The Sistine Madonna, also called the Madonna di San Sisto, is an oil painting by the Italian artist Raphael. The painting was commissioned in 1512 by Pope Julius II for the church of San Sisto, Piacenza, and probably executed c. 1513–1514. The canvas was one of the last Madonnas painted by Raphael. Giorgio Vasari called it "a truly rare and extraordinary work".

The painting was moved to Dresden from 1754 and is well known for its influence in the German and Russian art scene. After World War II, it was relocated to Moscow for a decade before being returned to Germany.

Composition
The oil on canvas painting measures 265 cm by 196 cm. In the painting the Madonna, holding  Christ Child and flanked by Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara, stands on clouds before dozens of obscured putti, while two distinctive winged putti rest on their elbows beneath her.

Painting materials
Pigment analysis of Raphael's masterpiece reveals the usual pigments of the renaissance period such as malachite mixed with orpiment in the green drapery on top of the painting, natural ultramarine mixed with lead white in the blue robe of Madonna and a mixture of lead-tin-yellow, vermilion and lead white in the yellow sleeve of St Barbara.

History
The painting was commissioned by Pope Julius II in honor of his late uncle, Pope Sixtus IV, as an altarpiece for the basilica church of the Benedictine Monastery of San Sisto in Piacenza, with which the Rovere family had a long-standing relationship. The commission required that the painting depict both Saints Sixtus and Barbara. Legend has it that when Antonio da Correggio first laid eyes on the piece, he was inspired to cry, "And I also, I am a painter!"

Relocation to Germany
In 1754, Augustus III of Poland purchased the painting for 110,000 – 120,000 francs, whereupon it was relocated to Dresden and achieved new prominence; this was to remain the highest price paid for any painting for many decades.  In 2001's The Invisible Masterpiece, Hans Belting and Helen Atkins describe the influence the painting has had in Germany:
Like no other work of art, Raphael's Sistine Madonna in Dresden has fired the Germans' imagination, uniting or dividing them in the debate about art and religion.... Over and again, this painting has been hailed as 'supreme among the world's paintings' and accorded the epithet 'divine'....

If the stories are correct, the painting achieved its prominence immediately, as it is said that Augustus moved his throne in order to better display it. The Sistine Madonna was notably celebrated by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in his popular and influential Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums (1764), positioning the painting firmly in the public view and in the center of a debate about the relative prominence of its Classical and Christian elements. Alternately portraying Raphael as a "devout Christian" and a "'divine' Pagan" (with his distinctly un-Protestant Mary who could have as easily been Juno), the Germans implicitly tied the image into a legend of their own, "Raphael's Dream." Arising in the last decades of the 18th century, the legend—which made its way into a number of stories and even a play—presents Raphael as receiving a heavenly vision that enabled him to present his divine Madonna. It is claimed the painting has stirred many viewers, and that at the sight of the canvas some were transfixed to a state of religious ecstasy akin to Stendhal Syndrome (including one of Freud's patients). This nearly miraculous power of the painting made it an icon of 19th-century German Romanticism. The picture influenced Goethe, Wagner and Nietzsche According to Dostoyevsky, the painting was "the greatest revelation of the human spirit". Legend has it that during the abortive Dresden uprising of May 1849 Mikhail Bakunin "(unsuccessfully) counseled the revolutionary government to remove Raphael's Sistine Madonna from The Gemäldegalerie, and to hang it on the barricades at the entrance to the city, on the grounds that the Prussians were too cultured 'to dare to fire on a Raphael.'" The story was invoked by the Situationist International as "a demonstration of how the art of the past might be utilized in the present." In 1855, the "Neues Königliches Museum" (New Royal Museum) opened in a building designed by Gottfried Semper, and the Sistine Madonna was given a room of its own.

World War II and Soviet possession

Sistine Madonna was rescued from destruction during the bombing of Dresden in World War II, but the conditions in which it was saved and the subsequent history of the piece are themselves the subject of controversy. The painting was stored, with other works of art, in a tunnel in Saxon Switzerland; when the Red Army encountered them, it took them. The painting was temporarily removed to Pillnitz, from which it was transported in a box on a tented flatcar to Moscow. There, sight of the Madonna brought Soviet leading art official Mikhail Khrapchenko to declare that the Pushkin Museum would now be able to claim a place among the great museums of the world.

In 1946, the painting went temporarily on restricted exhibition in the Pushkin, along with some of the other treasures the Soviets had retrieved. But in 1955, after the death of Joseph Stalin, the Soviets decided to return the art to Germany, "for the purpose of strengthening and furthering the progress of friendship between the Soviet and German peoples." There followed some international controversy, with press around the world stating that the Dresden art collection had been damaged in Soviet storage. Soviets countered that they had in fact saved the pieces. The tunnel in which the art was stored in Saxon Switzerland was climate controlled, but according to a Soviet military spokesperson, the power had failed when the collection was discovered and the pieces were exposed to the humid conditions of the underground. Soviet paintings Partisan Madonna of Minsk by Mikhail Savitsky and And the Saved World Remembers by Mai Dantsig are based on the Sistine Madonna.

Stories of the horrid conditions from which the Sistine Madonna had been saved began to circulate. But, as reported by ARTnews in 1991, Russian art historian Andrei Chegodaev, who had been sent by the Soviets to Germany in 1945 to review the art, denied it:
It was the most insolent, bold-faced lie.... In some gloomy, dark cave, two [actually four] soldiers, knee-deep in water, are carrying the Sistine Madonna upright, slung on cloths, very easily, barely using two fingers. But it couldn't have been lifted like this even by a dozen healthy fellows ... because it was framed.... Everything connected with this imaginary rescue is simply a lie.
ARTnews also indicated that the commander of the brigade that retrieved the Madonna also described the stories as "a lie", in a letter to Literaturnaya Gazeta published in the 1950s, indicating that "in reality, the 'Sistine Madonna,' like some other pictures, ...was in a dry tunnel, where there were various instruments that monitored humidity, temperature, etc." But, whether true or not, the stories had found foothold in public imagination and have been recorded as fact in a number of books.

Contemporary display
After its return to Germany, the painting was restored to display in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, where guidebooks single it out in the collection, variously describing it as the "most famous", the "top", the "showpiece", and "the collection's highlight". From 26 May to 26 August 2012, the Dresden gallery celebrated the 500th anniversary of the painting.

Putti

A prominent element within the painting, the winged angels beneath Mary are famous in their own right. The angels of this nature are known as putti, and are commonly conflated with cherubim. As early as 1913 Gustav Kobbé that "no cherub or group of cherubs is so famous as the two that lean on the altar top indicated at the very bottom of the picture." Heavily marketed, they have been featured in stamps, postcards, T-shirts, socks, and wrapping paper. These putti have inspired legends of their own. According to a 1912 article in Fra Magazine, when Raphael was painting the Madonna the children of his model would come in to watch. Struck by their posture as they did, the story goes, he added them to the painting exactly as he saw them. Another story, recounted in 1912 in St. Nicholas Magazine, says that Raphael was inspired by two children he encountered on the street when he saw them "looking wistfully into the window of a baker's shop."

See also
List of paintings by Raphael

Notes

References
  Complete digitalized version available at Die Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden (SLUB)
 Grossman, Vasily, "The Sistine Madonna," in The Road, Chandler, Robert, ed., New York Review Books, 2010.
 Gruyer, F.A., Les Vierges de Raphaël, Paris 1869, in Singleton, Esther, Great Pictures, as Seen and Described by Famous Writers, New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1899, English translation
 Koja, Stephen, ed., Raphael and the Madonna, Munich, Germany: Hirmer Publishers, 2021.
 Mombert, Jacob Isador, Raphael's Sistine Madonna, New York: E.P. Dutton, 1895.

External links
Webpage of Staatliche Kunstsammlung Dresden
Raphael, Sistine Madonna, ColourLex.com

Paintings of the Madonna and Child by Raphael
1514 paintings
Collections of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister
Angels in art
Paintings of Saint Barbara
Pope Julius II
Putti

Sistine Madonna


Rojas is a surname found throughout the Spanish-speaking world, especially in Latin America.
Rojas may refer to:

People

A
Adrián Rojas (born 1977), Chilean professional football player and father
Aguelmis Rojas (born 1978), Cuban long-distance runner
Agustín de Rojas Villandrando (1572–1618), Spanish writer and actor
Alberto Müller Rojas (1935–2010), Venezuelan politician and general
Alberto Rojas (born 1965), Mexican-born prelate of the Catholic Church
Alberto Rojas Jiménez (1900–1934), Chilean poet and journalist
Alejandro González Rojas (born 1955), former Costa Rican goalkeeper
Alexis Rojas (born 1972), Colombian road cyclist
Alfredo Rojas (Argentine footballer) (1937–2023)
Alfredo Rojas (Chilean footballer) (born 1985)
Alfredo Rojas (Peruvian footballer) (born 1991)
Anderson Rojas, amateur boxer from Ecuador
Andrea Rojas, fictional character from DC Comics
Andres Almonaster y Rojas (1724–1798), Spanish civil servant of New Orleans
Ángel Clemente Rojas (born 1944), former Argentine footballer
Ángel Dolores Rojas (1851–1918), Argentine politician
Ángel Rojas (born 1985), Chilean footballer who plays as midfielder
Antonio Domingo Rojas Melero (born 1984), Spanish football player
Ariel Rojas (born 1986), Argentine football midfielder
Ariel Rojas (weatherman) (born 1991),  Filipino meteorologist
Arístides Rojas (born 1970), Paraguayan footballer
Arturo Montiel Rojas (born 1943), Mexican politician

B
Benigno Filomeno de Rojas (1821–1865), lawyer and Dominican politician
Benjamin Rojas (born 1985), Argentine actor and singer
Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas (1546–1618), Spanish bishop and cardinal, Grand Inquisitor of Spain from 1608 to 1618
Bruno Rojas (born 1993), Bolivian sprinter

C
Carlos Rojas (footballer) (1928–?), Chilean football midfielder
Carmine Rojas, bass player and Rod Stewart's bass player and music director
Christopher Rojas (born 1982), composer, musician, songwriter, and record producer
Clare Rojas (born 	1976), American artist
Clara Rojas (born 1964), Colombian tax lawyer, university lecturer, and campaign manager
Claudio Rojas (born 1973), retired Guatemalan football midfielder
Clemente Rojas (born 1952), Colombian boxer
Cookie Rojas (born 1939), former Major League Baseball player, manager and coach
Cristián Rojas (born 1985), Chilean footballer
Cristóbal Rojas (artist) (1857–1890), Venezuelan painter
Cristóbal de Rojas (1555–1614), a Spanish military engineer and architect

D
Darío Rojas (born 1960), retired Bolivian football goalkeeper
Diego de Rojas (died 1544), 16th-century Spanish Conquistador
Diego Rojas (born 1995), Chilean footballer
Don Rojas (born 1949), journalist and political commentator from St. Vincent

