Hermóðr (Old Norse: , "war-spirit"; anglicized as Hermod) is a figure in Norse mythology, a son of the god Odin and brother of Baldr. He is often considered the messenger of the gods.

Attestations

Prose Edda
Hermóðr appears distinctly in section 49 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning. There, it is described that the gods were speechless and devastated at the death of Baldr, unable to react due to their grief. After the gods gathered their wits from the immense shock and grief of Baldr's death, Frigg asked the Æsir who amongst them wished "to gain all of her love and favor" by riding the road to Hel. Whoever agreed was to offer Hel a ransom in exchange for Baldr's return to Asgard. Hermóðr agreed to this and set off with Sleipnir to Hel.

Hermóðr rode Odin's horse Sleipnir for nine nights through deep and dark valleys to the Gjöll bridge covered with shining gold, the bridge being guarded by the maiden Móðguðr 'Battle-frenzy' or 'Battle-tired'. Móðguðr told Hermóðr that Baldr had already crossed the bridge and that Hermóðr should ride downwards and northwards.

Upon coming to Hel's gate, Hermóðr dismounted, tightened Sleipnir's girth, mounted again, and spurred Sleipnir so that Sleipnir leapt entirely over the gate. So at last Hermóðr came to Hel's hall and saw Baldr seated in the most honorable seat. Hermóðr begged Hel to release Baldr, citing the great weeping for Baldr among the Æsir. Thereupon Hel announced that Baldr would only be released if all things, dead and alive, wept for him.

Baldr gave Hermóðr the ring Draupnir which had been burned with him on his pyre, to take back to Odin. Nanna gave a linen robe for Frigg along with other gifts and a finger-ring for Fulla. Thereupon Hermóðr returned with his message.

Hermóðr is called "son" of Odin in most manuscripts, while in the Codex Regius version—normally considered the best manuscript—Hermóðr is called sveinn Óðins 'Odin's boy', which in the context is as likely to mean 'Odin's servant'. However Hermóðr in a later passage is called Baldr's brother and also appears as son of Odin in a list of Odin's sons. See Sons of Odin.

Poetic Edda
The name Hermóðr seems to be applied to a mortal hero in the eddic poem Hyndluljóð (stanza 2):
The favour of the Highfather       we seek to find,
To his followers gold       he gladly gives;
To Hermóðr he gave       helm and mail-coat,
And to Sigmund he gave       a sword as a gift.

Skaldic poetry
In the skaldic poem Hákonarmál (stanza 14) Hermóðr and Bragi appear in Valhalla receiving Hákon the Good. It is not certain that either Hermóðr or Bragi is intended to be a god in this poem.

Beowulf
In the Old English poem Beowulf, Heremod is a Danish king who was driven into exile and in Old English genealogies Heremod appears appropriately as one of the descendants of Sceafa and usually as the father of Scyld.

Notes

References
Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2005). The Prose Edda. Penguin Classics.
Orchard, Andy (1997). Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. Cassell.

External links
MyNDIR (My Norse Digital Image Repository) Illustrations of Hermóðr from manuscripts and early print books. Clicking on the thumbnail will give you the full image and information concerning it.

Messenger gods
Æsir
Sons of Odin
Norse gods

Hermóðr


The Common Language Runtime (CLR), the virtual machine component of Microsoft .NET Framework, manages the execution of .NET programs. Just-in-time compilation converts the managed code (compiled intermediate language code) into machine instructions which are then executed on the CPU of the computer. The CLR provides additional services including memory management, type safety, exception handling, garbage collection, security and thread management. All programs written for the .NET Framework, regardless of programming language, are executed in the CLR. All versions of the .NET Framework include CLR. The CLR team was started June 13, 1998.

CLR implements the Virtual Execution System (VES) as defined in the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) standard, initially developed by Microsoft itself. A public standard defines the Common Language Infrastructure specification.

With Microsoft's move to .NET Core, the CLI VES implementation is known as CoreCLR instead of CLR.

See also
Common Intermediate Language
List of CLI languages
Java virtual machine

References

External links
Components of Common Language Runtime
Components of CLR
Overview of the .NET Framework 4.0
.NET Framework Conceptual Overview

.NET Framework terminology
Stack-based virtual machines

Common Language Runtime


Phengodidae is a family of glow-worm beetles. Their larvae are also glow-worms.

The family occurs only in the New World, and has about 30 genera. Both the females and larvae are bioluminescent: they have organs that can produce light. This family is different from the fireflies (family Lampyridae).

The larvae and the females (which keep their larval form) are predators. They feed on millipedes and other animals they find in the soil and litter. Males are winged. They are attracted to lights at night. They are probably short-lived and do not feed at all. In some species, adult males can also produce light. Females have organs that produce a green or yellow light on their trunks.  Some of them (called railroad worms) also have such an organ in front, which can produce a red light.

Polyphaga

Phengodidae


Greater China is the name of all the regions that both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) claim (though may not not completely control). This includes Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. The PRC controls mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau, while the ROC controls Taiwan. Each of these regions have their own passport, currency, travel rules, labor laws, and constitutions. General Secretary Xi Jinping added Xi Jinping Thought into the Communist Party's constitution during the Communist Party of China's 19th Congress (the 19th time it held elections), and one part of it says that all of China must reunite as one country.

Geography of China

Greater China


Los Plateados (The Silverplated) is a 2005 Mexican telenovela co-produced by the Mexican company Argos Comunicación and Telemundo. It stars Mauricio Islas, Tamara Monserrat, Dominika Paleta and Humberto Zurita; and is a historical drama set in Mexico during the time of the Porfiriato and Mexican Revolution and incorporates themes such as justice and equality.
The telenovela is the American adaptation of the Chilean telenovela Los Pincheira, produced in 2004 by TVN Chile.

Plot

This is a historical telenovela with its roots in the beginning of the 20th century beginning with the Porfiriato in Mexico.  The Silverplated are Robinhood bandits whose only mission in life is to fight for justice and avenge their father's unjust death. They steal from the rich to give to the poor.

The main character of the story is Emilio Gallardo (Humberto Zurita)a villain.  Emilio is a wealthy landowner, seducer, and always-winner in life.  But one thing he lacks:  a male son and heir.  The basic conflict of the story is a mystery not revealed until near the end:  That conflict is whether Emilio will ever get his son. (The story might be better entitled, "Emilio quiere hijo." What the audience does not know until near the end is that Emilio is actually sterile; thus he can never accomplish his desired goal.  Emilio is sterile because his mother had him sterilized by a curandera (or witch) as a child.  His mother thought her husband so wicked that his blood line should not be passed on through Emilio.   He is utterly selfish, sadistically cruel, and unfaithful by nature and believes that he can have every woman he wishes for. In order to produce a male heir, he longs to marry a much younger women, the young and beautiful Camila Castañeda (Tamara Monserrat). Unbeknownst to his wife, for years Emilio has had a wild sexual relationship with his amante, her older sister Luciana Castañeda (Dominika Paleta).  And unbeknownst to Emilio, while Camila is putting off Emilio on consummating the marriage sexually, Camila manages to get deflowered by Gabriel soon after she exchanges marriage vows with Emilio.  Eventually, however, Camila lets Emilio have his way with her once, which covers her pregnancy caused by the Robin Hood Gabriel.    Thus Camila gives birth to the male son which Emilio was wanting.  Although Camila does not love Emilio, her mother Ofelia (Wendy de los Cobos) tries to convince her that love will come with time.  Thus this telenovela uses the often used plot line of two sisters in conflict over one man—first Emilio, then Gabriel.

Camila does not even suspect that on the day of her train ride to her wedding with Emilio, she will meet the love of her life Gabriel Campuzano (Mauricio Islas) when he robs the train. Gabriel is the leader of the infamous group of bandits "Los Plateados (The Silverplated), whose members include his younger brothers Tomás Campuzano (Rodrigo Oviedo) and Manuel Campuzano (Juan Carlos Martín del Campo) and their sister Ximena Campuzano (Angélica Celaya). In the first movement of this story, Gabriel is a brave and powerful man who enchants Camila with a single gaze.  Together with his brothers and sister they live hidden in a cave (like Batman); after their father, Sebastian Campuzano, in the pre-history of this telenovela, was unjustly accused of killing a friend and neighboring hacienda owner and was subsequently shot by firing squad.

