Heidelberg Castle () is a ruin in Germany and landmark of Heidelberg. The castle ruins are among the most important Renaissance structures north of the Alps.

The castle has only been partially rebuilt since its demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is located  up the northern part of the Königstuhl hillside, and thereby dominates the view of the old downtown. It is served by an intermediate station on the Heidelberger Bergbahn funicular railway that runs from Heidelberg's Kornmarkt to the summit of the Königstuhl.

The earliest castle structure was built before 1214 and later expanded into two castles circa 1294; however, in 1537, a lightning bolt destroyed the upper castle. The present structures had been expanded by 1650, before damage by later wars and fires. In 1764, another lightning bolt caused a fire which destroyed some rebuilt sections.

History

Before destruction

Early history

Heidelberg was first mentioned in 1196 as "Heidelberch". In 1155 Conrad of Hohenstaufen was made the Count Palatine by his half-brother Frederick Barbarossa, and the region became known as the Electoral Palatinate. The claim that Conrad's main residence was on the Schlossberg (Castle Hill), known as the Jettenbühl, cannot be substantiated. The name "Jettenbühl" comes from the soothsayer Jetta, who was said to have lived there. She is also associated with Wolfsbrunnen (Wolf's Spring) and the Heidenloch (Heathens' Well). The first mention of a castle in Heidelberg (Latin: "castrum in Heidelberg cum burgo ipsius castri") is in 1214, when Louis I, Duke of Bavaria of the House of Wittelsbach received it from Hohenstaufen Emperor Friedrich II. The last mention of a single castle is in 1294. In another document from 1303, two castles are mentioned for the first time:
 The upper castle on Kleiner Gaisberg Mountain, near today's Hotel Molkenkur (destroyed in 1537);
 The lower castle on the Jettenbühl (the present castle site).

All that is known about the founding of the lower castle is that it took place sometime between 1294 and 1303. The oldest documented references to Heidelberg Castle are found during the 1600s:

 The Thesaurus Pictuarum of the Palatinate church counsel Markus zum Lamb (1559 to 1606);
 The "Annales Academici Heidelbergenses" by the Heidelberg librarian and professor Pithopoeus (started in 1587);
 The "Originum Palatinarum Commentarius" by Marquard Freher (1599);
 The "Teutsche Reyssebuch" by Martin Zeiller (Strasbourg 1632, reprinted in 1674 as the "Itinerarium Germaniae").

All of these works are for the most part superficial and do not contain much information. In 1615, Merian's Topographia Palatinatus Rheni described Prince Elector Ludwig V as he "started building a new castle one hundred and more years ago". Most of the descriptions of the castle up until the 18th century are based on Merian's information. Under Ruprecht I, the court chapel was erected on the Jettenbühl.

Palace of kings
When Ruprecht became the King of Germany in 1401, the castle was so small that on his return from his coronation, he had to camp out in the Augustinians' monastery, on the site of today's University Square. What he desired was more space for his entourage and court and to impress his guests, but also additional defences to turn the castle into a fortress.

After Ruprecht's death in 1410, his land was divided between his four sons. The Palatinate, the heart of his territories, was given to the eldest son, Ludwig III. Ludwig was the representative of the emperor and the supreme judge, and it was in this capacity that he, after the Council of Constance in 1415 and at the behest of Emperor Sigismund, held the deposed Antipope John XXIII in custody before he was taken to Burg Eichelsheim (today Mannheim-Lindenhof).

On a visit to Heidelberg in 1838, the French author Victor Hugo took particular pleasure in strolling among the ruins of the castle. He summarised its history in this letter:

Reformation and the Thirty Years Wars
It was during the reign of Louis V, Elector Palatine (1508–1544) that Martin Luther came to Heidelberg to defend one of his theses (Heidelberg Disputation) and paid a visit to the castle. He was shown around by Louis's younger brother, Wolfgang, Count Palatine, and in a letter to his friend George Spalatin praises the castle's beauty and its defenses.

In 1619, Bohemian Protestant estates rebelling against the Emperor offered the crown of Bohemia to Frederick V, Elector Palatine who accepted despite misgivings and in doing so triggered the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. It was during the Thirty Years War that arms were raised against the castle for the first time. This period marks the end of the castle's construction; the centuries to follow brought with them destruction and rebuilding.

Destruction
After his defeat at the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620, Frederick V was on the run as an outlaw and had to release his troops prematurely, leaving the Palatinate undefended against General Tilly, the supreme commander of the Imperial and Holy Roman Empire's troops. On 26 August 1622, Tilly commenced his attack on Heidelberg, taking the town on 16 September, and the castle a few days later.

When the Swedes captured Heidelberg on 5 May 1633 and opened fire on the castle from the Königstuhl hill behind it, Tilly handed over the castle. The following year, the emperor's troops tried to recapture the castle, but it was not until July 1635 that they succeeded. It remained in their possession until the Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years War was signed. The new ruler, Charles Louis (Karl Ludwig) and his family did not move into the ruined castle until 7 October 1649.

Victor Hugo summarized these and the following events:

Nine Years' War

After the death of Charles II, Elector Palatine, the last in line of the House of Palatinate-Simmern, Louis XIV of France demanded the surrender of the allodial title in favor of the Duchess of Orléans, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine who he claimed was the rightful heir to the Simmern lands. On 29 September 1688, the French troops marched into the Palatinate of the Rhine and on 24 October moved into Heidelberg, which had been deserted by Philipp Wilhelm, the new Elector Palatine from the line of Palatinate-Neuburg. At war against the allied European powers, France's war council decided to destroy all fortifications and to lay waste to the Palatinate (Brûlez le Palatinat!), in order to prevent an enemy attack from this area. As the French withdrew from the castle on 2 March 1689, they set fire to it and blew the front off the Fat Tower. Portions of the town were also burned, but the mercy of a French general, René de Froulay de Tessé, who told the townspeople to set small fires in their homes to create smoke and the illusion of widespread burning, prevented wider destruction.

Immediately upon his accession in 1690, Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine had the walls and towers rebuilt. When the French again reached the gates of Heidelberg in 1691 and 1692, the town's defenses were so good that they did not gain entry. On 18 May 1693 the French were yet again at the town's gates and took it on 22 May. However, they did not attain control of the castle and destroyed the town in attempt to weaken the castle's main support base. The castle's occupants capitulated the next day. Now the French took the opportunity to finish off the work started in 1689, after their hurried exit from the town. The towers and walls that had survived the last wave of destruction, were blown up with mines.

Removal of the court to Mannheim

In 1697 the Treaty of Ryswick was signed, marking the end of the War of the Grand Alliance and finally bringing peace to the town. Plans were made to pull down the castle and to reuse parts of it for a new palace in the valley. When difficulties with this plan became apparent, the castle was patched up. At the same time, Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine played with the idea of completely redesigning the castle, but shelved the project due to lack of funds. He did, however, install his favorite court jester, Perkeo of Heidelberg to famously watch over the castle's wine stock. Perkeo later became the unofficial mascot of the city. In 1720, Charles came into conflict with the town's Protestants as a result of fully handing over the Church of the Holy Spirit to the Catholics (it had previously been split by a partition and used by both congregations), the Catholic prince-elector moved his court to Mannheim and lost all interest in the castle. When on 12 April 1720, Charles announced the removal of the court and all its administrative bodies to Mannheim, he wished that "Grass may grow on her streets".

