Bosniak nationalism () or Bosniakdom () is the nationalism that asserts the nationality of Bosniaks and promotes the cultural unity of the Bosniaks. It should not be confused with Bosnian nationalism (), often referred to as Bosniandom (), as Bosniaks are treated as a constituent people by the preamble of Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, whereas people who identify as Bosnians for nationality are not. Bosniaks were formerly called Muslims in census data but this model was last used in the 1991 census.

In both the past and present, Bosniak nationalism has been largely based upon a focus to preserve the territorial integrity of Bosnia and Herzegovina and to ensure the national and cultural unity and rights of Bosniaks.

History

The earliest vestige of a Bosnian identity initially emerged in medieval Bosnia and lacked any religious connotation. The situation remained largely unchanged throughout the Ottoman period with terms such as "Boşnaklar", "Boşnak taifesi", "Bosnalı takımı", "Bosnalı kavmi" (all meaning, roughly, "the Bosniak people") being used to describe Bosniaks in a regional sense.

After the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the Austrian administration officially endorsed Bošnjaštvo ('Bosniakhood') as the basis of a continued multi-confessional Bosnian nation. The policy aspired to isolate Bosnia and Herzegovina from its irredentist neighbors (Orthodox Serbia, Catholic Croatia, and the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire) and to negate the concept of Croatian and Serbian nationhood which had already begun to make headway among Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholic and Orthodox communities, respectively. Nevertheless, in part due to the dominant standing held in the previous centuries by the native Muslim population in Ottoman Bosnia, a sense of Bosniak nationhood was cherished mainly by Muslim Bosnians, while fiercely opposed by nationalists from Serbia and Croatia who were instead opting to claim the Bosnian Muslim population as their own, a move that was rejected by most Bosnian Muslims. Austro-Hungarian period witnessed the emergence of Bosniak nationalism. It was in this period that the Bosnian Muslims made political demands in a modern sense. After 1906, the Muslims established several political parties and many institutions and associations which reflected their ethnic and cultural distinctiveness.

In an article of the journal Bošnjak ("The Bosniak"), Bosniak author and mayor of Sarajevo Mehmed Kapetanović declared that Bosnian Muslims were neither Croats nor Serbs but a distinct, though related, people:

Upon the founding of Yugoslavia in 1918, Yugoslav unitarists claimed that there was only one single Yugoslav nation and that the Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes were recognized as the "tribes" of the Yugoslavs, this excluded recognition of Bosniaks as a distinct people of Yugoslavia and provoked frustration amongst Bosniaks. In response to a lack of recognition, the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (JMO) was founded in 1919 with support of most Bosniaks and other Slavic Muslims in entire region, including the Muslim intelligentsia and social elite, that sought to defend Bosniak and Muslim identity - including religious, social, and economic rights within Bosnia and Herzegovina. The JMO took part in government briefly in 1928 and then longer from 1935 to 1938 in which it participated in government with the goal of preserving the territorial integrity of Bosnia and Herzegovina in opposition to plans to create an autonomous Croatia that held territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The JMO's efforts to prevent the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina failed and the Banovina of Croatia was created in 1939.

Bosniak nationalism received a severe setback during World War II when Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers and Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed by the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) that regarded the Bosniaks as "Muslim Croats". By late 1941, much of the Bosniak elite openly criticized the NDH regime for its policy toward its minorities, and demanded autonomy for Bosnia and Herzegovina.

With the creation of Socialist Yugoslavia in 1945, Bosnia and Herzegovina was restored as a territorial entity and as one of the six constituent republics of the federal state of Yugoslavia. To resolve the Serb-Croat dispute over Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Yugoslav government in 1971 recognized Bosnian Muslims as a nationality.

Bosniak nationalism rose in strength since the 1980s, especially following Alija Izetbegović's publishing of the Islamic Declaration that called for an Islamic renewal amongst Bosniaks, Izetbegović was arrested by Yugoslav state authorities in 1983 on allegations that he was promoting a purely Muslim Bosnia, and served five years in prison. In 1990, Izetbegović and others founded the Party of Democratic Action, that became the main Bosniak party in the Bosnian parliament. The eruption of the Bosnian War from 1992 to 1995 strengthened Bosnian Muslim identity. In 1993, "Bosniak" was officially revived as the ethnic or national designation to replace the "Muslim" designation, employed by the Yugoslav authorities.

See also
Anti-Croat sentiment
Anti-Serb sentiment

Bosnian Movement of National Pride
Greater Bosnia
Yugoslavism

References

Bibliography

Nationalism in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosniak nationalism


Inuinnaqtun is an Inuit language spoken in northern Canada. It is one of the official languages of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. These are two of the three territories in Canada.

Inuinnaqtun is closely related to Inuktitut, but Inuinnaqtun is only written in Latin script (unlike Inuktitut). The number of native speakers is 410.

Eskimo-Aleut languages

Inuinnaqtun


Gorizia Centrale railway station (;  (former name)) is  the main station serving the town and comune of Gorizia, in the autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, northeastern Italy.

Overview
Opened in 1860, the station forms part of the Udine–Trieste railway, and is also a junction station for an international branch line linking Gorizia with Ajdovščina in nearby Slovenia.

The station is currently managed by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana (RFI).  However, the commercial area of the passenger building is managed by Centostazioni.  Train services to and from the station are operated by Trenitalia.  Each of these companies is a subsidiary of Ferrovie dello Stato (FS), Italy's state-owned rail company.

Location
Gorizia Centrale railway station is situated at Piazzale Martiri per la Libertà d'Italia, at the southwestern edge of the city centre.

History
The station was opened on , upon the inauguration of the Cormons–Galleria section of the Udine–Trieste railway. Located at that time in the territory of the Austrian Empire, the station then had the dual name of Görz/Gorizia and was operated by the Imperial Royal Privileged Southern Railway Company of Austria, Venice and central Italy (German: ).

In 1902, the station became a junction station for the branch line to Ajdovščina (Italian: ; German:), built by the Austrian imperial society , which awarded management rights to the Südbahngesellschaft.

Four years later, upon the opening of the Jesenice-Trieste railway (part of the network of railway lines known as the Transalpine Railway), the station took on the dual designation of Görz Südbahnhof/Gorizia Meridionale, to distinguish it from its counterpart on the new line, the Görz Staatsbahnhof/Gorizia stazione delle ferrovie dello stato (now the Nova Gorica railway station). The two systems were connected by a short rail link using part of the branch line to Ajdovščina.

Under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), the two stations went to the Kingdom of Italy, and the FS became the operator of both. Over the next twelve years, the station on the Udine-Trieste railway changed its name several times: initially it retained only its Italian name Gorizia Meridionale, then it became Gorizia Campagnuzza, and since 1923 it has been Gorizia Centrale.

Features
Inside the station, there are ticket windows, ticket machines, a lounge, a bar, a newsagency, and passport photo machines.

All the regional trains travelling on the Udine-Trieste railway stop at the station, and some of them terminate there.

Train services
The movement of passengers is about 1.4 million people a year, which means that the station is the fifth busiest station in Friuli-Venezia Giulia in terms of numbers of passengers.

The station is served by the following service(s):

Night train (Intercity Notte) Rome - Bologna - Venice - Udine - Trieste
Express services (Regionale Veloce) Venice - Treviso - Udine - Gorizia - Trieste
Regional services (Treno regionale) Venice - Treviso - Udine - Gorizia - Trieste

See also

History of rail transport in Italy
List of railway stations in Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Rail transport in Italy
Railway stations in Italy
Nova Gorica railway station

References

External links

History and pictures of Gorizia Centrale railway station

Centrale Railway Station
Railway stations in Friuli-Venezia Giulia
Railway stations in Italy opened in 1860

Gorizia Centrale railway station


Germania ( ; ), also called Magna Germania (English: Great Germania), Germania Libera (English: Free Germania), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman province of the same name, was a historical region in north-central Europe during the Roman era, which was associated by Roman authors with the Germanic peoples. The region stretched roughly from the Middle and Lower Rhine in the west to the Vistula in the east. It also extended as far south as the Upper and Middle Danube and Pannonia, and to the known parts of Scandinavia in the north. Archaeologically, these peoples correspond roughly to the Roman Iron Age of those regions. While apparently dominated by Germanic peoples, Magna Germania was also inhabited by other Indo-European peoples.

The Latin name Germania means "land of the Germani", but the etymology of the name Germani itself is uncertain. During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar encountered peoples originating from beyond the Rhine. He referred to these people as "Germani" and their lands beyond the Rhine as "Germania". In subsequent years, the Roman emperor Augustus sought to expand across the Rhine towards the Elbe, but these efforts were hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. The prosperous Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as "Roman Germania", were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories east of the Rhine remained independent of Roman control.

From the 3rd century AD, Germanic peoples moving out of Magna Germania began encroaching upon and occupying parts of Roman Germania. This contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, after which territories of Roman Germania were captured and settled by migrating Germanic peoples. Large parts of Germania subsequently became part of the Frankish Empire and later East Francia. The name of Germany in English and many other languages is derived from the name Germania.

Etymology

In Latin, the name Germania means "lands where people called Germani live". Modern scholars do not agree on the etymology of the name Germani. Celtic, Germanic, Illyrian and Latin etymologies have been suggested.