The Silverplated vow to avenge their father's execution, while robbing from the rich hacienda owners to provide for the poor.  When attacking Emilio's ranch on the day of his wedding, Gabriel kidnaps Emilio's wife to give him a lesson concerning his attitude toward those he considers inferior. Gabriel falls in love with Camila and thus begins the turbulent love story between him and the wife of Emilio Gallardo, the man he holds responsible for his father's unjust killing. Seeking revenge against The Silverplated for kidnapping his wife, Emilio crosses paths with the four Campuzano siblings who are fighting to avenge their father's death; and against a backdrop of hatred, revenge, and prejudices; a revolutionary war breaks out that will test Gabriel and Camila's love for each other -- though the war is fought mostly "offstage" near the end of the story and glossed over.

The plot has 3 movements:  In the opening movement, Gabriel leads Los Plateados in derring-do banditry vs. the rich (like Robin Hood).  In the second movement, Gabriel surrenders himself to Emilio who blackmails him into surrendering to the authorities lest Emilio destroy the innocent.  Then Gabriel becomes a Christ figure, with arms outstretched as if on a cross, put in prison, stabbed, left for dead—when a sort of Mary Magdalene figure appears to raise him from the dead, as it were.    For the 3rd movement:  after getting over his crucifixion (as it were), Gabriel has a second coming to the countryside where Emilio's hacienda is.  But at this point in the story, Gabriel transforms from a heroic bandit to a foppishly dressed (as with lace) country squire, who cannot even beat up Gabriel in a fist fight or outdraw him with a pistol.  In the finale Gabriel appears to be shot to death by Emilio, but it turns out that a "magic brooch" (inherited from Gabriel's father) deflected Emilio's bullet.  At the end Emilio's omnipotent power is finally ended by Gabriel's scoundrel brother, who shoots Emilio in the back with a rifle as Emilio is galloping off to escape on a horse.

Cast

Main cast

Secondary cast
Marú Bravo as Josefa
Joaquín Cosio as Kamal Bashur, husband of Samia Bashur, a merchant
Carlos Corona as Víctor Villegas, son of Aurelio Villegas, a photographer
Mayra Sierra as Eva, member of the band, in love with Tomás
Alberto Guerra as Yasir Bashur
Luis Yeverino as Halim Bashur
Aurora Gil as Angeles Villegas
Damayanti Quintanar as Antonia/Toñita
Angel Chehin as Ismail Ibn Zahib
Alberto Trujillo as Lorenzo Bustamante
Marco Antonio Aguirre as Dimas Garcia
Omar Ayala as El Rajado

International releases

References

External links
.

2005 telenovelas
Argos Comunicación telenovelas
Telemundo telenovelas
2005 Mexican television series debuts
2005 Mexican television series endings
Mexican television series based on Chilean television series

Los plateados


Peter Michaelsen Pisarczyk (born May 30, 1965), better known as Peter Keys, is an American keyboardist. He is best known for his work with George Clinton in various P-Funk lineups and as a member of the rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd since 2009.

Early life
He was born in Burlington, Vermont, United States, to Michael Pisarczyk and Carole Bouchard.

Keys developed an interest in music at a young age as his parents played him to sleep with their 1923 Steinway piano. He began playing piano at age four and is classically trained. He had his first performance at the age of five in New Haven, Connecticut, at the Neighborhood School of Music. Keys was determined to make a living as a musician and moved to northern California in 1976 where he played with his first band Smeagol. After Smeagol's disbandment he started a cover band called Sound Advice. He studied music through 1985 and went to the Berklee College of Music in Boston, Massachusetts, before dropping out to continue performing.

Career
After dropping out of Berklee, Keys moved to the San Francisco Bay area and began playing and recording with many notable musicians including Jay Lane (Primus, RatDog), Sam Andrew (Big Brother and the Holding Company), Peter Tork (The Monkees), Marty Friedman (Megadeth), Marty Balin (Jefferson Airplane/Starship) and Bill Spooner (The Tubes).

In 1996 he replaced Bernie Worrell in the original P-Funk lineup. Around this time he shared the stage with everyone from Bootsy Collins to Snoop Dogg and Isaac Hayes. In 2000 he moved to Detroit, Michigan, and started Shock Logic Productions. He joined the 420 Funk Mob in 2002, a band that features George Clinton and other former P-Funk members. From 2004 to 2009, Keys toured and recorded with the indie rock band SeepeopleS and is featured on three SeepeopleS' albums (Corn Syrup Conspiracy, Apocalypse Cow Volumes 1 & 2). In 2009, he moved to Nashville, and was selected to be Billy Powell's replacement in Lynyrd Skynyrd. When not touring with Lynyrd Skynyrd, Keys plays with a variety of other projects, including the Smoky White Devils.

References

1965 births
Living people
American people of Polish descent
Lynyrd Skynyrd members
20th-century American keyboardists
21st-century American keyboardists
Blues rock musicians

Peter Keys


Robert Stewart Hyndman (June 28, 1915 – November 29, 2009) was a distinguished Canadian portrait and landscape artist based in the National Capital Region. His career spanned more than 70 years.

Early life
Born in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Hyndman attended a primary school Shawnigan Lake School on Vancouver Island from 1928 to 1931. He moved with his family to Ottawa, Ontario in 1933. He received his early training at the Central Technical School in Toronto with Carl Schaefer and Charles Goldhamer. After graduating in 1937, Hyndman followed the lead of other young North American artists and moved to London, England to continue his studies at the Central School for Arts and Crafts (now the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design).

War service

With war looming, Hyndman returned to Canada in 1939 and joined the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) in June, 1940. He served as a flight instructor at Uplands Airport in Ottawa from 1941–1943. From 1943 until 1944, Hyndman was stationed at Biggin Hill, England and flew Spitfires on bombing runs over the English Channel as part of RCAF 411 Squadron, 126 Wing. Hyndman's drawings of his experiences caught the attention of government officials.

Official war artist
Hyndman was an Official Canadian War artist during the Second World War.

Following his tour retirement (Hyndman flew 155 missions over France and the Netherlands) in September 1944, he was appointed an Official War Artist. Hyndman created a total of 68 paintings during his appointment. By war's end, Hyndman had painted most of the Canadian military's senior commanders and many of the fighter aces of the RCAF.

While portraits formed the bulk of his production, he also captured his experiences as a pilot.  Some of his works can be seen as part of the Beaverbrook War Art Collection's touring Canvas of War exhibit, as well as on permanent display at the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa.

Post-war career

Following World War II, Hyndman resettled in Ottawa where he embarked upon a successful career as a painter of portraits and murals. The Britannia Yacht Club collection of Hyndman's portraits of former Club Commodores includes the late Reg Bruce and his wife displayed in Bruce Neuk. The collection of the Royal Military College of Canada includes Hyndman's works. He also passed on his love of painting to others as a teacher. He taught at the Banff School of Fine Arts for eight summers (1964–1972), at Elmwood School (Ottawa) (1966–71) and at the Ottawa School of Art (1971–2007).

Recognition
In 2000, he received the Art & Heritage Award from the City of Ottawa, and in 2001,
on the 100th Anniversary of the election of Canadian former Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, he presented his portrait of Prime Minister Laurier to then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien. In 2003, he received the Victor Tolgesy Award from the City of Ottawa.

See also
 Canadian official war artists
 War artist
 War art

Notes

References
 Gessel, Paul.  "The art of living long," Ottawa Citizen. January 6, 2009; "Robert Hyndman," Ottawa Citizen. December 4, 2009.
 Robert Stewart Hyndman," Globe and Mail (Toronto). January 9, 2010.
 Morse, Jennifer. "War Art: Robert Hyndman," Legion Magazine. March 1, 2002.

