The Immortal is an American television series, starring Christopher George as a man whose blood chemistry and resistance to almost all diseases (including old age) makes him both almost immortal and a target of several wealthy men who would basically use him as a personal blood bank, aired on ABC from September 24, 1970, to January 14, 1971. The series is based on a pilot film of the same name, which aired on September 30, 1969, as an ABC Movie of the Week. The pilot is based on the 1964 science fiction novel The Immortals, by James Gunn.

The series music was composed by Dominic Frontiere, who is primarily known for scoring the sci-fi anthology series The Outer Limits. Although The Immortal was canceled at midseason, episodes were rerun by ABC in the summer of 1971. It was later rerun on the American Forces Network in Europe in the 1980s and on the Sci Fi Channel in the 1990s.

Series overview
Ben Richards is a test car driver for a large corporation owned by billionaire Jordan Braddock. He is 43 years old, but looks young enough to pass for 30—and he has never been sick a day in his life. Ben's life changes when he donates a pint of blood. When Braddock, who is dying, is given a blood transfusion of his donated blood, and is brought back from the brink of death, Ben's physician, Dr. Matthew Pearce, determines that his O-negative blood contains all known antibodies and immunities. This gives Ben immunity to every known disease and an estimated lifespan five to ten times that of other humans, making him, in the doctor's words, "virtually immortal". The billionaire decides that he has to control Richards' life so he can access his life-saving blood.

When Richards rejects all of Braddock's offers to remain with him, the billionaire has him imprisoned, but he ultimately escapes. Richards tells his fiancée Sylvia Cartwright that they can never marry because she would also be imprisoned by Braddock (in the episode "Sylvia" Richards puts himself in danger to visit Cartwright at her wedding to another man). Richards is now on the run because when Braddock dies (shown in the flashback episode "To The Gods Alone" which resolved plot points between the pilot and the series), one of his former employees, Fletcher (who did not appear in the pilot), is hired by another billionaire, Arthur Maitland, who also wants access to Richards' blood.

The series' dramatic tension is based on the idea that Richards would probably never lose his life if he were to live quietly, since he would never succumb to any known diseases. But his flight from Fletcher puts his life at great risk, constantly engaging in dangerous efforts to avoid capture, and his "immortal" blood did not make him immune to losing his life from injury.

The series primarily focuses on Richards' journeys and the people he meets while trying to avoid Fletcher. A secondary plot involved Richards' search for a brother he has never known, with the implication that that brother may share his gift and thus be at risk from unscrupulous billionaires as well. Ben Richards is imprisoned by a young billionaire, Simon Brent, in an episode titled "The Queen's Gambit." In the episode "Man On A Punched Card" Maitland hires computer programmer Terry Kerwin to track and predict Richards' movements using a mainframe computer. Kerwin was played by Christopher George's real-life wife Lynda Day George, who would co-star on another Paramount TV series Mission: Impossible from 1971 to 1973.

The plotline of The Immortal is quite different from that of the book on which it is based (the protagonist of the book was a vagrant, not a test driver, who discovers his immortality when he sells his blood). Instead, The Immortal bears more than a superficial resemblance to the then-recent, very popular TV series, The Fugitive, which still aired in syndicated reruns.  That series had ended its four-season run three years before The Immortal began. It is also the mirror of the series Run for Your Life about a man suffering from a terminal disease who wants to experience everything because he is going to die soon, while Richards has to run because he will live virtually forever. The Immortal was cancelled before a proper finale episode could be filmed.

Cast
 Christopher George as Ben Richards
 Don Knight as Fletcher
 David Brian as Arthur Maitland
 Carol Lynley as Sylvia Cartwright
 Barry Sullivan as Jordan Braddock
 Jessica Walter as Janet Braddock
 Ralph Bellamy as Dr. Matthew Pearce
 Nico Minardos as Simon Brent
 Paul Frees Narrator

Episodes

DVD release

On October 16, 2017, it was announced that Visual Entertainment Inc. had acquired the rights to the series. They subsequently released The Immortal - 'The Complete Collection' on DVD in Region 1 on November 9, 2017.

See also
Immortality in fiction

References

External links

American Broadcasting Company original programming
1970s American drama television series
Television series by CBS Studios
1970 American television series debuts
1971 American television series endings
1970s American science fiction television series
Television shows based on American novels
English-language television shows
Fiction about immortality
Television shows set in Kentucky

The Immortal (1970 TV series)


The World Trade Centre Montreal (in French, Centre de Commerce mondial de Montréal) is a shopping centre, office and hotel complex located in the Quartier international district of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Completed in 1992 by Arcop, it is an example of a 'horizontal skyscraper' and a leading example of urban renewal, architectural preservation and rehabilitation. The complex united several smaller Victorian-era commercial buildings (including the city's historic Bank of Nova Scotia building and Canada Steamship Lines building) by encasing them in a larger form, in this case a massive glassed-in atrium running the length of what was once Fortification Lane, itself the site of the city's colonial defensive walls. In a kind of post-modern hommage, a remnant of the Berlin Wall, given to the city in 1992, is on public exhibit within the complex. The complex includes other historic elements, such as a fountain by French architect and sculptor Dieudonné-Barthélemy Guibal (1699–1757) also donated to the city in 1992. At the far end of the centre is the Montreal InterContinental Hotel.

From the exterior it appears as a quintessential late-19th century Montreal business block with a diverse collection of buildings in different styles. Once inside the rear sections of those buildings have been oriented on to a vast open space, replete with reflecting pool, cafés, boutiques and other diverse services. The interior is united in its impressive open volume and natural lighting, it reveals itself in layers - for the uninitiated the interior space is often thoroughly unexpected.

The centre is connected to Montreal's underground city and to Square-Victoria-OACI metro station towards the West and Place d'Armes and Place Riopelle to the East.

External links
Montreal World Trade Centre — 747 Victoria Square
World Trade Centre

Arcop buildings
Office buildings completed in 1992
Office buildings in Montreal
Old Montreal
Montreal
1992 establishments in Quebec

World Trade Centre Montreal


David Richard Seaborne Davies (26 June 1904 – 26 October 1984) was a Welsh law teacher who served briefly as a Liberal Party Member of Parliament (MP).

Early life
Davies was born in Pwllheli, and attended the local grammar school followed by University College, Aberystwyth. He went on to St John's College, Oxford.

Political career
When David Lloyd George was given a Peerage after 55 years representing Caernarvon Boroughs, Davies was chosen as the Liberal Party candidate to follow him. He faced a contest against Plaid Cymru but won the byelection, taking his seat just as the Second World War was coming to an end in Europe.

Unfortunately for Davies, the end of the war brought a swift dissolution to Parliament and he lost his seat to the Conservative Party in the 1945 general election. He had one of the shortest tenures as a Member of Parliament during the Twentieth Century, in contrast to his predecessor who was one of the longest of all time.

Later life
After his defeat, Davies was appointed to the Chair of Common Law in the Faculty of Law at the University of Liverpool. He was also Warden of Derby Hall. This position allowed him to take several public appointments, including as a member of the Criminal Law Revision Committee where his advice in relation to the law of dishonesty led to a significant reform in the Theft Act 1968.

His academic position also helped him to publish significant works on the history of patents, and he was President of the Society of Public Teachers of Law in 1960–61. In 1962 he was the Cooley Lecturer at the University of Michigan. Within Liverpool University he was Public Orator from 1950 to 1955, and Pro-Vice-Chancellor from 1956 to 1960. The Faculty of Law building at Liverpool was largely built at his instigation.

After retirement in 1971, Davies moved to Caernarfon where he indulged his interest in Rugby union (he had been Life President of Liverpool University Rugby Football Club and Vice President of London Welsh RFC, and became President of Pwllheli Sports Club for ten years. He served as a Magistrate in both Liverpool and Caernarfon, and was High Sheriff of Caernarvonshire in 1967–68.