The main source on the origin of the names Germania and Germani is the book Germania (98 AD) by Tacitus. Tacitus writes that the name Germania was "modern and newly introduced". According to Tacitus, the name Germani had once been applied only to the Tungri, west of the Rhine, but it became an "artificial name" (invento nomine) for supposedly-related peoples east of the Rhine. Many modern scholars consider Tacitus's story to be plausible, but they are unsure whether the name was commonly used by Germani to refer to themselves.

Geography

The boundaries of Germania are not clearly defined, particularly at its northern and eastern fringes. Magna Germania stretched approximately from the Rhine in the west to beyond the Vistula river in the east, and from the Danube in the south and northwards along the North and Baltic seas, including Scandinavia. Germania Superior encompassed parts of modern-day Switzerland, southwest Germany and eastern France, while Germania Inferior encompassed much of modern-day Belgium and Netherlands.

In his Geography (AD 150), the Roman geographer Ptolemy provides descriptions of the geography of Germania. Modern scholars have been able to localize many of the place names mentioned by Ptolemy, and associated them with place names of the present day.

Germania was inhabited by a large number of peoples, and there was not much unity among them. It appears that Germania was not entirely inhabited by Germanic peoples. Hydronymy provides evidence for the presence of another Indo-European group, which probably lived under Germanic domination.

History

During the Gallic Wars of the 1st century BC, the Roman general Julius Caesar came into contact with peoples originating east of the Rhine. In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Caesar refers to these peoples as the Germani, and the lands from where they originated as Germania. The Romans appear to have borrowed the name from the Gauls. Having defeated the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus in Gaul, Caesar built bridges across the Rhine and conducted punitive expeditions in Germania. He writes the area was composed of numerous Germanic states, which were not entirely united. According to Caesar, the Gallic Volcae Tectosages had once crossed the Rhine and colonized parts of Germania, but had since become militarily inferior to the Germani. He also writes that Germani had once crossed the Rhine into northeast Gaul and driven away its Gallic inhabitants, and that the Belgae claimed to be largely descended from these Germanic invaders.

In the late 1st century BC, the Roman emperor Augustus launched campaigns across the Rhine, and incorporated areas of Germania as far east as the Elbe into the Roman Empire, creating the short-lived Roman province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, with further aims of establishing a greater province of Magna Germania, with headquarters at Colonia (modern-day Cologne). The Roman campaign was severely hampered by the victory of Arminius at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. The Rhine eventually became the border between the Roman Empire and Magna Germania. Areas of northeast Gaul bordering the Rhine remained under Roman control, and are often referred to as "Roman Germania". Four Roman legions were stationed there, and a Roman fleet, the Classis Germanica, was also established. The area was effectively governed as Roman provinces.

Areas of Germania independent of Roman control were referred to as "Magna Germania". Modern scholars sometimes refer to the Magna Germania as "Free Germania" (Latin: Germania Libera) or Germanic Barbaricum. As parts of Roman social engineering efforts, large numbers of Germani, including Ubii and Sicambri, were settled within Roman Germania in order to prevent revolts by resident Gauls. Roman Germania became characterized by a mixed Celtic, Germanic and Roman population, which became progressively Romanized.

By the mid 1st century AD, between eight and ten Roman legions were stationed in Roman Germania to protect the frontiers. From AD 69 to AD 70, Roman Germania was heavily affected by the Revolt of the Batavi. Tacitus writes that the leader of the revolt, Gaius Julius Civilis, recruited a vast amount of warriors from his self-described "kinsmen" all over Germania,  and hailed Arminius for having liberated Germania from slavery. Civilis' rebels seized Colonia (modern-day Cologne), capital of Roman Germania and home of the Germanic Ubii, who according to Tacitus were considered traitors by other Germani for having "forsworn its native country". After initially seeking to raze all of Colonia to the ground, the forces of Civilis declared the city returned "into the unity of the German nation and name" and  "an open city for all Germans". Although initially declaring the rebels and "other Germans" their "kinsmen by blood", the Ubii, a Germanic Tribe eventually assisted the Romans in recapturing the Colonia.

In the late 1st century AD, under the leadership of the Flavian dynasty, the provinces of Germania Inferior (headquartered at Colonia) and Germania Superior (headquartered at Mogontiacum) were created out of Roman Germania and other eastern parts of Roman Gaul. They hosted a large military force and carried out lucrative trade with Magna Germania, which greatly contributed to the wealth of Roman Gaul. Germania (98 AD) by Tacitus provided vivid descriptions of the peoples of Magna Germania.

In the late 1st and early 2nd century AD, the Romans reoccupied areas lying between the Rhine, Main, and Danube rivers. This area became known as the Agri Decumates. Additional numbers of Germani were settled by the Romans within this area. The Roman fortifications on the border with Magna Germania were known as the Limes Germanicus. The 3rd century AD saw the emergence of several powerful Germanic confederations in Magna Germania, such as the Alemanni and Franks. The Crisis of the Third Century included raids on Roman Germania by Alemanni and Franks, and the area briefly became part of the Gallic Empire established by the usurper Postumus. Around 280 AD, the Agri Decumates were evacuated by the Romans and occupied by Alemanni.

Under Diocletian (3rd century AD), Germania Superior was renamed Germania Secunda, while Germania Inferior was renamed Maxima Sequanorum. Both provinces were under the Diocese of Gaul. The provinces of Roman Germania continued to be subjected to repeated Alemannic and Frankish attacks. In the late 4th century AD and early 5th century AD, Gothic Wars in the Balkans forced the Romans to withdraw troops from Roman Germania. In 406, a large number of people fleeing the Huns crossed the Rhine from Magna Germania into Roman Germania and Gaul, leading to the eventually collapse of Roman rule there, and the emigration of large numbers of Romans, particularly Roman elites. Roman Germania was subsequently occupied by Alemanni and Franks. During subsequent centuries, peoples of Germania played a major role in dismembering what was left of the Western Roman Empire. Large parts of Germania, including all of Roman Germania, were eventually incorporated into the Frankish Empire.

Archaeology

From the 1st to the 4th century AD, Magna Germania corresponds archaeologically to the Roman Iron Age. In recent years, progress in archaeology has contributed greatly to the understanding of Germania. Areas of Magna Germania were largely agrarian, and display archaeological commonalities with each other, while being strongly differentiated from that of Roman Germania, largely due to the absence of cities and independent coinage. Archaeological discoveries testify to flourishing trade between Magna Germania and the Roman Empire. Amber was a primary export out of Magna Germania, while Roman luxury goods were imported on a large scale. Such goods have been found as far as Scandinavia and Western Russia.

Legacy

The name Germania is attested in Old English translations of Bede and Orosius. Since the 17th century, the most common name of Germany in English has been derived from the name Germania.

See also
Scythia
Illyria
Thrace
Dacia
Scandza
Hibernia
Thule
Germania (city)

Citations and sources

Citations

Ancient sources

Modern sources

Further reading

External links

 Germania at UNRV.com

Germany in the Roman era
Historical regions
Historical regions in Germany
Netherlands in the Roman era
Prehistoric Poland

Germania


Anders Jahan Retzius (3 October 1742 – 6 October 1821) was a Swedish chemist, botanist and entomologist.

Biography
Born in Kristianstad, he matriculated at Lund University in 1758, where he graduated as a filosofie magister in 1766. He also trained as an apothecary apprentice. He received the position of docent of chemistry at Lund in 1766, and of natural history in 1767. He became extraordinary professor of natural history in 1777, and thereafter held various chairs of natural history, economy and chemistry until his retirement in 1812. He died in Stockholm on 6 October 1821.

He described many new species of insects and did fundamental work on their classification.

Retzius was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1782.

He was the father of Anders Retzius and grandfather of Gustaf Retzius. Disciples of Anders Jahan Retzius include the botanist Carl Adolph Agardh, the zoologist and archaeologist Sven Nilsson, the botanist and entomologist Carl Fredrik Fallén, and the entomologist Johan Wilhelm Zetterstedt. He was also an influence on the botanist Elias Fries who arrived in Lund by the time Retzius was already an old man.

Selected works
Primae Lineae pharmaciae : in usum praelectionum Suecico idiomate . Dieterich, Gottingae 1771 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Inledning till djur-riket : efter herr archiatern och riddaren Carl von Linnés lärogrunder (1772)
Observationes botanicae (1778–91)
Floræ Scandinaviæ prodromus; enumerans: plantas Sveciae, Lapponiae, Finlandiae, Pomeraniae, Daniae, Norvegiae, Holsatiae, Islandiae & Groenlandiae (Holmiæ 1779; 2nd edition (1795)
(edited and revised:) Charles De Geer, Genera et species insectorum, e generosissimi auctoris scriptis extraxit, digessit, quoad portem reddidit, et terminologiam insectorum Linneanam addidit (1783)
Lectiones publicæ de vermibus intestinalibus (1784)
Försök til mineral-rikets upställning. (1795)
(edited and revised:) Carl Linnaeus, Faunae Svecicae a C à Linné inchoatae pars prima sistens mammalia, aves, amphibia et pisces Sueciae quam recognovit, emendavit et auxit (1800).
Försök til en Flora Oeconomica Sveciae, eller swenska wäxters nytta och skada i hushållningen (1806–07)

References

Gunnar Eriksson, "Retzius, Anders Jahan", Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30 (1998-2000).

