe, Greta Garbo and Jean Gabin.

Postage stamps
Hepburn
2001 establishments in Europe
2000s establishments in Germany

Audrey Hepburn (semi-postal)


Microsoft RoundTable was a videoconferencing device with a 360-degree camera that was designed to work with Microsoft Office Communications Server 2007 or Microsoft Office Live Meeting. RoundTable provided remote meeting participants with panoramic video of everyone sitting around the conference table. In addition, RoundTable contained active speaker detection technology that provides high-resolution video of the active speaker in a meeting, and tracked the flow of conversation in real time, switching between different meeting participants as they speak.

RoundTable was a plug-and-play USB device that also functioned as a standard PSTN speakerphone.

Core technology used in RoundTable was invented and originally developed by Ross Cutler and other researchers at Microsoft Research. Ross Cutler and Senthil Velayutham founded the RoundTable product group as part of the Microsoft Greenhouse and led by GM Jeff Finan to commercialize the technology.  The product launched in 2007.  It used the Windows CE operating system on the main processor and other operating systems on the supporting DSP chipsets.

In 2009 the Roundtable device was licensed to Polycom and rebranded as the Polycom CX5000. The device has an identical feature set but is branded as a Polycom unit.  Polycom has since launched two new products based upon the RoundTable design – the CX5100 and the CX5500, supporting 1080p resolution video. The CX5100 is a USB only device. The CX5500 operates like the CX5100 as a 360-degree camera when plugged in to a PC running the Skype for Business client, but also can make audio VoIP calls when not plugged in to a PC.

References

External links
 Microsoft RoundTable – Official RoundTable product page on Microsoft website (Now leads to Microsoft Lync)
 Microsoft RoundTable product datasheet – On Microsoft website
 Polycom CX5000 - Official Product Page on Polycom website
 Polycom CX5100 - Official Product Page on Polycom website
 Polycom CX5500 - Official Product Page on Polycom website

Product reviews
 InfoWorld review of RoundTable
 PC World review of RoundTable
 TMCNet review of RoundTable

RoundTable
Cameras introduced in 2007
Videotelephony
Panoramic cameras
Computer-related introductions in 2007

Microsoft RoundTable


If you have been getting tempting message with video links in your accounts in social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Myspace, Bebo, Friendster and Hi5, beware. Any attempt to downloan the promises video will make you another victim of Koobface, a worm that could steal critical and personal information from your computer.
The government's India Computer Emergency Response Team has warned that Koobface, a play on the name of social networking site Facebook, comes with an enticing tagline and spread by spamming the contacts of the victim on networking sites.
With more than 3 million members of Facebook in India alone, Koobface's potential for wreaking havoc on the country's computer systems is immense – a fact that has prompted the government to issue the warning alert.
Typically, Koobface victims get a message from one of their contacts inviting them to click leads you to a site mimicking the video-sharing site, Youtube. One there, you are asked whether you want to download a software needed to watch the video.
It you click 'yes' the worm gets activated. It not only disrupts your internet experience by sending your searches on engines like Google elsewhere and returning garbled replies, it also steals data that may have been left in your computer's memory.

पेप्टाइड बंधन


Breath sounds are the sounds made by air as it moves through the respiratory system.  Breath sounds are also called lung sounds or respiratory sounds.  Sometimes they can be heard by anyone; other times they can be heard only by listening to the lungs and airways with a stethoscope.

To describe and identify breath sounds, medical professionals usually use auscultation (they listen with a stethoscope).  They listen while the patient is breathing in, and while they are breathing out.  They listen to both lungs, at both the chest and the back, starting at the bottom and working their way up.  They listen to whether the pitch of the breath sounds is low, medium or high.  They also listen to whether the sounds are soft, medium, loud, or very loud).

Abnormal Breath Sounds

There are many kinds of breath sounds that are not normal.  These are called adventitious breath sounds.  Each different kind of abnormal breath sound is a sign of a different problem.  Some of the most common abnormal breath sounds are:

Wheezing

Wheezing is usually high-pitched.  It sounds musical, like whistling.  Usually, wheezing is heard first when a person is breathing out.  If it gets worse, wheezing starts happening when the patient breathes in and out.

Wheezing is caused by the airways being too narrow.  This can happen because of diseases like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD).

If the airways are too narrow, the oxygen the body needs cannot get through.  This can become a medical emergency.

There are a few different treatments that can be used for wheezing:
 The patient can be given supplemental (extra) oxygen through a mask.
 Sometimes, moist, hot air can help wheezing.  Sitting in an area like a shower, or using a vaporizer (which creates moist, warm air) may be helpful for mild wheezing.  Emergency medical technicians or hospitals can also give humidified oxygen, which is mixed with warm water to make the oxygen into a warm steam.
 There are medicines called bronchodilators that relax and open up the airways.  This reverses the cause of wheezing and makes it easier to breathe.  Albuterol is a very common bronchodilator and is carried on many ambulances.  Bronchodilators can be given in inhalers or in a nebulizer (which mixes the medicine with warm water to make the medicine into steam).

Stridor

Stridor is a high-pitched sound that usually happens when a person breathes in.  It may sound a lot like wheezing.  Medical professionals can tell the difference by listening to the throat with a stethoscope.  If the sound they hear is louder in the throat, it is stridor, not wheezing.

Stridor is usually caused by something blocking the larynx (voice box).  This can happen because:
 A person is choking and an object is blocking the larynx
 A person has an infection, and swelling in the throat or airways blocks the larynx
 The muscles in the airway or vocal cords spasm (suddenly get tighter); this is called laryngospasm

Like wheezing, stridor can signal a medical emergency if not enough oxygen is able to get through the airways.

Treatment for stridor depends on the cause:
 Helping a person stop choking by using choke saving (like the Heimlich maneuver)
 Treating the infection that is causing swelling in the larynx
 Giving medicines to help the muscles in the airway or vocal cords relax
 No matter what the cause is, giving extra oxygen may also help

Children are more likely to have stridor because of choking.  They are more likely to choke because their airways are smaller.  They are also more likely to get childhood infections like croup or epiglottitis that can cause stridor.

Rales (fine crackles)

Rales are also called fine crackles, because they often sound like a fine crackling noise.  They are heard when a person breathes in, on both sides (in both lungs).  Rales may also sound like bubbling, rattling, or small clicking sounds.

Rales are heard when a person has fluid in their lungs.  This is called pulmonary edema.  Pulmonary edema may happen for many reasons, like:
 Congestive heart failure (CHF)
 Pneumonia or other infections in the lungs
 Injury to the lung
 Blood clot in the lung (pulmonary embolism)
 Breathing in smoke
 Drowning

Rales signals pulmonary edema, no matter what is causing that pulmonary edema.  When a medical professional listens to the lungs, rales usually start at the bottom of the lungs.  As the pulmonary edema gets worse and fluid fills the lungs more, rales can be heard closer and closer to the top of the lungs.

Rhonchi (coarse crackles)

Rhonchi are also called coarse crackles, because they sound like coarse, rattling, crackling sounds.  Rhonchi and rales can sound a lot alike.  The main differences are:
 Rales start at the bottom of the lungs and can be heard farther up as the patient gets sicker.  They are heard on both sides (in both lungs) together.
 Rhonchi are often heard just in certain spots in the lungs.  They do not always start at the bottom of the lungs.  They may be heard only on one side, or in different spots on both sides.

Rhonchi are usually caused by mucus in the bronchi, the tubes that lead to the lungs.  For example, if a person has pneumonia, mucus can build up in their bronchi and the bronchi's airways, and cause rhonchi.

Unequal breath sounds

In a healthy person, breath sounds should always sound the same on both sides.  This signals that both lungs are working well.  If breath sounds cannot be heard in one lung, this can signal a serious problem.  It means that air is not getting in and out of that lung.

One of the most common causes of unequal breath sounds is a collapsed lung (pneumothorax).  A lung can collapse for many different reasons:
 A very bad injury to the lung
 Lung diseases like asthma, COPD, tuberculosis (TB), whooping cough, pneumonia, or cystic fibrosis
 Sometimes air blisters called blebs form on the top of the lungs.  If these air blisters break, air can leak out of the lungs and cause the lung to collapse.
 Sometimes, a lung can collapse on its own.  This is called a spontaneous pneumothorax.

A pneumothorax is often a medical emergency and needs to be treated in a hospital.

References

Respiratory system

Breath sounds


See also an album by Two Steps from Hell

Two Steps From Heaven is a novel by Russian author Mikhail Evstafiev.

Plot summary

The events of the novel  take place in the mid-1980s during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and soon after the troop withdrawal, back in the then Soviet Union. It is a stirring account of the trials of Lieutenant Oleg Sharagin, a platoon commander in the elite Soviet airborne forces, his fellow officers and soldiers. It also portrays the ordinary Afghans who suffered enormously under the Soviet occupation.