E
Eladio Rojas (1934–1991), former Chilean footballer
Elio Rojas (born 1982), featherweight boxer from the Dominican Republic
Eloy Rojas (born 1967), professional boxer in the Featherweight division
Emilio Rojas (born 1984), American recording artist and rapper from Rochester, New York
Esteban Rojas Tovar, Colombian educator, philanthropist, bishop of the diocese of Garzón
Euclides Rojas (born 1967), Cuban-born coach and player development official in Major League Baseball

F
Felipe Rojas (born 1986), Chilean footballer
Fernando de Rojas (c. 1465 – 1541), Castilian author
Francisca Rojas, believed to be the first criminal found guilty through fingerprint evidence
Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla (1607–1660), Spanish dramatist
Francisco Goméz de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma, Duke of Lerma (1552/1553–1625)
Francisco Rojas Rojas (born 1974), Chilean football defender
Francisco Rojas Tollinchi (1911–1965), Puerto Rican poet, civic leader and journalist
Francisco Rojas Toledo (born 1956), Mexican politician

G
Genaro Vázquez Rojas (1931–1972), former school teacher, militant and guerrilla fighter
Geraldin Rojas (born 1981), contemporary Argentine tango dancer, also known as Geraldin Paludi
Gonzalo Rojas (1916–2011), Chilean poet
Guadalupe Pérez Rojas (born 1994), Argentine tennis player
Guillermo Rojas (born 1983), Mexican football left back
Gustavo Andrés Rojas (born 1988), Colombian football defender
Gustavo Rojas (footballer) (born 1988), Colombian football defender
Gustavo Rojas (golfer) (born 1967), Argentine professional golfer
Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1900–1975), Colombian General, military dictator of Colombia from 1953 to 1957
Gustavo Rojas Pinilla International Airport, international airport on the San Andrés Island, Colombia

H
Héctor Rojas Herazo (1920–2002), Colombian writer
Henry Rojas (born 1987), football striker from Colombia
Heriberto Rojas, former Costa Rican footballer
Hernando de Manrique de Rojas, commander of Spanish forces sent in late 1562 to destroy the French fort at Port Royal
Homar Rojas (born 1964), former player and a manager in Minor League Baseball
Hugo Ballivian Rojas (1901–1993), de facto President of Bolivia 1951–1952

I
Ibrahim Rojas (born 1975), Cuban sprint canoeist
Isaac Rojas (1906–1993), Argentine Admiral of the Navy and de facto Vice President
Iván Guzmán de Rojas (1934–2022), Bolivian research scientist and the creator of Atamiri

J
Jesús Kiki Rojas (born 1964), former professional boxer in the super flyweight division
Jesus Rojas (1950–1991), Nicaraguan and a major leader of the FMLN resistance movement in El Salvador
Joao Rojas (born 1989), Ecuadorian footballer
Joaquín Rojas (1938–2018), Filipino former basketball player
Joel Humberto Rojas Pérez (born 1968), Cuban painter
Johan Rojas (born 2000), Dominican baseball player
John Rojas, Jr. (died 2000), founder of the Chula Vista Historical Society
Jorge A. Rojas (born 1940), general authority of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints from 1991 to 1996
Jorge Alberto Rojas (born 1977), Venezuelan football midfielder
Jorge Rojas (footballer) (born 1993), Paraguayan international footballer
Jorge Rojas Justicia (born 1983), Spanish footballer
José Antonio Rojas (born 1987), Chilean footballer
José Domingo Gómez Rojas (1896–1920), Chilean poet
José Joaquín Rojas (born 1985), Spanish professional road bicycle racer
José López Portillo y Rojas (1850–1923), Mexican lawyer, politician and man-of-letters
José Manuel Rojas (born 1983), Chilean defender who currently plays for Universidad de Chile
José María Rojas Garrido (1824–1883), Colombian Senator
José Manuel Rojas (footballer, born 1952), football player from Costa Rica
José Rojas (baseball) (born 1993), American baseball player
Jose Rojas (racquetball) (born 1990), professional racquetball player
Josh Rojas (born 1994), American baseball player
Juan Carlos Rojas (born 1984), Mexican footballer
Juan Fernández de Rojas (1750–1819), Spanish historian, writer and humorist
Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl (1826–1905), President of Venezuela from 1888 to 1890
Juan Rodrigo Rojas (born 1988), Paraguayan football midfielder
Julian Guillermo Rojas (born 1990), Colombian footballer

L
Leonardo Ly Rojas (born 1985), Costa Rican footballer
Leonel Herrera Rojas (born 1978), former Chilean footballer
Liberato Marcial Rojas (1870–1922), provisional President of Paraguay July 6, 1911 – February 28, 1912
Lorena Rojas (born 1972), Mexican actress and singer best known for soap operas
Luis Giampietri Rojas (born 1940), retired admiral of the Peruvian Navy
Luis Rojas (disambiguation), several people
Luis Rojas Mena (1917–2009), Mexican Bishop of the Roman Catholic Church

M
Manuel Antonio Hermoso Rojas (born 1935), Canarian politician
Manuel Rojas (Author) (1896–1973), Chilean writer and journalist
Manuel Rojas (footballer) (born 1954), retired football midfielder from Chile
Manuel Rojas (independence leader) (1820–18??), Commander of the Liberation Army against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico
Marco Antonio Rojas, Costa Rican goalkeeper
Marco Rojas, (born 1991), New Zealand footballer
Marcus Rojas (born 1962), tubist from New York City, best known for his work in jazz
Margot Rojas Mendoza (1903–1996), Mexican pianist and teacher
María Eugenia Rojas Correa (born 1932), retired Colombian political figure
Marielys Rojas (born 1986), Venezuelan athlete specializing in the high jump
Marlon Rojas (born 1979), Trinidad and Tobago soccer player
Marta Rojas (1928–2021), Cuban journalist and novelist
Matías Rojas (disambiguation), multiple people
Mauricio Rojas (born 1950), Swedish politician, political economist, member of the Riksdag since 2002
Mauricio Rojas Toro (born 1978), Chilean football (soccer) player
Mel Rojas (born 1966), pitcher with a 10-year career from 1990 to 1999
Memo Rojas, Mexican-born race car driver
Michelle Rojas, (born 1987), American voice actress affiliated with Funimation
Miguel Rojas (footballer), Colombian football defender
Miguel Rojas (baseball), Venezuelan baseball player
Mike Rojas (born 1963), American professional baseball coach and player development official
Minnie Rojas (1933–2002), relief pitcher in Major League Baseball
Moisés Rojas Alou (born 1966), former Dominican-American outfielder in Major League Baseball

N
Nerio Rojas (1890–1971), Argentine physician and writer on forensic medicine
Nicolas Nunez Rojas (born 1984), Chilean football (soccer) midfielder
Nicolás Rojas Acosta (1873–1946), Argentine botanist and pteridologist
Noel Guzmán Boffil Rojas (1954–2021), Cuban painter
Nydia Rojas (born 1980), American singer of Mexican/Cuban/Yaqui Indian heritage
Nydia Rojas (album) (1996), the first album released by American singer Nydia Rojas

O
Octavio Beras Rojas (1906–1990), Dominican prelate of the Roman Catholic Church
Omaira Rojas Cabrera (born 1967), FARC guerrilla
Oscar Rojas (Chilean footballer) (born 1958), Chilean football defender
Óscar Rojas (Costa Rican footballer) (born 1979), Costa Rican footballer
Óscar Rojas (Mexican footballer) (born 1981), Mexican football player
Oscar Emilio Rojas (born 1979), Costa Rican-Mexican naturalized football midfielder
Óscar Pérez Rojas (born 1973), Mexican football goalkeeper
Óscar Ricardo Rojas (born 1988), Mexican footballer

P
Pablo Rojas Paz (1896–1956), Argentine writer born in Tucumán
Paola Rojas (born 1976), Mexico City television news anchor
Pedro de Rojas, Spanish lawyer and colonial official in the Philippines and New Spain
Percy Rojas (born 1949), retired football midfielder from Peru
Peter Rojas (born 1975), the co-founder of technology blogs Gizmodo and Engadget

R
Rafael Hernández Rojas (born 1946), Mexican former swimmer
Rafael Rojas (actor) (born 1961), Mexican male fashion model and actor
Raúl Rojas (born 1955), professor of informatics and mathematics at the Free University of Berlin
Raul Rojas (1941–2012), Mexican American featherweight boxer
René Rojas Galdames (1919–1988), Chilean lawyer and diplomat
Ricardo Francisco Rojas (born 1974), Chilean football (soccer) player
Ricardo Ismael Rojas (born 1971), Argentine born former football defender
Ricardo Rojas (boxer) (born 1955), retired boxer from Cuba
Ricardo Rojas (writer) (1882–1957), Argentine journalist and writer
Ricardo Rojas Frías (born 1955), retired boxer from Cuba
Richard Rojas (born 1975), Bolivian football midfielder
Roberto Rojas (Chilean footballer) (born 1957), Chilean goalkeeper
Roberto Rojas (Peruvian footballer) (1955–1991), Peruvian football defender
Roberto Rojas (1966–2022), Bolivian politician
Roberto Rojas (Spanish footballer) (born 1974), Spanish footballer
Rodrigo Rojas (Paraguayan footballer) (born 1988), Paraguayan footballer
Rodrigo Rojas DeNegri (1967–1986), young photographer burnt alive in Chile
Roger Rojas, Honduran football player (Rojas) Producer

S
Samuel Moreno Rojas (born 1960), Colombian American politician
Sandra Rojas (born 1973), Mexican sprint canoeist
Sergio Rojas (Argentine footballer) (born 1973), Argentine former football player
Sergio Rojas (Paraguayan footballer) (1940–2010), Paraguayan football player
Simón de Rojas (1552–1624), Spanish priest of the Trinitarian Order
Simon de Rojas Clemente y Rubio (1777–1827), Spanish botanist
Sixto Rojas (1982–2007), Paraguayan footballer

T
Teodoro Rojas (1877–1954), Paraguayan botanist
Tito Rojas a.k.a. "El Gallo" (The Rooster) (1955–2020), salsa singer and bandleader
Tomás Rojas (disambiguation), several people
Toribio Rojas, former coach of the Puerto Rico Islanders, a USL soccer team

V
Vicente Rojas Lizcano (1879–1943), aka Biófilo Panclasta, individualist anarchist writer and activist
Victor Joy Way Rojas (born 1945), former Peruvian politician
Víctor Julio Suárez Rojas (1953–2010), high-ranking member of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC)
Victor Rojas (born 1968), former member of the Texas Rangers radio broadcast team

Y
Yulimar Rojas (born 1995), Venezuelan track and field athlete

See also
 Roxas, archaic spelling
 Rojas (disambiguation)
 Alou family, a prominent Dominican Republic baseball family bearing the paternal surname of Rojas

Spanish-language surnames
Surnames of Colombian origin

Rojas


The Women's Squash Association (WSA) was the governing body for the women's professional squash circuit between 2011 and 2014. It was based in London, England. The body operated in a similar fashion to the WTA for tennis. The WSA World Tour involved over 100 tournaments annually all over the globe. Over 250 players were registered with the WSA and rankings were updated monthly based on players' performances. In November 2014, the WSA and the PSA announced a historic merger between the two associations.[3] A decision was reached that will see the PSA operate as the governing body for both the women's and men's ranks from January 1, 2015.