The religious conflict was probably only one reason for the move to Mannheim. In addition, converting the old-fashioned hill-top castle into a Baroque palace would have been difficult and costly. By moving down into the plain, the prince-elector was able to construct a new palace, Mannheim Palace, that met his every wish.

Karl Phillip's successor Karl Theodor planned to move his court back to Heidelberg Castle. However, on 24 June 1764, lightning struck the Saalbau (court building) twice in a row, again setting the castle on fire, which he regarded as a sign from heaven and changed his plans. Victor Hugo, who had come to love the ruins of the castle, also saw it as a divine signal:

In the following decades, basic repairs were made, but Heidelberg Castle remained essentially a ruin.

Since destruction

Slow decay and Romantic enthusiasm

In 1777, Karl Theodor became ruler of Bavaria in addition to the Palatinate and removed his court from Mannheim to Munich. Heidelberg Castle receded even further from his thoughts and the rooms which still had roofs were taken over by craftsmen. Even as early as 1767, the south wall was quarried for stone to build Schwetzingen Castle. In 1784, the vaults in the Ottoheinrich wing were filled in, and the castle used as a source of building materials.

As a result of the German mediatisation of 1803, Heidelberg and Mannheim became part of Baden. Charles Frederick, Grand Duke of Baden welcomed the addition to his territory, although he regarded Heidelberg Castle as an unwanted addition. The structure was decaying and the townsfolk were helping themselves to stone, wood, and iron from the castle to build their own houses. The statuary and ornaments were also fair game. August von Kotzebue expressed his indignation in 1803 at the government of Baden's intention to pull down the ruins. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the ruined castle had become a symbol for the patriotic movement against Napoleon.

Even before 1800, artists had come to see the river, the hills and the ruins of the castle as an ideal ensemble. The best depictions are those of England's J. M. W. Turner, who stayed in Heidelberg several times between 1817 and 1844, and painted Heidelberg and the castle many times. He and his fellow Romantic painters were not interested in faithful portrayals of the building and gave artistic licence free rein. For example, Turner's paintings of the castle show it perched far higher up on the hill than it actually is.

The saviour of the castle was the French count Charles de Graimberg. He fought the government of Baden, which viewed the castle as an "old ruin with a multitude of tasteless, crumbling ornaments", for the preservation of the building. Until 1822, he served as a voluntary castle warden, and lived for a while in the Glass Wing (Gläserner Saalbau), where he could keep an eye on the courtyard. Long before the origin of historic preservation in Germany, he was the first person to take an interest in the conservation and documentation of the castle, which may never have occurred to any of the Romantics. Graimberg asked Thomas A. Leger to prepare the first castle guide. With his pictures of the castle, of which many copies were produced, Graimberg promoted the castle ruins and drew many tourists to the town.

Planning and restoration

The question of whether the castle should be completely restored was discussed for a long time. In 1868, the poet Wolfgang Müller von Königswinter argued for a complete reconstruction, leading to a strong backlash in public meetings and in the press.

In 1883, the Grand Duchy of Baden established a "Castle field office", supervised by building director Josef Durm in Karlsruhe, district building supervisor Julius Koch and architect Fritz Seitz. The office made a detailed plan for preserving or repairing the main building. They completed their work in 1890, which led a commission of specialists from across Germany to decide that while a complete or partial rebuilding of the castle was not possible, it was possible to preserve it in its current condition. Only the Friedrich Building, whose interiors were fire damaged, but not ruined, would be restored. This reconstruction was done from 1897 to 1900 by Karl Schäfer at the enormous cost of 520,000 Marks.

Castle ruins and tourism

The oldest description of Heidelberg from 1465 mentions that the city is "frequented by strangers", but it did not really become a tourist attraction until the beginning of the 19th century. Count Graimberg made the castle a pervasive subject for pictures which became forerunners of the postcard. At the same time, the castle was also found on souvenir cups. Tourism received a big boost when Heidelberg was connected to the railway network in 1840.

Mark Twain, the American author, described the Heidelberg Castle in his 1880 travel book A Tramp Abroad:

In the 20th century, Americans spread Heidelberg's reputation outside Europe. Thus, Japanese also often visit the Heidelberg Castle during their trips to Europe. Heidelberg has, at the beginning of the 21st century, more than three million visitors a year and about 1,000,000 overnight stays. Most of the foreign visitors come either from the USA or Japan. The most important attraction, according to surveys by the Geographical Institute of the University of Heidelberg, is the castle with its observation terraces.

Reflections on the "Heidelberg Mythos"
The Heidelberg professor Ludwig Giesz wrote, in his 1960 essay titled "Phenomenology of the Kitsches", about the meaning of the ruins for tourism:

Professor Ludwig Giesz goes further in his remarks about the ruins:

Also Günter Heinemann raises the question of whether one could restore the Heidelberg Castle incompletely. Near the view from the Stück-garden over the deer moat (Hirschgraben) of the well-kept ruins of the castle interior, he asks himself whether one should not redevelop the whole area again.

Chronology
Timeline of events for Heidelberg Castle:

 1225: first documented mention as "Castrum".
 1303: mention of two castles.
 1537: destruction of the upper castle by lightning bolt.
 1610: creation of the palace garden ("Hortus Palatinus").
 1622: Tilly conquers city and castle in the Thirty Years War.
 1642: renewal of the Castle plants.
 1688/1689: destruction by French troops.
 1693: renewed destruction in the Palatinate succession war.
 1697: (start) reconstruction.
 1720: transfer of the residence to Mannheim.
 1742: (start) reconstruction.
 1764: destruction by lightning bolt.
 1810: Charles de Graimberg dedicates himself to the preservation of the Castle ruins.
 1860: first Castle lighting.
 1883: establishment of the "office of building of castles of Baden."
 1890: stocktaking by Julius Koch and Fritz Seitz.
 1900: (circa) restorations and historical development.

Famous residents

The "Winter King" Frederick V

Frederick V, Elector Palatine married the English king's daughter Elizabeth Stuart. The marriage involved great expense. Expensive festivities were organized and for them; he commissioned the Elizabeth gate at the piece garden be built.

From October 1612 until April 1613, Frederick V spent nearly a half year in England, and though only 17 years old, thereby took up contact with important architects, who later undertook changes and new building plans for the Heidelberg Castle. Inigo Jones and Salomon de Caus, who knew each other well, stood in the service of the English king's court. Caus accompanied the newlyweds on their return journey to Heidelberg. Jones came to Heidelberg as well in June 1613. Very soon, the building of an enormous garden was tackled. However, the plants were intended for level ground, and the slope of the mountain had to be converted. First earth movements had to be achieved, which contemporaries regarded as the eighth wonder of the world.

Under the rule of Frederick V, the Palatine sought Protestant supremacy in the Holy Roman Empire, which however ended in a debacle. After 1619, Frederick V—against the expressed advice of many counsellors—was chosen as the Bohemian king, he could not maintain the crown after he lost at the Battle of White Mountain (Bílá hora) (height 379m/1243 ft) against the troops of the Emperor and the Catholic League. He was mocked as the "Winter King" since his kingdom had lasted only somewhat more than one winter. With the Thirty Years War, Frederick V entered another phase of his career: political refugee.