Davies was a great after-dinner speaker, regaling his audience with a large fund of Welsh anecdotes suitable for any audience. He was also interested in Welsh culture and was President of the National Eisteddfod of Wales in 1955, 1973 and 1975.

See also
List of United Kingdom MPs with the shortest service
UK by-election records

References

 "Prof Seaborne Davies" (Obituary), The Times, 5 November 1984, p. 16.
 M. Stenton and S. Lees, "Who's Who of British MPs" vol. III (Harvester Press, 1979)

External links

1904 births
1984 deaths
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for Welsh constituencies
UK MPs 1935–1945
Alumni of Aberystwyth University
Alumni of St John's College, Oxford
Academics of the University of Liverpool
High Sheriffs of Caernarvonshire
Presidents of the National Eisteddfod of Wales
Members of Parliament for Caernarfon
People from Pwllheli

Seaborne Davies


John Rolle (1598–1648) was a Turkey Merchant and also served as MP for the Rolle family's controlled borough of Callington, Cornwall, in  1626 and 1628 and  for Truro, Cornwall, in 1640 for the Short Parliament and in November 1640 for the Long Parliament. He supported the Parliamentarian side in the English Civil War.

Origins
John Rolle was baptised 13 April 1598 at Petrockstowe, Devon, the 4th son of Robert Rolle (d. 1633) of Heanton Satchville in the parish of Petrockstowe, Devon, by his wife Joan Hele, daughter of Thomas Hele of Fleet, Devon. John was a great-grandson, in a junior line, of George Rolle (c.1486-1552) of Stevenstone, Devon, founder of the influential and wealthy Rolle family of Devon, Keeper of the Records of the Court of Common Pleas and MP for Barnstaple in 1542 and 1545. John's elder brothers included:
Sir Samuel I Rolle (c.1588-1647), eldest brother, of Heanton Satchville, Member of Parliament for Callington, Cornwall  in 1640 and for Devon 1641-1647 and a supporter of the parliamentary side in the Civil War.
Sir Henry Rolle (1589–1656), of Shapwick in Somerset, Chief Justice of the King's Bench and MP for Callington,  Cornwall, (1614-1623-4) and for Truro, Cornwall (1625- 1629)

Career
John Rolle was a Turkey Merchant. He  was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Callington in the parliaments of 1626 and 1628. In 1628 he refused to pay  tonnage and poundage when King Charles I continued to levy the charge in defiance of Parliament. Silks and other goods to the value of £1,517 were seized from him by the customs authorities, and he was forced into a lengthy lawsuit in order to recover them. Writs issued by the courts on his behalf were blocked by order of the Privy Council and the Exchequer, and he was summoned by the king before the Court of Star Chamber, which the House of Commons treated as a breach of its parliamentary privilege, as it was then debating the legitimacy of seizure of merchants' goods by the crown. Rolle's property was not returned and as a result he ceased his trading activities. In 1630 following the dissolution of Parliament, Rolle was again summoned before the Star Chamber and was questioned about speeches made by him in the Commons.

In April 1640 Rolle was elected MP for Truro in the Short Parliament and was re-elected in November 1640 for the Long Parliament. He adhered to the Parliamentary cause on the outbreak of Civil War. In 1641 Parliament instructed the committee of trade to investigate his case and after some delay in 1644 it made its report, as a result of which Rolle was voted full compensation for the sum seized from him and for losses he had suffered, covering his legal expenses and his losses from his refusal to trade after 1628.  The expense was met by a fine on the executors of the Farmers of Customs and on Sir William Acton, 1st Baronet, the Sheriff of London who had been in office in 1628.

Death
Rolle died unmarried and was buried at Petrockstowe on 18 November 1648.

References

Sources

D. Brunton & D. H. Pennington, Members of the Long Parliament (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954)
Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L., (Ed.) The Visitations of the County of Devon: Comprising the Heralds' Visitations of 1531, 1564 & 1620, Exeter, 1895, p. 654, pedigree of Rolle

|-

1598 births
1648 deaths
English MPs 1626
English MPs 1628–1629
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1640–1648
John
People from Torridge District
Members of the Parliament of England for Callington
Members of the Parliament of England for Truro

John Rolle (Parliamentarian)


A morpheme is the smallest linguistic part of a word that can have a meaning. In other words, it is the smallest meaningful part of a word. Examples of morphemes would be the parts "un-", "break", and "-able" in the word "unbreakable".

There are 5 types of morpheme:
 Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be joined with other morphemes (such as unbreakable) or on its own (such as break)
 Bound morpheme: a morpheme which can only be used when joined to other morphemes (such as unbreakable)
 Derivational morpheme: a morpheme which can be derived (added) to another morpheme to create a new word (such as adding -ness to happy to form the new word happiness)
 Inflectional morpheme: a morpheme which can change a word's tense, number, etc. (such as adding -s to dog to form the plural dogs)
 Allomorphs: different types of the same morpheme (for example, the morpheme ed can have the sound 'id' in the word hunted, the sound 't' in the word fished or the sound 'd' in the word buzzed)

Linguistics

Morpheme


The Congress Lands was a group of land tracts in Ohio that made land available for sale to members of the general public through land offices in various cities, and through the General Land Office. It consisted of three groups of surveys:

Ohio River Base
Congress Lands East of Scioto River
Congress Lands North of Old Seven Ranges
Congress Lands West of Miami River
Northwest Ohio
North and East of the First Principal Meridian
South and East of the First Principal Meridian

Ohio River Base
The Ohio River Base consisted of the Congress Lands East of Scioto River, and Congress Lands North of Old Seven Ranges. These surveys had vertical rows of six mile square townships called Ranges. These ranges were numbered from Ellicott's Line, the boundary between Ohio and Pennsylvania, also known as the Eastern Ohio Meridian. The townships within each range were surveyed north and south from the baseline called the "Geographer's Line" at 40 degrees 38 minutes north, which runs west from the north bank of the Ohio River where it exits Pennsylvania, at a place now called the Beginning Point of the U.S. Public Land Survey. The townships were not numbered from the baseline, but from south to north beginning with the first partial township in each range formed next to the Ohio River. Thus, townships in adjacent ranges rarely had the same number. This system extended the original numbering plan from the Seven Ranges. There being no east ranges or south townships, plats are designated "Township X of Range Y of Ohio River Survey" with no need for north or west designations. Surveys on the Ohio River Base also consist of the Ohio Company and the Seven Ranges. The Seven Ranges were sold in the same manner, and could be considered Congress Lands, but get a special category to itself.

Congress Lands West of Miami River
The Congress Lands West of Miami River consists of lands between the Great Miami River and Indiana, and south of the Greenville Treaty Line. Ranges are designated as east of the First Principal Meridian which is at the Ohio-Indiana border. Townships are numbered from south to north, with irregularities caused by the course of the Great Miami River.

Northwest Ohio
Congress Lands in northwest Ohio consist of North and East of the First Principal Meridian and South and East of the First Principal Meridian. These lands are south of a narrow strip next to the Michigan border, west of the Firelands and the Congress Lands North of Old Seven Ranges, North of the Greenville Treaty Line and the Virginia Military District, and east of Indiana. Townships are surveyed north and south from the baseline at 41 degrees north, and are designated "Township X N, Range Y E of First Principal Meridian" or "Township X S, Range Y E of First Principal Meridian".

Township Subdivision

In all five of Ohio's Congress Lands, townships are divided into 36 one mile square sections.  These sections are numbered by the method established May 18, 1796. Section sixteen of each survey township was set aside for support of public schools.

Other Lands
Lands that were not dispersed in the United States Military District or the Refugee Tract were made available for sale through the various Land Offices, and treated the same as Congress Lands.

See also
Ohio Lands
Historic regions of the United States

Notes

References

External links
Ohio History Central - Congress Lands

Former regions and territories of the United States
Geography of Ohio
Pre-statehood history of Ohio
History of the Midwestern United States
Surveying of the United States

Congress Lands


The traje de flamenca ("flamenco outfit") or traje de gitana ("Gitana outfit") is the dress traditionally worn by women at Ferias (festivals) in Andalusia, Spain.  There are two forms:  one worn by dancers and the other worn as a day dress.