18th-century Swedish botanists
Swedish taxonomists
18th-century Swedish zoologists
1742 births
1821 deaths
18th-century Swedish chemists
Swedish entomologists
Swedish mineralogists
Swedish mycologists
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
People connected to Lund University
Lund University alumni
19th-century Swedish  botanists
19th-century Swedish  chemists
19th-century Swedish  zoologists
19th-century Swedish scientists
People from Kristianstad Municipality

Anders Jahan Retzius


Music On Console (MOC) is an ncurses-based console audio player for Linux/UNIX. It was originally written by Damian Pietras, and is currently maintained by John Fitzgerald. It is designed to be powerful and easy to use, with an interface inspired by the Midnight Commander console file manager. The default interface layout comprises a file list in the left pane with the playlist on the right. It is configurable with customizable key bindings, color schemes and interface layouts. MOC comes with several themes defined in text files, which can be modified to create new layouts. It supports ALSA, OSS or JACK outputs.

Supported file formats include: MP3, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, Musepack, Speex, WAV (and other less popular formats supported by libsndfile), MOD, WavPack, AAC, SID, MIDI. Moreover most audio formats recognized by FFMpeg/Libav are also supported (e.g. MP4, Opus, WMA, APE, AC3, DTS - even embedded in video files). New formats support is under development. Internet streams (Icecast, SHOUTcast) are also supported.

MOC has a single playlist (which can be saved in m3u format) and has the concept of a 'music directory' but it has no library file where metadata is saved. Instead this information is read as needed from tags in the files themselves or from tags cache, either upon access or during idle CPU time. If the playlist has extended m3u information, that will be read as well. If the playlist is saved, any read metadata will be stored.

Its text-only nature consumes very little system resources, and it uses an output buffer in a separate thread to avoid skipping under high system loads and to enable gapless playback. Normally, exiting the program only closes the interface - the program daemonizes itself so the audio continues playing in the background.

This client/server architecture is similar to MPD and XMMS2, but unlike those players, the MOC daemon is not accessible over a network, and does not have an open API to communicate with alternate clients. This has both advantages and disadvantages as, while MOC can't be controlled by a remote graphical client (it can be used via SSH), it can securely range the entire filesystem, which is not advisable by a remotely  and anonymously accessible server such as MPD.

The binary is named mocp for "MOC Player" because of a conflict with a Qt utility called moc.

References

External links

Free audio software
Free software programmed in C
Linux media players
Free media players
Client/server media players
Free software that uses ncurses
Audio software with JACK support
Audio player software for Linux
Console applications

Music on Console


Maurice Calka (1921 – 1999) was a French sculptor, designer and urbanist from Łódź, Poland.

Calka was awarded the Grand Prix de Rome in 1950. He was a professor at the École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts de Paris (ENSBA)-(National School of Fine Arts in Paris). He was a winner of a prize from the French architecture academy.

During his lifetime two of his works achieved worldwide renown. The first, made of stone, is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and is ten metres high, a statue of the Lion of Judah, ordered by the Emperor Haile Selassie, who saw this as an opportunity to give a view of Africa entering modern times in 1955. This sculpture, easily identified by its silhouette, became a cultural symbol of Afrocentrism. His second piece is a molded plastic desk, the "Boomerang Desk" – based on a polished stone and designed at the end of the sixties – as a limited edition. This piece of furniture was the forerunner of the objects designed during the rest of the following decade. It has been presented in numerous publications and exhibitions.

During his lifetime Calka created over fifty monumental pieces of work of all types, most created in his Paris workshop on Rue Raffet. His involvement in public art and the urban space led the sculptor to contribute to several architectural projects, fifteen of which were completed.

Biography
Calka was raised in Lille, in northern France. He initially studied Engineering, but was attracted to Art, and entered the Lille School of Fine Arts at age 16, where he remained for three years. The director of the school at that time was Robert Mallet-Stevens, who noted Calka's ability, and gave him his first commission: a huge bas-relief for the press pavilion at the Lille Social Progress expo in 1939.

Calka passed the Paris Fine Arts School's competitive examination. In 1942, after the Allies had retaken North Africa, he decided to join the Free French Forces of General Charles de Gaulle. He clandestinely crossed the Pyrenees and enlisted (Evadés de France, Miranda's camp). He remained in the military from 1942 to 1945, being demobilized at Speyer near the end of 1945.

Calka returned to the study of sculpture at the Paris Fine-Arts school, under professors Marcel Gimond and
Alfred Janniot. He won the Premier Grand Prix de Rome in 1950, which provided him the opportunity to work in the Villa Médicis for four years. While there he studied Urbanism.

In 1954 Calka received his first large urban-art commission: he completed a stone Lion of Judah in front of the National Theater (Henri Chomette, architect) in Addis Ababa. The radical modernity of this sculpture was endorsed by Emperor Haile Selassie himself.
Back in France, he worked with urbanist Robert Auzelle, completing several pieces for him such as a giant sculpture for Clamart cemetery (1957) (published in National Geographic) and a large sculpture for Joncherolle cemetery (1974) (published in "Concrete Quarterly" – July/September 1977).

Calka completed 47 works of Public Art, including sculptures, bas-reliefs, and polychromatic works.

In 2004, a large metal bas-relief for the Church St Jean l'Evangéliste of Dole which covers one wall of the building was completed from his designs.

Calka was named "Patrimoine du XX siècle" by the Ministry of Culture (26 March 2007).

Influence on modern art

By the end of the 1960s Calka was deeply immersed in design, working with new materials (plastic and fiberglass). Of his work two results are of special note: the Boomerang Desk, and a monumental version, the PDG. An example of this desk sold for $480,000 at a 2008 art auction held by Christie's in New York City.

Calka is considered a pioneer in the use of these new materials. Other Calka works which have often been exhibited include "Les Années Pop"-  Georges Pompidou Center, "Tomorrow-Now" – Art Modern Museum Grand-Duc Jean, Luxembourg, etc.

Calka has worked on several architecture projects:
Expérimental chalet made of wood and fiberglass; Gerard Grandval architect, Rousseau engineer – (La Plagne, 1970)
The Hôtel de région of St Denis de la Réunion with Marc Van Nuwenborg (groupeIV) Architect -(La Reunion, 1985)
Cemetery of the city of Le Port – (La Reunion, 1990)
Several education buildings in USA with Barry Svigals architect.

In 2003 several Calka works entered the collections of the "Musée National d'Art Moderne" – Centre Georges Pompidou.

Collaborators
 Serge Fabre – Sculptor
 Katherine Lavocat – Sculptor, painter.

References

official site
Benoit Teillet photography in Maurice Calka workshop in 2001

1921 births
1999 deaths
French designers
Prix de Rome for sculpture
20th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
Polish emigrants to France

Maurice Calka


Love Is Only in the Movies is the fifth installment of the Precious Hearts Romances Presents series. The series stars Zanjoe Marudo and Mariel Rodriguez. The series is based on the novel written by Filipino romance author, Heart Yngrid.

Plot
The story of Sheye (Mariel Rodriguez), a certified movie fanatic who spent her younger years with her grandmother re-enacting famous movie scenes together. Due to unexpected circumstances, she grew up using her acting skills not to pursue a showbiz career but to become a professional impostor, fabrication specialist and a reality actress rolled into one. In one of her projects, she met Xander (Zanjoe Marudo), a certified playboy who does not believe in love.

Synopsis
The series begins with Sheye and her grandparents, which then her grandfather dies. In the latter, it shows that Sheye works as an extra for films and lives with her grandma, she also has a part-time job that is... an impostor. Her next job is to act as a prostitute and to get Xander, a director and playboy, and bring him back to his ex-girlfriend who instructs to leave Xander in the motel room and then Sheye's job unfortunately she doesn't show up, leaving Xander alone thinking Sheye has escaped stealing all his money. Sheye now has the money, her grandma is rushed to the hospital and needs to go under surgery, Sheye thinks to use the money. She then has another customer, the customer asks her to act as the lost daughter of her brother who has diabetes so that he can be well. Sheye then does her job, knowing Xander is the son of the customer, they encounter each other, Xander thinking that Sheye is an impostor and that no one can be sure if she is really his cousin, he then falls in love with Sheye so does Shey fall in love with him. Sheye's grandma visits Sheye in their customer's house seeing the customer's brother and confronts him that why did he abandon his daughter which turns out true, the series end Sheye and Xander discover that they are not blood-related.

Cast

Main cast
 Zanjoe Marudo as Xander
 Mariel Rodriguez as Sheye

Supporting cast
 Wendy Valdez as Queenie
 Drei Felix as Dom
 Mico Palanca as Dennis
 Kristel Moreno as Liz
 Regine Angeles as Raya
 Flora Gasser as Lola Senda
 Jong Cuenco as Manuel
 Timmy Cruz as Alejandra

Special participation
 Noemi Oneiza as young Shiogan
 Bugoy Cariño as young Xander
 Randolf Stamatelaky as Roy
 Auriette Divina as Alice

See also
List of programs aired by ABS-CBN
List of dramas of ABS-CBN
Precious Hearts Romances Presents

References

External links
 Love Is Only In The Movies on ABS-CBN

ABS-CBN drama series
2010 Philippine television series debuts
2010 Philippine television series endings
Philippine romantic comedy television series
Television shows based on books
Filipino-language television shows
Television shows set in the Philippines

Love Is Only in the Movies


Morley and Morley Green are neighbouring hamlets in Wilmslow, Cheshire, England. They are situated approximately  north west of Wilmslow town centre. Until 1894 the area formed part of the parish of Pownall Fee.