Sharagin survives many combat operations but is critically wounded just a few months before the end of his tour of duty when his platoon is ambushed in the course of a major offensive against the Mujahideen. He is evacuated to a hospital in Kabul, undergoes surgery, and finally finds himself reunited with his family. But back home he realizes his military career is over. The war haunts Sharagin and the pain caused by the wound turns his life into a nightmare, leading to a dramatic finale.

The novel is a good example of Russian "accurate fiction." It puts a human face on the Soviet soldier without sparing the gory details, like the hard to comprehend top-down authority and license for physical punishment and humiliation within the Russian army, the mental suffering which young soldiers and officers endured during their catastrophic experience in Afghanistan, or the gruesome killings of innocent Afghan civilians.

The novel first came out in Russian in 1997 in an abridged version. In 2006, it was published by Eksmo, one of the largest publishing houses in Russia.

The Russian and English versions can also be found on "Art of War" , a project dedicated to the soldiers of the recent wars, which was created in 1998 by a Russian veteran of the Afghan war, Vladimir Grigoriev. It features short stories, novels, poetry and essays by veterans of the wars in Afghanistan and Chechnya, as well as in the Middle East, Nagorno-Karabakh, Yugoslavia and contributions from veterans of the Vietnam and Korea wars.

References

1997 novels
Russian historical novels
1997 Russian novels
Novels set in Afghanistan
Novels set in Russia
Novels set in the 1980s
Soviet–Afghan War fiction
Eksmo books

Two Steps from Heaven


Fricke v. Lynch, 491 F. Supp. 381 (D.R.I. 1980), was a decision in the United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island that upheld the right of Aaron Fricke to bring a same-sex date to a high school dance. The Court ruled that existing free speech doctrine protected gay and lesbian students' rights to attend their proms with same-sex dates of their choice. The case was "one of the first successful victories in the courtroom for an LGBT issue involving young people, and is routinely cited each year in numerous cases surrounding the rights of students to bring same-sex dates to school functions."

Background
In April 1979, a gay high school junior named Paul Guilbert sought his principal's permission to bring a male date, Ed Miskevich, a senior at Brown University, to his junior prom at Cumberland High School in Rhode Island. The principal, Richard Lynch, "denied the request, fearing that student reaction could lead to a disruption at the dance and possibly to physical harm to Guilbert." The Cumberland School Department denied a public hearing to Paul Guilbert because his father opposed his plan to attend with a male date. Guilbert and Miskevich did not attend the prom.

The next year, Guilbert's friend Aaron Fricke, who was also a gay student at Cumberland High School, again asked Lynch for permission to bring a same-sex date to a school dance. Lynch denied the request in a letter to Fricke citing the "real and present threat of physical harm to [Fricke], [his] male escort and to others."

Lynch also wrote that "the adverse effect among [Fricke's] classmates, other students, the School and the Town of Cumberland, which is certain to follow approval of such a request for overt homosexual interaction (male or female) at a class function" was sufficient ground for rejecting the request.

Fricke, represented by John Ward of Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders, filed suit in the United States District Court for the District of Rhode Island, seeking a preliminary injunction that would allow him to attend the dance.

Decision
The Court, accepting Fricke's freedom of speech claim, decided that "even a legitimate interest in school discipline does not outweigh a student's right to peacefully express his views in an appropriate time, place, and manner." The Court wrote that threats of physical violence against Fricke and his date gave homophobic students an unconstitutional "heckler's veto" that would allow "them to decide through prohibited and violent methods what speech will be heard."

The judge ruled that the precedent of United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367, 88 S. Ct. 1673, 20 L. Ed. 2d 672 (1968), was the appropriate framework for judging the constitutionality of Lynch's decision. O'Brien required that the government and its agents pursue the "least restrictive alternative" before making any decision to limit free speech. The judge ruled that Lynch's decision failed to meet the requirement of O'Brien because the school could have taken "appropriate security measures to control the risk of harm" and the principal had not made "any effort to determine the need for and logistics of additional security." The judge ruled that "the First Amendment requires that such steps" be taken to investigate and implement security measures.

The Court found the free speech claim to be dispositive and did not address Fricke's free association and equal protection arguments. With the respect to equal protection arguments, the court noted that "the school [had] afforded disparate treatment to a certain class of students" by setting up different policies for those who wished to bring same-sex partners to the dance and those who wanted to bring different-sex partners. Such a policy, the Court said, could be "profitably analyzed under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment."

Aftermath
On May 31, 1980, the press reports said that "Amid heavy security, homosexual student Aaron Fricke showed up at the senior prom with a male companion. Both wore tuxedos." Lynch addressed the senior class earlier in the day and promised to respond to any harassment of the couple with "very stern measures." The school provided six rather than the customary two police officers for security. Some students taunted the couple when they danced together.

Following Fricke, American public high schools have increasingly allowed gay and lesbian students to attend school functions with their same-sex partners. In 2004, Murray High School in Utah prohibited same-sex students from participating in the promenade of their prom. Press coverage noted the similarity to Fricke's case. Using Fricke as a precedent, the ACLU threatened to sue the high school on behalf of its gay and lesbian students. The high school reversed its policy and allowed 17-year-old lesbian Heather Johnston to dance with her girlfriend at the prom.

In 2010, Itawamba Agricultural High School in Mississippi canceled its prom after pupil Constance McMillen asked to attend with her girlfriend and wear a tuxedo. She reported hostility from other students over the cancellation, and sued the school.

See also
 Hall v Durham Catholic School Board: A similar case in Canada
 2010 Itawamba County School District prom controversy

References

External links

United States LGBT rights case law
United States district court cases
Student rights case law in the United States
United States children's rights case law
1980 in United States case law
1980 in LGBT history
School dances
LGBT in Rhode Island
1980 in Rhode Island
Cumberland, Rhode Island
United States Free Speech Clause case law
United States equal protection case law
LGBT and education
History of gay men in the United States

Fricke v. Lynch


"Bowie" is the sixth episode of the HBO comedy series Flight of the Conchords. The episode first aired in the United States on Sunday, 22 July 2007.

After a photo session, Bret develops body image issues and gets some dream advice from his idol, David Bowie. Jemaine plots to cheer him up and Murray tries to get one of the band's tunes used for a musical greeting card.

Plot
Bret starts suffering body image issues after Murray accuses him of being small during a photo session.  He then gets visited in a dream by a Ziggy Stardust-era David Bowie (performed by Jemaine, whose resemblance is acknowledged by Bret) telling him not to worry about his body image and advising him to get an eyepatch.

Murray announces that he has arranged a meeting with a company who are interested in using one of the band's songs in a musical greeting card.  Jemaine visits Mel and asks her to cheer Bret up complimenting him next time she sees him.  Later Jemaine tries to cheer Bret up himself by singing him a song he has written, "Bret, You've Got It Going On".

After Bowie's eyepatch suggestion causes accidents, Bret is visited again in a dream, this time by Bowie dressed as he appears in the "Ashes to Ashes" music video.  Bowie advises him to do something "absolutely outrageous" when the "time is right".  The next day they see Mel on the street who compliments Bret profusely at the expense of Jemaine who now starts to doubt his own body image.

At the greeting card meeting the owner, David Armstrong (played by John Hodgman), tries to explain the workings of the audio card to technically challenged Murray, Jemaine and Bret.  When Armstrong says that he feels that the band are not really interested in the opportunity, Bret sees it as the cue to do something outrageous.  He leaps onto the manager's desk and exposes himself, featuring "lightning bolts down his wanger."  On the bus ride home, Murray and Jemaine express their disappointment with Bret for ruining the business opportunity and Murray becomes depressed that his management skills were not good enough to prevent the incident or spin it well.

That night Bret gets visited again. This time it is Bowie as Jareth the Goblin King from the movie Labyrinth. A disappointed Bowie tells Bret that he is out of advice and has lost confidence in his ability to help people.  The scene ends with a song and music video, "Bowie", that mimics various performance styles and roles from David Bowie's career.

Later, Bret drinks a cup of coffee with Jemaine and Dave (Arj Barker) outside of Dave's pawn shop, where he concludes that if even David Bowie sometimes loses self-confidence, then he should not have to be so insecure about his body image. Murray arrives and tells them that despite the disastrous meeting, the greeting card company decided to produce the card anyway, but because the chosen design is "Happy 80th Birthday, Son" very few cards are made and the band ends up earning only 50¢.

Songs

This episode features the following songs, both adapted from previous material by the duo:

"Bret, You've Got It Going On"

Jemaine sings "Bret, You've Got It Going On" to Bret as a way to cheer him up after he starts to feel insecure about his body. The song is meant as a tribute to Bret, although Jemaine insecurely asserts throughout the song that he is not gay and has no physical attraction to Bret, and concludes with Jemaine revealing that he once put a wig on Bret while he was sleeping in the same bed with him and pretended Bret was a woman.