As Frederick V left Heidelberg, it is said that his mother, Louise Juliana of Nassau proclaimed: "Oh, the Palatine is moving to Bohemia."  After his escape to Rhenen in the Netherlands, Emperor Ferdinand II in 1621 put the imperial ban on Friedrich (Prince Electors). The Rhein Palatinate was transferred in 1623 to Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria, who also bought the Upper Palatinate from the emperor.

In Rhenen, to the west of Arnhem, the family lived on saved public funds and the generous support of the English king, initially also of the Netherlands, united by the support of the government. For the remainder of his life, Frederick hoped to win back his position in the Palatinate, but he died in exile in 1632.

Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine

Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine was the duchess of Orléans and the sister-in-law of Louis XIV of France. When the Palatinate-Simmern branch of the Wittelbachs died out, Louis XIV laid claim to the Palatinate and started the War of the Grand Alliance, which laid waste to the Palatine. Liselotte, as she is affectionately known, was forced to look on helplessly as her country was ravaged in her name.

Liselotte, granddaughter of Frederick V, was born in Heidelberg Castle and grew up at her aunt Sophia of Hanover's court in Hanover. She often returned to Heidelberg with her father. At the age of 19, she was wedded for political reasons to the brother of the king of France. It was not a happy marriage. When her brother Charles died without issue, Louis XIV claimed the Palatinate for himself and declared war on her.

Liselotte wrote in a letter to her aunt Sophia in Hanover:

 "So I judge that papa must not have understood the magnitude of the matter of signing me over; but I was a burden to him and he was worried that I would become an old maid, so got rid of me as quickly as he was able. That was to be my fate."

Even after thirty-six years in France, she still thought of Heidelberg as her home, and wrote in a letter to Marie Luise von Degenfeld:

 "Why does the prince elector not have the castle rebuilt? It would certainly be worth it."

The House of Orléans is descended from the children of Liselotte and Philipp, which came to the French throne in 1830 in the person of Louis-Philippe of France.

Liselotte is estimated to have written 60,000 letters, around one-tenth of which, survive to this day. The letters are penned in French and German and describe very vividly life at the French court. Most of them she wrote to her aunt Sophia and her half-sister Marie-Luise, but she also corresponded with Gottfried Leibniz.

Liselotte's upbringing was rather bourgeois. Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine loved to play with his children in the town of Heidelberg and to go for walks along the slopes of the hills of the Odenwald. Liselotte, who later described herself as a "lunatic bee" (German: "dolle Hummel"), rode her horse at a gallop over the hills round Heidelberg and enjoyed her freedom. She often slipped out of the castle early in the morning to climb a cherry tree and gorge herself with cherries. In 1717, looking back on her childhood in Heidelberg, she wrote:

Charles de Graimberg

The French Kupferstecher (copperplate engraver) Count Charles de Graimberg fled the French Revolution and emigrated with his family to England.
He applied in 1810 to Karlsruhe, in order to begin training with the Hofkupferstecher of Baden, Christian Haldenwang, who was a friend and neighbour of Graimberg's brother Louis. After Graimberg went to Heidelberg to sketch the Castle for a landscape, he stayed for the remaining 54 years of his life. With his copper passes of the Castle ruins, he documented its condition and put the foundation-stone for the Roman Castle, which should protect the ruin against final decay.

In his house (today: Palace Graimberg, at the beginning of the footpath to the Castle) he developed a curiosity cabinet with pieces of find from the Castle, which later became the basic pieces of the Kurpfälzisches Museum. He, by the way, financed his collection "of the Altertümer" for the history of the city and the Castle, from his own fortune. It is due to him that the Castle still stands. He accomplished also the first historical excavations in the Castle and lived for a time long in the Castle yard, in order to prevent the citizens of Heidelberg take building material for their houses from the Castle out-fallow.

In order Graimberg's wrote Thomas A. Leger's first sources written on the basis written Castle leader. A copy of this leader from the 1836 "Le guide des voyageurs dans la ruine de Heidelberg " ("Guide for travellers in the ruins of the Heidelberger Castle"), was acquired by Victor Hugo during his stay in Heidelberg. This copy provided with notes is issued today in "the Maison de Victor Hugo" in Paris.

Of Charles de Graimberg reminds an honour board, which was attached 1868 at the passage to the Altan: "The memory of Karl count von Graimberg, born in Castle of Paars (near Château-Thierry) in France 1774, died in Heidelberg 1864.
Heidelberg castle is home to the largest wine keg in the world!"

Building

Forecourt
The forecourt is the area enclosed between the main gate, the upper prince's well, the Elisabeth gate, the castle gate and the entrance to the garden. Around 1800 it was used by the overseer for drying laundry. Later on it was used for grazing cattle, and chickens and geese were kept here.

Building Parts

Ruprechtsbau, Ruprecht's Wing

Bibliotheksbau, Library Building

Frauenzimmerbau, Ladies' Wing

Englischer Bau, English Wing

Friedrichsbau, Friedrich's Wing
The building standing on the site of the Friedrichsbau contained the court chapel. However, since there were severe structural damages which could not be repaired according to the experts , Elector Friedrich IV had the residential building erected between 1601 and 1607. Johannes Schoch (ca. 1550–1631) was the architect of the building. The facades were endowed with the statues of the electors' ancestors – which was a familiar concept given the Ottheinrich's wing. Sebastian Götz from Chur (ca. 1575 – post-1621) was the main sculptor working with Schoch.

Friedrich's wing houses the court chapel on the ground floor and the prince's apartment on the upper levels.

Although there were two significant fires in 1693 and 1764, it is the best preserved building part of the castle. From 1890 to 1900, the Friedrichsbau was fundamentally renovated in the 'historicist style' according to the designs of the Karlsruhe professor Carl Schäfer. The present form of the roof and the room furnishings on second and third floors are among the implementations of this renovation.

Gläserner Saalbau, Hall of Glass

Ottheinrichsbau, Ottheinrich's Wing

Ludwigsbau, Ludwig's Wing

Ökonomiebau, Economy Wing

Sattelkammer, Coach house and stables

Torturm, Gate Tower
The approach to the forecourt takes you across a stone bridge, over a partially filled-in ditch. The main gate was built in 1528. The original watchhouse was destroyed in the War of the Grand Alliance and replaced in 1718 by a round-arched entrance gate. The gate to the left of the main entrance was closed by means of a drawbridge.

Dicke Turm, Thick Tower

Glockenturm, Bell Tower

Apothekerturm, Apothecary's tower

Krautturm/Pulverturm, Powder Tower/Exploded Tower

Elisabethentor, Elizabeth Gate

Courtyard and the Gardens

Other monuments within the site

Goethe memorial tablet

In 1961 a stone tablet was erected on a ruined wall of the aviary to replace an older tablet. The inscription on the tablet includes verses by Marianne von Willemer reflecting on her last meeting with Johann Wolfgang Goethe written on 28 August 1824, on the occasion of Goethe's 75th birthday.

 "On the terrace a high vaulted arch
 was once your coming and going
 the code pulled from the beloved hand
 I found her not, she is no longer to be seen"
 ...
 This poem written by Marianne von Willemer
 in remembrance of her last meeting with
 Goethe in the Fall of the year 1815

Directly across from the Goethe memorial tablet, stands the Ginkgo tree, from which Goethe gave a leaf to Marianne von Willemer as a symbol of friendship. The poem was published later as "Suleika" in West-östlicher Diwan.