Morley is formed from the lines of houses and farms on Morley Green Road and Altrincham Road. Morley Green is the hamlet at the junction of Morley Green Road and Mobberley Road. A Congregational church was opened in Morley Green in 1869; it closed in 2010.

Local facilities
Morley Green Club

References

Villages in Cheshire

Morley, Cheshire


Buldir Volcano is an inactive stratovolcano located on Buldir Island in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, once described as "the westernmost volcanic center of the present Pleistocene to Recent Aleutian volcanic front." It shares the island with a younger stratovolcano entitled East Cape.

Discovery and accessibility
Vitus Bering had been a prominent sailor in Russia. After successful expeditions in 1725, 1728, and 1730, Bering was sent to explore what is now the Bering Sea area of the Pacific in 1740. He soon settled on Kamchatka, where he started a settlement and built two additional vessels, dubbed St. Peter and St. Paul. In 1741 Bering and his company started towards North America, but were stalled by a storm. In being delayed, they were forced to seek land. During the storm they could not make out the Alaskan coast. The storm proved too powerful so the ships turned around, charting several of the Aleutians, including Buldir Island. The island is extremely remote, leaving it totally unavailable except to only a certain group of scientists. In fact, transportation through the entire area is restricted to the United States Coast Guard. Special permission is required to access the island, and for the most part only representatives from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service have the ability to obtain it. A visit to study the geology of the island was permitted in 1947 for R.R. Coats.

A skeleton was found on the island in July 1988. Further examination of the body suggested that the body was Corporal Carl Houston of Manitowoc, Wisconsin, who was last seen hiking on the isle on March 3, 1945. Along with the body were found a M-1 rifle and several spent shells.

Geography and geology
The volcano's structure has changed significantly over time, from a parasitic cone to its current makeup of alumina basaltic lava flows and pyroclastic debris. A cone made of tuff tops the mountain, built over the ancient calderas of the volcano. Dating suggests that the last eruptions on the island, from East Cape, were at least 2000 years ago, and could have possibly taken place before the Holocene.

Flora and fauna
The island supports a limited variety of flora and fauna.  The population of Aleutian cackling geese contributed to a re-expansion of the species, preventing their extinction.

See also

List of mountain peaks of Alaska
List of volcanoes in the United States

References

Bibliography
Wood, C. A., and Kienle, Juergen, (eds.), 1990, Volcanoes of North America: United States and Canada; New York, Cambridge University Press, 354 p.

External links

Volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands
Landforms of Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska
Volcanoes of Alaska
Stratovolcanoes of the United States
Volcanoes of Unorganized Borough, Alaska
Pleistocene stratovolcanoes

Buldir Volcano


Black Panther is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer-editor Stan Lee and writer-artist Jack Kirby, first appearing in Fantastic Four #52 (cover-dated July 1966) in the Silver Age of Comic Books.

Black Panther's real name is T'Challa. He is the king and protector of the fictional African nation of Wakanda.

Black Panther is the first superhero of African descent in mainstream American comics.

Chadwick Boseman played the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe movies Captain America: Civil War (2016), Black Panther (2018), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and Avengers: Endgame (2019). Following Boseman's death in 2020, actress Letitia Wright will take on the character's main role for the upcoming movie Black Panther: Wakanda Forever (2022).

In 2011, Black Panther was ranked 51st overall on IGN's "Top 100 Comic Books Heroes" list.

References

Characters created by Stan Lee
Fictional characters introduced in the 1960s
Marvel Comics adapted into movies
Marvel Comics mutates
Avengers (comics) characters
Marvel vs. Capcom fighters
Marvel Comics superheroes

Black Panther (Marvel Comics)


Circa is a Latin word meaning 'around, approximately'. Circa or CIRCA may also refer to:

 CIRCA (art platform), art platform based in London
 Circa (band), a progressive rock supergroup
 Circa (company), an American skateboard footwear company
 Circa (contemporary circus), an Australian contemporary circus company
 Circa District, Abancay Province, Peru
 Circa, a disc-binding notebook system
 Circa Theatre, in Wellington, New Zealand
 Clandestine Insurgent Rebel Clown Army, a UK activist group
 Circa News, an online news and entertainment service
 Circa Complex, twin skyscrapers in Los Angeles, California
 Circa (album), an album by Michael Cain
 Circa Resort & Casino, a hotel in downtown Las Vegas

Circa


Sir John Nicholl (16 March 1759 – 26 August 1838) was a Welsh Member of Parliament and judge. As a judge he was noted "for inflexible impartiality and great strength and soundness of judgement".

Early history
Nicholl was born in 1759, the second son of John Nicholl of Llan-maes, a small village near Llantwit Major in Wales. He was educated at Cowbridge and Bristol Grammar Schools, before gaining entry to St John's College, Oxford, in 1775. He graduated as Bachelor of Civil Law in 1780 and as Doctor of Civil Law in 1785. He was called to the bar of the Doctors' Commons in 1785.

Professional career
Nicholl built an extensive practice and on 6 November 1798 he succeeded Sir William Scott as King's Advocate and was knighted as was custom for the position. Within this role, Nicholl would often brief the Privy Council and Secretary of State on international law.

In 1802, Nicholl was elected to Parliament holding the seat of Penryn in Cornwall. After a brief period as Member of Parliament of Hastings from 1806 to 1807, he was elected to the seat of Great Bedwyn, and remained the member of the constituency until the Reform Act of 1832, upon which time he retired. Nicholl was a staunch Tory throughout his political career and steadily opposed parliamentary reform and Roman Catholic emancipation.

In 1809 he was appointed Dean of the Arches, was admitted to the Privy Council and became a judge of the Prerogative Court of Canterbury. In this capacity, he decided the much quoted case of White v Driver. In 1833 Nicholl was appointed as Judge of the High Court of Admiralty and held the post until his death in 1838; though he resigned his offices as Dean of Arches and in the Prerogative Court after he was made vicar-general to the Archbishop of Canterbury's court in 1834. For his work during the Napoleonic Wars, as a member of the volunteer movement, he was awarded the rank of lieutenant-colonel.

Nicholl was a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of Antiquaries. A monument to John Nicholl son of Sir John Nicholl is to be seen in the Dyfrig chapel of Llandaff Cathedral.

Personal life
Despite spending much of his time in London, linked to his parliamentary and judicial duties, and the fact that Nicholl held all his political seats in England, he continued to foster and support links with his home country of Wales. In 1787 he married Judy Birt, the youngest daughter of Peter Birt of Wenvoe Castle, and spent his time during his political career split between his London town house and Tondu House in South Wales.

Nicholl and Judy had one son and three daughters. Nicholl's only son, also John Nicholl, would later follow his father's political career, becoming a Member of Parliament for Cardiff.

Merthyr Mawr House

Nicholl had amassed several estates throughout his lifetime, mainly through inheritance. He had gained an interest in property in Llantwit Major from his godfather, the Rev John Nicholl in 1770 and when Edward Powell died in 1771, he too left estates to Nicholl in five local parishes, including Tondu House. But despite these holdings, when Nicholl came to building his own family home, he chose the area of Merthyr Mawr. When Charles Bowen died in 1797, Nicholl was a trustee appointed to effect the will. Bowen owned large estates within Merthyr Mawr, but they were heavily mortgaged and there were additional debts and legacies to be honoured. Nicholl took this opportunity to purchase  of the estate, eventually agreed at £18,000.

Nicholl initiated plans to construct a country house on the estate in 1806, demolishing the old residence, a 16th/17th century hall of the Stradling family, and hiring architect Henry Wood to build Merthyr Mawr House. Wood and Nicholl parted company in 1808, but Nicholl pushed through with his plans and moved into the incomplete building in 1809. When the mansion was completed it was notable for its library, which was reported as holding 30,000 articles.

Maerthyr Mawr house is a five bay, two-storey classical mansion faced in white local carboniferous limestone, with a hipped roof and a sash windows, and central single-storey porch with Tuscan columns in the north front. The mansion and its outlying stables are presently classed as Grade II* listed buildings.

References

Further reading

The Lord Glenbervie

1759 births
1838 deaths
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies
People from the Vale of Glamorgan
Tory MPs (pre-1834)
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1806–1807
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
UK MPs 1818–1820
UK MPs 1820–1826
UK MPs 1826–1830
UK MPs 1830–1831
UK MPs 1831–1832
Alumni of St John's College, Oxford
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Members of Doctors' Commons
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Great Bedwyn
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Penryn

John Nicholl (judge)


Robert Clifton Brackins III (born September 14, 1988) is an American rapper, record producer, and songwriter. Brackins was born in Berkeley, California, but was primarily raised in East Oakland, California. Brackins is perhaps best known as songwriter, having co-wrote Tinashe's single "2 On" and Chris Brown's hit "Loyal". Brackins is also known for his guest feature on Ray J's controversial hit single "I Hit It First" in 2013, which sold over 100,000 copies independently.

Aside from writing and producing for other artists, Brackins also has career as a recording artist. He initially signed with Republic Records as a solo artist in 2010, with the 2014 single "143", featuring Ray J, peaking at number 84 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. His most recent releases include his extended play titled To Live For, which was released on May 13, 2016. The EP features singles such as "Hot Box", featuring rapper G-Eazy and Mila J, and "My Jam" which features Disney Channel star Zendaya and Jeremih. The EP also includes features from fellow California artists Marc E. Bassy, Ty Dolla $ign, Eric Bellinger, and Mina.