The day dress is body-hugging to mid-thigh, and then continues in multiple layers of ruffles to the ankle.  Modern interpretations of the style are difficult to walk in, let alone dance.   The dancers' version therefore flares out from higher on the hip to allow freedom of movement.

Both versions are trimmed with  layers of ruffles on both the skirt and sleeves. The dress is typically brightly colored, usually in black, red or  and may be either plain or patterned, with the most famous being the polka dotted traje de lunares.

Traditionally, the outfit is completed with a shawl (mantón de Manila) worn over the shoulders. The traditional dancer will also wear her hair in a bun adorned with flowers, and perhaps a decorative hair comb.

The outfit is attributed to the Gitanos (Roma people of Spain), but is now generally thought of as typically Andalusian. It is also worn by chulapas in Madrid. The outfit originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when women vendors dressed in modest calico gowns trimmed with ruffles came to the fairs along with livestock traders. In time, women of the propertied classes copied these outfits. Ever since the Seville Exposition of 1929, the traje de flamenca has had a status as the official outfit of the event.

Fashion

The traje de flamenca has undergone changes over the century or more that it has been in widespread use. For example, in the 1960s and '70s, the skirts became shorter, with skirts reaching only to the middle of the calf or even to the knee (the so-called Marisol style). Beginning in the 1970s, the frogs are dropped back to the ankle so that they are not distracting on the legs.

Madonna wore a flamenco dress in the video for her 1987 signature song La Isla Bonita. This was her first song to have a Latino influence and was a tribute to the beauty of the Latin people according to Madonna. Following its release, the video achieved worldwide popularity, and the flamenco red dress she wore became a trend later.

In the early 21st century there are a wide variety of designs of traje de flamenca for women and girls. They come in a variety of colors, plain or patterned, with short or long sleeves, and more or fewer ruffles. This folkloric outfit has inspired numerous Spanish and international fashion designers, among them Victorio & Lucchino, who have their own line of trajes de flamenca. Others who have been influenced include Yves Saint Laurent, John Galliano, Valentino Garavani, and Tom Ford.

New designs in trajes de flamenca ae shown annually at the Salón Internacional de la Moda Flamenca (SIMOF), which celebrated its 15th year in 2009. The event takes place at the start of the year in Seville. In 2009, 32 designers showed 1,200 different outfits; there were also fashion accessories from 90 firms.

Notes

Andalusian culture
Flamenco
Spanish clothing

Traje de flamenca


Lean's Engine Reporter was founded in 1810 to publicize the performances of different Cornish engines used for mine pumping in Cornwall. The first Reporter of Duty was Joel Lean. The Reporter, published monthly, gave, for each engine and its pumps, the number of strokes (measured by a counter kept in a locked box), and the amount of coal used. From this, and sizes of the pumps, the engine duty was found: this was the number of pounds of water raised one foot by a bushel of coal. Between 1810 and 1840 this reporting, and competition between engineers, raised the duty from around 20 million to 90 million pounds, a much higher efficiency than found in engines elsewhere at the same time. The improvements were an increase in the steam pressure used, full expansion to low pressure, and insulation to avoid heat loss.

The Reporter continued to be published by various members of Lean's family until 1904.

This open competition between engineers has been suggested as an early precursor of the free software movement, in which people engaged in collaborative development of technical knowledge.

Notes

References

 Nuvolari, Alessandro.  "Lean's Engine Reporter and the development of the Cornish engine: A reappraisal". Transactions of the Newcomen Society, Vol 77, (2007), 167-189

Steam engines
Cornish engines

Lean's Engine Reporter


A butterfly is a (usually) day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera. They are grouped together in the suborder Rhopalocera. Butterflies are closely related to moths, from which they evolved about 56 million years ago. The earliest discovered fossil moth was 200 million years ago.

The life of butterflies is closely connected to flowering plants. Their larvae (caterpillars) feed on plants, and their adults feed on flowers. They lay their eggs on the plants their caterpillars feed on. Butterflies have a long history of co-evolution with flowering plants. Many of the details of plant anatomy are related to their pollinators, and vice versa. The other notable features of butterflies are their extraordinary range of colours and patterns, and their wings. These are discussed below.

Angiosperms (flowering plants) evolved in the Lower Cretaceous, but did not become common until the Upper Cretaceous. Butterflies were the last major group of insects to appear on the planet. They evolved from moths in the latest Cretaceous or the earliest Cainozoic. The earliest known butterfly fossils date to the mid Eocene epoch, between 40 and 50 million years ago.

Like moths, butterflies have four wings covered with tiny scales. The front and back wings are usually zipped together, so that the insect looks as if it has only two wings. When a butterfly is not flying, its wings are usually folded over its back. The wings are patterned and are often brightly coloured. There are many different kinds of butterflies. The males and females of each kind are often slightly different from each other. Butterfly watching is a popular hobby. Some people also keep collections of dead butterflies that they have caught, but they find out that the colour fades.

Like all insects with complete metamorphosis, a butterfly's life goes through four distinct stages. It begins as an egg, which  hatches into a larva (a caterpillar). After some time, the larva turns into a chrysalis. While it is in the chrysalis stage, it changes to become an adult butterfly. These changes are only beginning to be understood. To complete the cycle, adults mate and the females lay eggs.

Butterflies are any of the species belonging to the superfamilies Papilionoidea and Hedyloidea. Butterflies, along with the moths and the skippers, make up the insect order Lepidoptera. Butterflies are nearly worldwide in their distribution.

Predators and defences

Predators
The main predators of butterflies are birds, just as the main predators of the crepuscular moths are bats. Also monkeys and tree-dwelling reptiles are predators, and some insects and spiders. All reptiles have good colour vision, so that butterfly coloration works just as well on them as it does on birds.

Defences
The extraordinary colours and patterns on the wings and body can only be understood in terms of their function. Some of the most obvious functions of colour are:
 Camouflage: enabling the insect to remain hidden from view
 Signalling to other animals
 Warning colouration: signalling to other animals not to attack. Caterpillars may have stored poisons from their food plants.
 Mimicry: taking advantage of another species' warning coloration
 Sexual selection: finding a mate
 Other kinds of signalling:
 Diversion
 Startle defence: unexpected flashes of colour or eyespots

The details vary from group to group, and from species to species. The caterpillars also have colours with similar functions. The poisonous substances which make some butterflies noxious to eat are got from the plants eaten by their caterpillars.

Body

Like most insects, butterflies have three main body parts. These parts are the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. The body is protected by the exoskeleton. The body is made up of sections, known as segments. In between the segments there are flexible areas that allow the butterfly to move. All three parts of the body are covered in very small scales. The scales give the butterfly its colour.

Wings and flight
Butterflies have a very characteristic flying style. They usually do not fly in straight lines. Their style is well described by the children's version of their name: 'flutter-by'.  The way they fly presumably makes them harder for birds to catch.

Some species are capable of strong, long flights (see monarch butterfly migration) and others never leave the woods they were born in. They can survive bird pecks on the wings. Late in the season damage to their wings can often be seen, though they continue flying quite well.

When they are alive, it is often difficult to see they have four wings. The wings on each side are linked by a row of little hooks. So in practice they fly as if they had one large wing on each side.

Head
The head is the first part of the body. It has the eyes, mouth parts, and antennae.

The eyes of a butterfly are large. Like other adult insects, the eye is made up of many small lenses or "optical units". These are compound eyes. Butterflies do not see as many colours as humans, but they can see ultraviolet light.

The mouth of an adult butterfly does not have jaws. It has a kind of mouth that sucks liquids. This mouth is made of two hollow tubes. The tubes are locked together in the middle. When the butterfly is not drinking, the tubes are coiled up. It can uncoil them  when it wants to drink. Like all insects, the adult phase is about reproduction. The main eating phase is done by the larvae, which usually eat plant food.