The text of the poem begins:

The letter containing this poem with which Goethe included two Ginkgo leaves can be viewed in the Goethe Museum in Düsseldorf. The Ginkgo, planted in 1795, that Goethe lead Marianne von Willemer to in September 1815, is no longer standing today. Since 1928 the Ginkgo tree in the castle garden was labelled that it was "the same tree that inspired Goethe to create his fine poem". The tree was probably still standing in 1936.

Harness room
The former harness room, originally a coach house, was in reality begun as a fortification. After the Thirty Years War it was used as a stables as well as a toolshed, garage and carriage house.

Upper Prince's Fountain

The Upper Prince's Fountain was designed and built during the reign of Prince Karl Philipp. Over the gate to the fountain house is his monogram with the date 1738 chiseled in the stone. On the right side of the stairway to the fountain is the following inscription:

 [DlreCtione] ALeXanDro Blblena CVra et opera HenrICl Neeb Fons hIC PrInCIpaLIs reparat(Vs) PVrIor sCatVrlt
 (Translation: This work was undertaken under the oversight of Alessandro Galli da Bibiena and Heinrich Neeb.)

The inscription was a chronogram for the date 1741. Through this fountain and the Lower Prince's Fountain were the water needs of the Prince's residences in Mannheim met until into the 19th century.

In 1798, Johann Andreas von Traitteur recalled this water transport:

Quote from Hans Weckesser: "Beloved Water Tower. The History of Mannheim's landmarks"

The water quality in Mannheim was so bad, that upper-class families of the court financed this transport of water from Heidelberg to Mannheim. In the princely residence, until 1777 there was a court position titled "Heidelberg Water-filler".

Gallery

See also
 Hortus Palatinus – the Heidelberg Castle gardens
 Garden à la française
 Heidelberg Tun

Further reading
 Victor Hugo: "Heidelberg" of Frankfurt am Main: Societäts-Verlag, 2003, .
 Harry B. Davis: "What Happened in Heidelberg: From Heidelberg Man to the Present": Verlag Brausdruck GmbH, 1977.

References

Literature
Roux, Jacob Wilhelm Christian: Six views of Heidelberg and its castle / drawn and engraved by Prof. Roux. Together with a short text by A. Schreiber. Heidelberg: Engelmann, 1826.
Metzger, Johann: Beschreibung des Heidelberger Schlosses und Gartens : nach gründlichen Untersuchungen und den vorzüglichsten Nachrichten bearbeitet. Heidelberg: Osswald, 1829.
Metzger, Johann: An historical description of the Castle of Heidelberg and its gardens: composed from careful researches and authentic accounts. Heidelberg: Meder, 1830.
Chézy, Helmina von: Manual for travellers to Heidelberg and its environs : a guide for foreigners and natives; with an appendix and the panorama of the Heidelberg castle, maps and plans. 3. ed. of the description of Heidelberg, Mannheim etc.. Heidelberg: Engelmann, 1838.
Richard-Janillon, Vincent [ed.]: Wanderings through the ruins of Heidelberg Castle and its environs. [From the German by H. J. Grainger]. Heidelberg, 1858
Heidelberger Schlossverein [Hrsg.], Mitteilungen zur Geschichte des Heidelberger Schlosses, 1885–86.
Woerl, Leo. Woerl's Manuals of Travel. Heidelberg Castle and Neighborhood. Wurzburg [u.a.], 1889.
Heidelberger Schlossverein [Hrsg.] Mitteilungen zur Geschichte des Heidelberger Schlosses — 3.1896 https://doi.org/10.11588/diglit.2905.11
Waldschmidt, Wolfram: Altheidelberg und sein Schloß : Kulturbilder aus dem Leben der Pfalzgrafen bei Rhein Jena: Diederich, 1909.
Sauer, Fritz: Das Heidelberger Schloß im Spiegel der Literatur : eine Studie über die entwicklungsgeschichtlichen Phasen seiner Betrachtungsweise. Heidelberg: Winter, 1910.
Cohn HJ. The Early Renaissance Court in Heidelberg. European Studies Review. 1971;1(4):295–322.
Baier, Hermann, Heidelberg Castle: A Guide Through Historical Places, 1974.
Davis, Harry B.: "What Happened in Heidelberg: From Heidelberg Man to the Present". 1977.
Sauer, Willi: Heidelberg : a guide to town and castle. Heidelberg: von König, 1979
Hitchcock, Henry Russell: German Renaissance architecture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1981.
Müller, Jan-Dirk, Der siegreiche Fürst im Entwurf der Gelehrten, in, Buck, Augus (ed.), Höfischer Humanismus, Weinheim 1989.
Hubach, Hanns: Heidelberg : das Schloss [Engl. Übers.: Philip Mattson]. Heidelberg: Braus, 1995.
Kühnle, Johannes: Schloss Heidelberg : Geschichte, Architektur, Kuriositäten ; Gedichte, Lieder, Impressionen, Rundgang. Leimen (bei Heidelberg): Jk-Multimedia Consult, 2000
Hoppe Stephan: Die Architektur des Heidelberger Schlosses in der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts. Neue Datierungen und Interpretationen. (online auf ART-Dok) In: Volker Rödel (Red.): Mittelalter. Schloss Heidelberg und die Pfalzgrafschaft bei Rhein bis zur Reformationszeit. (= Schätze aus unseren Schlössern. Band 7). Regensburg 2002, S. 183–190 und S. 205–210. http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/artdok/volltexte/2010/994
Volker Rödel (ed.): Mittelalter. Schloss Heidelberg und die Pfalzgrafschaft bei Rhein bis zur Reformationszeit (=Schätze aus unseren Schlössern, 7). Regensburg 2002.
Frese, Anette; Hepp, Frieder; Ludwig, Renate, Der Winterkönig, Remshalden 2004.
Morgan, Luke, Nature as model: Salomon de Caus and early seventeenth-century landscape design, Philadelphia 2007.
Wiese, Wolfgang: Heidelberg castle. Berlin, München: Dt. Kunstverl., 2009.
Wacker, Heiko P.: Das Heidelberger Schloss : Burg – Residenz – Denkmal. Ubstadt-Weiher ; Heidelberg ; Basel: Verl. Regionalkultur, 2012.
Pape, Burkhard: Das Heidelberger Schloss und seine Befestigungen. Petersberg: Imhof, 2013.
Hanschke, Julian: Neue Forschungen zur Baugeschichte des Heidelberger Schlosses : Vorabauszug aus dem für 2015 geplanten Abschlussband zu dem am Institut für Baugeschichte (KIT) 2010–2013 durchgeführten Forschungsprojekt. Karlsruhe: KIT, 2014. https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000043430/3245789
Hanschke, Julian, Schloss Heidelberg: Architektur und Baugeschichte, 2015.
Wendt, Achim: Schloss Heidelberg. Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 2015.
Mauntel, Christoph; Meyer, Carla; Wendt, Achim (ed.), Heidelberg in Mittelalter und Renaissance, Ostfildern 2017.
Buselmeier, Michael (ed). Alles will für dich erglühen: das Heidelberger Schloss in Texten und Bildern. Heidelberg: Morio Verlag, 2018.

External links

 Hortus Palatinus by Salomon de Caus 1620 – plans for the gardens (some of which survive today)
 reprinted text of the "Bericht" of Praetorius 1613.
 Audio Tour in Castle of Heidelberg
 Praetorius as pastor in Dittelsheim (in German, with pictures).
 Illustrated description of Heidelberg Castle by Mark Twain in the Appendix of his 1880 European travelogue "The Tramp Abroad", available at Project Gutenberg.