External links
Ottawa School of Art Biography
Ottawa School of Art Retrospective
Wayne Ralph – Author of Aces, Warriors & Wingmen : Firsthand Accounts of Canada's Fighter Pilots in the Second World War

1915 births
2009 deaths
20th-century Canadian painters
Canadian male painters
21st-century Canadian painters
Canadian landscape painters
Canadian portrait painters
Artists from Edmonton
Artists from Ottawa
Canadian war artists
World War II artists
20th-century Canadian male artists
21st-century Canadian male artists
Shawnigan Lake School alumni

Robert Stewart Hyndman


The California Highway Patrol (CHP) is a law enforcement agency of the state of California. The purpose of the CHP is to ensure safety and enforce traffic laws on all California highways and unincorporated areas within the state of California. The CHP promotes traffic safety by inspecting commercial vehicles, as well as inspecting and certifying school buses, ambulances, and other specialized vehicles.

Organizations based in California

California Highway Patrol


Lindy Hop is an American dance. It started in Harlem, New York City in the 1920s and 1930s. It was originally associated with jazz and tap dance. It was popular from the 1920s to the 1940s. The Lindy Hop was a mixture of many dances before it, like the Charleston, tap and breakaway dances.

Frankie Manning helped develop the dance.

Lindy Hop today is danced as a social, competitive or performance dance. It is also sometimes called a street dance.

References

Dance types

Lindy Hop


Spilling the Spanish Beans is an article, in two parts, by George Orwell, that first appeared in the New English Weekly of 29 July and 2 September 1937.

Background
Orwell travelled to Spain in December 1936, 'to gather material for newspaper articles etc..' and he had also, 'some vague idea of fighting if it seemed worthwhile.' He carried a letter from Fenner Brockway to Paris and dropped in on Henry Miller. He arrived in Barcelona on 26 December 1936 : " ... it was the first time I had ever been in a town where the working class was in the saddle... I recognised it immediately as a state of affairs worth fighting for.' He had arrived with Independent Labour Party (ILP) papers and the ILP was affiliated with the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), an anti-Stalinist party. Its leader, Andrés Nin, had once been a close ally of Leon Trotsky. Nin had just been forced out of the Catalan government, a result of Communist influence which had grown in Spain since the first Russian supply ships had arrived in October 1936. In July 1936 the POUM paper La Batalla condemned the Moscow Show Trials - the Spanish Communists were complaining about the anarchists and 'Trotskyists'. In September general Alexander Orlov of the NKVD arrived in Madrid. Communist influence and Orlov's power began to extend itself throughout Republican Spain. Orwell did not know at this time that the POUM was quite separate from the Communist-dominated International Brigade. After Orwell had spent 'a day or so absorbing the atmosphere he told McNair [the ILP's Barcelona representative] that he had decided to enlist. A 20-year-old journalist, Victor Alba, from La Batalla had spent some time showing him the scenes of the July street fighting and given him the story of what had happened in Barcelona. From Barcelona Orwell was sent to Alcubierre on the Aragon Front.

Argument of the essay
In the first part of the article Orwell argues that in the case of the Spanish Civil War, even more than pro-fascist newspapers like the Daily Mail, left-wing papers such as the News Chronicle and Daily Worker had "prevented the British public from grasping the real nature of the struggle."

Orwell describes the imprisoning of those whose opinions were too much to the left and that the people responsible for putting them there were the Communists: "The real struggle is between revolution and counter-revolution;... Communism is now a counter-revolutionary force;... using the whole of their powerful machinery to crush or discredit any party that shows signs of revolutionary tendencies." "In the face of Franco's foreign mercenaries [the Government] were obliged to turn to Russia for help, and though the quantity of arms supplied by Russia has been greatly exaggerated, the mere fact of their arrival brought the Communists into power... the Russians were able not only to get money for their weapons, but to extort terms as well. Put in their crudest form, the terms were: 'Crush the revolution or you get no more arms'... it may be, that the spectacle of a genuine revolution in Spain would rouse unwanted echoes in Russia."

In the second part of the essay Orwell describes the Communist propaganda that denounced 'Trotskyism' : "In Spain, anyone professing revolutionary Socialism is under suspicion of being a Trotskyist in the pay of Franco or Hitler." If the Communists had saved the Government from October 1936 onwards they had also, Orwell wrote, "succeeded in killing enthusiasm... it is significant that as early as January of this year [1937] voluntary recruiting had practically ceased."

Difficulties finding a publisher

Orwell and his wife Eileen left Spain on 23 June 1937, escaping the Stalinist purges, and headed at first for the seaside for a holiday  and went to Banyuls-sur-Mer. "Their holiday was not a success. Orwell found the place 'a bore and a disappointment'. It was chilly weather, a persistent wind blew off the sea, the water was dull and choppy.... Orwell could not help feeling that his time would be better spent in writing articles which would 'spill the beans' about communist duplicity. He began writing such a piece in Banyuls, and sent a wire to the New Statesman asking if they would like to have it when he reached London. They said yes." Orwell worked as quickly as he could to finish his piece  which he called 'Eye-witness in Barcelona'. When he arrived in London at the end of June he submitted the piece to the New Statesman - but Kingsley Martin, the editor, took exception to Orwell's conclusions and refused the article on the grounds that it would 'cause trouble'. Later that summer, when Philip Mairet published 'Spilling the Spanish Beans' in the New English Weekly, Orwell wrote,  "People who ought to know better have lent themselves to the deception on the ground that if you tell the truth about Spain it will be used as Fascist propaganda." Orwell biographer Michael Shelden: "No doubt he had Kingsley Martin and Gollancz in mind...."

References

External links

1937 essays
POUM
Works about the Spanish Civil War
Essays by George Orwell
Works originally published in The New English Weekly

Spilling the Spanish Beans


Alexander Leonidovich Chizhevsky (; 7 February 1897 – 20 December 1964) was a Soviet-era interdisciplinary scientist, a biophysicist who founded "heliobiology" (study of the sun's effect on biology) and "aero-ionization" (study of effect of ionization of air on biological entities). He was also noted for his work in "cosmo-biology", biological rhythms and hematology."

Chizhevsky used historical research (historiometry) techniques to link the 11-year solar cycle, Earth's climate, and the mass activity of peoples.

Life and career

Chizhevsky was born in the town of Tsekhanovets (Ciechanowiec in Polish) in Grodno Governorate of the Russian Empire (now Poland). His father Leonid Vasilievich Chizhevsky was a Russian military general. He spent his early years, and later his teenage years, in Kaluga. As a youth he met Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, a noted space scientist, who also lived in Kaluga. Chizhevsky was educated at the private modern school of F. Shakhmagonov. In 1915 he spent his summer observing the sun and first hypothesized the effect of periodic changes in solar activity on the organic world. In 1916 he entered World War I as a Russian, fighting on the Galician front and earning a Cross of Saint George. There, he observed directly that battles tended to wax and wane with the strength of solar flares and geomagnetic storms during the concurrent height of solar cycle 15.

In 1918, Chizhevsky graduated from the Moscow Commercial Institute with a degree in archeology. His Moscow State University Doctorate of Philosophy thesis was "On the periodicity of the world-historical process". (He would later call his view point heliotaraxy or heliotaraxia.) He lectured at Moscow University and Moscow Archaeological Institute on the History of Science in the Ancient World and the History of Archaeological Discovery. He attended lectures in physics and mathematics and studied at the Medical Department of Moscow University while working at the Lazarev Biophysical Research Institute. Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Svante Arrhenius invited Chizhevsky to work for him. At a home laboratory Chizhevsky performed research on the influence of ionized air on animals, establishing the physiological action of negative and positive ions in the air on living organisms. (Negative ions making them more excitable and positive making them more lethargic.) He went on to work in the Duorv Zoo-Psychology Laboratory as a senior scientist and professor. During this time he compiled statistics on biospheric processes and their connection with cycles of solar activity.