WSA World Tour
There were hundreds of WSA tournaments throughout the course of a season of the WSA World Tour, and they were classified into the following categories, based on prize money:
 Rising Star (Women's Under 19 age World, Regional and National Opens which offer ranking points to Full, Regional and Rising Stars members).
 Challenger (Events with $500 – $3,999 that provide limited world ranking points and very flexible formats and arrangements)
 Super Challenger (Regional and National Closed Championships featuring prize money of $4,000+, for which Tour 5 ranking points will be offered).
 WSA Tour Tournaments :
WSA Tour 15 ($15,000 - $24,999)
WSA Tour 10 ($10,000 - $14,999)
WSA Tour 5 ($5,000 - $9,999)
 WSA Silver & Gold Tournaments :
WSA Gold 50 ($50,000 - $59,999)
WSA Silver 35 ($35,000 - $49,999)
WSA Silver 25 ($25,000 - $34,999)
 World Series (The WSA World Series was a select group of high-profile squash tournaments easily recognised. They offer the largest prize money and attract the majority of the world's best players) :
WSA World Series Platinum - $80,000
WSA World Series Gold - $60,000
 World Championship (This was the ultimate tournament on the World Tour and to become World Champion was regarded the highest pinnacle of competitive achievement amongst WSA players.  With a 32-man draw).

Every year, the top eight performers from the various World Series events gathered for the WSA World Series Finals. The eight players were separated into two groups of four, and played a round robin. The top two from each group advanced to the semifinals (1st WSA1 vs. 2nd WSA2 and 1st WSA2 vs. 2nd WSA1). The winner of the event was the World Series champion.

The goals of the association were to:

 Inspire future female generations to embrace squash as a professional sport;
 Empower girls and women on and off the court; and
 Entertain the world.

The association was founded in 1983 as the Women's International Squash Players Association (WISPA).

In November 2014, the Women's Squash Association and the Professional Squash Association announced a historic merge between the two associations. A decision was reached to designate the Professional Squash Association operate as the governing body for both the women's and men's ranks from January 1, 2015.

See also
 Professional Squash Association
 Official Women's Squash World Ranking
 World Squash Federation
 WSA Awards

References

External links
 Official WSA Website
 WSA World Rankings

International organisations based in London
International sports organizations
 Women
Squash organizations
Women's squash

Women's Squash Association


A wood scribe is a tool for marking wood by scratching the surface visibly. A wood scribe is often used with a try square for accurate scribing. A marking gauge is a more specific form of wood scribe used to accurately mark wood for cutting, often for laying out mortise and tenon joints.

See also
Scratch awl
Scriber
Marking knife
Marking gauge

References

Woodworking tools
Woodworking hand tools

Wood scribe


In mathematics, an idempotent measure on a metric group is a probability measure that equals its convolution with itself;  in other words, an idempotent measure is an idempotent element in the topological semigroup of probability measures on the given metric group.

Explicitly, given a metric group X and two probability measures μ and ν on X, the convolution μ ∗ ν of μ and ν is the measure given by

for any Borel subset A of X. (The equality of the two integrals follows from Fubini's theorem.)  With respect to the topology of weak convergence of measures, the operation of convolution makes the space of probability measures on X into a topological semigroup.  Thus, μ is said to be an idempotent measure if μ ∗ μ = μ.

It can be shown that the only idempotent probability measures on a complete, separable metric group are the normalized Haar measures of compact subgroups.

References

   (See chapter 3, section 3.)

Group theory
Measures (measure theory)
Metric geometry

Idempotent measure


Walter Joseph Buczynski (born 17 December 1933) is a Canadian composer, music educator, and pianist.

Born in Toronto, Ontario, Buczynski earned an associate degree from The Royal Conservatory of Music in 1951 and a Licentiate in 1953. While there he studied music composition with Godfrey Ridout and piano with Earle Moss. He studied under Darius Milhaud and Charles Jones at the Aspen Music Festival and School in 1955. He pursued further studies in piano with Rosina Lhévinne in New York City in 1958–1959. He won a number of grants from the Government of Poland which enabled him to study music composition with Zbigniew Drzewiecki in Warsaw in 1959 and 1961. Likewise, grants from the Canada Council made it possible for him to study under Nadia Boulanger in Paris in 1960 and 1962.

In 1951 and 1952 Buczynski was awarded second prizes at the Composers, Authors and Publishers Association of Canada composition competition, going on to win first prize there in 1954 with a piano trio. In 1955 he won the Fromm Foundation Award with the Suite for Woodwind Quintet. That same year he made his debut as a concert pianist with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra playing Frédéric Chopin's Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor.

Buczynski went on to have an active concert career during the 1960s and early 1970s, giving recitals in major concert venues throughout Canada and in New York City, Paris, and Warsaw. His concerts often featured his own work and pieces by other contemporary Canadian composers in addition to traditional repertoire. He made several appearances on CBC Radio as well and made a number of solo recordings. In 1977 he decided to drastically limit his performance schedule to focus on his teaching career and composition work. Of the few concerts he gave later, his 23 September 1982 Toronto recital was particularly notable as he played only his music.

In 1962 Buczynski joined the piano and music theory faculty at The Royal Conservatory of Music. He left there in 1969 to teach on the faculty of the University of Toronto, where he taught piano and composition until his retirement in 1999. Among his notable pupils were composers John Burge and Timothy Sullivan. He served as the president of the Canadian League of Composers in 1974–1975. On 18 December 1983 a special concert honoring his 50th birthday was given by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and the University of Toronto Faculty of Music.

References

External links

 Archival papers and manuscripts at University of Toronto Music Library

1933 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
Aspen Music Festival and School alumni
Canadian classical composers
Canadian classical pianists
Male classical pianists
Canadian opera composers
Musicians from Toronto
The Royal Conservatory of Music alumni
Academic staff of The Royal Conservatory of Music
Academic staff of the University of Toronto
Pupils of Darius Milhaud

Walter Buczynski


Danteshwari Temple is temple dedicated to Goddess Danteshwari, and is one of the 52 Shakti Peethas, shrines of Shakti, the divine feminine, spread across India. The temple built in the 14th century, is situated in Dantewada, a town situated 80 km from Jagdalpur Tehsil, Chhattisgarh. Dantewada is named after the Goddess Danteshwari, the presiding deity of the earlier Kakatiya rulers. Traditionally she is the Kuldevi (family goddess) of Bastar state,

The temple is as according legends, the spot where the Daanth or Tooth of Sati fell, during the episode when all the Shakti shrines were created in the Satya Yuga.

Every year during Dusshera thousands of tribals from surrounding villages and jungles gather here to pay homage to the goddess, when her idol was taken out of that ancient Danteshwari temple and then taken around the city in an elaborate procession, now a popular tourist attraction part of the 'Bastar Dussehra' festival. There also a is tradition of lighting Jyoti Kalashas during Navaratris here.

Overview
Situated in Dantewada, south-west of Jagdalpur, at the confluence of the holy rivers Shankini and Dhankini, both the rivers have different colors, this six-hundred-year-old temple is one of the ancient heritage sites of India and is a representation of the religio-socio-cultural history of the Bastar region. Little is known about this shrine to much of India. The vast temple complex today is truly a standing monument to centuries of history and tradition. With its rich architectural and sculptural wealth and its vibrant festival traditions, Danteshwari Mai temple serves as the most important spiritual center for the people of this region.

Legend

It is believed that a tooth of Sati had fallen here and Danteshwari Shakti Peetha was established. According to the ancient legend, Goddess Sati committed self-immolation in the fire pit of yagna kund, due to an insult committed by her father Daksha towards her consort Lord Shiva during the Yagna. Raged by the death of Sati, Shiva destroyed the Yagna of Daksha and with the body of Sati in his hands started to do 'Taandav'. Lord Vishnu cut the dead body of Goddess Sati with his Sudarshan Chakra to free Lord Shiva from the grief caused by her death. Parts of the dead body of Goddess Sati were scattered to fifty-two different places, which were consecrated as Shakti Pithas.

Architecture
The Danteshwari temple was built in the 14th Century. The idol of Danteshwari Mai is chiseled out of black stone. The temple is divided into four parts such as Garbh Griha, Maha Mandap, Mukhya Mandap and Sabha Mandap. Garbha Griha and Maha Mandap were constructed with stone pieces. There is a Garuda Pillar in front of the entrance of the temple. The temple itself is located in a spacious courtyard surrounded by massive walls. The shikhara is adorned with sculptural finery.

Danteshwari temple Jagdalpur
Danteshwari Temple is the centre of the famous Bastar Dussehra. The devotion of locals, as well as tribals, is intricately linked to the presiding deity of Bastar. Unlike the idol of the goddess in Dantewada which is black in color, this idol is white.

See also
 List of Hindu temples in India
 Tamda Ghumar
 Chitrakote Falls
 Kotumsar Cave
 Mendri Ghumar
 Kanger Ghati National Park
 Indravati National Park

References

External links

 Danteshwari-temple at wikimapia

14th-century Hindu temples
Hindu temples in Chhattisgarh
D
14th-century establishments in India

Danteshwari Temple


George Allison Grierson (April 11, 1867–October 18, 1931) was a politician in Manitoba, Canada.  He served in the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba from 1914 to 1922, and was a cabinet minister in the government of Tobias Norris.  Grierson was a member of the Liberal Party.

Grierson was born in Brantford, Canada West (now Ontario), the son of George Grierson and Margaret Edmundson, and was educated in that city and in Winnipeg.  Grierson received a teaching certificate and served as principal of the Minnedosa public school from 1887 to 1890 and from 1892 to 1902. In 1892, he married Christina Matheson. He also worked as a financial agent.  Grierson served as a town councillor in Minnedosa and was mayor of the city from 1914 to 1915.

He ran for the House of Commons of Canada in the 1911 federal election as a candidate of the Liberal Party of Canada in Marquette, but lost to Conservative William James Roche, 3,409 votes to 3,283.

Grierson was first elected to the Manitoba legislature in the 1914 provincial election, defeating Conservative candidate William B. Waddell in Minnedosa by 209 votes.  This election saw Premier Rodmond Roblin's Conservatives elected to a fifth term in office, and Grierson sat with his party on the opposition benches. He served as Liberal whip in the assembly.