The antennae of a butterfly are used for smell and balance. The antenna in most butterflies is clubbed at the end. In some butterflies (like the skippers), there is a hook at the end of the antenna, instead of a club.

Thorax

The thorax is the second part of the body. It is made up of three segments. The legs and wings are connected to the thorax.

The legs of a butterfly are made for walking, holding onto things, and tasting. There are three pairs of legs. There are four main parts of the leg. They are the trochanter, the femur, the tibia, and the foot. At the end of each foot, there is a pair of claws. Butterflies in the family Nymphalidae have very short front legs. They keep there front legs close to their bodies. This makes it look like they only have two pairs of legs. In some species, there is a movable body part on the tibia that is used to clean the antennae.

A butterfly has two pairs of wings. Each wing has hollow tubes called veins. The colors and patterns of butterflies are made by tiny scales. The scales overlap each other. They are connected to the wing. If a butterfly is handled, the tiny scales may rub off.

Abdomen
The abdomen is the third part of the body. It is made up of ten segments. The abdomen is much softer than the head and the thorax. At the end of the abdomen are the reproductive organs. In the male, there is a pair of claspers. They are used to hold on to the female during mating. In the female, there is a tube to lay eggs (the ovipositor).

Life cycle
Butterflies go through complete metamorphosis. This means that there are four parts in a butterfly's life. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar (sometimes called the larva). The third part is the chrysalis (sometimes called the pupa). The fourth part is the adult (sometimes called the imago).

Egg

A female butterfly will lay her eggs on or near the food plant of the caterpillar (the food plant is the plant that the caterpillar feeds on). The female will choose a place to lay her eggs using smell, taste, touch, and sight. Most species will lay just one egg on the food plant. Others will lay groups of five to over 100 eggs on the food plant. Most species will lay their eggs on the leaves of the food plant. Others will lay them on the flowers, stems, bark, or fruit of the food plant.

The eggs come in many different shapes and colours. They may be round or oval, and flattened. In some species, the egg shell is ribbed. The most common colours in butterfly eggs are yellow and green. The eggs will turn dark just before hatching. Also, some butterflies take a day to come out of eggs, while others could take months.

Caterpillar

Butterfly caterpillars can vary in size, colour, and shape. They may have spines, bristles, or soft body extensions. All caterpillars have 13 body segments. The first three segments make up the thorax. The thorax has three pairs of legs. These legs are called true legs. The other 10 segments make up the abdomen. The abdomen has five pairs of soft legs called prolegs. The prolegs have tiny hooks at the end of each of the foot. They are used to hold on to things. The hooks are called crochets.

A caterpillar's skin does not grow. As the caterpillar grows inside its skin, the skin becomes too tight. In order for the caterpillar to grow bigger, it sheds its too-tight skin. After the old skin is shed, there is a new, larger skin. This is known as moulting. A caterpillar will moult four to five times before turning into a pupa. Each stage between moults is called an instar.

All caterpillars can make silk. The silk is made from the salivary glands. Silk starts out as a liquid in the salivary glands. The caterpillar draws out the silk into a small thread. The silk hardens as soon as it is exposed to the air. Caterpillars use silk to make nests or cocoons.

Most caterpillars feed on leaves of plants or trees. Most species of caterpillars will feed only on a small number of certain kinds of plants. If the caterpillar's food plant is not found, it may starve to death.

Some species of caterpillars (in the family Lycaenidae) are tended by ants. The caterpillars have special glands that make a sweet liquid called honeydew. The ants like the honeydew. In return for the honeydew, the ants protect the caterpillars from predators. The caterpillars also have special body parts that make sounds. The caterpillar will make sounds with the body parts and "call" the ants when the caterpillar is being attacked by predators. The ants hear the sounds and come to protect the caterpillar.

Caterpillars in the subfamily Miletinae eat insects in the order Hemiptera. This includes aphids, mealybugs, leafhoppers and treehoppers.p356

Caterpillars in the family Papilionidae have a special organ. This organ is called an osmeterium. It is a bad-smelling gland that is shaped like a snake's tongue. It is kept behind the inside of the head. When a predator tries to eat the caterpillar, the caterpillar releases the osmeterium. This usually scares the predators away.p161

Pupa

The pupa (plural, pupae) is formed after the last moult. The caterpillar will find a special place to pupate (pupate means to turn into a pupa). The digestive tract is emptied. The caterpillar sheds its skin. The pupa is now exposed. The caterpillar's tissues are broken down and rebuilt into the butterfly's tissues.

The pupa cannot move. It is attached to an object by tiny hooks on the end of the abdomen. These hooks make up what is called the cremaster. There are many tiny holes on the pupa. They allow respiratory gases to move in and out of the pupa.

Many pupae are easy for predators to attack. Some caterpillars (in the family Hesperiidae and the subfamilies Parnassiinae and Satyrinae) make shelters out of silk and leaves to protect themselves when they become pupae. These shelters are called cocoons. Most butterfly pupae do not have cocoons to protect themselves. Instead, the pupae have brown or green colours to camouflage themselves among leaves and branches. Pupae that do not have cocoons are called chrysalids or chrysalises.

Survival
Some butterflies may be in trouble because of habitat loss. Because of the destruction of forests and grasslands, some types of butterflies have nowhere to feed and lay eggs. To help, some people plant a butterfly garden with flowers having lots of nectar for butterflies to feed on. Some people also keep plants that butterflies lay eggs on, and enjoy watching the caterpillars hatch out and feed on the plant. Chemical sprays that are used to keep pests away from garden plants, also kill butterflies.

Fossils
The earliest Lepidoptera fossils date to the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, about 200million years ago. Butterflies evolved from moths. The oldest known butterfly is Protocoeliades kristenseni from the Palaeocene of Denmark, about 55million years ago. It belongs to the family Hesperiidae (skippers). Molecular clock estimates suggest that butterflies originated sometime in the mid-Cretaceous, but only significantly diversified during the Cenozoic. Genetic data suggest they originated in North-America 102.5–100.0million years ago from a nocturnal moth ancestor that fed on legumes. Only about 17million years ago did they colonize Europe. The oldest American butterfly is from the later Eocene from the Florissant Formation fossil beds, about 34million years old.

Butterfly families

Some colourful butterflies

Monarch butterfly gallery

Related pages
Differences between butterflies and moths
Defence against predation
Animal colour
Moth
Lepidoptera

References

Further reading
 Boggs C; Watt W. & Ehrlich P. 2003. Butterflies: evolution and ecology: taking flight. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
 Pyle R.M. 1992. Handbook for butterfly watchers. Houghton Mifflin.

Butterfly


Discourse analysis is a subject which studies a text or a conversation. This is a subject in linguistics which does not study sentences, like in syntax, but the entire text or conversation. The text or conversation is known as discourse. Discourse analyst prefer to use real life discourse in their studies, rather than invented sentences like in traditional linguistics. This way of studying real life discourse is called corpus linguistics.

Discourse analysis is related to text linguistics. However, text linguistics studies how discourse is structured so that they are connected (how sentences are joined to each other). Discourse analysis studies this, and also how the discourse is connected to the context. This context includes who the people talking or writing are, the social and cultural context. Also, it studies the way mode, which is the way the language is represented (is it a letter, speech, email, Internat chat?), influences discourse. Discourse analysis is also interested in the genre (topic) of the discourse.

Discourse analysis is studied not only in linguistics, but also in sociology, anthropology, psychology, communication studies and translation studies.

Other websites
 Daniel L. Everett, statement concerning James Loriot, p. 9
 The Discourse Attributes Analysis Program and Measures of the Referential Process .
 Linguistic Society of America: Discourse Analysis, by Deborah Tannen
 Strategies for analysing a case study

Linguistics

Discourse analysis


Duncan T. Moore was president of the Optical Society of America in 1996  and was awarded the society's Edwin H. Land Medal in 2009.