In 1926, Chizhevsky worked with Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in the world's first experimental research in the field of space biology. In 1929 he was elected to the Tulan Academy of Sciences and He lectured on biophysics at Columbia University in New York City. In 1931 he set up the Central Research Laboratory for Ionisation in USSR.  His work in aero-ionification was supported by the Soviet government and was recognized by a Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars of USSR. In 1935 he discovered the metachromasy of bacteria – the so-called "Chizhevskii-Velkhover effect" – enabling solar emissions that were hazardous to man both on Earth and in space, to be forecast. He was head of two aero-ionisation laboratories. In 1939 he was the Honorary President of the International Congress of Bio-physics held in New York City.

In 1942, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin became aware of Chizhevsky's research work, including Physical Factors Of The Historical Process, and Chizhevsky was asked to retract his writings on solar cycles, which contradicted Soviet theories of the reasons for the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917.  He refused, was arrested and spent eight years in a forced labor gulag in the Ural mountains. He was released in 1950 and resettled in Karaganda in Kazakhstan where he underwent eight years of Soviet "rehabilitation" where he conducted science work in coal mines of Karaganda. While he no longer wrote on solar cycle theory, he returned to Moscow and introduced aero-ionic therapy (similar to negative air ionization therapy) into some medical establishments. He became a scientific consultant and ran an aero-ionification laboratory under the USSR State Planning Organisation.

Chizhevsky also was a painter of water colors shown in Soviet galleries and the composer of hundreds of poems. Chizhevsky died in Moscow in 1964 after a long illness. An "In memoriam" in the International Journal of Biometeorology stated that he had "carved new paths and approaches to the vast expanse of unexplored fields." He is buried in Pyatnitskoye cemetery in Moscow with a headstone featuring an engraved carving representing the sun.

Air ioniser

In 1918, Chizhevsky created the first air ioniser for ion therapy. It was originally used for animal health in agriculture.

Sunspots and mass excitability

Chizhevsky proposed that not only did geomagnetic storms resulting from sunspot-related solar flares affect electrical usage, plane crashes, epidemics and grasshopper infestations, but human mental life and activity. Increased negative ionization in the atmosphere increased human mass excitability. Chizhevsky proposed that human history is influenced by the eleven-year peaks in  sunspot activity, triggering humans en masse to act upon existing grievances and complaints through revolts, revolutions, civil wars and wars between nations.

He analyzed sunspot records (and approximated records), comparing them to riots, revolutions, battles and war in Russia and seventy-one other countries for the period 500 BCE to 1922 CE. (A process known as historiometry.) He found that a significant percent of what he classified as the most important historical events involving large numbers of people occurred around sunspot maximum.  Edward R. Dewey, founder of the Foundation for the Study of Cycles, analyzed and published his data in 1951 in the  Foundation's publications. In a 1971 book Dewey described the "four components" of Chizhevsky's eleven-year cycle and their approximate lengths: 1) a three-year period of minimum activity characterized by passivity and autocratic rule; 2) a two-year period during which masses begin to organize under new leaders and one theme; 3) a three-year period of maximum excitability, revolution and war; 4) a three-year period of gradual decrease in excitability until the masses are apathetic. Dewey questioned Chizhevsky's theory because in Chizhevsky's data, the sunspot cycle height lagged about a year ahead his "mass excitability index."

In 1992 Arcady A. Putilov, a researcher in Animal and Human Physiology, published a paper empirically testing Chizhevsky hypothesis analyzing events described in Soviet historical handbooks. Putilov found that the frequency and "polarity" of events, including revolution, is the highest in the years of the solar cycle maximum and the lowest in the year before the minimum. In 1996 professor of psychology Suitbert Ertel (University of Göttingen) corroborated a "substantial" relationship between solar activity and revolutionary behavior through statistical analysis of a "Master Index of Violence from Below" (MIVE) for the period 1700–1985 CE.

Legacy

A main-belt asteroid (or minor planet) discovered by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1978 is named  3113 Chizhevskij after Chizhevsky.

The Chizhevsky Science Center opened in Kaluga, Russia, in 2000, in the home where Chizhevsky lived and worked for a number of years. It is part of the Tsiolkovsky Museum. There Chizhevsky researched sun-earth relations and conducted experimental research on the effects of ionized air on a living organism, laying down basics of air-ionization. The center features exhibits, photographs and films, lectures and tours.

Bibliography
 Alexander Chizhevsky, "Physical Factors of the Historical Process," (paper) Kaluga, 1924. (Included in a downloaded file from Astrotheos.com.)
 Alexander Chizhevsky, The Terrestrial Echo of Solar Storms,  366 pp. 1976, Moscow, (First published in 1936 in )
 Alexander Chizhevsky, Space Pulse of Life. (Originally titled The Earth In The Embrace Of The Sun), Moscow: Misl, 1995 (in Russian) with preface to by L. V. Golovanov.
 John T Burns, Cosmic Influences on Humans, Animals and Plants: An Annotated Bibliography, 1997, Magill Bibliographies, .
Prof. L.A. Blyumenfel'd, editor, Solar Activity & The Biosphere: Heliobiology. From A.L. Chizhevsky To The Present by Boris M. Vladimirsky, N.A. Temuryants/Temurjants.  Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. 1999. 30 pages, 93 figures, 24 tables, and Bibliography with 500 items. Distributed by: International Independent Ecological & Politological University, Ulitsa Krasnokazatskaya 44, Zdanie MEI Moscow Power Generation Institute Building, Moscow, Russia.

See also

Heliobiology
Chronobiology
Solar variation
Geochemistry
Biogeochemistry
Radiogeology
War cycles
Revolutionary wave
List of astronomical cycles
Edward R. Dewey
Nikolai Kondratiev
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

References

External links
Chizhevsky Science Center

1897 births
1964 deaths
People from Ciechanowiec
People from Belsky Uyezd (Grodno Governorate)
Soviet biophysicists
Cosmists
Moscow State University alumni
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics alumni
Burials at Pyatnitskoye Cemetery
Russian scientists

Alexander Chizhevsky


The Nightwatch (The Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch, known as the Night Watch) is an oil painting by Rembrandt. It was painted in 1642. It measures 379.5 cm x 453.5 cm (149.4 in x 178.5 in). It hangs in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

Paintings by Rembrandt van Rijn
1640s paintings

The Nightwatch


Lanitz Aviation is a German aircraft manufacturer based in Leipzig. The company specializes in the design and manufacture of aircraft fabric systems and in particular their Oratex material for model and ultralight aircraft. The company also has developed and produces three ultralight aircraft that were originally produced by British manufacturers Escapade Aircraft and The Light Aircraft Company.

The company at one time produced its own two-stroke aircraft engine, the  Lanitz 3W 342 iB2 TS.

Aircraft

References

External links

Aircraft manufacturers of Germany
Aircraft engine manufacturers of Germany

Lanitz Aviation


Ang Mga Kaibigan ni Mama Susan () is a 2010 mystery novel by Filipino writer Bob Ong published in 2010 by Visprint Inc. It is Ong's eighth book, and his first attempt in the horror/suspense genre.

Plot

The story revolves around Gilberto "Galo" P. Manansala, a college student in an unnamed university in Manila, and his journal entries that he writes for one of his college instructors. In the entries he describes how his everyday situations turn into scary situations, how he uncovers various mysteries and horrors, and how he gets deeply involved in these mysteries and horrors and, in the end, cannot escape them.

Characters

Most characters in Galo's journal are people he encounters every day, and some are not described other than having their name mentioned. It can be concluded that these people, of whom little is known, are the people that Galo cannot understand very well, and that his thoughts stray away from them because of personal issues.