Early in 1915, the Conservatives were forced to resign from office in the wake of a serious corruption scandal.  The Liberals won a landslide majority government in the election which followed, with Grierson defeating Conservative candidate James Muir by 219 votes.  On November 10, 1917, Grierson was appointed to cabinet as Minister of Public Works.

The Liberals were reduced to a minority government in the 1920 provincial election, amid the rise of organized Farmer and Labour groups.  Grierson was personally re-elected, defeating Farmer candidate W.T. Bielby by 267 votes.  He withdrew from cabinet on January 10, 1921, and did not seek re-election in 1922.

Grierson died in Minnedosa, Manitoba in 1931.

References

1867 births
1931 deaths
Manitoba Liberal Party MLAs
Members of the Executive Council of Manitoba
People from Minnedosa, Manitoba
Mayors of places in Manitoba
Candidates in the 1911 Canadian federal election
Manitoba candidates for Member of Parliament
Liberal Party of Canada candidates for the Canadian House of Commons

George Grierson (politician)


Southern California is a region of California. The definitions of it vary, but it usually contains the area around Los Angeles and San Diego, as well as the "Inland Empire" of San Bernardino and Riverside Counties. Over twenty million people live in Southern California. The ten counties of Southern California include Imperial County, Kern County, Los Angeles County, Orange County, Riverside County, San Bernardino County, San Diego County, San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara County, and Ventura County.

Related pages
 Northern California

Geography of California

Southern California


The Plaxton Beaver, (previously known as the Reeve Burgess Beaver), is a series of step-entrance minibus bodies built by Plaxton.

The first Beaver was built between 1987-1995 mainly on Mercedes-Benz van chassis such as the 709D and 811D. It was also built on the Renault S56 and Renault S75 chassis until 1992. Some were also built on Iveco 49.10 chassis.

The second Beaver (known as Beaver 2) was built on Mercedes-Benz Vario chassis. It replaced the first Beaver in December 1996.

In 2006 Plaxton launched the Beaver 3, which is the Beaver 2 body combined with the front end of another bus called the Plaxton Cheetah.

Gallery

Buses

Plaxton Beaver


The Penghu Islands, also known as Pescadores (from Portuguese: "fishermen") are an archipelago off the western coast of Taiwan. They are in the Taiwan Strait. The Archipelago is made up of 90 small islands and islets. It covers an area of .

The whole archipelago forms Penghu County under Taiwan Province in the Republic of China. The archipelago and the island of Taiwan together formed the former Japanese territory of Formosa.

Islands of Taiwan

Penghu


In letterpress printing and typesetting, a composing stick is a tray-like tool used to assemble pieces of metal type into words and lines, which are then transferred to a galley before being locked into a forme and printed.  Many composing sticks have one adjustable end, allowing the length of the lines and consequent width of the page or column to be set, with spaces and quadrats of different sizes being used to make up the exact width. Early composing sticks often had a fixed measure, as did many used in setting type for newspapers, which were fixed to the width of a standard column, when newspapers were still composed by hand.

The compositor takes the pieces of type from the boxes (compartments) of the type case and places them in the composing stick, working from left to right and placing the letters upside-down with the nick to the top.

Early composing sticks were made of wood, but later iron, brass, steel, aluminium, pewter and other metals were used. Wooden composing sticks continued to be made in large sizes into the nineteenth century, for setting wood letter and other large sizes of type for display. In the industrial age, composing sticks were manufactured by many companies, but notably in America by the H. B. Rouse company, which made composing sticks that were adjustable to the half pica, as well as a stick containing a micrometer that was infinitely adjustable. Some sticks were marked in agates as well, to aid in newspaper and advertisement composition.

See also
 Stick or stickful, a unit of typesetting length based on the composing stick
 Galley proof

References
 Man, John The Gutenberg Revolution: The story of a genius that changed the world (c) 2002 Headline Book Publishing, a division of Hodder Headline, London. . A detailed examination of Gutenberg's life and invention interwoven with the underlying social and religious upheaval of Medieval Europe on the eve of the Renaissance.
 Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary 1913.

Printing terminology
Typesetting
Typography
Tools
Letterpress printing

Composing stick


Louis Francis Bantle (November 22, 1928 – October 10, 2010) was an American business executive who led UST Inc. and its U.S. Smokeless Tobacco Company subsidiary, overseeing a dramatic rise in the popularity of its Copenhagen and Skoal brands of dipping tobacco, as well as introducing versions of its tobacco products such as Skoal Bandits that became popular with young adult males in the United States taking 80% of the country's market for chewing tobacco.

Early life
Bantle was born on November 22, 1928, in Bridgeport, Connecticut, to Louis A. Bantle, who served as U.S. Tobacco's chairman and chief executive until his retirement in 1972. A member of Delta Kappa Epsilon Phi Gamma chapter, he attended Syracuse University, graduating from its Martin J. Whitman School of Management in 1951 before serving as a captain in the United States Marine Corps during the Korean War.

Career
In 1962, Bantle joined his father at U.S. Tobacco, where he was hired as advertising manager. As chairman of U.S. Tobacco starting in 1973, Bantle oversaw the expansion of the market for its products from a niche product largely sold in the upper Midwestern states, introducing products such as Skoal Bandits that appealed more broadly to a younger market, telling fellow executives at a marketing meeting in 1968 that "we must sell the use of tobacco in the mouth and appeal to young people". The requirement to add cancer warnings to its products and the  oral cancer death of a teenager leading to an unsuccessful lawsuit against the company in 1986 slowed growth of the company's products. In June 1985, in a move "which came as a surprise to some analysts", Bantle selected former Miami Dolphins linebacker Nick Buoniconti to replace him as president and chief operating officer of the company, with Bantle retaining his role as chairman. By 1991, the Centers for Disease Control reported that 9% of American males between the ages of 18 and 24 had been regular users of smokeless tobacco, triple the rate of use in 1970 for that market. During his 20 years as chairman before his retirement as chairman and CEO in 1993, U.S. Tobacco's sales rose tenfold to $1 billion and the company was included in the Fortune 500 starting in 1985. In subsequent years, the company changed its name to the initials UST and was purchased in 2008 by Altria, the owner of the Philip Morris Companies brands of cigarettes.

Philanthropy
Bantle founded the International Institute for Alcohol Education and Training, and its House of Hope center in St. Petersburg, Russia, which were created to spread the Alcoholics Anonymous treatment regime in the former Soviet Union. Through Buoniconti, Bantle became involved with the Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, which had been created in 1985 after Buoniconti's son was paralyzed while playing college football. Bantle served on the boards of his alma mater Syracuse University, as well as the Alcohol and Drug Abuse Council, the National Legal Center for the Public Interest and of the Bruce Museum of Arts and Science, in addition to other philanthropic and alcohol and drug abuse treatment programs.

Death
A resident of Greenwich, Connecticut, and Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, Bantle died in Greenwich at the age of 81 on October 10, 2010, of lung cancer and emphysema. He was survived by his wife, Virginia, as well as by a daughter and four grandchildren.

References

1928 births
2010 deaths
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War
Philanthropists from New York (state)
Businesspeople from Bridgeport, Connecticut
Businesspeople from Greenwich, Connecticut
People from Palm Beach Gardens, Florida
Martin J. Whitman School of Management alumni
United States Marine Corps officers
Military personnel from Bridgeport, Connecticut
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American philanthropists

Louis F. Bantle


Ángel Sánchez (born March 3, 1957) is a former football (soccer) referee from Argentina, best known for supervising two matches (South Africa–Slovenia and Portugal–South Korea) during the 2002 FIFA World Cup held in South Korea and Japan. The latter game became noted as Sánchez was hit in the stomach by Portuguese attacker João Pinto after Sánchez gave Pinto a red card for a tackle against Park Ji-Sung.

Sánchez's official first division debut was in 1982; he retired in 2006.

References

 Profile

1957 births
Living people
Argentine football referees
2002 FIFA World Cup referees
Copa América referees
Place of birth missing (living people)

Ángel Sánchez (referee)


Zazpiak Bat is a heraldic nickname for the Basque coat of arms which includes the arms of the seven provinces mentioned, stressing their unity. It was designed by the historian Jean de Jaurgain in 1897 for the Congrès et Fêtes de la Tradition basque celebrated at Saint-Jean-de-Luz.

Name
Zazpiak Bat is a motto attributed to Basque explorer Antoine-Thomson d'Abbadie in the late nineteenth century, from the Basque words zazpiak meaning 'the seven' and bat meaning 'one', translates as "the seven [are] one" and refers to the seven Basque Country traditional provinces. However, it was first cited in 1836 by a friend and collaborator of Antoine d'Abbadie's, the Souletin Agosti Xaho (Etudes grammaticales sur la langue euskarienne, dedicated to the Zazpirak Bat). The motto is based on a similar one fashioned by the Enlightenment society Real Sociedad Bascongada de Amigos del País in 1765, Irurac bat, 'the three [are] one', after the provinces currently making up the Basque Autonomous Community), while a like variant was created too in the 19th century known as Laurak bat ('the four [are] one', after the four Basque provinces in Spain), a motto quoted and celebrated by the Provincial Government of Navarre in 1866.

History

The original Zazpiak Bat features a design of traditional arms of six Basque territories, namely Álava, Gipuzkoa, and Biscay (the three which make the Basque Autonomous Community) plus Navarre (both in Spain); and the two that are part of the French department of the Pyrénées Atlantiques - Soule and Labourd. The coat of arms of the third traditional province, Lower Navarre is subsumed under the coat of arms of the Kingdom of Navarre, therefore omitted and represented by the latter. The modern design is based on the current simplified heraldry of these territories.

Laurak Bat

Laurak Bat with the four Basque provinces in Spain was adopted as the coat of arms of the Basque autonomous community. The coat of arms of Navarre was originally included in the seven quarter of the shield, but following a protest from the UPN led government of Navarre, the Constitutional Court of Spain forced the Basque government to remove the chains of Navarre from the Basque insignia. The red background of the Navarrese insignia currently occupies the fourth quarter of the coat of arms of the Basque Country.

References

External links
  Website with various Basque flags and arms

Basque culture
Mottos
Spanish coats of arms
Coats of arms of country subdivisions
Coats of arms with chains
Coats of arms with crowns
Coats of arms with swords
Coats of arms with sceptres
Coats of arms with trees
Coats of arms with crosses
Coats of arms with buildings
Coats of arms with lions
Coats of arms with fleurs de lis
Coats of arms with animals
Coats of arms with cannons
Symbols introduced in 1897

Zazpiak Bat


Robert Earl Hopkins (June 30, 1915 – July 4, 2009)  was president of the Optical Society of America in 1973.

Recognized as an expert in optical instrument design, aspheric optics, interferometry, lasers, and lens testing, Hopkins has been characterized as the "father of optical engineering."