Moore is the Rudolf and Hilda Kingslake Professor of Optical Engineering and professor of biomedical engineering, as well as professor of business administration in the William E. Simon Graduate School of Business Administration, and the vice provost for entrepreneurship, all at the University of Rochester.  From 2002 until 2004, he served as president and chief executive officer of the Infotonics Technology Center Inc., an industry, academia, and government partnership to foster cutting-edge research, prototyping of new technology, and economic development in Upstate New York, with an operating budget of $15 million and a capital budget of $25 million in 2004. Prior to this, from 1995 until the end of 1997, he served as dean of engineering and applied sciences at the University of Rochester. He also served as president of the Optical Society of America (OSA), a professional organization with more than 12,000 members throughout the world, in 1996.

Moore was confirmed by the U.S. Senate in the fall of 1997 for the position of associate director for technology in The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP).  In this position, which ended in December 2000, he worked with Neal Francis Lane, President Clinton's Science Advisor, to advise the President on U.S. technology policy, including the Next Generation Internet, Clean Car Initiative, National Nanotechnology Initiative, ElderTech, and CrimeTech. From January through May 2001, Moore served as Special Advisor to the Acting Director of OSTP.

Since the summer of 2005, Moore has been a consulting professor at Stanford University, where he has worked on its Center for Longevity to create an international, interdisciplinary research and teaching network focused on solving fundamental physical and social problems associated with extended life expectancy.

The PhD degree in optics was awarded to Moore in 1974 from the University of Rochester. He had previously earned a master's degree in optics at Rochester and a bachelor's degree in physics from the University of Maine.

Moore has experience in the academic, research, business, and government arenas of science and technology. He is an expert in gradient-index optics, computer-aided design, and the manufacture of optical systems. He has advised more than 50 graduate thesis students.  In 1993, Moore began a one-year appointment as Science Advisor to Senator John D. Rockefeller IV of West Virginia.  He also chaired the successful Hubble Independent Optical Review Panel organized in 1990 to determine the correct prescription of the Hubble Space Telescope. He currently chairs the Product-Integrity-Team for the James Webb Space Telescope, the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope. Moore is the founder and former president of Gradient Lens Corporation of Rochester, New York, the manufacturer of the Hawkeye boroscope.

Moore was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in February 1998 for the design and fabrication of optical systems and imaging lenses.

References

External links
 Articles Published by early OSA Presidents Journal of the Optical Society of America

See also
Optical Society of America#Past Presidents of the OSA

Presidents of Optica (society)
21st-century American physicists
Living people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Year of birth missing (living people)

Duncan T. Moore


The current solar income of the Earth, or any ecoregion of the earth, is the amount of solar energy that falls on it as sunlight.  This is thought important in some branches of green economics, as the ultimate measure of renewable energy.

Buckminster Fuller first described the concept in his 1970 paper Cosmic Costing, contrasting the photosynthesis on which natural capital and sustainable infrastructural capital depend, with the chemosynthesis of extracting and using fossil fuels.

Paul Hawken is a more recent advocate of the concept, and views it as central to his notion of a restorative economy.  It remains a popular notion among those who believe that toxic waste and maintenance problems of direct solar energy devices can ultimately be overcome, or that yields of passive or biological means of gathering and using this energy as biofuels can be made to approximate those of fossil fuels.

See also
Howard Odum
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky
solar constant

Buckminster Fuller
Renewable energy economy
Systems ecology
Energy economics

Current solar income


Georgia's state mental asylum located in Milledgeville, Georgia, now known as the Central State Hospital (CSH), has been the state's largest facility for treatment of mental illness and developmental disabilities.  In continuous operation since accepting its first patient in December 1842, the hospital was founded as the Georgia State Lunatic, Idiot, and Epileptic Asylum, and was also known as the Georgia State Sanitarium and Milledgeville State Hospital during its long history.  By the 1960s the facility had grown into the largest mental hospital in the world (contending with Pilgrim Psychiatric Center in New York).  Its landmark Powell Building and the vast, abandoned 1929 Jones Building stand among some 200 buildings on two thousand acres that once housed nearly 12,000 patients.

The CSH complex currently encompasses about , a pecan grove and historic cemeteries, and serves about 200 mental health patients.  As of 2016 the facility offers short-stay acute treatment for people with mental illness, residential units and habilitation programs for people with developmental disabilities, recovery programs that require a longer stay, and specialized skilled and ICF nursing centers.  Some programs serve primarily the central-Georgia region while other programs serve counties throughout the state.

History

In the first decades of the 1800s there was a movement in several states to reform prisons, create public schools, and establish state-run hospitals for the mentally ill. In 1837, the Georgia State Legislature responded to a call from Governor Wilson Lumpkin, by passing a bill calling for the creation of a "State Lunatic, Idiot, and Epileptic Asylum." Located in Milledgeville, then the state capital, the facility opened in 1842.

Under Dr. Thomas A. Green (1845–1879), care of patients was based on the "institution as family". This modeled hospitals to resemble an extended family. Green ate with staff and patients daily and abolished chain and rope restraints.

The hospital population grew to nearly 12,000 in the 1960s. During the following decade, the population began to decrease due to the emphasis on deinstitutionalization, the addition of other public psychiatric (regional) hospitals throughout the state, the availability of psychotropic medications, an increase in community mental health programs, and many individuals moving to community living arrangements. During FY2004-FY2005, the hospital served more than 9,000 consumers (duplicates counted) - from nearly every Georgia county.

In 2010, the Georgia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Disabilities announced that the hospital would be closed, but it has not been; instead, it has become the state's treatment and custodial center for justice system referrals and commitments.

Notable patients

 Anjette Lyles, American restaurateur responsible for the poisoning deaths of four relatives between 1952 and 1958 in Macon, Georgia, apprehended on May 6, 1958, and sentenced to death yet later was involuntarily committed due her to diagnosis of paranoid schizophrenia, died aged 52 on December 4, 1977, at the Central State Hospital, Milledgeville in Georgia.

See also
List of hospitals in the United States
List of hospitals in Georgia

References

Sources
 Book, Constance Ledoux, and David Ezell. "Freedom of Speech and Institutional Control: Patient Publications at Central State Hospital, 1934-1978." Georgia Historical Quarterly 85 (2001): 106–26.
 Cranford, Peter G. But for the Grace of God: The Inside Story of the World's Largest Insane Asylum, Milledgeville. Augusta, Ga.: Great Pyramid Press, 1981.
 Graham, Paul K. Admission Register of Central State Hospital, Milledgeville, Georgia, 1842-1861. Decatur, Ga.: The Genealogy Company, 2011.

External links

A recent photoessay on the abandoned Walker building at Central State Hospital.
Article on the history of Central State
Renaissance Park Reimagine - Reinvent - Reinvest

Psychiatric hospitals in Georgia (U.S. state)
Buildings and structures in Baldwin County, Georgia
Historic American Buildings Survey in Georgia (U.S. state)

Central State Hospital (Milledgeville, Georgia)


Ypenburg Airport (Dutch: Vliegveld Ypenburg), which later became Ypenburg Air Base was an airport in the Netherlands in Leidschenveen-Ypenburg near the city of The Hague. The ICAO code was EHYB.

History
The airfield was established in 1936, initially for recreational purposes. At the beginning of World War II German forces attempted to capture the airfield, in 1940, via an airborne landing during the Battle for The Hague. This failed however and Dutch forces recaptured the airfield. After the Netherlands eventually surrendered to Germany, the Luftwaffe made little use of the airfield during the remainder of the war.

After the war the field remained a civilian airport until 1955, when it was turned into an Air Base. After 1968, operations decreased significantly; the Air Base was used mainly as a VIP airport for politicians and the royal family. In 1982 it was decided to close the Air Base, but it was not until 1992 that it was abandoned by the Royal Netherlands Air Force. Among the last aircraft to use the airport were military cargo aircraft heading towards Kuwait during the Gulf War. In 1997 a new residential area was constructed on the site of the airport, Leidschenveen-Ypenburg. Very little remains of the airport today, the former air traffic control tower being a notable exception.