The song is one of the few in the television series to have no accompanying montage or fantasy sequence and is performed primarily by Jemaine on guitar and vocals. It had previously been used in the second episode of the Flight of the Conchords radio series and was later released as an iTunes-only bonus track for pre-orders of their soundtrack album.

"Bowie"

"Bowie" (a.k.a. "Bowie's in Space") begins after Bret's last dream encounter with David Bowie. It is a parody of the many musical styles and visual aesthetics that Bowie has used in his career and features a long fantasy sequence that takes place in outer space.  The song mimics the style of  "Space Oddity", "John, I'm Only Dancing", "Let's Dance" and "Sound and Vision"  and also briefly references "Changes" and "Life on Mars?" in the lyrics.

The accompanying music video includes imagery from many aspects of David Bowie's career, including elements of the original video for "Space Oddity" from his 1969 promotional film Love You till Tuesday and Bowie's costume from his 1974 appearance on AVRO's TopPop performing "Rebel Rebel", as well as references to his interests in mime and sci-fi imagery. The extreme close-ups and profile images of Bret and Jemaine's faces against black backgrounds are similar to those of David Bowie and Candy Clark in The Man Who Fell to Earth.

During the credits, a reprise of the song plays featuring a short clip mimicking the music video to "Let's Dance".

Cultural references

Bret is reading a magazine called "Novelty Music Scene", early in the episode.  On the cover is "Weird Al" Yankovic. When Murray shows the duo their photo that was featured in the magazine, the caption reads "New Zealand Novelty Duo: Tenacious Dundee?". This is a reference to another famous comedy musical pairing Tenacious D, and also to Crocodile Dundee, a fictional character created by Australian filmmaker Paul Hogan.

When David Bowie visits Bret for a second time, Bret tells him that his previous suggestion of wearing an eyepatch caused him to lose his depth perception. David Bowie had limited depth perception due to an eye injury that caused his left pupil to remain permanently and visibly dilated. David Bowie had worn an eyepatch in accompanying promotional videos for his songs "Rebel Rebel" and "Little Wonder".
Also, this could be a reference to one of Bowie's stage personas Halloween Jack, who wore an eye patch, from the album Diamond Dogs.  Bret also later dresses like Halloween Jack in the video for Bowie's In Space.
The robot on the birthday card is a robot from the Doctor Who serial Robot.

The space-helmet-wearing band that appears during the bridge of "Bowie" is a reference to the 1977 video for "Magic Fly" by the French electronic music band Space.

There is a Sub Pop sticker on Bret's guitar case.

References

Flight of the Conchords episodes
Cultural depictions of David Bowie
2007 American television episodes
Television episodes written by James Bobin
Television episodes written by Jemaine Clement
Television episodes written by Bret McKenzie

Bowie (Flight of the Conchords)


The College of Sorbonne () was a theological college of the University of Paris, founded in 1253 (confirmed in 1257) by Robert de Sorbon (1201–1274), after whom it was named.

The Sorbonne was disestablished by decree of 5 April 1792, after the French Revolution, along with the other Paris colleges. It was restored in 1808, then closed finally in 1882.

In recent times the name "Sorbonne" came to refer to the group of liberal arts faculties of the University of Paris, in contrast to the vocational faculties of law and medicine. "Sorbonne" is also used to refer to the main building  of the University of Paris in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, which houses several faculties created when the University was divided into thirteen autonomous universities in 1970.

Overview
Robert de Sorbon was the son of peasants from the village of Sorbon in the Ardennes, who became a master of theology, a canon of the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, and the confessor and chaplain of King Louis IX (Saint Louis). At the time that he founded his college, the University of Paris had already been in existence for half a century, and already had thousands of students.  Obtaining a higher degree in theology could take as long as twenty years, and therefore required considerable financial support.  Students who belonged to the religious orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans, or from the large monasteries of Cluny or Citeaux, received housing and board from their religious orders, but independent students did not.  Sorbon founded his college to provide housing and board for poorer students of theology who did not have such support.

Sorbon purchased several houses on Rue Coupe-Gueule (now Rue de la Sorbonne) and made them into lodging for students. The college was founded in 1253. Louis IX confirmed the foundation in 1257. Initially the college has about twenty students, called socii.  As the college grew, Sorbon provided a library containing over a thousand volumes by 1292, the largest in the university, and a chapel.

The Sorbonne became the most distinguished theological institution in France, and its doctors were frequently called upon to render opinions on important ecclesiastical and theological issues. In 1470, the Sorbonne had one of the first printing presses in France.  It was particularly active in the effort to suppress heresy and the spread of Protestant doctrines.  Its students included Cardinal Richelieu, who studied there from 1606 to 1607.   Richelieu became Proviseur, or administrator of the college on 29 August 1622.  Between 1635 and 1642, Richelieu renovated the Sorbonne;  he consolidated the Sorbonne with two smaller colleges, and built a complex of new buildings, including a domed chapel, around a large courtyard.  Richelieu left a large part of his fortune and his library to the Sorbonne, and he was buried in the chapel.  Only the chapel remains of the Richelieu era buildings.

The Sorbonne was closed to students in 1791 during the French Revolution. For a brief time, under Robespierre, the chapel became a Temple of Reason.  Napoleon turned the college buildings into studios for artists.  In 1822, it became the home of the faculties of letters, sciences and theology of the University of Paris.
In 1885,  as part of the Third Republic policy of separation of church and state, the theology faculty was officially closed.  The old buildings of the Sorbonne, with the exception of the chapel, were demolished and the new Sorbonne building, designed by Henri Paul Nénot,  opened in 1889, the centenary of the French Revolution.  It contained a large amphitheater, reception halls and meeting rooms, the offices of the rector of the University of Paris, and the faculties of arts and sciences.  The chapel was no longer used for religious services, but only for official ceremonies and exhibitions.

In 1971, as a result of the riots of demonstrations of May 1968, the University of Paris was broken up into thirteen independent faculties.  The New Sorbonne building became the home of the Universities of Paris I, II, III, IV, V, the École Nationale des Chartes, and the École pratique des hautes études.

Foundation
Robert de Sorbon, a native of Le Réthelois, was a distinguished professor and famous preacher who lived from 1201 till 1274. Sorbon found that there was a defect in the primitive organization of the University of Paris. The two principal mendicant orders—the Dominicans and the Franciscans—each had colleges at Paris where they delivered lectures which day students could attend without fee.

Robert de Sorbon decided that the university should also provide free instruction, so that it could compete with the religious orders. Further, he believed the society of professors should follow the practices of the cenobitic life, except in vows.  His important work was made possible by the high esteem in which de Sorbon was held at Paris, together with his intellectual brilliance, great generosity, and the assistance of his friends.  The foundation dates from 1257 or the beginning of 1258. Guillaume de Saint-Amour, Gérard d'Abbeville, Henry of Ghent, Guillaume des Grez, Odo or Eudes of Douai, Chrétien de Beauvais, Gérard de Reims, Nicolas de Bar were among the most illustrious scholars connected either with the first chairs in the Sorbonne, or with the first association that constituted it.  These savants were already attached to the university staff.

Organization
The constitution of the society as conceived by De Sorbon was simple: an administrator (provisor), associates (socii), and guests (hospites). The provisor was the head; nothing could be done without consulting him; he installed the members selected by the society, and confirmed the statutes drawn up by it; he had to provide for everything.

The associates formed the body of the society. To be admitted to it, the candidate was required to have taught a course of philosophy. There were two kinds of associates, the  and the . The latter paid forty (Paris) pounds a year; the former were provided for by the house. The burse could be granted only to persons not having an income of forty (Paris) pounds. There was a primus inter pares, the prior, who presided over all internal affairs of the house.

Doctors and bachelors were alike eligible, but, owing to the number of the latter, the custom rapidly grew up of selecting only bachelors.  Other persons were candidates for admission to the society rather than members of it. From the material and intellectual point of view, they enjoyed the same privileges as the members: board, lodging, books, spiritual and scholastic exercises but they had no votes. When they had fulfilled the condition of teaching philosophy, they were admissible as members. The course of studies lasted ten years, during which time their burses continued; but if, at the end of ten years, they had not given proof of their ability, either as teachers or as preachers, they had to give up their burse.

History
The ordinary lectures were public, and consequently were attended by students who belonged to neither of the divisions of the society. The doctors and bachelors were authorized to give shelter to other poor pupils. Besides the work of the classroom, there was the duty of preaching or labouring in the parishes. In preparation for this, the associates, on certain days, had to deliver sermons or conferences (collationes) to the community. The purely spiritual side was not forgotten.  Conferences, usually delivered by the prior, on this important part of the Christian and priestly life were given especially to the interns.

For twenty years the ability of the administrator, or provisor, corresponded to the foreseeing devotedness of the founder. This stretch of time showed the effectiveness of the administrative measures which De Sorbon had adopted.  He had written down the rules in thirty-eight articles.  This rule was directed towards the maintenance of common life, from silence in the refectory, to simplicity of authorized dress. As circumstances permitted, about 1271 De Sorbon added a literary college: this was the Collège de Calvi or the "little Sorbonne".