Early life
Robert Clifton Brackins III was born on September 14, 1988, in Berkeley, California. During Brackins' infancy, his parents relocated to East Oakland, California, where he was raised. His father Robert Clifton Brackins Sr. owned a music studio in the Bay Area. During an interview, Brackins discretely recalls being around artists such as Tony Tony Tony while with his father in the studio. Brackins did not, however, begin to take music seriously until his freshman year of high school when he connected with music producer Nic Nac through a mutual friend. The two began working on music together, after discovering Nic Nac's ability to produce instrumentals, and Brackins' ability to create and write lyrics and melodies. After Graduating high school, Brackins attended San Jose State University, but dropped out and moved to Los Angeles, California where he currently resides.

Career
Brackins musical career began after he formed a band with a group of local friends called "Go Dav". The group entered and won a radio contest, causing their single "Ride Or Die Chick" to gain radio plays. Shortly after the contest, the song skyrocketed to fame on the MySpace social media network. Eventually, the group split up due to certain complications, desires and issues. After high school, Brackins moved to Los Angeles, California to be closer to Nic Nac and to further pursue his musical career. He was then able to meet other producers, artists and songwriters including Ray J, Pia Mia, Trevcase, Redwine, Marc Griffin/Marc E Bassy, and YG. He then released 2 mixtapes. His first being titled "Pimp Hand Strong", which features artists such as Marc Griffin, Kendre and Tinashe. His second mixtape was called Maxwell Park and featured artists such as Ray J, Forest Lipton, Lil Debbie, Iamsu! and Kreayshawn. In 2010, Brackins Ty Dolla $ign and YG, went on a 10-day tour to promote their upcoming mixtape. The "Young and Hungover" mixtape was released in 2011 and was hosted by DJ Mustard and DJ Ilwill. Brackins' fame was primarily gained from his single "143" featuring Ray J. After releasing the single, Brackins got signed to Universal Records. After being signed, he released a single called "I'm Ready", which features Marc Griffin, and is a description of Brackins lifestyle after the release of "143". In March 2011, Brackins released a video for "A1" featuring DEV from his Live Good. 5 EP.

Eventually, Brackins was released from his contract with Universal. He then signed to an independent record label in the Bay Area called Tycoon Status Entertainment LLC. Brackins then proceeded to continue writing music for himself as well as other artists including Zendaya's first single "Swag It Out", Tinashe's song "Chainless", and Pia Mia's single F**k With You (FWU) featuring G-Eazy. He has also written mainstream singles which include, Chris Brown's "Loyal" and "Came To Do", Ty Dolla $ign's "Saved", and Tinashe's "2 On" and "Party Favors." After releasing singles "My Jam" featuring Zendaya and Jeremih, "Hot Box" featuring G-Eazy and Mila J, Faithful featuring Ty Dolla$ign as well as a remix featuring Iamsu!, and Indigo (which was originally supposed to feature Anderson Pac), Brackins released To Live For 1 of 3 EPs. His 2nd EP, called To Kill For is due to be released in early 2017 according to Brackins' Twitter. He has also stated that he has written for artists including Nicki Minaj, Christina Milian, and Gwen Stefani. Brackins has also had vocal features in songs including Marc E Bassy's "Drunk and I'm Drunk", K.Young's remix to his song "Please Me", and Mila J's track "Sorry". Other songs and features include Zendaya's "My Baby" off her debut self-titled studio album (which Brackins wrote before vocally featuring in the remix), Yellow Claw and DJ Mustard's track "In My Room" (which he wrote), and Pia Mia's SoundCloud release track "Underneath".

Aside from musical production, Brackins has also traveled on tour to open and perform for other artists. Brackins first joined Niykee Heaton while she was on The Centerfold Tour. He opened and performed with Heaton in cities including Portland, Oregon, Boise, Idaho, and Seattle, Washington. Brackins also joined Marc E Bassy for the West Coast dates of his Groovie People Tour, performing in cities such as Denver, Colorado,  Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and Salt Lake City, Utah.

Discography
Studio albums

Extended plays
Live Good .5 (2010)

Singles
 Hot Box ft. G-Eazy and Mila J
 My Jam featuring Zendaya and Jeremih
 143 featuring Ray J

References

External links
Bobby Brackins on Twitter

1988 births
Living people
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people
San Jose State University alumni

Bobby Brackins


Rope bondage, also referred to as rope play, kinbaku, shibari or fesselspiele, is bondage involving the use of rope to restrict movement, wrap, suspend, or restrain a person, as part of BDSM activities. Japanese bondage is the most publicly visible style of rope bondage. An alternative style, "Western bondage" is about achieving restraint; the Japanese style is more concerned with the artistry of the process. String bondage is the wrapping of rows of string around a body area for arousal.  String bondage is also known as constrictions.

History
Rope bondage derives from the erotic Japanese bondage art form of shibari, which was in turn developed from the now-defunct Japanese military restraint technique of hojōjutsu. The rope dress is not of itself a form of restraint, but is used either by itself as an adornment, or incorporated into restraining bondage.

Materials
Bondage ropes used come in a variety of materials and length. Japanese bondage traditionally uses natural fibers such as hemp and jute which are cut into approximately  lengths. Western-style bondage typically uses longer ropes that span a wider variety of materials.
 Ropes (typically of a nylon or cotton variety)
 Household furniture

Technique

Spreadeagle position
A four-poster bed is sometimes used to hold the subject in a spreadeagle position. The wrists and ankles are tied to the bed's vertical columns, thus restraining the arms and legs.

X-cross

The X-cross is shaped like the letter 'X'.  The points of each section act as anchor points for restraining the arms and legs.

Chair tie

A chair tie is a form of furniture bondage, a bondage technique which has multiple forms. It typically places the subject in a chair with wrists bound to the arm rests of the chair or bound behind the subject's back and behind the back rest. The subject's ankles are generally tied to the legs of the chair, and additional ropes are sometimes used to keep the subject fully secure. A chair tie is occasionally combined with suspension bondage.

Suspension bondage

Hogtie

The subject is restrained at the wrists and ankles with all four joints converging together while the subject rests on either their back or (more commonly) stomach.

See also

 Bondage positions and methods
 Human furniture

References

BDSM terminology
Decorative ropework

Rope bondage


Anthony David Nuttall (25 April 1937 – 24 January 2007) was an English literary critic and academic.

Nuttall was educated at Hereford Cathedral School, Watford Grammar School for Boys and Merton College, Oxford, where he studied both Classical Moderations and English Literature. As a postgraduate he wrote a B.Litt thesis on Shakespeare's The Tempest subsequently published as Two Concepts of Allegory (1968), and considered by some to be his most original book. Nuttall first taught at Sussex University where he was successively lecturer, reader and professor of English and where his students included the philosopher A. C. Grayling and the critic and biographer Robert Fraser. After a tumultuous period as pro-vice-chancellor at Sussex, he moved on to New College, Oxford, in 1984, eventually being elected to an Oxford chair. His published works include studies of Shakespeare and works on the connections between philosophy and literature. Prominent among the first is Shakespeare the Thinker (2007), in which he criticised his earlier work as needlessly forcing Shakespeare into an abstract metaphysical framework. Instead, Nuttall attempted to undo this tradition through a 'pataphysical approach, where everyday objects such as eggs, tennis rackets, and other mundane phenomena acquire an absurd metalepsis in their satiric relation to Shakespeare's tragedies.' In a more philosophical tradition, A Common Sky traces the literary repercussions of both the English empiricist tradition and the idea of solipsism. His work is characterised throughout by wide reading (especially in classical sources), common sense, a deep and broad humanity, a robust sense of humour and by occasional—and sometimes eccentric—references to popular culture (In Shakespeare the Thinker, for example, he cites the TV series Wife Swap.) His elder brother Jeff Nuttall was a poet and an important figure in 1960s counterculture. To him he dedicated his book The Alternative Trinity, a study of the Gnostic tradition in English literature through Marlowe and Milton to William Blake, a poet to whom both brothers had been attracted in their youth, if in rather different ways. A bench outside the chapel of Merton is inscribed with his name together with that of his lifelong friend and college contemporary, Stephen Medcalf.

Selected publications

References

External links

English literary critics
Shakespearean scholars
People educated at Watford Grammar School for Boys
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Academics of the University of Sussex
1937 births
2007 deaths
Fellows of New College, Oxford

Anthony Nuttall


TPI Specialties is the name of an auto parts manufacturer specializing in air induction and fuel delivery parts, with a particular emphasis on GM Tuned Port Injection applications.

History
TPI Specialties was founded by Myron Cottrell, a professional engine builder, who had bought a new Chevrolet Corvette in 1985 and was intrigued by the potential for improvement in its Tuned Port Injection fuel injection system.  Once Cottrell had sufficiently learned the intricacies of the system, he began producing aftermarket parts intended to improve power production by these engines.  Today Cottrell is considered an authority on the subject of automotive fuel injection systems.

Products
 Fuel Flow Regulators
 Intake Manifolds
 Fuel Injector Manifolds
 Fuel Injectors
 Throttle Bodies
 Headers
 Camshafts
 Cylinder Heads
 Suspension Components

Market
Today TPI Specialties presents itself as a market leader in the field of aftermarket fuel injection systems, and is frequently referenced as such in such publications as Hot Rod Magazine and Car Craft magazine.