External links

Vliegveld Ypenburg historical website

Defunct airports in the Netherlands
Royal Netherlands Air Force bases
Airports in South Holland
Buildings and structures in Rijswijk
Transport in The Hague
Airports established in 1936
Airports disestablished in 1992

Ypenburg Airport


Replication is a general word for making a copy. Self-replication is how a thing might make a copy of itself. Biological cells, in suitable environments, reproduce by cell division. The process is self-organising, given the basic machinery of a cell. During cell division, DNA is replicated and can be transmitted to offspring during reproduction.

Other kinds of replication occur. RNA viruses use the mechanism of a cell to replicate their own RNA strand and make its protein coat. Retroviruses are one of most important RNA viruses; there are a number of other types. Viruses can only reproduce by taking over the reproductive machinery of cells through infection. Computer viruses reproduce using the hardware and software already present on computers.

Memes reproduce using the human mind and culture as their reproductive machinery.

References

 von Neumann, J., 1966, The Theory of Self-reproducing Automata, A. Burks, ed., Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.

 Kenyon, R., Self-replicating tilings, in: Symbolic Dynamics and Applications (P. Walters, ed.) Contemporary Math. vol. 135 (1992), 239-264.
 http://www.cs.bgu.ac.il/~sipper/selfrep/  The Artificial Self-Replication Page

Biological reproduction
Technology

Self-replication


James Hume Nisbet (8 August 1849 – 4 June 1923) was a Scottish-born novelist and artist. Many of his thrillers are set in Australia.

Youth
Nisbet was born in Stirling, Scotland and received special artistic training, and was educated under the Rev. Dr. Culross (later of Bristol College) up to the age of fifteen.

At 16 years of age he went to Australia and stayed about seven years, during which he travelled to Tasmania, New Zealand, and the South Sea Islands, painting, sketching, writing poetry and stories, and making notes for future work. He spent one year of the period acquiring theatrical experience at the Theatre Royal, Melbourne, under the actor Richard Stewart.

Painting
Nisbet returned to London in 1872, and spent some time in studying and copying pictures in the National Gallery and in South Kensington. At the end of the next year he went back to Scotland and devoted himself to art, with an occasional lapse into literature. For eight years he was art master of the Watt Institution and School of Art, Edinburgh. He travelled in Australia and New Guinea again during 1886, and paid a further visit to Australia in 1895. He had studied painting under Sam Bough, R. S. A., but he does not appear to have had any success. He speaks with bitterness of this in a volume called Where Art Begins, which he published in 1892.

Among his best-known paintings are "Eve's first Moonrise," "The Flying Dutchman," "The Dream of Sardanapalus," four pictures of "The Ancient Mariner," and "The Battle of Dunbar."

Writing
Nisbet devoted most of his time to writing. He produced many volumes of verse, books on art and fiction. Several of his novels are coloured by his Australian experiences and appear to have had some success. Miller in his Australian Literature lists about 40 novels published between 1888 and 1905. During the next 10 years he published a few more books, including Hathor and Other Poems, which appeared as the first volume of his poetic and dramatic works in 1905. There was another edition in 1908.

Many of Nisbet's volumes were of ghost stories. These include Paths of the Dead (1899), Stories Weird and Wonderful (1900), and The Haunted Station (1894) whose title story (about a haunted property or "station" in the Australian Outback) has often been reprinted.

Nisbet was a member of the Yorick Club, London, and a friend of Philip Mennell. Nisbet died in Eastbourne, Sussex, England on 4 June 1923.

Bibliography

Novels
The Land of the Hibiscus Blossom: A Yarn of the Papuan Gulf (1888)
Doctor Bernard St. Vincent: A Sensational Romance of Sydney (1889)
Ashes: A Tale of Two Spheres (1890)
Bail Up!: A Romance of Bushrangers and Blacks (1890)
The Black Drop (1891)
The Savage Queen: A Romance of the Natives of Van Dieman's [sic] Land (1891)
The "Jolly Roger". A Story of Sea Heroes and Pirates (1891)
The Bushranger's Sweetheart : An Australian Romance (1892)
The Divers: A Romance of Oceania (1892)
Valdmer the Viking: A Romance of the Eleventh Century by Sea and Land (1893)
The Queen's Desire (1893)
A Bush Girl's Romance (1894)
The Demon Spell (1894)
A Desert Bride (1894)
Her Loving Slave. A Romance of Sedgemoor (1894)
The Great Secret: A Tale of To-morrow (1895)
The Rebel Chief: A Romance of New Zealand (1896)
My Love Noel (1896)
The Swampers: A Romance of the Westralian Goldfields (1897)
A Sweet Sinner (1897)
In Sheep's Clothing: A Romance of Upper Queensland (1900)
Children of Hermes: A Romance of Love and Crime (1901)
A Losing Game: An Australian Tragedy (1901)
A Dream of Freedom: Romance of South America (1902)
A Colonial King (1905)

Collected works
The Haunted Station and Other Stories (1894)
Stories Weird and Wonderful (1900)
Mistletoe Manor (1902)

References

External links

1849 births
1923 deaths
19th-century Australian novelists
19th-century male writers
20th-century Australian novelists
Australian male novelists
Australian poets
Scottish novelists
Scottish poets
Scottish emigrants to Australia
Australian male poets
19th-century British male writers
20th-century Australian male writers

Hume Nisbet


A stock is a share of ownership in a company. See stock.

Supply and inventory
Stock in general refers to the equipment, materials, or supplies of an establishment or a store or supply accumulated or available, as in:
 Livestock kept on a farm.
 Stock (food), a soup and flavoring base
 Inventory, a term for "finished goods", or sometimes raw material kept in storage.
 Stock (cards),the common pile of undealt playing cards from which players draw in a number of card games.
 Stock media, set material which can be used by other people (and is sometimes created for the purpose), either for free or for a set fee. Examples include:
 Stock footage
 Stock photography
 Stock sound effects
 Clipart
 Packs/downloads for 3D design programs such as Poser or 3D Studio Max.
 Rolling stock as used in railway operation
 Stock, the base material used in some fabrication work, such as wood for woodworking or the metal used in a welding application.

Original
Stock may also mean the original (as a person, race, or language) from which others derive, as in:
 Rootstock, a stump used for grafting
 (Linguistic) stock, a group of related languages or language families

Names
Stock or stocks is also the name of:
 Stock, Essex is a village in the county of Essex, England.
 Stocks House is a country house in Aldbury, Hertfordshire which was the setting for the album cover of Oasis' Be Here Now
 Stock (publishing house)
 Matthiola incana, a flower
 An album by Japanese singer Akina Nakamori; see STOCK (music)
 Robert Stock, German entrepreneur

Other usages
Other meanings and usages of the word stock include:
 The wooden arms that the sails of a Windmill are fitted to.
 The American form of repertory theatre as practiced in England.
 A wide necktie popular in the eighteenth century, often seen today as a part of formal wear for horse riding competitions.
 Stocks, a device used for public humiliation, punishment, and torture.
 A grappling term for a type of spinal lock.
 Stock (firearm)
 The distinction between stock and flows, a core concept of System dynamics
 Stock in geology refers to a medium-sized igneous intrusion with outcrop area less than about 100 km².
 Fish stocks refers to a fish population in a defined area which is of interest to fishery managers.

References
 stock , Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Accessed 2006-10-19

Stock (disambiguation)


Kié-Ntem Province  is a province o Equatorial Guinea. Its caipital is Ebebiyín.