 Video on building history
 Mittheilungen des Heidelberger Schlossvereins – Digizeitschriften

Electoral Palatinate
Episcopal palaces in Germany
Grand Duchy of Baden
Hill castles
Historic house museums in Baden-Württemberg
History of Heidelberg
Holy Roman Empire
Imperial castles
Nine Years' War
Renaissance architecture in Germany
Renaissance buildings and structures
Ruined castles in Germany
Sandstone buildings in Germany
Thirty Years' War
Tourist attractions in Heidelberg

Heidelberg Castle


Chrudim is a district town in the Pardubice region of the Czech Republic.

Geography
Chrudim lies in the center of Eastern Bohemia is located 11 km south from Pardubice and 110 km east from Prague. Nearby, 3 km distant, is Slatiňany known for its horse breeding.

History
Archeological research shows the first people lived in the area in the later stone age (500-3500 BC). Slavs came in the 7th century AD. The first written record about Chrudim comes from 1055 AD and makes it officially one of the oldest settlements in eastern Bohemia. In the 13th century Chrudim was established and fortified as a town by the king Přemysl Otakar II.

Main sights
Church of the Assumption of Virgin Mary is the dominant building on the main Josef Ressel Square. Its building was started maybe in the 13th century.
Old Town Hall was built in the 15th century. It is one of the oldest buildings in the city and is on the northern side of the main square.
Mydlář House in Břetislavova street was built in the 16th century. It now contains the Puppet Museum.
Prague Column of Christ's Transfiguration from 1732 is in the center of the main Jossef Ressel Square.

Famous people
Viktorin Kornel ze Všehrd (cca 1460 - 1520), humanist, writer, lawyer, Dean of Charles University at Prague.
Jan Mydlář (1572 - 1664), famous executioner.
Jan Nepomuk Štěpánek (1783 – 1844), actor, theatre director of ancestor nowadays National Theatre in Prague.
Josef Ressel (1793 - 1857), inventor of the ship propeller. A school and Josef Ressel Square in Chrudim are named after him. His statue is in front of the District Museum.
Petr Průcha (1982 - ), hockey player for New York Rangers, SKA Saint Petersburg.
Dušan Salfický (1972 - ), hockey goaltender.

Culture
Chrudim has one of the biggest urban conservation areas, over 52 hectares. It contains the historical center of the city. Chrudim is known for its culture, with many famous actors, musicians and other people. You can find several important museums there. Museum of Puppets in the Mydlář House has one of the biggest collections of puppets in the world. In Chrudim Regional Museum is Kabinet ex libris, where you can admire a huge collection of books. The recently rebuilt museum of baroque statues has nearby gardens.
Main organized actions:
Athens of East Bohemia is a festival of classical music in late April.
Puppet festival in Chrudim is a festival of puppet acting at the beginning of summer.
Salavators pilgrimage are attractions held in august.

Sport
FK Era-Pack Chrudim is a famous seven times champion in futsal.
HC Chrudim, former 1st league hockey club.
MFK Chrudim, former 2nd league football club.

Twin cities
 Ede — Netherlands
 Svidník — Slovakia
 Oleśnica — Poland
 Cherkasy - Ukraine

References

Other websites
History of town Chrudim
Municipal website
Chrudim - virtual show

Towns in the Czech Republic
Pardubice Region

Chrudim


Joshua Strickland (born October 23, 1983) is an American singer and actor from Charleston, South Carolina. He attended high school at the Charleston County School of the Arts, where he studied vocal with Robin A. Rogers. He attended the College of Charleston, where he studied voice with Deanna McBroom. During 5th grade, Josh was "discovered" by teacher and Producer/Founder/CEO of The Charleston Youth Company, Chuck Long.  He performed with this company for 8 years receiving drama, voice, and dance instruction. This company has been serving the talented students since 1978.

Career

Strickland appeared on season 2 of Fox's American Idol and in March 2007 as himself on All My Children.

He starred as Tarzan in Disney's production of Tarzan on Broadway at the Richard Rodgers Theatre.

The production's run ended after some 14 months and Strickland performed the final show along with the rest of the original cast, minus Shuler Hensley, who had left the production to work on the new Mel Brooks musical Young Frankenstein and was replaced by Rob Evan. The final performance was on July 8, 2007.

In 2009, Strickland became an original cast member of Peepshow in Las Vegas.  He has befriended his costar Holly Madison and could be seen regularly in her television reality show Holly's World. He is also a friend of Laura Croft, Miss July 2008 Playboy Playmate as well as stage Actress/Dancer Angel Porrino.

On February 16, 2011, Strickland debuted his first ever solo artist single on iTunes titled "Report to the Floor."  The track was co-produced by Grammy Award winning producer Damon Elliott and by Norwegian pop/dance producer Axident. This was closely followed by his second single titled "Last Dance".

As of September 12, 2013, Strickland was cast as one of the lead roles in VEGAS! the Show, performing as Elvis and other iconic artists in the world famous "Vegas themed" musical showing at the Saxe Theater inside Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino's Miracle Mile Shops. Strickland was immediately cast by David Saxe after the closing of Peepshow and subsequently replaced longtime VEGAS! the Show Elvis performer, Lou Gazzara.

Selected appearances
In addition to American Idol and Tarzan, Josh has also appeared in:
 The U.S. national tour of Rent as the understudy for the characters of Mark and Roger
 Carolina Idol 2002
 CBS's Star Search 2004
 The Spoleto Festival USA as a guest vocalist with jazz musician Kevin Mahogany
 as a guest vocalist with Shania Twain
 Peepshow (2009)
 Disney's Broadway Hits at Royal Albert Hall (2016)
 The Disney Family Singalong: Volume II 2020

References

External links

PlayBill.com - Biography page for Josh Strickland
Broadway.com - Buzz Star File for Josh Strickland
Q&A: Josh Strickland
Official site
Bio on DavidSaxe.com

American male musical theatre actors
American Idol participants
1982 births
Male actors from Charleston, South Carolina
Living people
American gay actors
Musicians from Charleston, South Carolina
21st-century American male singers
21st-century American singers

Josh Strickland


Fishkeeping is a popular hobby, done by aquarists. It is concerned with keeping fish in a home aquarium or garden pond. Fish have been raised as food in pools and ponds for thousands of years.

Types of fishkeeping
Fishkeeping can be divided into three disciplines, depending on the type of water the fish came from. They are freshwater, brackish, and saltwater fishkeeping.

Freshwater fishkeeping
Freshwater fishkeeping is the most popular type of fishkeeping. Small pet stores often sell many types of freshwater fish such as goldfish, guppies, and angelfish. Many fishkeepers create freshwater aquascapes where there are lots of aquatic plants as well as fish.

Saltwater fishkeeping
Marine aquaria is a type of fishkeeping that is not very popular. This is because saltwater fish have more specific needs to keep them alive. Saltwater fish is also expensive. Many types of saltwater fish are kept in saltwater fishkeeping.

Brackish water fishkeeping
Brackish water aquaria is a type of fishkeeping. The salinity in a brackish-water aquarium must stay between the salinity of freshwater and seawater. Many types of fish prefer brackish water including some types of mollies, many types of gobies, some types of pufferfish, monos, and scats.