Early life, education and wartime service
Born in Belmont, MA, in 1915, Hopkins attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) under a full scholarship, earning a BS in 1937. He received his MS (1939) and PhD (1945) from the University of Rochester (UR). In 1948, he was awarded a US Navy Citation for outstanding wartime service in the Office of Research and Development.

Career
Hopkins was appointed to the UR faculty in 1945 and was named Professor of Optics in 1951. He led the Institute of Optics as Director from 1954 to 1964, during the time when computers were first used to design optical systems and both fiber optics and the laser were born. He travelled frequently to Ithaca to use an early computer at Cornell University and brought the first computers to the UR in 1955. His lens designs included the Todd-AO lens used for the film "Oklahoma!" (1955). In 1963, he organized the "Laser Road Show" for the National Science Foundation to introduce laser technologies at colleges, universities, and corporations.

Hopkins left the UR in 1967 to serve as President of Tropel, Inc., a company he co-founded in 1953. Tropel became a world leader in customized precision optical instrumentation and is now a division of Corning, Inc. He returned to the UR Laboratory of Laser Energetics in 1975 as Chief Optical Engineer, a position he held until 1982. He also continued to teach as Professor of Optics and as Professor Emeritus throughout the 1980s.

Organizational affiliations and legacy
An OSA member since 1937, Hopkins served as the Society's President in 1973. He was a recipient of OSA's Frederic Ives Medal (1970) and Joseph Fraunhofer Award (1983). He was also a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS), served on the SPIE Board of Governors, and was a member of Sigma Xi, the American Society for Engineering Education and numerous advisory panels. He was awarded the SPIE Gold Medal in 1983. His career has been celebrated by his students and associates in the Robert E. Hopkins Professor of Optics endowed chair and the Robert E. Hopkins Center for Optical Design and Engineering at the UR.

Personal life
Hopkins was an avid skier for most of his life, a 195 bowler, a competitive horseshoe player in his 70s, and a sometime sailor and golfer. He also loved and respected the natural world and practiced his conservation ethic on the family property known as Wayland.

He was predeceased by his wife of 60 years, Barbara Ann Barnes, and is survived by 6 children and their spouses, 17 grandchildren, and 5 great-grandchildren.

See also

References

External links
 Articles Published by early OSA Presidents Journal of the Optical Society of America

1915 births
2009 deaths
20th-century American physicists
Presidents of Optica (society)
University of Rochester faculty
Optical engineers

Robert E. Hopkins


Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, written by Diane McWhorter and published by Simon & Schuster in 2001, won the J. Anthony Lukas Book Prize and the 2002 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction.

McWhorter grew up in Birmingham, Alabama, and recounts being about the same age as the girls killed in the September 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church, though she "was growing up on the wrong side of the revolution". While four black girls were murdered in that day's bombing, McWhorter recalls that the only repercussion of the killings on her white high school was the cancellation of a play rehearsal. Carry Me Home describes how bigotry was prevalent among whites and her interviews and reviews of documents from the civil rights era showed "the long tradition of enmeshment between law enforcers and Klansmen", ranging from local and state police to agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.

She describes how local political leaders, newspaper editors and Police, by supporting segregation exercised consistently poor judgment which rescued the cause of civil rights demonstrators during the Birmingham campaign; police chief Bull Connor  responding to peaceful protests from local teenagers with high-pressure fire hose and police dogs and encouraged Ku Klux Klan attacks. Wyatt Tee Walker of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference recounted how "Birmingham would have been lost if Bull had let us go down to the city hall and pray".'

McWhorter notes the May 3, 1963, photo by Associated Press photographer Bill Hudson of Walter Gadsden, an African-American bystander who had been grabbed by a sunglasses-wearing police officer, while a German Shepherd lunged at his chest. The photo appeared above the fold, covering three columns in the next day's issue of The New York Times, as well as in other newspapers nationwide. McWhorter wrote that Hudson's photo that day drove "international opinion to the side of the civil rights revolution".

In his review of the book in The New York Times, David K. Shipler credits McWhorter as being "impressive at gathering facts and sourcing them precisely", though he notes that "[a]t times, the themes are lost in dizzying detail, the trees overwhelm the forest".

The book won the 2002 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction.

References

External links

Booknotes interview with McWhorter on Carry Me Home, May 27, 2001.

2001 non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
Books about African-American history
Books about Alabama
History of Birmingham, Alabama
Works about the civil rights movement
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction-winning works
the Civil Rights Revolution
Books about activists

Carry Me Home (book)


The Floating Foundation of Photography was a New York photography exhibition space, meeting place and teaching center. It is famous as a gathering place for a generation of influential New York photographers, including W. Eugene Smith, Arthur Tress, Mary Ellen Mark, Les Krims, Judy Dater, Lisette Model and Lee Witkin. It was also one of the first institutions to engage in teaching photography in socially marginalized communities such as prisons, mental institutions and drug rehabilitation programs.

The Foundation was founded by photographer Maggie Sherwood in 1970 after she bought an old houseboat, painted it purple and  offered it as a gallery and photo center for many of her friends. Within a few years she added a classroom and darkrooms. The houseboat was originally moored at the 79th Street Boat Basin, but in later years it traveled up and down the Hudson River. Photography critic A. D. Coleman described it as "moored at the literal edge of Manahattan, marginal by definition, it served a key role as the medium of photography itself moved from the periphery to the center of cultural discourse and creative activity."

The Foundation continued to be an influential center for photography in New York until two years after Sherwood's death in 1984.

In 2009 the Samuel Dorsky Museum of Art at the State University of New York at New Paltz mounted a retrospective exhibition about the Floating Foundation, its influences and the photographers who were part of what happened there. The catalog of the exhibition, Taking a Different Tack: Maggie Sherwood and the Floating Foundation of Photography , includes many images of the photographers who met there and the houseboat itself.

References

External links
 The Floating Foundation of Photography

Culture of New York City
Defunct art museums and galleries in Manhattan
Photography museums and galleries in the United States
Art galleries established in 1970
Art galleries disestablished in 1986
1970 establishments in New York City
1986 disestablishments in New York (state)

Floating Foundation of Photography


A sun photometer is a type of photometer conceived in such a way that it points at the sun. Recent sun photometers are automated instruments incorporating a sun-tracking unit, an appropriate optical system, a  spectrally filtering device, a photodetector, and a data acquisition system. The measured quantity is called direct-sun radiance.

When a sun-photometer is placed somewhere within the  earth's atmosphere, the measured radiance is not equal to the radiance emitted by the sun (i.e. the solar extraterrestrial radiance), because the solar flux is reduced by atmospheric  absorption and scattering. Therefore, the measured radiant flux is due to a combination of what is emitted by the sun and the effect of the atmosphere; the link between these quantities is given by Beer's law.

The atmospheric effect can be removed with Langley extrapolation; this method therefore allows measuring the solar extraterrestrial radiance with ground-based measurements. Once the extraterrestrial radiance is known, one can use the sun photometer for studying the atmosphere, and in particular for determining the atmospheric optical depth. Also, if the signal at two or more suitably selected  spectral intervals is measured, one can use the information derived for calculating the vertically integrated concentration of selected atmospheric gases, such as water vapour, ozone, etc.

See also
 Dobson ozone spectrophotometer
 AERONET

References
 Glenn E. Shaw, "Sun photometry", Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 64, 4-10, 1983.

Optical devices
Electromagnetic radiation meters

Sun photometer


African-American music is types of music that were mostly developed by and for African-Americans. The main modern types are jazz, blues, gospel, soul, rock and roll, and hip hop. Other types such as ragtime also used to be popular.

History
African-Americans started influencing mainstream American music in the 19th century when they performed in minstrel shows.

1920s
The period from the end of the First World War until the start of the Depression in 1929 is known as the "Jazz Age". In 1920 the first vocal blues recording, "Crazy Blues", was made by the Vaudevillean singer Mamie Smith. After this blues sung by African American females became popular. The most popular female blues singer was Bessie Smith. She was a big influence on other jazz singers. She sung a song called "Squeeze Me" that was composed by Fats Waller. In 1921 Black Swan Records was started in Harlem. It was the first record label owned by an African-American. In December 1928 Pinetop Smith recorded "Pine Top's Boogie Woogie". The song influenced the boogie-woogie style of music. In the late 1920s the trumpeter and singer Louis Armstrong became one of the most famous jazz musicians in the world.

1930s
In the early 30s swing music developed. In the late 1930s people were worried that barbershop music would die out, and there was a barbershop music revival. 1935-1946 is known as the swing era. At this time it was the most popular music in America. Big bands played swing music.

1940s
R&B music began in the 1940s. Until 1948 it was called "race music". In 1949, the term "Rhythm and Blues" replaced the Billboard category Harlem Hit Parade. The trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie helped create the first modern jazz style, bebop. In the 1940s the jazz singers Ella Fitzgerald and Billie Holiday became popular.

1950s
In 1955 the single "Tutti Frutti" was released by Little Richard. It sold over a million copies. He was one of the first black musicians to be popular among both white and black people. Little Richard called himself the "king of rockin' and rollin', rhythm and blues soulin'". People have described "Tutti Frutti" as being the song that began rock and roll. Singer and guitarist Chuck Berry also helped to make rock and roll with songs like "Maybelline". Big Mama Thornton was the first person to sing "Hound Dog" in 1952. It was number one on the Billboard R&B charts in 1953 for seven weeks. It sold nearly two million copies. However, in 1956 Elvis Presley, a white singer, sung the song and was more successful. It sold 10 million copies. Presley was very influenced by African-American music. He made rockabilly, a kind of rock and roll, popular.

James Brown became popular towards the end of the decade. He helped create funk music. Gospel began its golden age after World War II. In the 1950s soul music also started to appear. Etta James and Clyde McPhatter contributed to the creation of soul. Soul was a kind of non religious gospel music. Soul and R&B influenced the sound of girl groups, only some of which were white.

A type of jazz called free jazz started to develop. Ornette Coleman helped to make it.

1960s
In the 1960s Jimi Hendrix released psychedelic rock music. He died in 1972. His music was very influential and estimated album sales showcase over 30 million units sold.

Stevie Wonder's first album The Jazz Soul of Little Stevie was released on Motown in 1962. Wonder was 12 years old. When he was 13 he had his first number one, "Fingertips". The soul singer Marvin Gaye helped to shape the sound of Motown Records with songs like "I Heard It Through the Grapevine". He became known as the "Prince of Motown". Ray Charles had crossover success on ABC Records. This meant that he was popular with both black and white people. While with ABC Records, Charles became one of the first African-American musicians to be given artistic control by a mainstream record company. In the 1960s a record label called Motown released lots of successful singles. An R&B group called The Miracles were their first successful act. Smokey Robinson had started the group in the 1950s. He became the vice president of Motown. The girl group The Supremes were Motown's most successful act.