The constitution which Robert de Sorbon gave to his college lasted for centuries. If Claude Héméré (1574–1650, librarian of the Sorbonne) saw in the project the conception of a powerful intellect, "Hoc primus in lycaeo Parisiensi vidit Robertus", its realization became a model college for others.  The expression Pauvres maîtres et étudiants en théologie seems to emphasize the two primary characteristics of the society: equality in poverty, an equality so perfect between masters and pupils that it designated them by a common name; the poverty of the pupils, since most of them were ; the poverty of the masters, since, content with what was strictly necessary, they renounced all other professional remuneration. This equality was always maintained with scrupulous care; the Sorbon repeated as an axiom, Omnes nos sumus socii et aequales, and referred to the college as pauperem nostram Sorbonem.

From the outset the college enjoyed the favour of the Holy See. Pope Alexander IV (1259) urged the French bishops to support it, Urban IV (1262) recommended it to the goodwill of the whole Christian world, and Clement IV (1268) granted it papal approbation.  Wealthy benefactors provided it with ample endowment. A high standard of scholarship was maintained and the severity of the actus Sorbonnicus, or examination for degrees, including the defence of the "thesis Robertina", became proverbial. The professorial corps was highly respected.  From all parts of Europe, theological and political questions were sent to it for solution.

In 1470 the Sorbonne introduced the art of printing into France by calling to Paris three of Gutenberg's associates, Gering, Friburger, and Crantz.  Among its principal patrons and benefactors was Cardinal Richelieu, who held for a time the office of provisor and who, in 1635, laid the cornerstone of an edifice to be built at his expense for the use of the college. He was buried in the church of the Sorbonne, where his tomb is still preserved.

The doctors of the college were loyal defenders of the Catholic faith against the inroads of Protestantism and the Enlightenment.  As other teachers of theology in the university became members of the Sorbonne, by the beginning of the sixteenth century, its staff was practically identical with the university faculty. De Sorbon had created a library. It expanded rapidly, due to numerous gifts.

On the other hand, the professors gave their support to Gallicanism and obliged their members to subscribe to the "four articles".  This attitude naturally weakened the prestige of the Sorbonne as a theological school.  Ecclesiastical students had to seek their education in the seminaries. The Sorbonne itself was disestablished by decree of 5 April 1792, after the French Revolution.

Napoleon restored it in 1808 as the theological faculty of the newly organized university. It did not, however, regain its former standing or influence, though it continued in existence until 1882, when it was finally suppressed. In 1884 the construction of the present building was begun and it was completed in 1889. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was occupied by the various departments of letters and science which formed the École des Hautes Etudes.

Notable alumni

Antoine Arnauld
Hardouin de Beaumont de Péréfixe, Bishop of Rodez
Pope Clement VI
Jean-Baptiste Dubos, historian and critic, Perpetual Secretary of the Académie Française
André Duval, Dean of the Paris School of Catholic Theology
Philippe de Gamaches, theologian, first Chair of Theology at the Sorbonne
Jérôme-Claude Gandolphe, delegate to the National Constituent Assembly
Charles Gobinet, religious writer and teacher, early principal of the Collège du Plessis
Jean Gobinet, theologian, early principal of the collège du Plessis
Joseph Hook
Jacques Lescot, Bishop of Chartres, principal of the Collège de Dainville
Gabriel de Nail, Great bard of Amiens
Louis-Antoine de Noailles, Archbishop of Paris
Jean-Jacques Olier, founder of the Society of Saint-Sulpice
Nicole Oresme, Old master of the Collège de Navarre
Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu, Cardinal de Richelieu and chief minister to Louis XIII
Edmond Richer
Pierre Sigorgne, High vicar of the Diocese of Macon, correspondent for the Institute
Pierre-François Tinthoin
Madame Wei Tao-Ming (Chen Yu-Hsiu)
Thomas of Ireland, author of the popular florilegium Manipulus florum.
Moises Bahamon, creator of LISA: the SHIPWRECKED
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus

See also
Sorbonne
Sorbonne University
Medieval university

References

External links
 Satellite image from Google Maps

Sorbonne
1253 establishments in Europe
1250s establishments in France
1792 disestablishments in France
1808 establishments in France
1882 disestablishments in France
Louis IX of France
Educational institutions established in the 13th century
Educational institutions disestablished in the 1790s
Educational institutions established in 1808
Educational institutions disestablished in 1882
Seminaries and theological colleges in France

College of Sorbonne


A sheet intrusion, or tabular intrusion, is a planar sheet of roughly the same thickness, that forms inside a pre-existing rock. When it cuts into another unlayered mass, or across layers, it is called a dike. When it is formed between layers in a layered rock mass, it is called a sill.

An igneous sheet intrusion is formed where a mass of molten magma takes advantage of a pre-existing linear feature in a host rock, such as a long rupture or fault, and forces its way into these spaces. Thus the magma, intruded between existing rocks, solidifies into large thin sheets of igneous rock. They are among the most extensive igneous features on Earth, in the form of dikes, laccoliths, cone sheets and sills.

When limestone or other precipitate forms in a fault space, it is a sedimentary sheet intrusion.

References

Igneous rocks
Volcanology

he:מחדר פלוטוני#מחדר לוחי

Sheet intrusion


The Memoirs of a Woman for Pleasure, better known under the title Fanny Hill, is an erotic novel. The book is from the English novelist John Cleland. It was first published in London in 1748. The book was written while the writer was under debtors' prison in London. Fanny Hill is the first pornography that uses the form of the novel. The novel was one of the most prosecuted and banned books in history.

Publishing histories
The novel was published under two installments, the first being 21 November 1748 and again in February 1749 by Fenton Griffiths and his brother Ralph.

At first there was no governmental reaction to the novel. But in November 1749, just over a year after the first installment for the book was published, John Cleland and Ralph Griffiths were arrested and charged for "corrupting the King's subjects". Cleland then abandoned the novel in the courts. The book was withdrawn.

As the novel became more popular, pirate editions started appearing.

The book later began coming into the United States. In 1821, a Massachusetts court outlawed Fanny Hill. Its publisher, Peter Holmes, was found guilty for printing a "lewd or obscene" novel. Holmes appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Court. He then said the judge, relying only on the prosecutor's description, hadn't even seen the book. The state Supreme Court, however, wasn't having it.

Plot
The novel is associated under two letters. They appear as volumes I and II under the original edition. They are written by Frances "Fanny" Hill. She is a rich English woman in middle age. She leads the life of contentment with her husband Charles and their children under an unnamed acquaintance who is known only as "Madam". Fanny has been talked into recounting 'scandalous stages' of her earlier life. Fanny proceeds to do that, having the 'stark naked truth' for her governing principle.

The first letter begins with the short account of Fanny living under poverty during her childhood in a Lancashire village. At age 14, she loses her parents to smallpox. She arrives in London to look for domestic work. She gets lured into a brothel. Fanny sees two sexual acts: one with an ugly older couple, the other between a young attractive couple. She then participates in a lesbian romance with Phoebe, a bisexual prostitute. A customer, Charles, convinces her to escape. Fanny loses her virginity with Charles. She becomes his lover. Charles is sent away under deception to the South Seas. Fanny is driven under desperation and poverty to become the kept woman for a rich merchant named Mr H―. Mr H― later abandons her. She then becomes a prostitute for the wealthy clients of a pleasure house. This is the end of the first letter.

The second letter begins with the reflection on the tedium with writing about sex. Fanny then tells of her adventures in the house of Mrs Cole. They include a public orgy, a bogus sale of her "virginity" to a rich dupe named Mr. Norbert and a sadomasochistic session.

Fanny later retires from prostitution. She becomes the lover for a rich and worldly-wise man around age 60. She becomes wealthy after her lover dies from a sudden cold. Shortly after, she meets Charles again. He has returned to England a poor man. Fanny offer her fortune to him.

Literary or movie adaptations
Because of the book's notoriety (and public domain status), numerous adaptations have been produced. Some of them are:
 Fanny, Being the True History of the Adventures of Fanny Hackabout-Jones (1980) (a retelling of 'Fanny Hill' by Erica Jong purports to tell the story from Fanny's point of view, with Cleland as a character she complains fictionalised her life).
 Fanny Hill (US/West Germany, 1964), starring Letícia Román, Miriam Hopkins, Ulli Lommel, Chris Howland; directed by Russ Meyer, Albert Zugsmith (uncredited)
 The Notorious Daughter of Fanny Hill (US, 1966), starring Stacy Walker, Ginger Hale; directed by Peter Perry (Arthur Stootsbury).
 Fanny Hill (Sweden, 1968), starring Diana Kjær, Hans Ernback, Keve Hjelm, Oscar Ljung; directed by Mac Ahlberg
 Fanny Hill (West Germany/UK, 1983), starring Lisa Foster, Oliver Reed, Wilfrid Hyde-White, Shelley Winters; directed by Gerry O'Hara
 Paprika (Italy, 1991), starring Debora Caprioglio, Stéphane Bonnet, Stéphane Ferrara, Luigi Laezza, Rossana Gavinel, Martine Brochard and John Steiner; directed by Tinto Brass.
 Fanny Hill (UK, 1995), directed by Valentine Palmer.
 Fanny Hill (Off-Broadway Musical, 2006), libretto and score by Ed Dixon, starring Nancy Anderson as Fanny.
 Fanny Hill (UK, 2007), written by Andrew Davies for the BBC and starring Samantha Bond and Rebecca Night.