Hobbies
Fish

Fishkeeping


The VizieR Catalogue Service is an astronomical catalog service provided by Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg (CDS). The origin of the service dates back to 1993, when it was founded by the European Space Agency as the European Space Information System (ESIS) Catalogue Browser. Initially intended to serve the space science community, the ESIS project pre-dates the World Wide Web as a network database allowing uniform access to a heterogeneous set of catalogues and data.

The CDS had for years collected and disseminated astronomical data, so the original ESIS Catalogue Browser was transferred to and stored there. Since its inception in 1996, VizieR has become a reference point for astronomers worldwide engaged in research, who come to access catalogued data regularly published in astronomical journals. The new VizieR service was refurbished in 1997 by the CDS to better serve the community in terms of searching capabilities and data volume. As of February 2021 it contains more than 20000 catalogues. It is a major data source as part of the Virtual Observatory.

References

Literature

External links
 VizieR

Astronomical catalogues
Computational astronomy
Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg
Information technology organizations based in Europe

VizieR


National Lampoon Presents The Very Large Book of Comical Funnies is an American humor book, a book of comic strips that was published in 1975 in paperback as a spin-off of National Lampoon magazine. Although it appears to be a book, in reality it was a "special issue" of the magazine and as such it was sold on newsstands. On the cover it is described as "A never before published history of the comics" and it is also described as "An Adult Comic". It was not an anthology; it was a collection of original material written by the Lampoons regular contributors especially for the book. It was edited by Sean Kelly.

Apparently this book grew into a series: there were two follow-up books with the same title, but with the numbers #2 and #3 added. Number 3 was published in 1986.

The "history" aspect of the book included a comic strip, a family feature, which supposedly was created in the 1950s. This was The Appletons by B. K. Taylor. Another strip was a parody of Bill Mauldin's World War II strip "Willie and Joe", called "Bill Maudlin's Billie and Moe", drawn by Warren Sattler.

References

 Amazon listing
 Comics.org listing

Very Large Book Of Comical Funnies
1975 books


Brandon Allan Hardesty (born April 13, 1987) is an American comedic performer and actor. He was born in Baltimore, Maryland.

In September 2007, upon seeing Hardesty's YouTube videos, a producer of the movie Bart Got a Room e-mailed Hardesty expressing interest in casting him for a supporting role. Hardesty was cast as a lead in a short movie "Ham Sandwich," directed by David Green. In 2013, Hardesty has been cast in roles in the movie Seven Minutes as well as The Scorpion King 4: Quest for Power, the fourth installment in the Mummy movie franchise.

Other websites

1987 births
Living people
Actors from Baltimore
American Internet celebrities

Brandon Hardesty


Phelps Mill is a flour mill in Otter Tail County, Minnesota, United States, on the Otter Tail River. The mill was built in 1888–1889 by William E. Thomas, a local entrepreneur who owned a flour and feed business in Fergus Falls. During that time, wheat was a high-demand crop, and nearly one thousand flour mills were in operation throughout Minnesota. Thomas began constructing a wooden dam on the river in the spring of 1888, although the dam was prone to leakage and had to be shored up with sandbags, dirt, gravel, and other materials. The mill itself was built by Royal Powers, who built and framed the mill without using blueprints. He was able to keep the entire plan within his head and did not even have to mark out the lumber he was cutting.

The mill opened in October 1889 and was designed to produce 60 to 75 barrels of flour per day. It was very successful during its initial several years of operation, and in 1895 Thomas built an addition to grind buckwheat and rye. Thomas also built a bunkhouse for overnight guests and a barn for stabling horses. A general store also was established in the area and is still in operation.

As technology progressed in the early 1900s, though, power from electricity, gasoline, or steam became more efficient for powering mills. Railroad transportation also made it more cost-effective to transport the grain to the Minneapolis-St. Paul area for milling. Thomas sold the mill in 1919, and after another change of ownership in 1928, the mill closed for good in 1939.

A local resident and activist, Geneva Tweten, led a campaign to save the mill as a symbol of the rural life. Otter Tail County purchased the site in 1965, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975. The mill is part of the Phelps Mill Historic District, which also includes the general store and an Italianate miller's house.

References

External links

Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Minnesota
Industrial buildings completed in 1889
Grinding mills on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Historic American Engineering Record in Minnesota
Mill museums in Minnesota
Museums in Otter Tail County, Minnesota
National Register of Historic Places in Otter Tail County, Minnesota
Watermills in the United States
1889 establishments in Minnesota

Phelps Mill


Artine Artinian (December 8, 1907 – November 19, 2005) was a distinguished French literature scholar of Armenian descent, notable for his valuable collection of French literary manuscripts and artwork. He was immortalized as a fictional character by his Bard colleague Mary McCarthy in the novel The Groves of Academe (1952) and by his friend Gore Vidal in the play The Best Man (1960).

Background
Artine Artinian was born in Pazardzhik, Bulgaria to Armenian parents. In 1920, his family came to the United States, settling in Attleboro, Massachusetts. There, Artine worked as a shoeshine boy, learning English from listening to conversations as he worked. He was able to attend Bowdoin College (1931) with support from his customers, and in later years, he returned the favor by establishing a scholarship fund for needy students there. He received a diploma from the Université de Paris in 1932, an A.M. from Harvard the following year, and a Ph.D. from Columbia in 1941. His dissertation, Maupassant Criticism in France, 1880-1940, with an Inquiry into His Present Fame and a Bibliography, was published the same year. By this time, Professor Artinian, who joined the Bard faculty in 1935, had already embarked on his multifaceted career.

In 1949, he had the misfortune to brush up against one of academia's least savory characters, the eminent Belgian deconstructionist Paul de Man. Following his friend Mary McCarthy's recommendation, Artinian helped the newly immigrated de Man by offering him a substitute position as professor of French at Bard College, while Artinian spent the academic year of 1949–50 in France as a Fulbright fellow.

In 1955, he edited and published "The Complete Short Stories of Guy de Maupassant" (Hanover House), which expurgated sixty-five inauthentic works from the Maupassant canon, and remains authoritative, even after half a century. In 1964, Artinian retired from his post as Chairman of the Division of Languages and Literature at Bard. His collecting did not stop with retirement, however, as he continued to amass manuscripts and artwork, especially portraits, including artist self-portraits. He donated a large amount of his collection of manuscripts and art to Bowdoin College and gave artwork to several universities and museums. His portrait collection, including works by André Gill, Henri Demare, Manuel Luque, Émile Cohl, Camille Pissarro, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Anthony Coffey and Paul Signac, is currently housed at the Harry Ransom Center of the University of Texas at Austin.

Artinian died at his home in Lantana, Florida at age 97. Before his death, Professor Artinian was retired professor of French at Bard College, in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, where he taught for nearly 30 years. An authority on Guy de Maupassant, he had translated and edited what is known to be the definitive English-language edition of Maupassant's short stories.

Literature
Maupassant as Seen by American and English Writers of Today, 1943
Guy de Maupassant and Louis Le Poittevin, 1948
New Light on the Maupassant Family, 1948
First Publication of Maupassant's Papa de Simon, 1948
Guy de Maupassant and His Brother Herve, 1948
Maupassant's Paris Addresses, Johns Hopkins Press 1949
Maupassant and 'La terre de Virgile, American Association of Teachers of French 1949
Maupassant and Gisèle d'Estoc: A Warning, MLN 1952
Maupassant Criticism in France, 1880-1940, Russell & Russell 1969

References

External links
 Artine Artinian Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
The Artine & Teddy Artinian Self-Portrait Collection at the Turchin Center for the Visual Arts on the campus of Appalachian State University in Boone, North Carolina.
 Encyclopædia Britannica.