In 1960 The Shirelles had the first number one single by a girl group, "Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow".

1970s
Hip hop started in New York City in the 1970s. 1979 was an important year for hip hop. In 1979 Sugarhill Gang released the single "Rapper's Delight". It made hip hop/rap popular in the United States and around the world. That year Lady B released "To the Beat Y'All". She was the first female solo hip hop artist to record music.

In the 1970s disco also became popular. African American disco musicians included Donna Summer and The Jackson 5. KC and the Sunshine Band had mostly African American members. Diana Ross left The Supremes in 1970 and released her first album the same year. Ross was named the most successful female music artist in history in 1993 by the Guinness Book of World Records.

1980s
In the 1980s the success of Michael Jackson's Thriller helped to make African American music more popular. Thriller was released in 1982 and it is the best-selling album of all time. It was produced by Quincy Jones. Jackson was one the first African American pop icons. In 1982 Marvin Gaye also had a number one single "Sexual Healing". In 1983 it won Grammy Awards for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance and Best R&B Instrumental Performance. The funk musician Prince became popular. He had four number one singles in the United States. Whitney Houston released her first album in 1985. The album had three number one singles. This made Houston the first woman and first African American woman to have three number ones from one album. Michael Jackson's younger sister Janet Jackson started a pop career. Her third album Control had five American top five singles and was one of the decade's most important albums.

Following the beginning of hip hop's popularity in 1979, in the 1980s hip hop developed more complex styles.
The mid 1980s is called the golden age of hip hop. Artists from this time include Run–D.M.C., Wu-Tang Clan, A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy. The gangsta rap group N.W.A started in 1986. Their music was banned from lots of radio stations. In the late 80s jazz rap started to be developed.

1990s - now
In the 1990s more female African American musicians became popular following the success of Janet Jackson and Whitney Houston. The girl band TLC released their first album Ooooooohhh... On the TLC Tip in 1992. It sold six million copies.
Mariah Carey, who has a white mother and African-American father, released her first album, Mariah Carey, in 1990. It reached number one in the United States. Since then she has sold over 200 million albums, singles and videos. This makes her one of the best selling artists ever. Mary J. Blige released her first album, What's the 411?, in 1992. It combined hip hop and soul. People gave her the name "Queen of Hip Hop Soul" due to this. It sold 3.4 million copies. Billboard ranked her as the most successful female R&B artist of the last 25 years.
In 1990 the girl band Girl's Tyme was started by Beyoncé Knowles and LaTavia Roberson. In 1996 they changed their name to Destiny's Child. In 1997 the band became well known from their single "No, No, No". Their 1999 single "Say My Name" reached number one and later won three Grammy Awards. In the 2000s the band continued to be successful with two more studio albums.

R&B singer R. Kelly released his first album in 1993. He has since sold 40 million albums. He produced Aaliyah's 1994 album Age Ain't Nothing But a Number and wrote Michael Jackson's 1995 number one single "You Are Not Alone".

R&B boy band Boyz II Men became popular in 1991 with their first album Cooleyhighharmony on Motown. They were the fourth most successful group of the 90s.

Hip hop duo Outkast released their most successful album so far, Speakerboxxx/The Love Below in 2003. It won Album of the Year and Best Rap Album at the 2004 Grammy Awards.

Rapper Kanye West's first album The College Dropout was released in 2004. It entered the American album chart at number two. It has sold over four million copies around the world. Since then West has released five more albums on his own and one with Jay-Z in 2011. All of the albums have reached number one.

Today, African-American musicians such as Beyoncé Knowles are among the most popular musicians in the world. There are more popular white musicians than ever who make African American music. Examples include Amy Winehouse, Adele, Eminem, and Macklemore. In 2013 there were no number one singles by black musicians in the US. This was the first time this had happened in the Billboard chart's 56-year history. For 44 out of the 52 weeks of 2013 the number one spot on the R&B and Hip-Hop Songs Chart was taken by white musicians.

The National Museum of African American Music is in Nashville.

References

music
Music genres

African-American music


The Shield is the name of several superheroes created by MLJ (now known as Archie Comics). Appearing months before Captain America, the Shield has the distinction of being the first superhero with a costume based upon United States patriotic iconography. The character appeared in Pep Comics from issue #1 (Jan 1940) to #65 (Jan 1948).

The name was used by MLJ/Archie for four characters. DC Comics' Impact line, which licensed the Archie properties, also used the name for several characters. In 2010, DC announced plans to integrate the Shield and other MLJ characters into the DC Universe, but the rights to the characters reverted to Archie Comics in 2011. A fourth Shield was introduced in October 2015.

Publication history
The Shield debuted in MLJ's Pep Comics #1 (cover-dated Jan. 1940). Writer Harry Shorten and artist Irv Novick created the character. With the American populace reacting to the beginnings of World War II and wartime patriotism stirring, the Shield debuted as the first patriotically themed hero. He was soon followed by three other patriotic comic characters: Captain America (March 1941), Minute-Man (Feb. 1941), and Captain Battle (May 1941).

In 1959, a new Shield, Lancelot Strong, appeared under the Archie Adventure Series imprint in a series titled, The Double Life of Private Strong. It was cancelled after two issues.

Red Circle Comics reintroduced Lancelot Strong in a new series titled, Lancelot Strong: The Shield in June 1983. The series was retitled twice, first with Shield-Steel Sterling in December 1983 and then with Steel Sterling in January 1984. In July 1984, the series ended with its seventh issue.

In 1984, Red Circle Comics also released a series starring the Joe Higgins version of the Shield in a series titled Original Shield. It lasted four issues.

In 1991, Archie Comics licensed their superheroes to DC Comics who created an imprint called Impact Comics. The company launched a fourth solo series, The Legend of the Shield. It featured two Shields, Joe Higgins, who led the series for the first thirteen issues, and Lt. Michael Barnes, his replacement. Barnes continued as the Shield until the title ended in October 1992.

In 2015, Archie Comics began the Shield's return in a new series penned by Adam Christopher and Chuck Wendig. This version of the character is a woman named Victoria Adams. The series was published under the Dark Circle Comics banner. It was originally set to be released in April but was delayed until September.

Joe Higgins

MLJ Comics

Fictional character biography
The origin story of The Shield appeared in Shield–Wizard Comics #1 (Summer 1940). He is really chemist Joe Higgins, the son of Lieutenant Tom Higgins. Tom was working on a chemical formula for super-strength which the Germans were after, and is slain by German saboteur Hans Fritz in the Black Tom explosion, for which Tom was blamed. After Tom's death, Joe continues to work on it while continuing his studies of chemistry. Joe finally figures out the solution, which requires applying the chemicals to certain parts of his anatomy (Sacrum, Heart, Innervation, Eyes, Lungs, Derma), and exposing himself to x-rays. This gives him super strength, the ability able to make great leaps, and invulnerability. Joe uses the initials S.H.I.E.L.D. as his secret identity. His white costume becomes the familiar colors under the process. He becomes an FBI agent (whose secret identity is known only to FBI Chief J. Edgar Hoover) after clearing his father's name, and fights foreign agents and other threats to the U.S. At the start of the strip, Higgins' partners are fellow G-Man Ju Ju Watson, and girlfriend Betty Warren.

The Shield is joined by a kid partner, Dusty the Boy Detective, in Pep #11 (Jan 1941). Dusty's father had been killed by foreign agents, and he is adopted by Joe and given a costume. Both heroes wear their patriotic costumes beneath their street clothes and change for action whenever the need would arise. Dusty also partners with The Wizard's kid partner, Roy, as the "Boy Buddies".

In Pep #20, Joe is called "The One and Only Shield" at the start of the story and "The Original Shield" at the end of the story because of the success of Captain America, another 1940s-era patriotic superhero. In his first appearance, Captain America had a shield similar to the main part of The Shield's costume, but it was changed to a round shield for the second issue over accusations of plagiarism.

The Shield and Dusty were featured in the first crossover storyline in American comic books. The storyline had them team up with the Wizard (the headlining character from Top-Notch Comics) to stop the invasion plot orchestrated by Mosconia (a fictional country made up of elements from Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union).

The Shield was one of MLJ's most popular characters, even spawning a club, the "Shield G-Man Club". He starred in Pep, and several other MLJ titles: Shield-Wizard, Top-Notch Comics. But then a new character arrived who would overshadow him: Archie Andrews. He would take the Shield's cover spot on Pep, take his fan club, and cause the end of the MLJ superheroes.

An older Joe Higgins appears in New Crusaders as the sole survivor of the Brain Emperor's attack on his fellow Crusaders. He gathers their teenage children to form a team dubbed "the New Crusaders".

DC Comics
The Red Circle Comics characters, aptly named "The Red Circle", were again licensed by DC and rebooted. During the Dilation crisis a version of the Shield character was seen helping Green Arrow and Black Canary, performing crowd control. First appearing as a secondary character in The Web, another former MLJ hero, the new Shield is Lieutenant Joseph Higgins, stationed in Afghanistan, from where he tries to contact The Web to find his missing father. On the same day however his crew fall victim to terrorists, and Higgins is grievously wounded. To save his life, he agrees to be subjected to secret government experiments, after which an advanced, nanotech battle suit is merged to his burned epidermis. The suit appears on his body at will and grants him the same array of powers of the earlier incarnation, including superhuman strength, limited flight and advanced sensory abilities. Due to his severe injuries, the only major drawback is that if ever he tries to remove the war suit permanently, his bodily functions could shut down. Still fighting as the new, patriotic hero, he is again contacted by The Web, accepting his request for help.

The Shield also appeared in the 2010 DC Comics mini series The Mighty Crusaders.

Lancelot Strong
In June 1959, a new Shield was published by Archie that had no connection to the previous version.

Joe Simon was asked by Archie to create characters for a new "Archie Adventure Series" line of superheroes. Joe Simon created a new Shield-type of superhero, whose real identity was Lancelot Strong, who appeared in a new title, The Double Life of Private Strong. Joe Simon put together a team of artists including Jack Kirby to work for him on The Double Life of Private Strong.

Lancelot's scientist father developed a method to create a superhuman by expanding the mind, which he used on his infant son. After his father was killed by foreign agents, Lancelot was adopted by a farm couple and raised as their son. Once he hit his teens, he discovered the truth of his background and his powers: strength, flight, near-invulnerability, vision powers, the ability to generate lightning, and a few more. His father had created a patriotic costume for him, and he started off as the new superhero, the Shield. He soon joined the Army, acting like a Gomer Pyle-style country bumpkin, while leading a double life as the Shield (hence the title of his comic).

In 1999, Archie formally assigned all rights to Lancelot Strong to Joe Simon.