 Gilberto "Galo" P. Manansala: The journal's owner. The story is told from his point of view. He is a student at an unidentified college in Manila, living an ordinary life under the care of his aunt. He has lived with this family since high school and he says that he is thankful for everything that his aunt's family has provided him. At sixteen he is young for a college student, and mentions that he started school at a very young age. Little is known about his appearance, except that he wears glasses and has a short haircut which causes him to be teased as a military cadet. He can be described as a typical male college student from his first journal entries, despite family matters. It can also be concluded that he is intelligent because, in his journal, he states that even though he spaces out in class while writing in his journal, he still manages to recite and get the correct answer. He also gets an offer from an instructor to write in a publication. It is hinted that he can play the guitar.
 Tiya Auring (): Galo's primary guardian and the sister of Galo's mom. She has four children and is aloof and stern, according to Galo's description. He says that he tries not to get involved with his aunt as long as he can get away with it. She is bossy and loud.
 Tiyo Dindo (): Auring's husband and Galo's uncle who secretly helps Galo in paying his tuition without the knowledge of Galo's aunt, Tiya Auring.
 Aling Delia (): The right-hand woman of Mama Susan.
 Mama Susan: Galo's grandmother and the leader of a religious group in their province. She is sick when Galo returns to her home and she dies near the end of the story.

Reception

Some reviews of the book say that the pace is monotonous; however, it does pick up in the end and cryptic Latin messages embedded in Galo's journal entries add a sense of mystery to the story.

It has become a best seller, ranking first at most book stores in the Philippines.

Film adaptation

A possible film adaptation of the book had been teased on Bob Ong's Facebook page in March 2016. On February 6, 2020, it was announced that the book will finally be adapted into film, starring Joshua Garcia as Galo, which will be directed by Chito S. Roño and will be co-produced by Black Sheep Productions and Regal Entertainment.

It was released on May 18, 2023 on Amazon Prime Video.

References

Philippine novels
Tagalog-language novels
2010 novels
Philippine mystery novels
Novels set in the Philippines

Ang mga Kaibigan ni Mama Susan


Mittelbau-Dora (also Dora-Mittelbau and Nordhausen-Dora) was a Nazi concentration camp located near Nordhausen in Thuringia, Germany. It was established in late summer 1943 as a subcamp of Buchenwald concentration camp, supplying slave labour from many Eastern countries occupied by Germany (including evacuated survivors of eastern extermination camps), for extending the nearby tunnels in the Kohnstein and for manufacturing the V-2 rocket and the V-1 flying bomb. In the summer of 1944, Mittelbau became an independent concentration camp with numerous subcamps of its own. In 1945, most of the surviving inmates were sent on death marches or crammed in trains of box-cars by the SS. On 11 April 1945, US troops freed the remaining prisoners.

The inmates at Dora-Mittelbau were treated in a brutal and inhumane manner, working 14-hour days and being denied access to basic hygiene, beds, and adequate rations. Around one in three of the roughly 60,000 prisoners who were sent to Dora-Mittelbau died.

Today, the site hosts a memorial and museum.

Background

In early summer 1943, mass production of the A4 (later better known as V-2, V standing for Vergeltung or retribution) ballistic rocket started at the Heeresanstalt Peenemünde on the Baltic island of Usedom as well as at the Raxwerke in Wiener Neustadt, Austria and at the Zeppelin works in Friedrichshafen on Lake Constance.

On 18 August 1943, a bombing raid by the Royal Air Force on Peenemünde ("Operation Hydra") seriously damaged the facilities and ended construction of V-2s there. Other air raids had damaged the other two sites in June and August. As a result, the Nazi leadership accelerated plans to move military construction to areas less threatened by Allied bombers. On 22 August 1943, Adolf Hitler ordered SS leader Heinrich Himmler to use concentration camp workers in future A4/V-2 production. One of the sites selected was at the mountain known as Kohnstein, near Nordhausen in Thuringia. Since 1936, the Wirtschaftliche Forschungsgesellschaft (WIFO) () had been building a subterranean fuel depot for the Wehrmacht there. By late summer 1943, this was almost finished.

To oversee the creation and operation of the new construction facility, Albert Speer, Himmler and Karl Saur agreed on the foundation of  (the name referring to the works' location in Mitteldeutschland). Its board consisted of Hans Kammler, who was head of Amtsgruppe C at the SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt (WVHA) and two of Speer's armaments managers,  and , the former seconded from Commerzbank. To actually run the plant, , who had earlier been in charge of producing the "Tiger I" tank at Henschel, was appointed. Operational security for the project was overseen by SS-Oberstürmbannfuhrer Helmut Bischoff, a former Gestapo official and a member of Kammler's staff. The initial contract for Mittelwerk was for 12,000 rockets, valued at 750 million Reichsmark for a standard price per unit, once production reached 5,000 units, of 50,000 Reichsmark per rocket.

Especially for Kammler, this became a prestige project.

Establishment
Only ten days after the raid on Peenemünde, on 28 August 1943, the first 107 concentration camp inmates from Buchenwald arrived with their SS guards at the Kohnstein. The official name of the new subcamp of Buchenwald was Arbeitslager Dora. Another 1,223 Buchenwald prisoners followed on 2 September and workers from Peenemünde came in mid-October. Over the next months, many more prisoners were brought to the area in almost daily transports from Buchenwald. By late September, the number of workers had risen to over 3,000, by late October to 6,800 and by Christmas 1943 to more than 10,500. Since there were initially no huts, the prisoners were housed inside the tunnels – in specially designated Schlafstollen with four levels of beds stacked over each other.

There were no sanitary facilities except for barrels that served as latrines. Inmates (the majority of them from the Soviet Union, Poland or France) died from hunger, thirst, cold and overwork. During the first months, most of the work done was heavy construction and transport. Only in January 1944, when production of the A4/V-2 began, were the first prisoners moved to the new above-ground camp on the south side of the mountain. Many had to sleep in the tunnels until May 1944.

In these initial months, from October 1943 to March 1944, out of a total of 17,500 slave labourers, almost 2,900 died at Dora. Another 3,000 who were very ill or dying were sent to Lublin-Majdanek and Bergen-Belsen concentration camps. Few of them survived. At the end of 1943, the Dora work squads had "the highest death rate in the entire concentration camp system".

By late 1943, production had started. On 10 December, Albert Speer and his staff visited the tunnels, observing the terrible conditions and finding them littered with corpses. Some members of Speer's staff were so shocked that they had to take an extra period of leave. A week later, Speer wrote to Kammler, congratulating him on his success "in transforming the underground installation ... from its raw condition two months ago into a factory, which has no equal in Europe and which is unsurpassed even when measured against American standards. I take this opportunity to express my appreciation for this really unique achievement and to ask you also in future to support Herr Degenkolb in this wonderful way."

Operation

Prisoners

Inmates came from almost all countries of Europe; many of them had been arrested for political reasons. After May 1944, Jews were also brought to Mittelbau. With the dissolution of the so-called Zigeuner-Familienlager (Gypsy family camp) at Auschwitz-Birkenau, the SS transported many Roma and Sinti to Mittelbau between April and August 1944.

The prisoners were subject to extreme cruelty. As a result, they often suffered injuries, including permanent disability and disfigurement, and death. Severe beatings were routine, as was deliberate starvation, torture and summary executions.

In total, around 60,000 prisoners passed through the Mittelbau camps between August 1943 and March 1945. The precise number of people killed is impossible to determine. The SS files counted around 12,000 dead. In addition, an unknown number of unregistered prisoners died or were murdered in the camps. Around 5,000 sick and dying were sent in early 1944 and in March 1945 to Lublin and Bergen-Belsen.

Of those killed, around 350 were hanged (including 200 for sabotage). The rate of executions notably accelerated after the personnel from Auschwitz arrived: in February and March 1945, the SS on some days hanged 30, on one occasion even 50 prisoners.

Rocket production

On 1 January 1944, the Mittelwerk delivered its first three rockets, all of which suffered from serious production defects. The SS considered those prisoners who had expanded the tunnels in autumn and winter of 1943/44 as unusable in actual production work, because they were either too weakened or not qualified for work on the assembly lines. As a result, new prisoners were brought in from other concentration camps. From March 1944, the others were moved to newly created subcamps in the area around Nordhausen where they continued to be used for digging new tunnels or working at construction sites above ground.