References

Romance novels
Obscenity controversies
English novels
18th-century books
1740s works
Works about prostitution

Fanny Hill


Anthony Minghella (6 January 1954 – 18 March 2008) was a British movie director, producer and screenwriter of Italian ancestry. He was born in Ryde, Isle of Wight. His brother is screenwriter Dominic Minghella (born 1967).

Minghella wrote and directed Truly, Madly, Deeply; he won a BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay. He wrote and directed The English Patient; he won a BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and an Academy Award for Best Director. He wrote and directed The Talented Mr. Ripley and Cold Mountain.

Minghella had cancer of the tonsils and the neck. He died of a cerebral haemorrhage and from cancer complications in Charing Cross Hospital, west London, the week after an operation to remove the cancer. He had a son, actor Max (born 1985) and a daughter, Hannah.

References

Other websites

1954 births
2008 deaths
Academy Award winning directors
BAFTA Award winning writers
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
Deaths from oropharyngeal cancer
English movie directors
English movie producers
English screenwriters
English television directors
English television producers
English television writers
People from the Isle of Wight

Anthony Minghella


Juliette Nadia Boulanger (; 16 September 188722 October 1979) was a French music teacher and conductor. She taught many of the leading composers and musicians of the 20th century, and also performed occasionally as a pianist and organist.

From a musical family, she achieved early honours as a student at the Conservatoire de Paris but, believing that she had no particular talent as a composer, she gave up writing music and became a teacher. In that capacity, she influenced generations of young composers, especially those from the United States and other English-speaking countries. Among her students were many important  composers, soloists, arrangers, and conductors, including Grażyna Bacewicz, Daniel Barenboim, Lennox Berkeley, İdil Biret, Elliott Carter, Aaron Copland, John Eliot Gardiner, Philip Glass, Roy Harris,  Quincy Jones, Dinu Lipatti, Igor Markevitch, Astor Piazzolla, Virgil Thomson, and George Walker.

Boulanger taught in the U.S. and England, working with music academies including the Juilliard School, the Yehudi Menuhin School, the Longy School, the Royal College of Music and the Royal Academy of Music, but her principal base for most of her life was her family's flat in Paris, where she taught for most of the seven decades from the start of her career until her death at the age of 92.

Boulanger was the first woman to conduct many major orchestras in America and Europe, including the BBC Symphony, Boston Symphony, Hallé, and Philadelphia orchestras. She conducted several world premieres, including works by Copland and Stravinsky.

Biography

Early life and education
Nadia Boulanger was born in Paris on 16 September 1887, to French composer and pianist Ernest Boulanger (1815–1900) and his wife Raissa Myshetskaya (1856–1935), a Russian princess, who descended from St. Mikhail Tchernigovsky.

Ernest Boulanger had studied at the Paris Conservatoire and, in 1835 at the age of 20, won the coveted Prix de Rome for composition. He wrote comic operas and incidental music for plays, but was most widely known for his choral music. He achieved distinction as a director of choral groups, teacher of voice, and a member of choral competition juries. After years of rejection, in 1872 he was appointed to the Paris Conservatoire as professor of singing.

Raissa qualified as a home tutor (or governess) in 1873. According to Ernest, he and Raissa met in Russia in 1873, and she followed him back to Paris. She joined his voice class at the Conservatoire in 1876, and they were married in Russia in 1877.
Ernest and Raissa had a daughter, Ernestine Mina Juliette, who died as an infant before Nadia was born on her father's 72nd birthday.

Through her early years, although both parents were very active musically, Nadia would get upset by hearing music and hide until it stopped. In 1892, when Nadia was five, Raissa became pregnant again. During the pregnancy, Nadia's response to music changed drastically. "One day I heard a fire bell. Instead of crying out and hiding, I rushed to the piano and tried to reproduce the sounds. My parents were amazed." After this, Boulanger paid great attention to the singing lessons her father gave, and began to study the rudiments of music.

Her sister, named Marie-Juliette Olga but known as Lili Boulanger, was born in 1893, when Nadia was six. When Ernest brought Nadia home from their friends' house, before she was allowed to see her mother or Lili, he made her promise solemnly to be responsible for the new baby's welfare. He urged her to take part in her sister's care.

From the age of seven, Nadia studied in preparation for her Conservatoire entrance exams, sitting in on their classes and having private lessons with its teachers. Lili often stayed in the room for these lessons, sitting quietly and listening.

In 1896, the nine-year-old Nadia entered the Conservatoire. She studied there with Fauré and others. She came in third in the 1897 solfège competition, and subsequently worked to win first prize in 1898. She took private lessons from Louis Vierne and Alexandre Guilmant. During this period, she also received religious instruction to become an observant Catholic, taking her First Communion on 4 May 1899. The Catholic religion remained important to her for the rest of her life.

In 1900 her father Ernest died, and money became a problem for the family. Raissa had an extravagant lifestyle, and the royalties she received from performances of Ernest's music were insufficient to live on permanently. Nadia continued to work hard at the Conservatoire to become a teacher and be able to contribute to her family's support.

In 1903, Nadia won the Conservatoire's first prize in harmony; she continued to study for years, although she had begun to earn money through organ and piano performances. She studied composition with Gabriel Fauré and, in the 1904 competitions, she came first in three categories: organ, accompagnement au piano and fugue (composition). At her accompagnement exam, Boulanger met Raoul Pugno, a renowned French pianist, organist and composer, who subsequently took an interest in her career.

In the autumn of 1904, Nadia began to teach from the family apartment, at 36 rue Ballu. In addition to the private lessons she held there, Boulanger started holding a Wednesday afternoon group class in analysis and sightsinging. She continued these almost to her death. This class was followed by her famous "at homes", salons at which students could mingle with professional musicians and Boulanger's other friends from the arts, such as Igor Stravinsky, Paul Valéry, Fauré, and others.

Professional life

After leaving the Conservatoire in 1904 and before her sister's untimely death in 1918, Boulanger was a keen composer, encouraged by both Pugno and Fauré. Caroline Potter, writing in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says of Boulanger's music: "Her musical language is often highly chromatic (though always tonally based), and Debussy's influence is apparent." Her goal was to win the First Grand Prix de Rome as her father had done, and she worked tirelessly towards it in addition to her increasing teaching and performing commitments. She first submitted work for judging in 1906, but failed to make it past the first round. In 1907 she progressed to the final round but again did not win.

In late 1907 she was appointed to teach elementary piano and accompagnement au piano at the newly created Conservatoire Femina-Musica. She was also appointed as assistant to Henri Dallier, the professor of harmony at the Conservatoire.

In the 1908 Prix de Rome competition, Boulanger caused a stir by submitting an instrumental fugue rather than the required vocal fugue. The subject was taken up by the national and international newspapers, and was resolved only when the French Minister of Public Information decreed that Boulanger's work be judged on its musical merit alone. She won the Second Grand Prix for her cantata, La Sirène.

In 1908, as well as performing piano duets in public concerts, Boulanger and Pugno collaborated on composing a song cycle, Les Heures claires, which was well-received enough to encourage them to continue working together. Still hoping for a Grand Prix de Rome, Boulanger entered the 1909 competition but failed to win a place in the final round. Later that year, her sister Lili, then sixteen, announced to the family her intention to become a composer and win the Prix de Rome herself.

In 1910, Annette Dieudonné became a student of Boulanger's, continuing with her for the next fourteen years. When her studies ended, she began teaching Boulanger's students the rudiments of music and solfège. She was Boulanger's close friend and assistant for the rest of her life.

Boulanger attended the premiere of Diaghilev's ballet The Firebird in Paris, with music by Stravinsky. She immediately recognised the young composer's genius and began a lifelong friendship with him.

In April 1912, Nadia Boulanger made her debut as a conductor, leading the Société des Matinées Musicales orchestra. They performed her 1908 cantata La Sirène, two of her songs, and Pugno's Concertstück for piano and orchestra. The composer played as soloist.

Lili Boulanger won the Prix de Rome in 1913, the first woman to do so.