Bill Higgins and Joe Higgins Jr.
When Archie revamped their superheroes under their "Radio Comics/Mighty Comics" line, a third Shield was introduced as Bill Higgins and Joe Higggins Jr., sons of the original Shield. Bill first appeared in the new Fly-Man #31, and becomes one of the main founders of the Mighty Crusaders. It would be revealed that his father was turned to stone by the villain, The Eraser, and Bill was carrying on his father's work. Bill's 'powers', which seem to be enhanced strength and limited invulnerability, were derived from his costume. He would appear through the end of the Radio/Mighty Comics run. Originally they would switch the name from Bill Higgins to Joe Higgins Jr., from one appearance to the next. In the Red Circle Mighty Crusaders #1 the story established that Bill joined the Army and left his life as a superhero. In 2000, Archie Comics started using Joe Higgins Jr. as the Shield in Archie's Weird Mysteries, establishing that Bill and Joe Jr. were separate characters.

Michael Barnes
When Legend of the Shield was revamped, Lt. Michael Barnes, a married father with a young daughter, became the new Shield. Barnes would continue as the lead character until the series' 1992 cancellation and also appeared as the Shield in the six-issue miniseries The Crucible.

Victoria Adams

In 2015, Archie Comics rebranded their Red Circle Comics line under the new Dark Circle Comics banner. The new Shield debuted in her own new series titled The Shield in October. Victoria Adams is the first female to take up the mantle of the Shield. The series ran four issues. She has continued in her role as the Shield in The Mighty Crusaders written by Ian Flynn.

References

External links
Shield (1939) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on June 3, 2017.
Shield (1959) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on October 23, 2015.
Offenberger, Rik, ed. Shield at MightyCrusaders.net
SimonComics.com / Simon Entertainment Properties. Archived from the original on December 26, 2014.

Golden Age superheroes
Shield
Comics characters introduced in 1940
DC Comics superheroes
United States-themed superheroes
Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Comics characters with superhuman strength
Superheroes who are adopted
1959 comics debuts
Comics characters introduced in 1958
Male characters in comics
Female characters in comics

Shield (Archie Comics)


The Bogoria was a family of Polish knights. The family originated from Bogoria in Lesser Poland. The first information about the family dates back to the 12th century. In the 14th century the family got the greatest importance.

History
The most representative family members were: Mikolaj (12th century) founder of the Cistercian monastery in Koprzywica in 1185. Mikołaj z Bogorii i Skotnik voivode of Kraków Voivodeship, adviser of King Władysław I Lokietek and diplomat during the first years of reign of King Casimir III of Poland. Jarosław z Bogoryi i Skotnik Archbishop of Gniezno. Mikolaj z Bogorii (?-1381), castellan of Zawichów, supporter of Władysław II Jagiello for the Polish throne and co-initiator of the Polish-Lithuanian Union.

Notable members
 Jarosław z Bogorii i Skotnik
 Piotr z Bogorii i Skotnik
 Stanisława z Bogorii i Skotnik
 Mikołaj z Bogorii i Skotnik
 Wojciech z Bogorii i Żminogrodu

Coat of arms

Bibliography
 Nowa Encyklopedia PWN,T-1 A-C, Warszawa 1995, s.503

Bogoria family


The Mighty Mighty Bosstones (informally known as The Bosstones) are an American ska punk band from Boston, Massachusetts which formed in 1983. The Bosstones are widely credited as one of the originators of the genre of ska punk, a style which mixes the rhythms of ska music with the fast tempo and distortion of punk rock and hardcore punk.
 Their music is recognized for its prominent use of brass instruments as well as the deep, raspy voice of their lead singer Dicky Barrett. Their concerts are also notable for the presence of Ben Carr, a non-musician member of the Bosstones who dances onstage during the band's performances.

First becoming notable in the underground music scene, the Bosstones steadily grew in popularity throughout the mid-1990s. Their fourth album, 1994's Question the Answers, sold over 500,000 copies and became a gold record. In 1995, they appeared in the hit movie Clueless and in 1997, the band released their most successful album, Let's Face It, which sold over one million copies and spawned the hit single "The Impression That I Get", which charted at #1 on the Billboard Modern Rock Songs and entered the top 20 in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia. Although none of the Bosstones' future albums or singles were able to meet with the same kind of success, the band has kept a loyal following and continue to tour and record.

The Bosstones briefly disbanded in 2003, though reunited in 2007 to continue touring and recording. The band has released nine studio albums, three EPs and a live album.

Band members
Current members
Dicky Barrett - vocals (1983-present)
Joe Gittleman - bass guitar (1983-present)
Tim "Johnny Vegas" Burton - tenor saxophone (1983-present)
Ben Carr - dancer (1983-present)
Joe Sirois - drums (1991-present)
Kevin Lenear - alto and baritone saxophones (1991-1998, 2008-present)
Lawrence Katz - guitar (2000-present)
Chris Rhodes - trombone (2000-present)
John Goetchius - keyboards (2008-present)

Former members
Nate Albert - guitar (1983-2000)
Tim Bridewell - trombone (1983-1991)
Josh Dalsimer - drums (1983-1991)
Roman Fleysher - saxophone (1998-2008)
Dennis Brockenborough - trombone (1991-2000)

Discography
Devil's Night Out (1989)
More Noise and Other Disturbances (1992)
Don't Know How to Party (1993)
Question the Answers (1994)
Let's Face It (1997)
Pay Attention (2000)
A Jackknife to a Swan (2002)
Pin Points and Gin Joints (2009)
The Magic of Youth (2011)

References

1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American punk bands
American rock bands
Musical groups established in 1983
Musical groups from Boston
1983 establishments in the United States
1980s establishments in Massachusetts
2003 disestablishments in the United States
Musical groups established in 2007
Musical groups disestablished in 2003
2007 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Massachusetts
2000s disestablishments in Massachusetts

The Mighty Mighty Bosstones


Hannes Leitgeb (born June 26, 1972, Salzburg) is an Austrian philosopher and mathematician. He is Professor of Philosophy at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich and has received a Humboldt Professorship in 2010. His areas of research include logic (theories of truth and modality, paradox, conditionals, nonmonotonic reasoning, dynamic doxastic logic), epistemology (belief, inference, belief revision, foundations of probability, Bayesianism), philosophy of mathematics (structuralism, informal provability, abstraction, criteria of identity), philosophy of language (indeterminacy of translation, compositionality), cognitive science (symbolic representation and neural networks, metacognition), philosophy of science (empirical content, measurement theory), and history of philosophy (logical positivism, Carnap, Quine).

Leitgeb studied mathematics at the University of Salzburg and graduated with a Master's degree in 1997. After his PhDs in mathematics (1998) and philosophy (2001), also in Salzburg, he was offered a position as assistance professor at the university's faculty of philosophy. In 2003 he received an Erwin Schrödinger scholarship by the Austrian Science Fund to do research at the Stanford University Department of Philosophy/CSLI. From 2005 on, he worked at the Departments of Philosophy and Mathematics in Bristol. Two years later, he became Professor of Mathematical Logic and Philosophy of Mathematics.

In autumn 2010, he followed an invitation to the Chair of Logic and Philosophy of Language at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he became director of the Munich Center for Mathematical Philosophy.

In 2016 he became a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.

References

21st-century Austrian philosophers
Living people
Philosophers of science
German logicians
German philosophers
1972 births
German male writers
Members of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina

Hannes Leitgeb


Prehensile feet are lower limbs that possess prehensility, the ability to grasp like a hand. They are most commonly observed in monkeys, some of which also possess prehensile tails, and apes.  The term prehensile means "able to grasp" (from the Latin prehendere, to take hold of, to grasp).

Due to the development of bipedalism in humans, the hands became the focus of prehensility and the feet adjusted to more of a stabilizing role. It may be possible, however, that the foot does not reach its limits of dexterity due to the constant muscle tension needed in stabilizing and balancing the foot to hold up the legs and the rest of the frame.

In cases of people who are born without or lose their arms or hands, the feet, like the tongue and other parts of the body, are explored in greater function to stand in for the absent hands in performing daily human tasks. In many cases, greater prehensility is developed out of necessity and practice, and a person is able to type on a keyboard at impressive speeds.

Small objects may also be grasped between the toes and manipulated as with a hand, with the ankle functioning as a wrist. As toes are much shorter than fingers, and since the ball of the foot is so large and obtrusive, grasping does not function as in a normal hand and the foot is not able to hold very large or heavy objects.

See also
Mouth and foot painting

References

Vertebrate anatomy
Foot
Primate anatomy

Prehensile feet


Gergely Bogányi (born 4 January 1974) is a Hungarian pianist. Coming from a musical family, Bogányi is one of the youngest pianists to have won the Kossuth Prize, becoming one of the leading pianists of his generation.

Education

Bogányi was born in 1974 in Vác, Hungary (his brother is conductor Tibor Bogányi), and started playing the piano at the age of four. He continued his studies at the Liszt Academy in Budapest, the Sibelius Academy in Helsinki and at Indiana University in Bloomington with professors László Baranyay, György Sebök, Matti Raekallio.

Piano Design
Bogányi, alongside his virtuoso piano playing, is known for his revolutionary piano designs including the Prestige B-262 and the larger Grand Prestige B-292, both of which are primarily constructed of carbon composites. "There have been no major developments in piano construction in over 100 years," says Bogányi.  The estimated cost of the project was just under €1 million (£750,000).

Awards

Gergely Bogányi has had success in several national and international competitions.
 In 1996 he won the International Franz Liszt Competition in Budapest. The name of other competition winners may be seen on the official "Filharmonia Budapest" webpage.
 Gergely Bogányi was appointed a citizen of honour in his native town Vác at the age of 22.
 In 2000 he was awarded the Liszt Prize by the Ministry of Cultural Heritage.
 In 2000 the Cross Merit of the White Rose of Finland by the President of the Finnish Republic.
 In 2001 his series of "Chopin's complete piano works" received the Hungarian Gramofon Prize in the category of "Best concert event and performing artist in Hungary".
 On March 15, 2004 he received the highest artistic award of Hungary, the Kossuth Prize.

Bogányi has performed worldwide, and performs as a soloist with leading orchestras, for example the London Philharmonic in 2004.

On November 27–28, 2010 he performed all the compositions of Frédéric Chopin at Palace of Arts (Művészetek Palotája in Hungarian) in Budapest.