By late January, 56 rockets had been produced. By May, monthly output was 400 units. There were still defects, resulting in launch-pad and mid-air explosions. Output was still far below the goal of 1,000 units per month. Wernher von Braun visited the Nordhausen plant on 25 January 1944 and again on 6 May 1944, when he met Walter Dornberger, Arthur Rudolph and Albin Sawatzki, discussing the need to enslave another 1,800 skilled French workers.

On 8 September 1944, the first V-2 built at Mittelbau was successfully launched at London. That month, production hit 600 units, a pace that was kept up until February 1945.

Construction and subcamps

On 31 December 1943, construction of the above-ground camp, less than a kilometre from the tunnel B entrance was sufficiently completed for the workers to move in. The underground detainee accommodations (Schlafstollen or "sleeping tunnels") were dismantled in May 1944.

Besides the main camp Dora, housing an average of 15,000 prisoners, the main subcamps were  (established 2 May 1944, averaging around 8,000 prisoners),  (1 April 1944, 4,000 prisoners),  (13 March 1944, 1,000 prisoners) and the SS construction units III and IV (totaling around 3,000 prisoners, distributed among several small camps along a newly constructed railway line between Nordhausen and Herzberg am Harz. More subcamps were added once Mittelbau was officially independent. By spring 1945, the number of inmates totaled over 40,000 in around 40 camps.

From spring/summer 1944, the camp became the centre of a subcamp system of its own. Originally, these still were part of the Buchenwald system. With the creation of the Jägerstab (Fighter Staff), led by Speer, as an institution to oversee a boost to fighter plane production and the move of military production underground, facilities for the production of fighter planes for the Junkers company were to be created around Nordhausen – along with the necessary infrastructure. In addition, after the creation of the Geilenbergstab (named after Edmund Geilenberg), over the summer of 1944 more underground construction was requested for the German petroleum industry. Demand for workers for these projects was satisfied with concentration camp prisoners, but also with foreign forced labourers, POWs and drafted Germans.

The SS administration separated Mittelbau-Dora from Buchenwald at the end of September 1944 and Dora became the center of it. In effect, the new camp became officially operational on 1 November 1944 with 32,471 prisoners.

Decline

By the time Dora became operational in November 1944, the decline of Mittelbau-Dora was already beginning. With the subcamps overcrowded and the weather turning colder, conditions in all camps deteriorated and the death rate rose significantly. After peaking in March 1944 at 750, this had declined to 100 to 150 per month by the summer. From November it picked up and in December 1944 the official tally was 570, of whom 500 died at Lager Ellrich.

Transfers from Auschwitz

At the end of 1944, the SS began to evacuate the inmates of Auschwitz and Gross-Rosen before the advancing Red Army. Many of them were transported to the Mittelbau. Through March 1945, up to 16,000 prisoners arrived, including women and children. Although many died in transit, this raised the number of Jews at Mittelbau. Those who survived were often extremely weak or sick. Once again, the death rate rose: Between January and early April 1945, around 6,000 inmates died, around 3,000 of them at the Boelcke-Kaserne (a former Luftwaffe barracks) at Nordhausen, which had been used by the SS after January 1945 as the main Sterbelager (camp for the dying) for the Mittelbau system. Also from January to April 1945, at least 1,700 V-2 and over 6,000 V-1 rockets were built.

Along with the inmates from Auschwitz arrived several hundred SS guards who joined the staff at Mittelbau, including Richard Baer, who succeeded Otto Förschner as overall Mittelbau commandant on 1 February 1945. Baer replaced most senior personnel with people from Auschwitz. Franz Hössler became commandant of the Häftlinglager Dora. Eduard Wirths became the new Standortarzt.  became head of the Arbeitseinsatz-Dienststelle which coordinated the use of forced labour.  became head of the Politische Abteilung (the local Gestapo office).

Allied attacks

On 3 and 4 April 1945, Nordhausen was attacked in two waves by several hundred Lancasters and Mosquitos of Nos 1 and 8 Groups of the Royal Air Force Bomber Command. Around 75% of the town was destroyed, the medieval old town was hit particularly hard. Out of 40,000 inhabitants, roughly 8,800 people died, 20,000 lost their homes. Among the dead were also an estimated 1,300-1,500 Mittelbau prisoners, who were confined at the Boelcke-Kaserne at the time.

Evacuation
In early April 1945, as US troops were advancing towards the Harz, the SS decided to evacuate most of the Mittelbau camps. In great haste and with considerable brutality, the inmates were forced to board box cars. Several trains, each with thousands of prisoners, left the area through 6 April for Bergen-Belsen, Sachsenhausen and Ravensbrück. Others were forced to walk through the Harz hills towards the northeast. Those unable to keep up with these death marches were summarily shot by the guards.

The worst atrocity occurred at Gardelegen, known as the Gardelegen massacre. More than 1,000 prisoners from Mittelbau and Neuengamme subcamps were murdered in a barn that was set on fire. Those who were not burned alive were shot by SS, Wehrmacht and men of the Volkssturm.

Overall, although no reliable statistics on the number of deaths on these transports exist, estimates put the number of prisoners killed at up to 8,000.

Liberation
As most of the camps of the Mittelbau system were completely evacuated, there were not many prisoners left to be liberated by the Allies.  The SS also left several hundred sick prisoners at Dora and in the Boelcke-Kaserne. They were freed when US troops (consisting of the 3rd Armored Division, the 104th Infantry Division, and the 9th Infantry Division) reached Nordhausen on 11 April 1945. There were also around 1,300 dead prisoners at the barracks.

War correspondents took pictures and made films of the dead and dying prisoners at Dora. Like the documentation of Nazi atrocities at Bergen-Belsen, these were published around the globe and became some of the best-known testimonies of Nazi crimes.

Most of those inmates who survived the transports were freed in mid-April at Bergen-Belsen or at other camps. Some, however, remained prisoners until early May and were freed in Mecklenburg or Austria.

In total, even conservative estimates put the number of people who did not survive being sent to Mittelbau-Dora at over 20,000. Thus, around one in three of those confined here did not survive.

Aftermath

Bergen-Belsen
Transports from Mittelbau arrived at Bergen-Belsen between 8 and 11 April 1945. Several thousand men were housed in the so-called Kasernenlager around  north of the main camp, which was already overflowing with prisoners. Of the approximately 15,000 prisoners from Mittelbau, about half were from the Soviet Union and Poland. Although not in good health, these men were much healthier than most of the prisoners in the Belsen main camp. When the British Army liberated Belsen on 15 April, many of the inmates turned on their former overseers at Mittelbau. About 170 of these "Kapos" were killed that day.

Belsen Trial

Some of the SS personnel who had come from Auschwitz with the evacuation trains went on to Bergen-Belsen when Mittelbau was itself evacuated. A few of them, notably Franz Hössler, were prosecuted by the British military authorities at the Belsen trial in Lüneburg in September 1945. However, charges at this trial related only to crimes committed either at Auschwitz or at Bergen-Belsen, not at Mittelbau. Hössler was among those found guilty and executed on 13 December 1945.

Dora Trial

Following the June 1945 Fedden Mission investigation of conditions at Dora, the trial "The United States of America versus Arthur Kurt Andrae et al." trial commenced on 7 August 1947 at the Dachau internment camp against 19 defendants. Otto Förschner was not a defendant in the Dora Trial, since he had already been executed after being convicted in the Dachau camp trial.

The court convicted 15 Dora SS guards and Kapos (one of them was executed), four defendants were acquitted. The trial also addressed the question of liability of the engineers and scientists — former Generaldirektor of Mittelwerk Georg Rickhey was acquitted. Arthur Rudolph (recruited in 1945 under Operation Paperclip and later exiled from the US in 1984) was not even charged. A related trial was also held 1959–1961 in Essen.

Research continuity
Immediately after taking control of the area, US specialists began to inspect the rocket works and seized materials, parts and documents. They were later joined by British experts. Eventually the Soviets took over.