External links
Company website

Notes

Automotive motorsports and performance companies
DIY culture
Companies based in Minnesota

TPI Specialties


The Takht Sri Darbar Sahib Damdama Sahib, is one of the five takhts or Seat of Temporal Authority of Sikhism, located in Talwandi Sabo in Punjab, India. At this place Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru, prepared the full version of the Sikh scriptures called Sri Guru Granth Sahib in 1705. The other four Takhts are the Akal Takht, Takht Sri Keshgarh Sahib, Takht Sri Patna Sahib and Takht Sri Hazur Sahib.

History

The Takht is in the Talwandi Sabo, 28 km southeast of Bathinda. Literally, Damdama means resting place. Guru Gobind Singh stayed here after the Sikhs fought several defensive battles.

A combination of Mughals and hill chiefs besieged Anandpur Sahib on the orders of emperor Aurangzeb. Finally the stock of food in the town ran out. The Mughals promised safe passage to Punjab for the Sikhs if they would hand over the fortress of Anandpur. At first Guru Gobind tested their promise of safe passage by staging a test which the attackers failed miserably. Later, with promises written in the margins of the Muslims' Holy Qur'an and some of the sacred writings of the Hindu elements of the army that had all but starved his small contingent of family and Sikhs and a personal promise of safety by Aurangzeb sent by an agent of the Emperor who was fighting in the distant Deccan, the Guru was persuaded to agree to their offer, leaving Anandpur with his family and a small band of retainers. During the flight from Anandpur when the Sikhs were promised safe passage to Punjab, Sahibzada Fateh Singh was, with his elder brother Sahibzada Zorawar Singh, put under the care of his grandmother, Mata Gujari ji. Unfortunately in the confusion of the rain-swollen Sarsa (normally little more than a creek) and an attack by Mughal pursuers, the Guru's two youngest sons and their grandmother were separated from the main body of Sikhs. Managing to get across, they were befriended by one of the Guru's former cooks. Later betrayed and handed off by the authorities of the small village where they had been given sanctuary, they were handed over to agents of Wazir Khan, carted off to Sirhind, and placed under arrest in the Khan's Thanda Burj (cold tower). The Thanda Burj was built to capture the cool night breezes of air drawn over water channels in the hot summers, during the dead of winter the unheated burj offered no comfort for the Guru's mother and sons.

On 26 December 1705, Fateh and his elder brother Zorawar were martyred at Sirhind. Fateh Singh is probably the youngest recorded martyr in history: He knowingly laid down his life at the age of six years. Brothers Sahibzada Fateh Singh and Sahibzada Zorawar Singh are among the most hallowed martyrs in Sikhism.

Today, the place is known as Fatehgarh Sahib. An unequal but grim battle commenced with the sunrise on 7 December 1705 in the words of Guru Gobind Singh's Zafarnamah, a mere forty defying a hundred thousand (lakh). The besieged, after they had exhausted the meagre stock of ammunition and arrows, made sallies in batches of five each to engage the encircling host with sword and spear. Sahibzada Ajit Singh led one of the sallies and laid down his life fighting in the thick of the battle. He was 18 years old at the time of his supreme sacrifice for his faith. Gurdwara Qatalgarh now marks the spot where he fell, followed by Sahibzada Jujhar Singh, 14, who led the next sally. The valour displayed by the young sons of Guru Gobind Singh has been poignantly narrated by a modern Muslim poet Allahyar Khan Jogi who used to recite his Urdu poem, "ShahidaniWafa." from Sikh pulpits during the second and third decades of the twentieth century.

By nightfall Guru Gobind Singh was left with only five Sikhs in the fortress. These five urged him to escape so that he could rally his followers again and continue the struggle against oppression. The Guru agreed. He gave his own attire to Sangat Singh, who resembled him somewhat in features and physical stature. Under cover of darkness, he made his way through the encircling host slackened by the fatigue of the day's battle. Daya Singh, Dharam Singh and Man Singh also escaped leaving behind only two Sikhs:  Sangat Singh and Sant Singh. The next morning as the attack was resumed, the imperial troops entered the garhi without much resistance and were surprised to find only two occupants who, determined to die rather than give in, gave battle till the last. Having reached safety Gobind wrote a letter in Persian prose, called the Zafarnamah (Epistle of Victory), to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb calling him to task as he had guaranteed safe passage to the Punjab for the Sikhs who had abandoned the city of Anandpur and its forts only to be attacked. Guru Gobind Singh fought a successful battle at Muktsar and then moved towards Talwandi Sabo.

Guru Ki Kashi

Before leaving to visit Sikh Sangats in the Deccan, Guruji blessed Talwandi Sabo, as Guru Ki Kashi. Now known better as Damdama Sahib after the Gurdwara became one of the five temporal Takhats of the Sikh religion. Another great Shaheed (Martyr) of Sikhi, Baba Deep Singh ji was installed as the first Jathedar (head) of this temporal seat. He penned additional copies of the Adi Sri Granth Sahib ji and sent them to the other four temporal seats.

This title was given because of the intense literary activities that Guru Gobind Singh engaged in during his stay here (the compilation of Sikh scriptures). It is said that one day Guru Gobind flung a handful of reed pens over the heads of the congregation ('Sangat'), saying: "Here we will create a pool of literature. No one of my Sikhs should remain illiterate." The Damdama Wali Bir as the Guru Granth Sahib is sometimes called was completed here, being dictated by the Guru to one of his disciples Bhai Mani Singh. It was at this time when the hymns of Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib, the ninth Guru and father of Guru Gobind Singh were added to the Bir.

Recognition as Takht
This Takht was officially recognized as the fifth Takht of Sikhism on 18 November 1966. On a demand from the Sikhs, a sub-committee was appointed by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, Amritsar by General Meeting Resolution No: 789 on 30 July 1960. A report of the sub-committee containing 183 pages was received to declare Damdama Sahib or Guru Ki Kashi as the fifth Takht of the Sikhs.

A general body meeting of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee at Amritsar approved the recommendations through resolution number 32 on 18 November 1966. It was declared as the fifth Sikh Takht by the government of India in April 1999 during tricentennial celebrations of the formation of the Khalsa.

Jathedars of Takht Damdama Sahib

References

Sikh places
Sikh architecture
Gurdwaras in Punjab, India
Bathinda
Religious tourism in India

Takht Sri Damdama Sahib


Thomas Jerome Curran (November 28, 1898 – July 29, 1958) was a lawyer and politician in New York City.

Life

Curran was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan and grew up in Greenwich Village, where he lived for the rest of his life.  After attending Xavier High School, he entered Fordham College, from which he graduated in 1920 after serving in the United States Army during World War I and then in the New York National Guard. Curran then studied law, graduating from the Fordham University School of Law in 1923.

Curran began his law practice with the New York State Insurance Fund, followed by three years in private practice. In 1928, he became an Assistant United States Attorney in the Southern District of New York. He left federal service in 1931 to run as a Republican for the New York City Board of Aldermen. He was unsuccessful in his first campaign, but was elected an alderman two years later and was chosen Minority Leader in 1934. In 1936, he was elected as Republican leader of his district, and in 1937 was elected as a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention of 1938. He became leader of the New York County Republican organization in 1940 and served in that post until his death. He ran unsuccessfully for the United States Senate in 1944, losing the election to incumbent Robert F. Wagner.

Curran served as Secretary of State of New York from 1943 to 1955, appointed by Governor Thomas E. Dewey. As host of the state's 1944 meeting of presidential electors, he supported the elimination of the Electoral College. In his speech before the Democratic electors, he asserted that this would likely be the last such gathering, since so many Americans regarded the procedure as outmoded.

He was a delegate to the 1944, 1948, and 1956 Republican National Conventions, and an alternate delegate to the 1952 Republican National Convention. He was a member of the New York State Republican Committee for several years.

He died of a heart ailment at St. Vincent's Hospital in Manhattan, at the age of 59.

His son Paul J. Curran was a member of the New York State Assembly and served as U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York from 1973 to 1975.

Sources
 Political Graveyard (giving wrong ending year of secretaryship)
 His granddaughter's engagement, in NYT on December 8, 1985
 Presentation of the candidate for the Senate, in TIME Magazine on August 21, 1944
 His view on the electoral college, at NYSED archives
 Obit in NYT on July 30, 1958 (subscription required)

Secretaries of State of New York (state)
1898 births
1958 deaths
New York (state) Republicans
Politicians from New York City
Fordham University School of Law alumni
20th-century American politicians
Lawyers from New York City
20th-century American lawyers

Thomas J. Curran


Liptovský Hrádok (; ; ) is a town in northern Slovakia, in the region of Liptov.

History
First mentioned in 1341,  Liptovský Hrádok was named after the nearby castle. The castle, also known as Liptovský Hrádok, was built originally for use of the forestry commission, hunters of the area and the Catholic Church. The castle was later modified and furnished in the style of Louis XVI. The name of the town and the castle literally means "little castle of Liptov". A salt processing facility was constructed in 1728 to collect salt for the Solivar Salt Works which now is part of Prešov, a Slovak city further to the East. This helped Liptovský Hrádok rise to some prominence in the region. The population centre of the town was the main street, which runs from the castle to the south continuing along to the Váh River and the hamlet of Prekážka.