With the advent of war in Europe in 1914, public programs were reduced, and Boulanger had to put her performing and conducting on hold. She continued to teach privately and to assist Dallier at the Conservatoire. Nadia was drawn into Lili's expanding war work, and by the end of the year, the sisters had organised a sizable charity, the Comité Franco-Américain du Conservatoire National de Musique et de Déclamation. It supplied items such as food, clothing, money, and letters from home to soldiers who had been musicians before the war.

Weakened by her work during the war, Lili began to suffer ill health. She died in March 1918.

Life after Lili's death, 1918–21

Nadia struggled with the death of her sister and according to Jeanice Brooks, "[t]he dichotomy between private grief and public strength was strongly characteristic of Boulanger's frame of mind in the immediate aftermath of World War I. Guilt at surviving her talented sibling seems to have led to determination to deserve Lili's death, which Nadia framed as redemptive sacrifice, by throwing herself into work and domestic responsibility: as Nadia wrote in her datebook in January 1919, 'I place this new year before you, my little beloved Lili–may it see me fulfill my duty towards you–so that it is less terrible for Mother and that I try to resemble you.

In 1919, Boulanger performed in more than twenty concerts, often programming her own music and that of her sister. Since the Conservatoire Femina-Musica had closed during the war, Alfred Cortot and Auguste Mangeot founded a new music school in Paris, which opened later that year as the École normale de musique de Paris. Boulanger was invited by Cortot to join the school, where she taught classes in harmony, counterpoint, musical analysis, organ and composition.

Mangeot also asked Boulanger to contribute articles of music criticism to his paper Le Monde Musical, and she occasionally provided articles for this and other newspapers for the rest of her life, though she never felt at ease setting her opinions down for posterity in this way.

In 1920, Boulanger began to compose again, writing a series of songs to words by Camille Mauclair. In 1921, she performed at two concerts in support of women's rights, both of which featured music by Lili. However later in life she claimed never to have been involved with feminism, and that women should not have the right to vote as they "lacked the necessary political sophistication."

American School at Fontainebleau, 1921–1935

In the summer of 1921 the French Music School for Americans opened in Fontainebleau, with Boulanger listed on the programme as a professor of harmony. Her close friend Isidor Philipp headed the piano departments of both the Paris Conservatory and the new Fontainebleau School and was an important draw for American students. She inaugurated the custom, which would continue for the rest of her life, of inviting the best students to her summer residence at Gargenville one weekend for lunch and dinner. Among the students attending the first year at Fontainebleau was Aaron Copland.

Boulanger's unrelenting schedule of teaching, performing, composing, and writing letters started to take its toll on her health; she had frequent migraines and toothaches. She stopped writing as a critic for Le Monde musical as she could not attend the requisite concerts. To maintain her and her mother's living standards, she concentrated on teaching which was her most lucrative source of income. Fauré believed she was mistaken to stop composing, but she told him, "If there is one thing of which I am certain, it is that I wrote useless music."

In 1924, Walter Damrosch, Arthur Judson and the New York Symphony Society arranged for Boulanger to tour the USA. She set sail on the Cunard flagship  on Christmas Eve. The ship arrived on New Year's Eve in New York after an extremely rough crossing. During this tour, she performed solo organ works, pieces by Lili, and premiered Copland's new Symphony for Organ and Orchestra, which he had written for her. She returned to France on 28 February 1925.

Later that year, Boulanger approached the publisher Schirmer to enquire if they would be interested in publishing her methods of teaching music to children. When nothing came of it, she abandoned trying to write about her ideas.

Gershwin visited Boulanger in 1927, asking for lessons in composition. They spoke for half an hour after which Boulanger announced, "I can teach you nothing." Taking this as a compliment, Gershwin repeated the story many times.

The Great Depression increased social tensions in France. Days after the Stavisky riots in February 1934, and in the midst of a general strike, Boulanger resumed conducting. She made her Paris debut with the orchestra of the École normale in a programme of Mozart, Bach, and Jean Françaix. Boulanger's private classes continued; Elliott Carter recalled that students who did not dare to cross Paris through the riots showed only that they did not "take music seriously enough". By the end of the year, she was conducting the Orchestre Philharmonique de Paris in the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées with a programme of Bach, Monteverdi and Schütz.

Her mother Raissa died in March 1935, after a long decline. This freed Boulanger from some of her ties to Paris, which had prevented her from taking up teaching opportunities in the United States.

Touring and recording

In 1936, Boulanger substituted for Alfred Cortot in some of his piano masterclasses, coaching the students in Mozart's keyboard works. Later in the year, she traveled to London to broadcast her lecture-recitals for the BBC, as well as to conduct works including Schütz, Fauré and Lennox Berkeley. Noted as the first woman to conduct the London Philharmonic Orchestra, she received acclaim for her performances.

Boulanger's long-held passion for Monteverdi culminated in her recording six discs of madrigals for HMV in 1937, which brought his music to a new, wider audience. Not all reviewers approved her use of modern instruments.

When Hindemith published his The Craft of Musical Composition, Boulanger asked him for permission to translate the text into French, and to add her own comments. Hindemith never responded to her offer. After he fled from Nazi Germany to the United States, they did not discuss the matter further.

Late in 1937, Boulanger returned to Britain to broadcast for the BBC and hold her popular lecture-recitals. In November, she became the first woman to conduct a complete concert of the Royal Philharmonic Society in London, which included Fauré's Requiem and Monteverdi's Amor (Lamento della ninfa). Describing her concerts, Mangeot wrote,
She never uses a dynamic level louder than mezzo-forte and she takes pleasure in veiled, murmuring sonorities, from which she nevertheless obtains great power of expression. She arranges her dynamic levels so as never to have need of fortissimo ...

In 1938, Boulanger returned to the US for a longer tour. She had arranged to give a series of lectures at Radcliffe, Harvard, Wellesley and the Longy School of Music, and to broadcast for NBC. During this tour, she became the first woman to conduct the Boston Symphony Orchestra. In her three months there, she gave over a hundred lecture-recitals, recitals and concerts These included the world premiere of Stravinsky's Dumbarton Oaks Concerto. At that time she was seen by American sculptor Katharine Lane Weems who recorded in her diary, "Her voice is surprisingly deep. She is quite slim with an excellent figure and fine features, Her skin is delicate, her hair graying slightly, she wears pince-nez and gesticulates as she becomes excited talking about music."

HMV issued two additional Boulanger records in 1938: the Piano Concerto in D by Jean Françaix, which she conducted; and the Brahms Liebeslieder Waltzes, in which she and Dinu Lipatti were the duo pianists with a vocal ensemble, and (again with Lipatti) a selection of the Brahms Waltzes, Op. 39 for piano four hands.

During Boulanger's tour of America the following year, she became the first woman to conduct the New York Philharmonic Orchestra at Carnegie Hall, the Philadelphia Orchestra and the Washington National Symphony Orchestra. She gave 102 lectures in 118 days across the US.

Second World War and emigration, 1940–45
As the Second World War loomed, Boulanger helped her students leave France. She made plans to do so herself. Stravinsky joined her at Gargenville, where they awaited news of the German attack against France. Waiting to leave France till the last moment before the invasion and occupation, Boulanger arrived in New York via Madrid and Lisbon on 6 November 1940.
After her arrival, Boulanger traveled to the Longy School of Music in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to give classes in harmony, fugue, counterpoint and advanced composition. In 1942, she also began teaching at the Peabody Conservatory in Baltimore. Her classes included music history, harmony, counterpoint, fugue, orchestration and composition.

Later life in Paris, 1946–79
Leaving America at the end of 1945, she returned to France in January 1946. There she accepted a position of professor of accompagnement au piano at the Paris Conservatoire. In 1953, she was appointed overall director of the Fontainebleau School. She also continued her touring to other countries.

As a long-standing friend of the family, and as official chapel-master to the Prince of Monaco, Boulanger was asked to organise the music for the wedding of Prince Rainier of Monaco and the American actress Grace Kelly in 1956. In 1958, she returned to the US for a six-week tour. She combined broadcasting, lecturing, and making four television films.

Also in 1958, she was inducted as an Honorary Member into Sigma Alpha Iota, the international women's music fraternity, by the Gamma Delta chapter at the Crane School of Music in Potsdam, New York.

In 1962, she toured Turkey, where she conducted concerts with her young protégée İdil Biret. Later that year, she was invited to the White House of the United States by President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline, and in 1966, she was invited to Moscow to jury for the International Tchaikovsky Competition, chaired by Emil Gilels. While in England, she taught at the Yehudi Menuhin School. She also gave lectures at the Royal College of Music and the Royal Academy of Music, all of which were broadcast by the BBC.

Her eyesight and hearing began to fade toward the end of her life. On 13 August 1977, in advance of her 90th birthday, she was given a surprise birthday celebration at Fontainebleau's English Garden. The school's chef had prepared a large cake, on which was inscribed: "1887–Happy Birthday to you, Nadia Boulanger–Fontainebleau, 1977". When the cake was served, 90 small white candles floating on the pond illuminated the area. Boulanger's then-protégé, Emile Naoumoff, performed a piece he had composed for the occasion. Boulanger worked almost until her death in 1979 in Paris. She is buried at the Montmartre Cemetery with her sister Lili and their parents.