1907 births
2005 deaths
Bulgarian people of Armenian descent
Bowdoin College alumni
People from Pazardzhik
People from Lantana, Florida
Bard College faculty
American art collectors
Armenian art collectors
French–English translators
Harvard University alumni
20th-century translators
People from Attleboro, Massachusetts
Columbia University alumni

Artine Artinian


Visio Corporation was a software company based in Seattle, Washington, USA. Its principal product was a diagramming application software of the same name. It was acquired by Microsoft and is now in a division of that company, which continues to develop the application under the name Microsoft Visio.

History
Axon Corporation was incorporated May 1, 1989, shortly after Jeremy Jaech left Aldus. Later, in summer 1990, Jeremy Jaech and Ted Johnson met to come up with the initial product definition and then in the fall of 1990 recruited Dave Walter as their third founder. All of its founders came from Aldus Corporation: Jeremy Jaech and Dave Walter were two of Aldus's original founders, and Ted Johnson was the lead developer of Aldus PageMaker for Windows.

In 1992, before it had released a single product, the company changed its name to Shapeware. It finally released its first application, Visio, in November of that year.

When Shapeware released Visio 4.0 on August 18, 1995, it was one of the first applications developed specifically for Windows 95.

In November 1995, Shapeware changed its own name to Visio and on November 9, 1995, marked its initial public offering of stock under the ticker VSIO.

On January 7, 2000, Microsoft Corporation acquired Visio in a stock swap. Microsoft gave Visio shareholders 0.45 Microsoft shares for each Visio share. Based on the value of Microsoft stock when the deal closed, the trade was worth approximately US$1.5 billion. This was Microsoft's largest acquisition until they acquired aQuantive.

References

External links
 Microsoft Visio history

Defunct software companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in Seattle
Software companies established in 1989
Software companies disestablished in 2000
2000 mergers and acquisitions
1989 establishments in Washington (state)
2000 disestablishments in Washington (state)

Visio Corporation


August Nathaniel Lushington, (born August 1, 1869 - 1939), became the first African American to earn Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (V.M.D.) from the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine in 1897. He practiced about two years in Philadelphia and worked as an instructor in Veterinary Sanitation and Hygiene at Bell Mead Industrial and Agricultural College at Rock Castle, West Virginia. Later, he practiced for much of his career life in very segregated Lynchburg, Virginia, where he experienced unfair treatment, but he finally earned a reputation as a superior practitioner in the community. He had memberships in the Statistical reporter to the Bureau of Animal Industry, Federal Department Agriculture, and the Lychburg Chamber of Commerce.

Childhood

Augustus Nathaniel Lushington was born August 1, 1869, in the south Caribbean on the island of Trinidad. As a young child, his paternal grandfather from DR Congo was brought to Trinidad as a slave to work at the sugar plantation on the island. Lushington's father, William, worked as a butcher, who raised produce for sale at market and did farm work.

Jobs and early education

Augustus went to teacher-training school in 1875 and worked at Trinidadian classrooms for several years and was promoted to the rank of principal. However, he left for Venezuela, where he worked as a clerk in the town of La Guayra for a British-owned railroad. After three years, Lushington went back to Trinidad but found that opportunities were insufficient in the island, which were already crowded with successive waves of Indian and Chinese immigrants. Finally, in 1889, he left Trinidad again for the United States, seeking for broad and various labor markets. He landed in New York, where he set off for Binghamton, New York. In 1890, he met his wife, Elizabeth Gavino Hubert.

College education

His college education started when he married his wife Elizabeth Hubert from Antigua. Her west Indian friends helped Augustus enroll in Cornell University to study Agriculture. He graduated with a degree in Agriculture in 1894.

Since there was no work for him at the time he left the West Indies and left for another education. He started another education at the University of Pennsylvania veterinary school. Finished the program in three years. When he graduated he was the only African American to graduate from the University of Pennsylvania. When students walk into the School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, the first thing they see is a portrait of Lushington. Lushington's portrait hangs at the main entrance of the Rosenthal building.

Job after college
Augustus did his career of being a veterinarian treating farm animals. He did most of his work out of Lynchburg, Virginia, where he would walk miles to treat sick animals in farm country. Lushington set up a veterinary practice in Philadelphia but remained there for only two years. Lushington seems to have been drawn southward, despite the worsening racial climate in the southern states, by a teaching job in veterinary sanitation at Bell Mead Industrial and Agricultural College in Rock Castle, Virginia.

Deciding to return to his veterinary practice, he realized that south-central Virginia offered, from a veterinarian's point of view, an ideal environment, with large numbers of livestock grazing on the area's rolling hills. Finding that there was only one other veterinarian in Lynchburg, Lushington opened his practice there. Since there were not many pets at the time he decided to treat farm animals. The farms were important because at this time, most veterinarians treated large animals. House pets existed, but in a far less wealthy era when gourmet cat food was unknown, most people could not afford to spend large amounts of money on their ailments. Lushington treated cows, horses, and other livestock, often walking for miles through the woods from Lynchburg to reach the farms where his services were needed. His philosophy, according to Arthur Bunyan Caldwell's History of the American Negro: Virginia Edition, was that "the first essential to progress is a better understanding between the best elements of the two races. This, he believes, would lead to closer and more harmonious relationships; mutual confidence would grow, and both races would gain as all advanced toward better citizen-ship." In Virginia, however, Lushington experienced neither harmonious relationships nor good citizenship. White farmers often availed themselves of his services but then refused to pay him—and in the repressive atmosphere of the South in the early 1900s, Lushington had neither the option of taking legal action nor even the practical right to refuse services to deadbeats.

Extra Jobs

Since his income was low and sporadic, he also worked as a meat inspector and a Probation Officer.

Personal life

He and his wife had three daughters. One daughter, Drucilla Moultrie, taught in Lynchburg schools for about fifty years. Another daughter, Bernetta Parks, worked for Bennett College in Greensboro, North Carolina. The third daughter is not mentioned enough to find her records.

References

External links
 Augustus Nathaniel Lushington: Veterinarian

1869 births
American veterinarians
Male veterinarians
American people of Democratic Republic of the Congo descent
Trinidad and Tobago emigrants to the United States
Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences alumni
1939 deaths
University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine alumni
Emigrants from the British West Indies to the United States

Augustus Nathaniel Lushington


Henryk Hipolit Rodakowski (; 1823–1894) was a Polish painter.

Biography
He came from a well-known family of lawyers. Continuing the family tradition between 1841 and 1845, he studied law in Vienna. Later he studied painting under Joseph Danhauser (1805–1845) and Franz Eybl (1806–1880). In the years 1846 to 1867 he lived in Paris, where he continued his studies with Léon Cogniet. In 1852 he experienced his first major success by painting a portrait of General Henryk Dembiński, which won the first prize. His studio was visited by the famous painter Eugène Delacroix.

In 1861 he married the love of his youth, Kamila Blühdorn, née von Salzgeber, with whom he had two children. His great-grandson was Jacek Woźniakowski (1920–2012), art historian, writer and co-founder of publishing house "Znak".