Apart from Rickhey, Rudolph, and von Braun, several dozen former Mittelwerk engineers and scientists quickly hired on with the US government. They first constructed rocket weapons or jet planes and then mostly went on to join the American space program. The Soviets also hired some of the engineers.

Like the rocket engineers, many construction engineers at Mittelwerk were able to continue with their careers. Very few were charged in connection with their role in the Nazi slave labour program.

DP-camp
After liberation, the US forces and the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) turned Dora and Harzungen camps into accommodations for displaced persons (DPs). In mid-May 1945, there were around 14,000 people living at Dora, several hundred liberated concentration camp inmates and many POWs as well as foreign civilian forced labourers. Repatriation was fairly quick for those from Western Europe, but many from Eastern Europe had to wait months before they were able to return home. In early July, Thuringia passed from American to Soviet control. The Red Army now used Dora as a repatriation camp for former Polish and Soviet slave labourers. The Soviet authorities treated their citizens who had been forced to work for the Germans with suspicion, blaming them for collaborating with the enemy. These men were subject to debriefing by the Soviet secret service and some of them were imprisoned once more and sent to the Gulag.

Umsiedlerlager
Once the last forced labourers had left, Dora camp was used from December 1945 by German authorities as a holding camp for Germans expelled from Czechoslovakia. They were then distributed among various municipalities in northern Thuringia. The number of expelled housed in the camp averaged about 5,000. The camp was dissolved in July 1946.

Demolition
After that, the town of Nordhausen had the huts at Dora dismantled and re-erected at other locations in the district as emergency housing for the homeless. Only the camp's crematorium, the fire station and the camp prison remained. Nature reclaimed the area of the camp. The Soviets briefly continued to use parts of the tunnel network for manufacturing rockets. In 1947, the entrances and some internal parts were blown up in accordance with the Allied agreement to destroy military facilities in Germany.

Similar to what happened at Dora, most of the subcamps were soon dismantled and the wood used for heating or new construction. Local authorities decided in 1952 to demolish the Dora camp prison – in the face of protests by former detainees.

Memorial

German Democratic Republic
By the early 1950s, most of the traces of the central Dora camp had disappeared. Whilst the prison was being demolished, some people from Nordhausen began to turn the area around the crematorium into a memorial and cemetery. In 1964, the local district SED created the Mahn- und Gedenkstätte Dora and had a sculpture by the artist Jürgen von Woyski erected in front of the crematorium. In 1966, a permanent exhibition opened inside the building under the title Die Blutspur führt nach Bonn ("the blood trail leads to Bonn"), implying a historical continuity between the Nazi concentration camp and the government of West Germany.

By contrast with Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen and Ravensbrück, the communist government of the GDR never raised Dora to the status of Nationale Mahn- und Gedenkstätte (national memorial). In the early 1970s, the local authorities turned the completely overgrown muster ground into an Ehrenplatz der Nationen with a rostrum, flag poles and an eternal fire. In 1988, an attempt was made to access one of the tunnels inside Kohnstein, but it was abandoned due to a lack of funds that same year.

Reunified Germany
After reunification, the memorial was redesigned. A small portion of the original tunnel system was reopened and has been accessible to visitors since 1995. Since 2000, the Stiftung Gedenkstätten Buchenwald und Mittelbau-Dora runs the memorial, financed by the Thuringian state and the federal government. The GDR era memorial installations were left intact as a documentation of the way the Communist regime treated the Nazi past. A new permanent exhibition opened in a new museum building in 2006. Some work has also been done at the largest subcamp, Lager Ellrich-Juliushütte, that had been cut in half by the inner-German border.

See also
 The subcamps of Konzentrationslager Mittelbau
 Erna Petermann
 The Good German
 In the Shadow of Dora: A Novel of the Holocaust and the Apollo Program by Patrick Hicks
 Colette (2020 film)

References
 Notes

 Footnotes

Further reading

 Gretchen E. Schafft & Gerhard Zeidler (2011). Commemorating Hell: The Public Memory of Mittelbau-Dora. (1st ed.) University of Illinois Press, p. 216,

External links

 Official site of the Mittelbau-Dora Memorial

 Oral history interview with James Roberts, a sergeant in the U.S. Army, who participated in the liberation of the camp  from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University

History of Nordhausen
Unfree labor during World War II
World War II museums in Germany
World War II sites in Germany
Museums in Thuringia
Subcamps of Buchenwald

Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp


Albert Wolsky (born November 24, 1930) is an American costume designer. He has worked both on stage shows as well as for film, and has been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Costume Design seven times, winning two awards for his work on the films All That Jazz (1979) and Bugsy (1991).

Early life, military service and early career
Wolsky was born in Paris, France, but during World War II, he and the rest of his family fled to the United States to escape the German occupation.  After graduating from the City College of New York, he served in the army from 1953 to 1956, spending most of his enlistment in Japan. Once he returned to the United States, he began working in his father's travel agency. However, he decided to change careers and took an assistant's job with notable costume maker Helene Pons.

Career
Wolsky became a well regarded costume designer, working both on Broadway and in the motion picture industry.

The first film Wolsky worked on was The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter. He worked on many films including Harry and Tonto, The Turning Point, Grease and Manhattan. He worked with Bob Fosse, a leading Broadway director, on All That Jazz and won his first Academy Award.  He won his second Academy Award for Bugsy in 1991 and has been nominated five other times, most recently for his work on Julie Taymor's Beatles-inspired musical Across the Universe (2007) and Sam Mendes's Revolutionary Road (2008).

He began his career as costume designer for the theatre by assisting costume designer Ann Roth on A Case of Libel (1963); he later assisted Roth on The Odd Couple (1965), Patricia Zipprodt on Fiddler on the Roof (1964), and Theoni Aldredge on Illya Darling (1967).  His first work as lead costumer was Generation (1965). He went on to serve as principal costume designer for both plays and musicals, including The Sunshine Boys (1972) and Sly Fox (1976).  Wolsky has been announced as the designer for the 2012 Broadway production of The Heiress.

In 2010, Wolsky donated his costume design sketches to the Margaret Herrick Library at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

Film credits

Honors and awards
Academy Awards
Winner: All That Jazz, 1980; Bugsy, 1992
Nominee: Sophie's Choice, 1983; The Journey of Natty Gann, 1986; Toys, 1993; Across the Universe, 2008; Revolutionary Road, 2009
Hollywood Film Award, Costume Designer of the Year, 2004
Costume Designers Guild, Career Achievement Award, 1999
TDF/Irene Sharaff Lifetime Achievement Award, 2010
Antoinette Perry Award
2013 Best Costume Design of a Play for The Heiress (nominee)
Drama Desk Award
1976 Outstanding Costume Design for They Knew What They Wanted (nominee)
1976 Outstanding Costume Design for A Memory of Two Mondays / 27 Wagons Full of Cotton (nominee)
1977 Outstanding Costume Design for Sly Fox (nominee)

Memberships
Wolsky is a member of the Board of Governors of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

Personal life
His partner of thirty-nine years was actor James Mitchell who died in 2010.

Bibliography
Chaneles, Sol & Wolsky, Albert (1974) The Movie Makers: the lives and films of more than 2,500 stars, supporting actors, and directors who have made motion picture history.  Secaucus, NJ: Derbibooks

References

Further reading
"Wolsky, Albert."  Contemporary Theater, Film, and Television.  Vol. 36.  Ed. Thomas Riggs.  Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2001.  379–80.

External links

Interview, March 17, 2009
Albert Wolsky costume design drawings, 1977–2007, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

1930 births
Living people
21st-century American LGBT people
Best Costume Design Academy Award winners
American gay artists
French emigrants to the United States
City College of New York alumni
United States Army soldiers

Albert Wolsky


Ada E. Yonath (, ; born 22 June 1939) is an Israeli chemist and Nobel laureate crystallographer best known for her pioneering work on the structure of ribosomes. She is the current director of the Helen and Milton A. Kimmelman Center for Biomolecular Structure and Assembly of the Weizmann Institute of Science.