Repertoire
Pieces for piano solo
Mozart: Sonatas
Beethoven: 10 Sonatas
Schubert
 Sonatas
 Impromptus
Schumann
 Sonatas: F sharp minor, G minor
 Fantasie C major
 Papillons op.2.
 Karneval op.9.
 Kreisleriana op.16.
Chopin: Complete
Liszt
 Sonata B minor
 12 Etudes d'execution transcendente
 Zwei Konzertetüden
 Annees de pelerinage
 6 Consolations
 Rapsodies hongroises
 Rapsodie espagnole
Brahms
 Variation and Fuge on a Theme by Handel op.24.
 Zwei Rapsodies op.79
Bartók
 Study for Left Hand
 3 Burlesque op.8.c
 Allegro barbaro
 Sonatine
 Suite op 14.
 Etudes op18.
 Improvisations op.20
 Piano Sonata
 Out of Doors

Concertos
Haydn:G major
Mozart
 C major K. 467.
 C major K. 246
 C minor K. 491.
 D major K. 451
 D major K. 537. "Krönungskonzert"
 D minor K. 466
 G major K. 453
 A major K. 414
 A major K. 488
 B flat major K. 595
 Konzert-Rondo
 D major K. 382.
 A major K. 386
Beethoven Nr.4. G major
Mendelssohn: G minor
Schumann: A minor
Chopin:
 Nr.2. F minor
 Andante spianato & Grande Polonaise brillante
Liszt:
 Malediction
 Nr.1. E flat major
 Nr.2. A major
 Dance of Death (Totentanz)
 Hungarian Phantasy
Brahms:
 Nr.1. D minor
 Nr.2. B flat major
Tchaikovsky: B flat minor
Grieg: A minor
Rachmaninov:
 Nr.2. C minor
 Nr.3. D minor
Furtwängler:
 Symphonic concerto for piano and orchestra B minor
Petrovics: Piano Concerto

Sources

External links
 Gergely Bogányi's official website.
 Bogányi Piano official website.
 Gergely Bogányi plays Fauré's Sonata.
 Herend Herald.
 Kelemen Barnabas official website.
  Hoertnagel.
 Wien International.
 BMC
 Tiszadob Piano Festival.

1974 births
Living people
Franz Liszt Academy of Music alumni
Hungarian classical pianists
Hungarian male musicians
Male classical pianists

Gergely Bogányi


Palermo Cathedral is the cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Palermo, located in Palermo, Sicily, southern Italy. It is dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. As an architectural complex, it is characterized by the presence of different styles, due to a long history of additions, alterations and restorations, the last of which occurred in the 18th century.

History

The church was erected in 1185 by Walter Ophamil, the Norman archbishop of Palermo and King William II's minister, on the area of an earlier Byzantine basilica.   By all accounts this earlier church was founded by Pope Gregory I and was later turned into a mosque by the Saracens after their conquest of the city in the 9th century. Ophamil is buried in a sarcophagus in the church's crypt. The medieval edifice had a basilica plan with three apses, of which only some minor architectural elements survive today.

The upper orders of the corner towers were built between the 14th and the 15th centuries, while in the early Renaissance period the southern porch was added. The present neoclassical appearance dates from the work carried out over the two decades 1781  to 1801, supervised by Ferdinando Fuga and Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia. During this period the great retable by Gagini, decorated with statues, friezes and reliefs, was destroyed and the sculptures moved to different parts of the basilica. Also by Fuga are the great dome emerging from the main body of the building, and the smaller domes covering the aisles' ceilings.

Overview
The western entrance is on the current Via Matteo Bonello, and has the appearance set in the 14th and 15th centuries. It is flanked by two towers and has a Gothic portal surmounted by a niche with a precious 15th-century Madonna. Two lintelled ogival arcades, stepping over the street, connect the western façade to the bell tower, which is annexed to the Archbishops Palace (now Museo Diocesano). This has a squared appearance adorned in the upper part by a fine crown of smaller belfries and small arcades.

The south side has outstretching turrets and a wide portico (the current main entrance) in Gothic-Catalan style, with three arcades, erected around 1465 and opening to the square. The first column on the left belonged to the original basilica and the subsequent mosque, as evidenced by the Qur'an verse carved on it. The carved portal of this entrance was executed between 1426 and 1430 by Antonio Gambara, while the magnificent wooden leaves are by Francesco Miranda (1432). The mosaic portraying the Madonna is from the 13th century, while the two monuments on the walls, works of the early 18th century, represent the Bourbon king Charles III and Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, both of whom were crowned here (the latter with his first wife, Anne Marie d'Orléans, in December 1713).

The area of the apse, enclosed by the turrets and grandly decorated on the external walls, is part of the original 12th-century building, while the more modern part of the church is the left side, which has an early 16th-century portal by Antonello Gagini. The South-Western façade, looking at the Archbishop Palace, dates from the 14th to 15th centuries.

The interior has a Latin cross plan, with a nave and two aisles divided by pilasters. In the first two chapels of the right aisle are the tomb of emperors and royal figures moved here in the 18th century from their original sites (mostly from the basilica itself). Here are the remains of Emperor Henry VI, his son Frederick II, as well as those of Peter II of Sicily. A Roman sarcophagus is the tomb of Constance of Aragon, Frederick's wife. Under the mosaic baldachins are the tombs of Roger II, the first King of Sicily, and his daughter Constance. The last two were once located in the transept of the Cathedral of Cefalù.

The Sacrament chapel, at the end of the left aisles, is decorated with precious stones and lapislazuli. To the right, in the presbytery, is the chapel of Saint Rosalia, patron of Palermo, closed by a richly ornamental bronze gate, with relics and a 17th-century silver urn which is object of particular devotion.

The 1466 Gothic-Catalan style wooden choir and the marble remains of the Gagini's retable (removed during the 18th-century alterations) are also precious, as well as a marble statue of the Madonna with Child by Francesco Laurana and pupils (1469), a 13th-century polychrome Crucifix by Manfredi Chiaramonte, the holy water stoup on the fourth pilaster (by Domenico Gagini) and the Madonna della Scala by Antonello Gagini, on the high altar of the new sacristy. The Relics Chapel contains the relics of St. Christina, St. Ninfa, St. Cosma, St. Agatha and St. Mamilianus, first patron of Palermo.

The crypt, accessed from the left side, is an evocative room with cross vault supported by granite columns, housing tombs and sarcophagi of Roman, Byzantine and Norman ages. People buried here include archbishops Walter Ophamil, the church's founder, and Giovanni Paternò, patron of Antonello Gagini who sculpted the image on his tomb.

The Cathedral Treasury contains goblets, vestments, monstrances, a 14th-century breviary and the famous Crown of Constance of Sicily, a golden tiara found in her tomb in 1491.

The cathedral has a meridian, which may be considered as an earlier  type of heliometer (solar "observatory"), one of a number constructed in Italian churches, mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries. This one was built in 1801 by the famous astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi, the director of the Observatory of Palermo who discovered the first minor planet or asteroid, Ceres.  The device itself is quite simple: a tiny hole in one of the minor domes acts as pinhole camera, projecting an image of the sun onto the floor ).  There is a bronze line, la meridiana on the floor, running precisely N/S.  At solar noon (circa 12:00 in winter, 13:00 in summer), the sun image passes through this line. At different times of the year the passage occurs at different point of the line. The ends of the line mark the positions at the summer and winter solstices; signs of the zodiac show various dates throughout the year.

The purpose of the instrument was to standardise the measurement of time and the calendar. The convention in Sicily had been that the (24-hour) day was measured from the moment of sun-rise, which of course meant that no two locations had the same time and, more importantly, did not have the same time as in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It was also important to know when the Vernal equinox occurred, to provide the correct date for Easter. On the belltowers there were six medieval bells.

The instrument could be used for research on the apparent movements of the Sun, including its relative distance from the Earth, measured through the size of the floor projected solar disk, and even to compare the results with Ptolemaic and Copernician predictions.

18th and 19th century renovations

The church is composed of different styles, as in the following centuries it underwent various changes.
The last was at the end of the 18th century, when it radically remade the interior designed by Ferdinando Fuga.

In 1767, the archbishop Filangieri had entrusted to Ferdinand the restoration of the building. The work began only in 1781, carried out not by Ferdinand but by Palermitan Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia and lasted until the 19th century.

The reworkings by Marvuglia were in reality much more invasive and radical than the projects of the Florentine architect, who thought instead of keeping, at least in part, the complex of longitudinal aisles and the original wooden ceiling.
The restoration intervened to change the original appearance of the complex, providing the church of the characteristic but discordant dome, performed according to the designs of Ferdinando Fuga.

A second font was added in 1797, by Fillipo and Gaetano Pennino. It is supported by sculptures depicting the Tree of Knowledge and Adam and Eve. A painting of this font by William Leighton Leitch is the subject of a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, which was published posthumously in 1840.

Royal and Imperial burials

In the right aisle, in the first and second chapel communicating with one another, are the monumental tombs of King Roger II, his daughter Queen Constance I of Sicily, her husband Emperor Henry VI, and their son Emperor Frederick II, as well as the burials of Frederick's first wife Constance of Aragon and his great-great-grandson William II, Duke of Athens on the side walls. The four main sarcophagi, all in porphyry, form a group that also includes that of William I of Sicily in Monreale Cathedral. They "are the very first examples of medieval free-standing secular tombs in the West, and therefore play a unique role within the history of Italian sepulchral art (earlier and later tombs are adjacent to, and dependent on walls)." It is likely that the four sarcophagi of William I (in Monreale), Constance, Henry and Frederick were carved by a local Sicilian workshop from a single Roman column shaft, possibly from the Baths of Caracalla or the Baths of Diocletian in Rome. They ostensibly took inspiration from the porphyry sarcophagi of late Roman Emperors that were still visible in the 12th century in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, including those of Constantine the Great and his successors up to Marcian as described by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the De Ceremoniis, four of which now stand in front of the İstanbul Archaeology Museums' main building.

The sarcophagus of Frederick II is surmounted by a canopy with porphyry columns and the urn is supported by two pairs of lions, together with those of Frederick II were also preserved the remains of Peter II of Sicily.

Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror, was buried in the cathedral in 1097. Aside from burials, Vittorio Amedeo II of Savoy and Charles III of Spain were crowned in the cathedral.

The treasure of the cathedral

The "treasure of the cathedral", which is composed of sacred vestments from the 16th and 18th centuries, frontals, monstrances, chalices, a breviary with miniatures of the 15th century and the gold tiara of Constance of Aragon. Other precious objects, enamels, embroidery and jewelry, are exposed in central message boards such as for example the breviary parchment of the 1452 coat of arms with an Archbishop Simon from Bologna.
The system of bells currently mounted is composed of eight elements assembled with the Ambrosian.

See also
Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale

References

Sources

Palermo, in Enciclopedia universale, Rizzoli, Milano 1990.
Patrizia Fabbri, Palermo e Monreale, Bonechi, 2005.
Sicily and Its Islands, 1993 - Ugo La Rosa Publisher

External links
Official website
Paradoxplace Photos of Palermo Cathedral

Roman Catholic churches completed in 1801
Cathedral
Arab-Norman architecture in Palermo
Churches with Norman architecture
Gothic architecture in Palermo
Palermo
Cathedrals in Sicily
12th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Renaissance architecture in Sicily
Church buildings with domes
Coronation church buildings
World Heritage Sites in Italy
Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale
Churches completed in 1185
Burials sites of the House of Hohenstaufen
Burial sites of the House of Hauteville

Palermo Cathedral