In 1866 he was a member of the Polish Historical and Literary Society in Paris. A year later, he left Paris and returned to Poland. He lived in Pałahicze near Stanisławów. At the end of his life he settled in Kraków.

In 1893 he became director and president of the Society of Friends of Fine Arts and chairman of the Committee of the National Museum. On December 24, 1894, he was nominated for the director of Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, but died unexpectedly four days later. He was buried in Rakowice Cemetery in Kraków.

He was a recipient of the Legion of Honour.

He was befriended by the painter and activist Leon Kaplinski.

Paintings

External links
Works
Biography (Extended)
Short Biography

1823 births
1894 deaths
19th-century Polish painters
19th-century Polish male artists
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
Polish male painters

Henryk Rodakowski


John Garland (November 15, 1793June 5, 1861) was an  American general in the Regular Army who had a long and distinguished career spanning fifty years of service during the War of 1812, Seminole Wars, Mexican–American War, Utah War and very briefly into the American Civil War.

Early life and career
Garland was born in Virginia to Hudson Martin and Elizabeth Penn (née Phillips) Garland. His mother was the grandniece of William Penn. One of his brothers was James Garland. He joined the U.S. Army during the War of 1812 and by 1813 was a first lieutenant. He served throughout the war in the 35th Infantry and was transferred to the 3rd Infantry at the war's close. He stayed in the army serving in the quartermaster's department. He fought under General William J. Worth in the Seminole Wars in northern and central Florida.

Mexico

Northern Mexico
Garland was promoted to lieutenant colonel of the 4th U.S. Infantry on May 7, 1839. He fought under Zachary Taylor at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. During this time he commanded a second lieutenant U.S. Grant. For services in these two battles, he was brevetted to full colonel and commanded a brigade of regulars in David E. Twiggs' division of the Army of Occupation. At the Battle of Monterrey, Garland temporarily led the division in the initial attack on the city as General Twiggs had taken an overdose of a laxative before the battle.

Central Mexico
Garland joined Winfield Scott's army and, for the second time in his career, he was serving under William Worth, who was now his division commander. Garland fought at the battles of Veracruz, Battle of Cerro Gordo, Contreras and Churubusco. For his distinguished services in the last two battles, he was appointed brevet brigadier general of regulars. He led his brigade at the Battle of Molino del Rey and in the attack on Chapultepec. He had survived the war thus far without any serious injury, but when he marched his brigade into fallen Mexico City, he was hit in the chest by a Mexican sharpshooter and severely wounded.

Utah War and Civil War
He recovered and returned to duty in the army, being made colonel of the 8th U.S. Infantry. In 1848 James Longstreet married Garland's daughter and named his firstborn son John Garland Longstreet in honor of his father-in-law. Garland was in command of a military district that dealt with the Utah War in 1857–58. He was still on active duty in the Regular Army when the American Civil War broke out in 1861. He stayed loyal to the Union, despite being from Virginia and his close ties with James Longstreet, who soon became a prominent Confederate general. His services to the North were short lived however, as he died on June 5, 1861, in New York City while still on active duty.

Garland was interred at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C.

His nephew, Samuel Garland, Jr., served as a Confederate general and was killed at the Battle of South Mountain in 1862.

Honors
Fort Garland in Colorado was named for him.

References
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001,

1793 births
1861 deaths
United States Army colonels
United States Army personnel of the War of 1812
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
American people of the Seminole Wars
People_of_the_Utah_War
People of Virginia in the American Civil War
Military personnel from Virginia
Union Army colonels
Burials at Oak Hill Cemetery (Washington, D.C.)

John Garland (general)


Macedonians () are a nation and a South Slavic ethnic group native to the region of Macedonia in Southeast Europe. They speak the slavic Macedonian language.

Origins
The Slavic languages from which Macedonian developed are thought to have grown in the region during the post-Roman period. Many parts of Macedonian culture developed during the rule of Medieval Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian Empires.  Each of these empires controlled the region for a time.

Macedonians' genetic background is thought to be the same as Balkan prehistoric and historic demographic processes. This background is also found in other South Slavs, especially Bulgarians, Serbs, Bosnians, Montenegrins, but also in northern Greeks and Romanians.

The appearance of Ril Slavs in Macedonia and the Balkans happened after the end of Roman authority. Migrations into the area happened, but on a smaller scale:
"It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably for the most part the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbours, including the Byzantines".
Later, the Sclaveni in Macedonia were added into the Bulgarian Empire.

The history of the slavic Macedonians has been shaped by population shifts and political developments in the region of Macedonia. After the end of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century, the Socialist Republic of Macedonia was created after World War II, a state in the framework of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Population
A large majority of ethnic Macedonians live along the valley of the river Vardar, the central region of North Macedonia. They form about 64.18% of the population of North Macedonia (1,297,981 people according to the 2002 census ). Smaller numbers live in eastern Albania, northern Greece, and southern Serbia, mostly near the border areas of North Macedonia, small part of southern Kosovo and form a majority in the west-south region in Bulgaria. A large number of Macedonians have immigrated overseas to Australia, United States, Canada and in many European countries: Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Austria, among others.

Economy
In the past, the Macedonian population was mostly involved with agriculture. The beginning of the People's Republic of Macedonia started a social change.  The change was based on Socialist principles, a middle and heavy industry were started.

Language

The Macedonian language () is a member of the Eastern group of South Slavic languages. Standard Macedonian was started as the official language of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.  After being codified in the 1940s, a strong literary tradition has developed.

The closest relative of Macedonian is Serbo-Croat along with some Bulgarian dialects. All the South Slavic languages, including Macedonian, form a dialect continuum, in which Macedonian is between Bulgarian and Serbian. The Torlakian dialect group is intermediate between Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian.

The orthography of Macedonian includes an alphabet, which is an adaptation of the Cyrillic script.  There are also language-specific ways of spelling and punctuation.

Symbols
 Sun: The official flag of North Macedonia, adopted in 1995, is a yellow sun with eight broadening rays extending to the edges of the red field.
 Coat of Arms: After independence in 1992, North Macedonia kept the coat of arms adopted in 1946.
 Vergina Sun: (official flag, 1992–1995) The Vergina Sun is an ancient symbol and the emblem of macedonian empire. It used by several groups in the Macedonian diaspora. The Vergina Sun is believed to have been associated with kings such as Alexander the Great and Philip II of macedon, although it was used as an ornamental design long before the Macedonian period. The symbol was discovered in the present-day of Macedonia. The Vergina sun on a red field was the first flag of the independent North Macedonia, until it was removed from the state flag under an agreement reached between North Macedonia and Greece in September 1995. The Vergina sun is still used unofficially as a national symbol by some groups in the country and the Macedonian diaspora.

Related pages
 Macedonian language

References

Further reading
 Brown, Keith, The Past in Question: Modern Macedonia and the Uncertainties of Nation, Princeton University Press, 2003. .
 Cowan, Jane K. (ed.), Macedonia: The Politics of Identity and Difference, Pluto Press, 2000. A collection of articles.

 Igor Janev,  Legal Aspects of the Use of a Provisional Name for Macedonia in the United Nations System, American Journal of International Law, Vol.93, no. 1, January 1999, http://www.asil.org/ajil/AJILJan1999.pdf

Other websites
 United Macedonian Diaspora
 World Macedonian Congress

North Macedonia
Slavic peoples

Macedonians