In 2009, Yonath received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Venkatraman Ramakrishnan and Thomas A. Steitz for her studies on the structure and function of the ribosome, becoming the first Israeli woman to win the Nobel Prize out of ten Israeli Nobel laureates, the first woman from the Middle East to win a Nobel prize in the sciences, and the first woman in 45 years to win the Nobel Prize for Chemistry.

Biography
Ada Lifshitz (later Yonath) was born in the Geula quarter of Jerusalem. Her parents, Hillel and Esther Lifshitz, were Zionist Jews who immigrated to the British Mandate of Palestine (now Israel) from Zduńska Wola, Poland in 1933 before the establishment of Israel. Her father was a rabbi and came from a rabbinical family. They settled in Jerusalem and ran a grocery, but found it difficult to make ends meet. They lived in cramped quarters with several other families, and Yonath remembers "books" being the only thing she had to keep her occupied. Despite their poverty, her parents sent her to school in the upscale Beit HaKerem neighborhood to assure her a good education. When her father died at the age of 42, the family moved to Tel Aviv.

Yonath was accepted to Tichon Hadash high school although her mother could not pay the tuition. She gave math lessons to students in return. As a youngster, she says she was inspired by the Polish and naturalized-French scientist Marie Curie. However, she stresses that Curie, whom she as a child was fascinated by after reading her biography, was not her "role model". She returned to Jerusalem for college, graduating from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem with a bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1962, and a master's degree in biochemistry in 1964. In 1968, she obtained her PhD from the Weizmann Institute of Science for X-ray crystallographic studies on the structure of collagen, with Wolfie Traub as her PhD advisor.

She has one daughter, Hagit Yonath, a doctor at Sheba Medical Center, and a granddaughter, Noa. She is the cousin of anti-occupation activist Ruchama Marton.

Scientific career

Yonath accepted postdoctoral positions at Carnegie Mellon University (1969) and MIT (1970). While a postdoc at MIT she spent some time in the lab of subsequent 1976 chemistry Nobel Prize winner William N. Lipscomb, Jr. of Harvard University where she was inspired to pursue very large structures.

In 1970, she established what was for nearly a decade the only protein crystallography laboratory in Israel. Then, from 1979 to 1984 she was a group leader with Heinz-Günter Wittmann at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin. She was visiting professor at the University of Chicago in 1977–78. She headed a Max-Planck Institute Research Unit at DESY in Hamburg, Germany (1986–2004) in parallel to her research activities at the Weizmann Institute.

Yonath focuses on the mechanisms underlying protein biosynthesis, by ribosomal crystallography, a research line she pioneered over twenty years ago despite considerable skepticism of the international scientific community. Ribosomes translate RNA into protein and because they have slightly different structures in microbes, when compared to eukaryotes, such as human cells, they are often a target for antibiotics. In 2000 and 2001, she determined the complete high-resolution structures of both ribosomal subunits and discovered within the otherwise asymmetric ribosome, the universal symmetrical region that provides the framework and navigates the process of polypeptide polymerization. Consequently, she showed that the ribosome is a ribozyme that places its substrates in stereochemistry suitable for peptide bond formation and for substrate-mediated catalysis. In 1993 she visualized the path taken by the nascent proteins, namely the ribosomal tunnel, and recently revealed the dynamics elements enabling its involvement in elongation arrest, gating, intra-cellular regulation and nascent chain trafficking into their folding space.

Additionally, Yonath elucidated the modes of action of over twenty different antibiotics targeting the ribosome, illuminated mechanisms of drug resistance and synergism, deciphered the structural basis for antibiotic selectivity and showed how it plays a key role in clinical usefulness and therapeutic effectiveness, thus paving the way for structure-based drug design.

For enabling ribosomal crystallography Yonath introduced a novel technique, cryo bio-crystallography, which became routine in structural biology and allowed intricate projects otherwise considered formidable.

At the Weizmann Institute, Yonath is the incumbent of the Martin S. and Helen Kimmel Professorial Chair.

Political Views

She has called for the unconditional release of all Hamas prisoners, saying that "holding Palestinians captive encourages and perpetuates their motivation to harm Israel and its citizens ... once we don't have any prisoners to release they will have no reason to kidnap soldiers".

Awards and recognition

Yonath is a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences; the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities; the European Academy of Sciences and Art and the European Molecular Biology Organization. On Saturday, 18 October 2014, Professor Yonath was named an ordinary member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences by Pope Francis.

Her awards and honors include the following:
 In 2002, Israel Prize
 In 2002, Harvey Prize
 In 2004, Massry Prize
 In 2004, Paul Karrer Gold Medal
 In 2005, Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
 In 2006, Wolf Prize in Chemistry along with George Feher.
 In 2006, Rothschild Prize in Life Sciences.
 In 2006, The EMET Prize for Art, Science and Culture in Life Sciences, along with Professor Peretz Lavie (Medicine) and Professor Eli Keshet (Biology)
 In 2007, Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize along with Harry Noller
 In 2008, the Albert Einstein World Award of Science for her pioneering contributions to protein biosynthesis in the field of ribosomal crystallography and her introduction of innovative techniques in cryo bio-crystallography.
 In 2009, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (co-recipient with Thomas Steitz and Venkatraman Ramakrishnan). She was the first Israeli woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.
 In 2010, Wilhelm Exner Medal
 In 2011, Marie Curie Medal awarded by the Polish Chemical Society
 In 2013 she became a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina.
 In 2015, she was awarded Honorary Doctorates from the De La Salle University, Manila/Philippines; the Joseph Fourier University, Grenoble/France; the Medical University of Lodz, Lodz/Poland; and the University of Warwick, UK.
 In 2018, she was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from Carnegie Mellon University
 In 2020, she was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society
 In 2023, she was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from the Jagiellonian University.

See also
 Women of Israel
 History of RNA biology
 List of Israel Prize recipients
 List of female Nobel laureates
 List of Israeli Nobel laureates
 List of Jewish Nobel laureates
 List of peace activists
 List of RNA biologists
 Timeline of women in science
 Women in chemistry

References

External links

 "APS user shares the "Israeli Nobel" for chemistry", from the Argonne National Laboratory Advanced Photon Source (APS), United States Department of Energy
 The Official Site of Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
 Weizmann Institute of Science, Yonath-Site
 Ada Yonath's Publication list
 Talk of Ada Yonath at the Origins 2011 congress

1939 births
Living people
People from Rehovot
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Women Nobel laureates
Israeli Nobel laureates
Albert Einstein World Award of Science Laureates
Crystallographers
Israeli biochemists
Israel Prize in chemistry recipients
Israel Prize women recipients
Israeli Jews
Israeli people of Polish-Jewish descent
Israeli pacifists
Israeli women chemists
Israeli women scientists
Jewish chemists
Jewish pacifists
Jews from Mandatory Palestine
Jewish women scientists
L'Oréal-UNESCO Awards for Women in Science laureates
Members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization
Members of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Jerusalem
Scientists from Tel Aviv
University of Chicago faculty
Academic staff of Weizmann Institute of Science
Weizmann Institute of Science alumni
Wolf Prize in Chemistry laureates
Women biologists
Carnegie Mellon University fellows
Massry Prize recipients
Articles containing video clips
20th-century women scientists
21st-century women scientists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Members of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina

Ada Yonath


The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 is a book by Eric Hobsbawm, published in 1994. In it, Hobsbawm comments on what he sees as the disastrous failures of state communism, capitalism, and nationalism. He is also skeptical of the progress of the arts and changes in society in the latter half of the twentieth century.

Hobsbawm calls the period from the start of World War I to the fall of the Soviet Union "the short twentieth century". This is to follow on "the long 19th century", the period from the start of the French Revolution in 1789 to the start of World War I in 1914. The Age of Extremes is the last in his series of books that include (The Age of Revolution: Europe, 1789-1848, The Age of Capital: 1848–1875, The Age of Empire: 1875–1914). In the United States, the book was published with the subtitle A History of the World, 1914–1991.

References

1994 books

The Age of Extremes