Geography and climate
The region of Liptovský Hrádok is bordered by the Low Tatras to the south and partially bordered by the West and High Tatras. The town is situated in the middle of the Liptov Basin created by the Váh River. It is in the centre of northern Liptov and lies on the confluence of the rivers Váh and Belá. The average altitude of the town is 637 meters above sea level.  Liptovský Hrádok has a moist warm climate with an average temperature about , while the more mountainous parts are colder. The temperature is about 18-23 °C (64-73 °F) in the summer and in the winter about . Rainfall is very frequent in this part and the weather often changes quickly. Snowfall stays on the ground approximately 140 days during the year.

Facts about Liptovský Hrádok:

 Liptovsky Hradok had 731 inhabitants in 1869 and currently (in 2012) has 7,454 inhabitants.
 Area of the town: 1.832 ha.
 Dovalovo is its town section with 1001 inhabitants
 Average yearly temperature: .
 Maximum temperature:
 Minimum temperature:
 Absolute maximum:  (16.08.1952)
 Absolute minimum:  (11.02.1929)
 Length of sunshine: 140 days per year
 Average rainfall per year 691 mm
 Average number of cold days year: 160.4 days
 Average number of summer days per year: 28.9 days

Cityscape and architecture
https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034943/http://az-europe.eu/data/albumy/GEO_PANORAMA/3848/panorama.jpg

Drawing of Thomas Ender: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_EdtSm1CwIPA/Rg6D-XjU47I/AAAAAAAAAQA/wTqLSdSWKuo/s400/0710lipt+hradok.jpg

Castle and manson with lakelet/pond: https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090630/http://www.nasliptov.sk/image.php?url=files%2Fvylety%2F37.jpg&width=451&height=270&fit

Viem from high peak Skalka at Hradná Street: https://web.archive.org/web/20140429195230/http://visitliptov.sk/hlp-image/800x532/userdata/dtb/3271/profil//skalka.jpg

View at the part of "Limewood Alley" (Lipová alej) created in 1777: https://web.archive.org/web/20140430022911/http://visitliptov.sk/userdata/dtb/3293/profil/arboretum.jpg

Internal part of the Castle in winter: http://i.sme.sk/cdata/9/62/6278479/hlavna.jpg

Demographics
According to the 2001 census, the town had 8,232 inhabitants. 97.11% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 1.37% Czechs, 0.72% Roma and 0.15% Hungarians. The religious make-up was 42.23% Lutherans, 31.74% Roman Catholics and 21.14% people with no religious affiliation.

Twin towns – sister cities

Liptovský Hrádok is twinned with:
 Česká Skalice, Czech Republic
 Hradec nad Moravicí, Czech Republic
 Nowy Targ, Poland
 Stary Sącz, Poland

References

External links

 Official website

Cities and towns in Slovakia
Villages and municipalities in Liptovský Mikuláš District

Liptovský Hrádok


Backpackers is a mixed genre travel-reality television program created by and starring friends Mick Middleton, James Grech (JAG) and Lee Mahoney from Colac, Victoria.

The show was shot on three cameras over a year as Middleton, Grech and Mahoney left everything behind and backpacked on a shoestring budget around Europe.

It began airing in Australia on 13 November 2006 on Foxtel's Channel V, but had already been picked up and aired in other countries throughout the world, including OLN Canada, C4 New Zealand, Extreme sports channel Extreme Sports Channel in England, in Turkey, Dream TV Turkey and Channel V in Malaysia.

The program has received mixed reviews and cult recognition due to the nature in which the three backpackers went about making the show on small cameras and traveling on their own funds, interviewing, partying and recording all the random moments that occurred throughout the trip.

Backpackers has been both criticized and praised  for its honest portrayal of a year of budget travel and has received a small cult base.

Episode list

External links

Official Facebook Page
Channel V site

Australian non-fiction television series
2000s Australian reality television series
2006 Australian television series debuts
Australian travel television series
2008 Australian television series endings
Channel V Australia original programming

Backpackers (TV series)


Lofexidine, sold under the brand name Lucemyra among others, is a medication historically used to treat high blood pressure; today, it is more commonly used to help with the physical symptoms of opioid withdrawal. It is taken by mouth. It is an α2A adrenergic receptor agonist. It was approved for use by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States in 2018.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers it to be a first-in-class medication.

Medical uses
In the United States, the brand name Lucemyra (lofexidine HCl) is approved for the "mitigation of withdrawal symptoms to facilitate abrupt discontinuation of opioids in adults," for a treatment duration of 14 days. In the United Kingdom, lofexidine is commonly used in conjunction with the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone in rapid detoxification cases. When these two drugs are paired, naltrexone is administered to induce an opioid-receptor blockade sending the subject into immediate withdrawal and accelerating the detoxification process, while lofexidine is given to relieve the symptoms associated with the withdrawal including chills, sweating, stomach cramps, muscle pain, and runny nose.

Opioid withdrawal
The United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines recommend the use of methadone or buprenorphine as first-line agents in the management of opioid use disorder. However, lofexidine is considered an acceptable alternative for people with mild or uncertain opioid dependence in need of short-term detoxification.

Lofexidine is not an opioid. It does not eliminate the symptoms of opioid withdrawal but reduces them. Indeed, one suggested use for lofexidine is to ease withdrawal symptoms of methadone dependence. Its use is approved in the United States for up to 14 days.

Other clinical uses
The possibility of using lofexidine to treat alcohol withdrawal symptoms has been investigated, and has not yet been shown to be an effective treatment. It is also used in treatment of cases with postmenopausal hot flashes.

Special populations
Lofexidine's safety in pregnancy or in the setting of breastfeeding are unknown. Caution is warranted if chronic kidney impairment is present.

Adverse effects
Adverse effects that have occurred after taking lofexidine include the following:
 Slow heart rate
 Dizziness
 Sleepiness
 Mouth dryness
 Low blood pressure
 QT prolongation
In addition, people may experience a sudden jump in blood pressure after stopping lofexidine.

Overdose
The  of lofexidine is above 77 mg/kg in animals. Studies of high-dose, single administrations of lofexidine proved tolerable for animals, but repeat administration induced symptoms consistent with toxicity. In studies on mice, rats, and dogs, these included ataxia, somnolence, and tremors. It is expected that an overdose of lofexidine would result in symptoms akin to its pharmacological side effects in humans, such as bradycardia and hypotension.

Interactions

Many drug-drug interactions with lofexidine are possible.

QT prolongation
Lofexidine prolongs the QT interval, which can result in a severe interaction (torsade de pointes) when combined with other drugs that also prolong the QT interval. Patient-specific characteristics that increase the risk for a clinically significant drug-drug interaction include:
increasing age
female sex
cardiac disease
electrolyte disturbances (low blood potassium)
As a result, there are many QT-prolonging drugs that may interact with lofexidine. These include medications such as methadone, amiodarone, citalopram, and fluconazole. Other medications may increase the risk for a low level of potassium in the blood, thereby indirectly increasing the risk for QT prolongation. For example, dexamethasone, hydrochlorothiazide, and theophylline can lower the level of potassium in the blood.

CNS depression
Lofexidine can depress the central nervous system (CNS), which, in combination with other CNS depressants, may reduce a person's ability to perform tasks that require skills and attention. For example, clobazam, gabapentin, and levetiracetam all can depress the CNS.

Hypotension
The risk of hypotension (low blood pressure) is increased when lofexidine is combined with other drugs that lower blood pressure. These may include losartan, metoprolol, and pramipexole.

Pharmacology
Lofexidine is an agonist at the α-2A, 2B, and 2C adrenergic receptor subtypes, with the highest activity at the α2A receptor.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Ki for lofexidine
! Adrenergic receptor
! Ki (nM)
|-
!α2A
| 4
|-
!α2B
| 67
|-
!α2C
| 69
|-
|}
Ki represents the dissociation constant for lofexidine's binding to a specific subtype of α2 receptor. The smaller the Ki value, the stronger the drug binds to the receptor to exert its activity.

Lofexidine inhibits the release of norepinephrine in the central and peripheral nervous system, thereby reducing some of the symptoms of opioid withdrawal, but it has no documented effect on drug craving and endogenous opioid levels.

Pharmacokinetics
Lofexidine's oral bioavailability is about 90%, with extensive oral absorption. Peak plasma concentrations occur at 3 hours after a single administration, with a half-life of 11 hours. Lofexidine is extensively metabolized by the liver, and primarily cleared by the kidney. It is 80–90% plasma protein bound.

Chemistry
Lofexidine exists as a solid at room temperature, with a melting point of 127 degrees C. The pair of ortho chlorine (Cl−) atoms on the phenyl ring are necessary for lofexidine's agonism at the α2A adrenergic receptor subtype; removal of either chlorine atom results in antagonism at the receptor.

Comparison to clonidine

Lofexidine is structurally analogous to clonidine, another α2 adrenergic receptor agonist used for treatment of opioid withdrawal symptoms. A comparison of the two structures is shown at right. Both contain an imidazoline ring and a 2,6-dichlorinated phenyl ring. The differences in structure are shown in red, while the similarities are in black. In addition to the structural differences, administration of lofexidine to people who abuse opioids has been shown to be more effective for a longer duration, with fewer withdrawal symptoms than clonidine even after one day. However, clonidine is often preferred as it is substantially cheaper than lofexidine when purchased with a private (non-NHS) prescription. This factor is exacerbated by the considerable number of and quantities of medications prescribed to alleviate the constellation of withdrawal signs and symptoms. Additionally, clonidine has been shown to significantly lower blood pressure. Therefore, although similar to lofexidine, clonidine is most frequently prescribed to treat high blood pressure.