Pedagogy

Asked about the difference between a well-made work and a masterpiece, Boulanger replied,
I can tell whether a piece is well-made or not, and I believe that there are conditions without which masterpieces cannot be achieved, but I also believe that what defines a masterpiece cannot be pinned down. I won't say that the criterion for a masterpiece does not exist, but I don't know what it is. She claimed to enjoy all "good music". According to Lennox Berkeley, "A good waltz has just as much value to her as a good fugue, and this is because she judges a work solely on its aesthetic content." "She was an admirer of Debussy, and a disciple of Ravel. Although she bore little sympathy for Schoenberg and the Viennese dodecaphonicians, she was an ardent champion of Stravinsky."

She insisted on complete attention at all times: "Anyone who acts without paying attention to what he is doing is wasting his life. I'd go so far as to say that life is denied by lack of attention, whether it be to cleaning windows or trying to write a masterpiece."

In 1920, two of her favourite female students left her to marry. She thought they had betrayed their work with her and their obligation to music. Her attitude to women in music was contradictory: despite Lili's success and her own eminence as a teacher, she held throughout her life that a woman's duty was to be a wife and mother. According to Ned Rorem, she would "always give the benefit of the doubt to her male students while overtaxing the females". She saw teaching as a pleasure, a privilege and a duty: "No-one is obliged to give lessons. It poisons your life if you give lessons and it bores you."

Boulanger accepted pupils from any background; her only criterion was that they had to want to learn. She treated students differently depending on their ability: her talented students were expected to answer the most rigorous questions and perform well under stress. The less able students, who did not intend to follow a career in music, were treated more leniently, and Michel Legrand claimed that the ones she disliked were graduated with a first prize in one year: "The good pupils never got a reward so they stayed. I was [there] for seven years. And I never obtained a first prize". Each student had to be approached differently: "When you accept a new pupil, the first thing is to try to understand what natural gift, what intuitive talent he has. Each individual poses a particular problem." "It does not matter what style you use, as long as you use it consistently." Boulanger used a variety of teaching methods, including traditional harmony, score reading at the piano, species counterpoint, analysis, and sight-singing (using fixed-Do solfège).

When she first looked at a student's score, she often commented on its relation to the work of a variety of composers: for example, "[T]hese measures have the same harmonic progressions as Bach's F major prelude and Chopin's F major Ballade. Can you not come up with something more interesting?" Virgil Thomson found this process frustrating: "Anyone who allowed her in any piece to tell him what to do next would see that piece ruined before his eyes by the application of routine recipes and bromides from standard repertory." Copland recalled that "she had but one all-embracing principle ... the creation of what she called la grande ligne – the long line in music." She disapproved of innovation for innovation's sake: "When you are writing music of your own, never strain to avoid the obvious." She said, "You need an established language and then, within that established language, the liberty to be yourself. It's always necessary to be yourself – that is a mark of genius in itself." Quincy Jones says Boulanger told him "Your music can never be more or less than you are as a human being".

She always claimed that she could not bestow creativity onto her students and that she could only help them to become intelligent musicians who understood the craft of composition. "I can't provide anyone with inventiveness, nor can I take it away; I can simply provide the liberty to read, to listen, to see, to understand." Only inspiration could make the difference between a well-made piece and an artistic one. She believed that the desire to learn, to become better, was all that was required to achieve – always provided the right amount of work was put in. She would quote the examples of Rameau (who wrote his first opera at fifty), Wojtowicz (who became a concert pianist at thirty-one), and Roussel (who had no professional access to music till he was twenty-five), as counter-arguments to the idea that great artists always develop out of gifted children.

Her memory was prodigious: by the time she was twelve, she knew the whole of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier by heart. Students have described her as knowing every significant piece, by every significant composer. Copland recalls,
Nadia Boulanger knew everything there was to know about music; she knew the oldest and the latest music, pre-Bach and post-Stravinsky. All technical know-how was at her fingertips: harmonic transposition, the figured bass, score reading, organ registration, instrumental techniques, structural analyses, the school fugue and the free fugue, the Greek modes and Gregorian chant.

Murray Perahia recalled being "awed by the rhythm and character" with which she played a line of a Bach fugue. Janet Craxton recalled listening to Boulanger's playing Bach chorales on the piano as "the single greatest musical experience of my life".

Honours and awards
1932 Chevalier to the Légion d'honneur
1934 Order of Polonia Restituta
1962 Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1962 Howland Memorial Prize
1975 Médaille d'Or of the Académie des Beaux-Arts of the Institut de France
1977 Grand officier to the Légion d'honneur
1977 Order of the British Empire
1977 Order of St. Charles of Monaco
1977 Order of the Crown of Belgium

Key works

Vocal
Allons voir sur le lac d'argent (A. Silvestre), 2 voices, piano, 1905
Ecoutez la chanson bien douce (Verlaine), 1 voice, orchestra, 1905
Les sirènes (Grandmougin), female chorus, orchestra, 1905
A l'aube (Silvestre), chorus, orchestra, 1906
A l'hirondelle (Sully Prudhomme), chorus, orchestra, 1908
La sirène (E. Adenis/Desveaux), 3 voices, orchestra, 1908
Dnégouchka (G. Delaquys), 3 voices, orchestra, 1909
Over 30 songs for 1 voice, piano, incl.:
Extase (Hugo), 1901
Désepérance (Verlaine), 1902
Cantique de soeur Béatrice (Maeterlinck), 1909
Une douceur splendide et sombre (A. Samain), 1909
Larme solitaire (Heine), 1909
Une aube affaiblie (Verlaine), 1909
Prière (Bataille), 1909
Soir d'hiver (N. Boulanger), 1915
Au bord de la nuit, Chanson, Le couteau, Doute, L'échange (Mauclair), 1922
J'ai frappé (R. de Marquein), 1922

Chamber and solo works
3 pièces, organ, 1911, arr. cello, piano
3 pièces, piano, 1914
Pièce sur des airs populaires flamands, organ, 1917
Vers la vie nouvelle, piano, 1917

Orchestral
Allegro, 1905
Fantaisie variée, piano, orchestra, 1912

With Raoul Pugno
Les heures claires (Verhaeren), 8 songs, 1 voice, piano, 1909
La ville morte (d'Annunzio), opera, 1910–13

Recordings
Mademoiselle: Premiere Audience – Unknown Music of Nadia Boulanger, Delos DE 3496 (2017)
Tribute to Nadia Boulanger, Cascavelle VEL 3081 (2004)
BBC Legends: Nadia Boulanger, BBCL 40262 (1999)
Women of Note. Koch International Classics B000001SKH (1997)
Chamber Music by French Female Composers. Classic Talent B000002K49 (2000)
Le Baroque Avant Le Baroque. EMI Classics France B000CS43RG (2006)

Notes

References

External links

 www.nadiaboulanger.org
 The American Conservatory at Fontainebleau

 Songs by Nadia Boulanger at The Art Song Project

 http://www.openculture.com/2018/04/meet-nadia-boulanger.html
 Interview with Nadia Boulanger
 Nadia Boulanger. Improvisation (1911/2). Andrew Pink (2021) 'Exordia ad missam'.
 Nadia Boulanger letters to Members of the Chanler and Pickman Families, 1940-1978 at Isham Memorial Library, Harvard University
 Nadia Boulanger scores by her students, 1925-1972 at Isham Memorial Library, Harvard University

1887 births
1979 deaths
Musicians from Paris
20th-century classical composers
French classical composers
French women classical composers
French women conductors (music)
French music educators
French women music educators
Piano pedagogues
Longy School of Music of Bard College faculty
Prix de Rome for composition
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
French people of Russian descent
Academic staff of the École Normale de Musique de Paris
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery
Pupils of Gabriel Fauré
Pupils of Louis Vierne
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
20th-century French conductors (music)
French Roman Catholics
20th-century women composers
20th-century French women musicians
Composers_for_pipe_organ

Nadia Boulanger


City of Spires is a Big Finish Productions audio drama based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who.

Plot
In the Scottish Highlands, Black Donald is fighting the Redcoats to halt the Clearances.  But time itself seems to be confused.  And the mysterious Red Cap has built anachronistic machines that are extracting the blood of the land.