Kié-Ntem Province haes the follaein borders:
Sooth Province, Cameroon - north
Woleu-Ntem Province, Gabon - east
Wele-Nzas Province, Equatorial Guinea - sooth
Centro Sur Province, Equatorial Guinea - wast

Provinces o Equatorial Guinea

Kié-Ntem Province


Jeremiah Colegrove (31 July 1758 – 26 August 1836) was born to William Colegrove in Scituate, Rhode Island.  A man of giant stature, both physically and in the community, he was a prominent farmer and manufacturer in New England.  Jeremiah served in the American Revolution and helped to found the city of North Adams, Massachusetts.

Family
Jeremiah Colegrove, who became a captain during the American Revolution, was the grandson of Stephen Colegrove, Esq., an early leader in the town of Foster, Rhode Island.  Jeremiah married Lydia Waterman and had at least one recorded son, Jeremiah Colegrove Jr., also of North Adams, Massachusetts, who would follow his father into the armed forces and become a General.  General Jeremiah Jr. lived and died in a mansion on Main Street.

North Adams
Jeremiah Colegrove moved to what became the manufacturing town of North Adams, Massachusetts, in 1780.  The Daily News of Troy, New York, said of North Adams in 1890:

"The real prosperity of the Town had its birth in the introduction of the first machinery for carding wool, in 1801, when one carding-machine was put into Jeremiah Colegrove's Grist-mill… Captain Colegrove erected a two-story mill on the east bank of the south branch, where the Phoenix mill now stands, for wool carding, cloth fulling, and cloth dressing; and he successfully carried on the business for fifteen years, despite the energetic competition of David Estes, who succeeded Roger Wing in the River Street mill..."

Captain Jeremiah Colegrove, along with others including Benjamin Sibley, formed "The Adams North Village Cotton & Woollen Manufacturing Company".

See also
Colegrove (surname)
Stephen Colegrove
Francis Colegrove

References
The History and Genealogy of the COLEGROVE FAMILY in America, 1894, by William Colegrove

1758 births
1836 deaths
Farmers from Massachusetts
Rhode Island militiamen in the American Revolution
People from North Adams, Massachusetts
People of colonial Rhode Island
Continental Army officers from Rhode Island
American city founders
People from Scituate, Rhode Island
Military personnel from Massachusetts

Jeremiah Colegrove


The 2007 Formula One espionage controversy, also known as "Spygate," or "Stepneygate" involves claim that the teams passed confidential technical information. It was claimed that McLaren Formula One had information from the Ferrari team. Then it was claimed that Renault F1 had information from the McLaren team.

The case involved Nigel Stepney, who used to work for Ferrari and was working at the time for McLaren. It also included Mike Coughlan, who was working for McLaren and his wife Trudy Coughlan. Ferrari claimed that Stepney stole confidential technical information. This became the subject of legal action in Italy and an FIA investigation. The case in England was dropped after Ferrari reached an agreement with the Coughlans.

The FIA penalized McLaren. The biggest penalty was that McLaren excluded (not allowed to compete) from the  Constructors' Championship. They were also fined a record-breaking $100 million (USD).

Then the FIA claimed Renault F1 had information about the 2006 and 2007 McLaren cars. Renault were found guilty of breaking the same regulation as McLaren, but Renault was not punished.

Details

Allegations against Stepney

Nigel Stepney was working at Ferrari with Jean Todt, Ross Brawn and Rory Byrne. Michael Schumacher was their superstar driver. They were part of the team given the credit for changing the of fortunes of Ferrari in the late 1990s.

In February 2007, Stepney said he was unhappy with some management changes made at Ferrari. On 3 July 2007, Gazzetta dello Sport reported that Ferrari had fired Stepney as a result an internal investigation.

Allegations against Mike Coughlan
The same day Ferrari fired Stepney, they announced taking action against an engineer from McLaren, later named as Mike Coughlan. Coughlan was suspended by McLaren as a result. Court details released say that Mike Coughlan is accused to be in possession of Ferrari documentation, and that his wife is accused of photocopying them.

Allegations against Renault F1
On 8 November 2007, the FIA announced that the Renault F1 team would be need to answer a charge of possession of confidential information relating to the 2006 and 2007 McLaren Formula One cars. The statement issued by the FIA states that Renault F1 was found to have information used by the 2006 and 2007 McLaren F1 cars.

Honda involvement
On 6 July 2007, Honda Racing F1 released a statement confirming that Stepney and Coughlan approached the team regarding "job opportunities" in June 2007. Honda said that no confidential information had been offered or received.

References

Other websites
World Motor Sport Council Transcripts from 26 July 2007 and 13 September 2007

Espionage controversy
Espionage
Controversies

2007 Formula One espionage controversy


Baloot (, balōt ), is a popular trick card game played in the Arabian Peninsula, which is similar to the French game Belote.

The game
There are four players in partnerships of two teams. A standard 32-card Piquet pack is used, eight for each player. There are two contracts: Hokum and Sun (from the French sans). The card ranking is:

Sun (suit)

Hokom (Trump)
Assume the Hokom suit is the Sherya (Clubs) ♣ (for example)

Starting the game

The two members of each team are seated across each other at a table in such a way that no player can see the cards of other players .

The first dealer is chosen at random and after each hand the turn to deal passes to the right.
The cards are shuffled by the dealer, and cut by the player on the left.
The player on the left of the dealer can either say "go" without cutting the deck, shuffling it (just once), take the first card as the public card,  can give the bottom three cards to the teammate or keep them for themselves, or take the top three cards to themselves. If the dealer gives a player a card and was mistakenly flipped, the player has no right to refuse it, unless it is an Ace, then the shuffling starts again from the same dealer.

The dealer has 32 cards; he has to deal them to the other players starting from his right three cards at a time, e.g. 3 cards to the right player, 3 cards to the front player, etc., then two cards at a time, then finally one card shown to public . The dealer is now in charge. He calls " First," which means the first round of taking the public card, players "buy" the public card, priority goes to the player on the right of the dealer, then the front player (teammate) and then the player on the left, the person with the least priority to take the card is the dealer. Players should say "no" if they don't want the card; this goes counterclockwise.

If someone takes the card, as (for example) Hokom, any player has the right to refuse and take it as Sun. But if the person took the public card as Sun, then only the person with the higher priority can take the card.

"Ashkal", it is said when a player doesn't want the public card, but wants it for their teammate, just to receive 3 cards instead of 2. note: only the dealer and the player to the left of the dealer have the right to call Ashkal. If a player calls Ashkal where they do not have the privilege, the player is forced to take the public card as Sun. If the card was an ace, the player has no right to say Ashkal, if they do, they are forced to buy it as Sun.

If a player has only zero cards - 7, 8 or 9 of any suit, he may choose to force everyone to abandon this turn with no points to any team (Kawesh/Saneen), where he buys the public card as Sun, and lies his cards face up (If he feels he has an advantage he may still buy the card normally). However, in "Second" the player may not ask for this turn to be abandoned.

If all the players choose to not take the card, then the dealer calls, "Second", which means there is another chance in taking the card. If someone takes it as Sun, then no one else can buy it over him even if they were of a higher priority. That is a significant advantage of buying Sun in the second round over the first; that no one else can take it from you even if they were of a higher priority. They lose that right by saying no in the second round. But if someone takes it as Hokom, then the Hokom must be something different from the suit of the public card because it is on the second mode. Other players can take the card as Sun. The player that takes it as Hokom, has the option to choose between three suits before lifting up the two cards that the dealer just gave. Or it is Sun if the player lifts up the two cards before naming a suit for Hokom. There is not "Ashkal" in the second round.

After someone takes the public card. The dealer continues giving other cards to the players, again starting to the right, counter clock-wise, 3 cards to each but 2 cards to the player who has taken the public card.

Playing
The Player on the right side of the Dealer starts the round. Players counterclockwise must follow suit if they can; a player who has no cards of the suit led can play any card. Or he/she should play one of the Judges cards in case of Hokom rounds. each trick score should be added to the total scores until one of the team reaches the 152 points and win the game. (see Scores section below)

In case of Hokom, if the first leading card played Hokom, other players should throw the Hokom card, if or example the card played was a King of hearts and the Hokom is hearts, the next player should surrender a card that is bigger in value of the King.