Society and culture
Britannia Pharmaceuticals has licensed lofexidine to be sold by US WorldMeds for sale in North America.  In the United Kingdom, the hydrochloride form, lofexidine HCl, has been licensed and sold since 1992 for opioid withdrawal relief in tablet form as BritLofex by Britannia Pharmaceuticals. BritLofex is only available by prescription. Lofexidine was first approved by the US FDA on May 16, 2018, under the brand name Lucemyra, produced by US WorldMeds. It was noted as the first non-opioid drug approved in the US for the treatment of opioid withdrawal.

See also
 Methadone
 Naltrexone
 Clonidine

References

Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor agonists
Antihypertensive agents
Chloroarenes
Imidazolines
Phenol ethers

Lofexidine


Linux distributions (often abbreviated as distros) are made of the Linux kernel and a collection of applications. The operating system will be made up of the Linux kernel and, usually, a set of libraries and utilities from the GNU project, with graphics that come from the X Window System. Small distributions may not contain big window systems full of features like KDE or GNOME, but use small window systems like busybox, uclibc or dietlibc. There are more than three hundred Linux distributions. Most of them are still in development, constantly being improved and changed.

History
Before the first Linux distributions, a user needed to be an expert on UNIX, knowing what libraries and executables were needed to get the system to boot and run.

Linux distributions started to form after the Linux kernel began to be used by people besides the first Linux programmers.

Early distributions included:

 H J Lu's "Boot-root" a two disk pair with the kernel and the absolute minimal tools to get started.
 MCC Interim Linux, which was made available to the public for download on the FTP server of University of Manchester in February, 1992;
 TAMU, created by individuals at Texas A&M University about the same time, and
 SLS (Softlanding Linux System).
 Yggdrasil Linux/GNU/X, created the first CD-ROM based Linux distribution.

SLS was not well-maintained, so Patrick Volkerding created a distribution based on SLS, which he called Slackware; released July 16, 1993. This is the oldest being developed.

People who used computers wanted to use Linux distributions as replacements to Microsoft Windows operating systems on the PC, Mac OS on the Apple Macintosh and proprietary versions of Unix.

Package management
Distributions are normally split into packages. Each package has a certain application or service. Examples of packages include a collection of fonts, or a web browser.

The package is usually given as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages done by a package management system.
Linux distributions usually contain much more software than Microsoft Windows or Mac OS X.

Popular distributions
Well-known Linux distributions include:

 Debian
 Arch
 Fedora
 Gentoo
 Knoppix, a Live CD
 Mandriva
 openSUSE
 PCLinuxOS
 Slackware
 Ubuntu

Tools for choosing a Linux distribution
There are tools available to help people make the decision easier.

Screenshots of common distributions
A few screenshots of common distributions just after installation:

Related pages
 List of Linux distributions
 Live CD

References

Other websites
 Distribution Reviews
 Hardware support by Linux distribution
 Linux Distribution Chooser  by Zegenie Studios
 The Linux Mirror Project  Download Linux Distributions over BitTorrent

Linux distribution


Birefringence (or double refraction) happens when light is passed through a special material and it splits into two different rays of light. Calcite crystals and boron nitride are two good examples of materials that cause birefringence. Just as a prism splits light into a large number of colors, birefringence splits light into two images of the same color. You see this as a "double image".

Other websites

Optics
Geochemistry
Light

Birefringence


Mount Dutton Bay is a coastal locality in the Eyre and Western region of South Australia, situated in the District Council of Lower Eyre Peninsula. The name and boundaries were formalised in October 2003 in respect of the long established local name which is derived from the body of water known as Mount Dutton Bay. The locality incorporates three older residential "shack sites": Mount Dutton Bay West, on Dolphin Drive, Mount Dutton Bay East, on Woolshed Drive, and Shelley Beach/Salt Creek, on Shelly Beach Road. It is part of the cadastral Hundred of Lake Wangary.

The historic Mount Dutton Bay Woolshed and Mount Dutton Bay Jetty are listed on the South Australian Heritage Register. The woolshed and jetty were built by Eyre Peninsula pastoral pioneer Price Maurice to shear wool from his pastoral leases and transport it to markets; the jetty, the latter of the two, dates from 1881. The site was used as a hub for the wool industry until the 1950s; it has continued as a base for leisure activities thereafter. The woolshed and adjacent shearers' quarters now house tourist accommodation, a museum, cafe and gallery; a caravan park has also been built alongside.

The Mount Dutton Bay Conservation Park is located on islands in Mount Dutton Bay and other adjoining bodies of water.

The Aboriginal Barngarla name for "Mount Dutton" is Miranda.

References

Eyre Peninsula
Towns in South Australia

Mount Dutton Bay, South Australia


Casa de Isla Negra was one of Pablo Neruda's three houses in Chile. It is located at Isla Negra, a coastal area of El Quisco commune, located about 45 km south of Valparaíso and 96 km west of Santiago. It was his favourite house and where he and his third wife, Matilde Urrutia, spent the majority of their time in Chile. Neruda, a lover of the sea and all things maritime, built the home to resemble a ship with low ceilings, creaking wood floors and narrow passageways. A passionate collector, every room has a different collection of bottles, ship figureheads, maps, ships in bottles, and an impressive array of shells, which are located in their own "Under the Sea" room.

Neruda fell in love with the house upon visiting the area and requested an advance from his original publisher Carlos George-Nascimento, who provided him with the money for the purchase. Neruda originally intended the house to be used as a meeting point for writers, and dedicated the place to Nascimento as a token of his gratitude.

Neruda and Urrutia are buried there.

In English, Isla Negra means "Black Island," which refers to a rock outcropping nearby, however Isla Negra is not an island. During the winter, the area is subject to heavy rains, which inspired Neruda to write his Oda a la Tormenta ("Ode to the Storm"). Isla Negra was also Neruda's inspiration for many other poems.

The house is now a writer's home museum, managed by the Pablo Neruda Foundation, and has become a popular tourist destination.

See also
 La Chascona
 La Sebastiana

External links
  Pablo Neruda Foundation's Site on Isla Negra
  Casa de Isla Negra
 Pablo Neruda's Grave

Houses of Pablo Neruda
Isla Negra
Isla Negra
Literary museums in Chile
Biographical museums in Chile
Historic house museums in South America
Coasts of Valparaíso Region

Casa de Isla Negra


An essential oil is a liquid from a plant. Essential oils contain chemical compounds that are useful for their scent. They are used in aromatherapy. Perfumes are made with essential oils.

Around the world, essential oils are being studied in modern clinical trials to test ancient claims of healing. They are being studied for their effectiveness as antibacterial agents, fungicides, insecticides, pain relief, stress reduction, and skin problems.

Name

The name essential oil comes from theories in the Middle Ages of a fifth element. People than believed that there were four basic elements that everything was made of: fire, water, air and earth. The elusive "soul" of things was called the quintessential element or the fifth element. Over time, quintessential was shortened to essential. Alchemists said that this element could change iron to gold. Some believed it held the planets in their orbits.

Producing the essential oil
Most essential oils today are steam distilled. This process separates out the aromatic essential oils from the solid plant matter. With steam distillation, it can take thousands of pounds of plant matter to create just one liter of essential oil.

Other methods include expelling and solvent extraction. Expelling is using pressure to squeeze the essential oil out of the plant. This method is generally used for citrus oils. Solvent extraction uses substances such as carbon dioxide to extract the essential oil. This method is used for delicate plants such as rose and jasmine, which can be too fragile to go through the distillation process.

Plants
Chemicals
Oils

Essential oil


Newton Faller (January 25, 1947–October 9, 1996) the son of Kurt Faller and Ada Faller from Rio Grande do Sul, was a Brazilian computer scientist and electrical engineer. He is credited with the discovery of adaptive Huffman codes while an employee of IBM do Brasil in Rio. He was later the head of the Brazilian UNIX development project at the Electronic Computing Center of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (NCE/UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro.

He started his career working with data compression, studying the classical Huffman Codes and was the first to propose the "adaptive Huffman codes". This discovery became his Master's thesis and was later published in:

Newton Faller, "An Adaptive System for Data Compression," Record of the 7th Asilomar Conference on Circuits, Systems and Computers, pp. 593–597, 1973.

Later, Robert G. Gallager (1978) and Donald Knuth (1985) proposed some complements and the algorithm became widely known as FGK (from the initials of each of the researchers).

Later, Faller went to study in the United States from 1976 to 1981 and received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences from the University of California, Berkeley in 1981.

He was married to Maria Ester Kremer Faller and had two daughters, Maria Clara Kremer Faller and  Ana Luisa Kremer Faller. He spent his childhood in Flamengo, Rio de Janeiro, and had two younger sisters: Ana Maria Faller and Angela Faller.

Faller died in 1996 and today the Brazilian equivalent of the Turing Award is called the "Newton Faller Award".

References

D. A. Huffman, "A Method for the Construction of Minimum Redundancy Codes," Proc. IRE, Vol. 40, No. 9, pp. 1098–1101, 1952.
Robert G. Gallager, "Variations on a Theme by Huffman," IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 668–674, Nov. 1978.
Donald E. Knuth, "Dynamic Huffman Coding," Journal of Algorithms, Vol. 6, pp. 163–180, 1985.

1947 births
1996 deaths
Brazilian people of German descent
Brazilian computer scientists
20th-century Brazilian engineers
People associated with Federal University of Rio de Janeiro

Newton Faller