Cast
The Doctor – Colin Baker
Jamie McCrimmon – Frazer Hines
Alice – Georgia Tennant
Victor – Richard Earl
Major Heyward – James Albrecht
Sergeant Rilke – Russell Floyd
Guthrie – Sam Graham
Rob – Charlie Ross
Red Cap – John Banks

Continuity
City of Spires is followed by the Companion Chronicles story Night's Black Agents, with the Doctor and Jamie still in Scotland.  Some elements, such as the mention of "the man of your god" (Reverend Merodach), are foreshadowing for this next tale.
Jamie McCrimmon was originally a companion of the Second Doctor, until the Time Lords returned him to Scotland and erased his memories of travelling in the TARDIS (but retained their initial adventure, The Highlanders).  The Sixth Doctor previously encountered Jamie on screen in The Two Doctors (while still with the Second Doctor).
Jamie briefly had his memories restored by a Time Lord in the Companion Chronicles story The Glorious Revolution, but ultimately chose to have them erased again.
Jamie's vision of the "Phantom Piper" (actually a Cyberman) occurred in The Moonbase.
The Doctor's line about the assembled hordes of Genghis Khan not being able to break into the TARDIS is also what the Ninth Doctor told Rose Tyler in the first episode of the revived TV series "Rose".
The black water is seen again in The Wreck of the Titan and Legend of the Cybermen, where its secrets are revealed.
This story arc concludes in Legend of the Cybermen, which also reveals the origin of the aliens in City of Spires.

Cast Notes
Georgia Moffett, daughter of Peter Davison and wife of David Tennant, was in the 2000 Doctor Who audio story Red Dawn, alongside her father as the Fifth Doctor.  In 2008, she was in the Doctor Who TV story "The Doctor's Daughter", in the title role, Jenny.  She also voiced a role in the 2009 Doctor Who animated story Dreamland.

External links
City of Spires

2010 audio plays
Sixth Doctor audio plays
Scotland in fiction

City of Spires


Kenneth "Redneck" Dement (February 13, 1933 – February 15, 2013) was an American football offensive tackle/defensive tackle. He played college football for Southeast Missouri State University. He was a 25th round selection (296th overall) selection by the New York Giants in the 1955 NFL Draft. But instead of playing professionally, Dement joined the United States Marine Corps where he achieved the rank of captain. After his military career, Dement went back to school, earning a law degree at Washington University School of Law in St. Louis. He returned to Sikeston, Missouri where he had grown up and began practicing law.  From 1976 until 1981, he served on the Board of Regents for Southeast Missouri State University, including in the role as its president.  Dement was once interviewed by Mike Wallace on 60 Minutes regarding a court case.  He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1998. He had six children including one who preceded him in death. Dement died on February 15, 2013, in Cape Girardeau, Missouri.  He was 80.

References

1933 births
2013 deaths
People from Poplar Bluff, Missouri
People from Sikeston, Missouri
American football offensive tackles
American football defensive tackles
Southeast Missouri State Redhawks football players
United States Marine Corps officers
Washington University School of Law alumni
Missouri lawyers
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Washington University in St. Louis alumni

Kenneth Dement


The Maginot Line (, ) was a long line of walls, forts, and armed defenses that the French built after the First World War. It is named after André Maginot, who was the French Minister of war when it was built. The Maginot Line was made of a number of fortifications and bunkers, close to the French border to Germany, Belgium,  Luxembourg and Italy. Today, the fortifications towards Italy are commonly called Alpin Line. The Maginot Line was built between 1930 and 1940.

During the First World War, the German Army had built the Hindenburg Line, which is similar.

The plan was that the French army would have time to get ready and go north to Belgium and win any battle with the German army there. In the Second World War the German army and French army met in the Ardennes (forest) in Belgium. The French army lost, opening the way to German victory in the Battle of France.

Fortifications of World War II

Maginot Line


Tim Tackett is a martial arts instructor and author from Redlands, California who runs a non-profit group dedicated to preserving Bruce Lee's art of Jeet Kune Do.

Martial arts history
Tackett began training in the martial arts when he was stationed in Taiwan in 1962 while serving in the United States Air Force. On the recommendation of a friend, he began studying martial arts intensively. During his 3 years in Taiwan he learned two types of Hsing-i, T'ai chi, Northern and Southern Shaolin, White Crane, and Monkey style kung fu. After his discharge from the Air Force in 1966, he opened a Gung Fu school in Redlands, California while attending the University of California, Riverside.

Tackett saw Bruce Lee demonstrate Jeet Kune Do in 1967 at Ed Parker's tournament in Long Beach, California. Busy with college and supporting a family he closed his Gung Fu school and focused on his education. Soon after receiving his Master of Fine Arts in 1970 he began a career as a high school drama teacher (he is now retired) from Montclair High School then Etiwanda High School. Along with his first student Bob Chapman, he visited Dan Inosanto's backyard Jeet Kune Do school on the recommendation of Dan Lee. At that time the class consisted of about 10 students including Bob Bremer, Dan Lee, Richard Bustillo, Pete Jacobs and Jerry Poteet.

In 1973 he was given a senior instructor's rank by Dan Inosanto and was permitted to teach Jeet Kune Do to a small group of students. Having no desire to teach JKD publicly, he moved his most senior group of students to his garage in Redlands, California where he continues to hold classes every Wednesday night. Beginning around 1983, Tackett and Larry Hartsell taught Jeet Kune Do at Vic Payne's Great Smokey Mountain Martial Arts Camp every summer of its existence and has taught courses throughout the United States and in Europe. He is also known for applying martial arts principles to football; he has worked with the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers in this regard.

Publications
 "Chinatown Jeet Kune Do: Essential Elements of Bruce Lee's Martial Art" by Tim Tackett, Bob Bremer
 "Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do: The Textbook" by Chris Kent, Tim Tackett
 "Jeet Kune Do Kickboxing" by Chris Kent, Tim Tackett
 "Jeet Kune Do" by Larry Hartsell, Tim Tackett
 "Jeet Kune Do: Counterattack Grappling Counters and Reversals" by Larry Hartsell, Tim Tackett
 "Hsing-i kung-fu" by Tim Tackett
 "Hsing-i Kung-fu: Volume II, Combat" by Tim Tackett

References

 Kelly, Perry (2000). Dan Inosanto: The Man, The Teacher, The Artist, Paladin Press. .
 Kent, Chris., & Tackett, Tim. (1988). Jun fan, jeet kune do: the textbook. Los Angeles, CA: Know Now Pub. Co.
 Tackett, Tim. (1998). Jeet Kune Do Bruce Lee's Jeet Kune Do : the way of intercepting fist. Madrid, Spain: Budo International Pub. Co.

External links
 JKD Wednesday Night Group
 Biography
(Wayback Machine copy)

Living people
University of California, Riverside alumni
American wushu practitioners
American Jeet Kune Do practitioners
Year of birth missing (living people)

Tim Tackett


Marriage is a contract by which two people (usually a man and a woman) agree to cohabit together as a couple for an extended period of time or for the rest of their lives with the goal of having children together and starting a family.

It can be done by signing a contract before a civil authority (civil marriage) or in a formal ceremony officiated by a religious authority.

The most common form of marriage is a legally binding heterosexual union. Some societies recognize polygamy, which includes polygyny and polyandry. In polygyny, a man may be married to many women; in polyandry a woman may be married to many men. In Senegal, for example, nearly 47 percent of marriages are multiple. A temporary marriage is called a .

The most common age to get married is between 25 to 30 years old. In the Western world, marriage for love is common. In some other places, relatives may plan an arranged marriage. Romani people tend to marry younger.

Overview
There are many reasons why people marry, but they usually include one or more of the following:
They want to have a family that is legally recognised.
They want to have children and be able to pass on property or money to their children with fewer problems
They want to officially declare their love for the other.
They want to get a certain citizenship of a state or country.
They want to avail of the many legal and financial benefits of marriage like social security, joint taxes, and health insurances.
There may be a few cases in which the goal is to pass on culture and heritage, or to ensure inheritance of assets.

Rights and obligations
Marriage usually leads to rights and obligations to those married, these may include:
The right to visit the spouse in hospital, or in prison
The right to make decisions for the spouse, when the spouse is unable to do so.
The spouses are both responsible for all the debts and obligations of the couple.

Marriage is also about sexual intercourse; being unable to have sex, being unwilling to have sex, or having sex outside the marriage may be a reason to undo the marriage.

Religion
Often there is also a spiritual part of marriage. In addition to the civil act (wanted by the state) there is sometimes a religious one. A Christian marriage ceremony usually happens in a church. In a Christian marriage, both partners promise to love each other for the rest of their lives. There are certain restrictions on who can marry or be married; those closely related, like brothers and sisters usually cannot marry. This is usually to prevent genetic problems for the children. Those marrying also have to be of a certain age to be able to marry. If that age is not specified it is usually the age of consent. In Hinduism marriage is considered to be holy and is seen as a union of the goddess "Laxmi" and the god "Narayan".

Same-sex marriage

Some countries and religious communities also permit the union of two partners of the same sex. This is generally known as same-sex marriage. In the Netherlands, the marriage law was changed to allow such unions, called Marriage. Other countries that allow them sometimes have a different name for them.

Related pages
Civil union
Divorce
Child marriage - usually when a child and an adult get married; in almost all cases, the child is not able to legally agree to the marriage, or the marriage is against the will of the child.

References

Sacraments

Marriage