Scoring
Once a round is over, the score of each team should be added to the total score .Each card has a score rank as the following:

Note: The team that takes the last trick always add 10 to their score before calculating round score.

In case of Sǔn rounds

 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + 2
 Score = score + 3
 Score = score + 4
 Score = score + 10
 Score = score + 11
Round score = score (to the nearest 10) then divide over 10 then x 2
Total score = Round score + total rounds scores

In case of Hokom rounds

Regular Cards
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + 2
 Score = score + 3
 Score = score + 4
 Score = score + 10
 Score = score + 11

Trump Cards
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + Zero
 Score = score + 3
 Score = score + 4
 Score = score + 10
 Score = score + 11
 Score = score + 14
 Score = score + 20
Round score = score (to nearest 10) then divide by 10 then x 1
Total score = Round score + total rounds scores

Game bonuses

Bonuses are free extra points one of the two teams can earn during a Round. Bonuses also called Projects (Arabic: مشروع). Projects (except for Baloot) are always declared in the first turn and shown in the second turn.

There are several types of bonuses in Baloot. The following list describes each of them starting from the minimum .

Sira (Single line)
A player declaration Sira, means that he has a 3 serial cards, according to Global cards sorting (A,K,Q,J,10,9,8,7). for example:
 or
 or any other 3 serial cards.

Bonus:
Round score = Round score + 4 (in Sǔn)or
Round score = Round score + 2 (in Hokom)

50
A player declaration 50, means that he has a 4 serial cards, according to Global cards sorting.

 or any other 4 serial cards.

Bonus:
Round score = Round score + 10 (in Sǔn) or
Round score = Round score + 5 (in Hokom)

100
A player declaration 100, means one of the three positions:

1- The player has five cards in a row in the same suit, according to Global cards sorting.
 or any other 5 serial cards.
2- The player has four Jacks, Queens, Kings or tens.

3- The player has four aces.
, this is only in case of Hokom because in Sǔn rounds 4 aces means 400.

Bonus:
Round score = Round score + 20 (in Sǔn) or
Round score = Round score + 10 (in Hokom)

400
A player declaration 400, means that he has 4 aces.

, this is only in case of Sǔn because in Hokom rounds 4 aces means 100.

Bonus:
Round score = Round score + 40 (in Sǔn only)

Baloot
A player declaration Baloot, means that he has the King and the Queen cards of the Judges suit, for example:

The Judges cards of Hokom round are Clubs and a player has:

Bonus:
Round score = Round score + 2 (in Hokom only)

Notes:
If two player from different teams, have different projects, only the player with the higher project can show the project and get points for it. 400 > 100 (serial) > 100 (4 of a kind) > 50 > Sira. Only exception is Baloot, which can count.
If players from different teams has the same level project (e.g.: Two Sira's) Only the one with the highest card can show the project and get points for it.
Baloot is not declared in the first turn, Baloot is declared when you play the second card of the project. (e.g.: on the first trick you played the king of the judges suit.. two tricks later you're going to play the queen of the judges suit, before you play it you say "Bloot")
If one (not both) of the Baloot cards is in another project, the Baloot can't be declared. and If both Baloot cards are in a "100" Project, Baloot can not be declared. They still can be declared in "Sira" or "50".
In Double, Three and Four, Projects are calculated X2, X3, X4 receptively. (See "Multiple scores" below.) (Except for "Baloot", which is always 2).
If one player of a team gets to show his project that entitles his teammate to show his/her project too. That is why if many projects are declared, it is wise to wait for everyone to say what is his highest card, and see if you can show your project or not.
If a player has higher project than the player before him/her, but forgets to show it, the other player has the right to show his/her project before he/she plays his/her third card.
No card can be in two different projects (Except for both Baloot cards in "Sira" or "50").

Multiple scores

While naming the round by one of the teams, The other team may keep silence or say Double (locked or open), The one who bought the card (and only him/her) can raise to Triple. Then the one who said double (and only him/her) can raise it further Four. Here the buyer can raise it to the limit by saying Gahwa. (Sun can only go up to double, and only when only 1 team has more than 100 points. If both teams are above 100 or below it, Sun can not be doubled).

By saying Double, the competition will be harder because the round scores will be twice as much as the normal  round. The Three means 3 times as much as the normal  round and Four means four. The main purposes of saying "Double or Four" is to change the way of playing and increase points, since when the game is doubled (or more) points aren't divided, the team with most points takes all. If you were playing in "locked" "Double or Four", the one who says "Double" or "Four" has the option of locking or opening the Hokom. In case it's locked you can't use the Judged suit as a first card in any trick, you can only use them when you don't have the suit that the other player has played, or don't have any other suit to play as a first card in the trick. Otherwise, "if its Three or Gahwa" you can use any suit you want, even if it was the Judged suit.

The Gahwa challenge will end the whole game at once for the round winner.

Probability of game bonuses

See also
Pilotta
Tarabish
Klaverjas
Tarneeb

References

External links
 Baloot rules at gamerules.com.
 Everything You Need To Know About The Baloot Championship In Saudi Arabia at egamersworld.com.
 Baloot: The No. 1 social activity in Saudi Arabia is an integral part of the culture, and popular with people of all ages at arabnews.com.
 Saudi women show off their 'Baloot' skills at gulfnews.com.
 What are the rules to play Baloot Game? at lifeinsaudiarabia.net.
 Baloot is a sport card game in Saudi Arabia; it's not gambling at saudi-expatriates.com.

Lebanese card games
Saudi Arabian culture
Year of introduction missing

Baloot


Gause is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Milam County, Texas, United States. According to the Handbook of Texas, the community had an estimated population of 400 in 2000. It was first listed as a CDP in the 2020 census with a population of 275.

Geography
Gause is located at  (30.7851923, -96.7213641 ). It is situated along U.S. Highway 79/190, sixteen miles southeast of Cameron and twenty-nine miles west of Bryan/College Station.

History
The community is named for William J. Gause, a settler who moved to the area in 1872 and built a home out of lumber hauled from Montgomery. In 1873, he gave right-of-way and  of land to the International-Great Northern Railroad (I&GN). This caused the area to grow and a post office opened in 1874.  A schoolhouse that doubled as a church was built in 1876. Gause had approximately 300 residents in 1884 as well as two steam-powered cotton gins and two churches. Gause was a shipping point for Milam County farmers who shipped corn, cotton, and cottonseed oil. The Gause Independent School District was established in 1905.

The population reached its peak around 1915, when 1,000 people lived in the community. Gause slowly declined over the next few decades. Its bank was discontinued in 1927 after 17 years in operation. The combination of a decline in the number of businesses in Gause and the introduction of the automobile precipitated further downturns in the local economy. By the 1960s, the community had 278 residents, down from 750 in the 1940s. The population began to rebound in the late 1980s as more people chose to live in Gause and commute to jobs in nearby industrial plants. In 1990, Gause had 400 residents and eight businesses. The population remained unchanged as of 2000. Despite its unincorporated status, Gause continues to have a functioning post office (zip code:77857).

Education
Public education in the community of Gause is provided by the Gause Independent School District. The district operates a single campus that serves an estimated 150 students in grades pre-kindergarten through eight.

Notable people
Lance Archer, (b 1977) is a professional wrestler, currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW)
Ruthie Foster, (b 1964) is a singer-songwriter of blues and folk music.
Ox Miller, (1915–2007) was a professional baseball pitcher for St. Louis Browns
Jo-Jo Moore, (1908–2001) was a Major League Baseball outfielder who played for the New York Giants and Cincinnati Reds
Bob Wills, (1905–1975) was a Western swing musician, songwriter, and bandleader, Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys.

References

Census-designated places in Milam County, Texas
Census-designated places in Texas
Unincorporated communities in Milam County, Texas
Unincorporated communities in Texas

Gause, Texas