Steel is a 1997 American superhero film loosely based on the DC Comics character of the same name. The film stars Shaquille O'Neal as John Henry Irons and his alter-ego Steel, Annabeth Gish as his wheelchair-using partner Susan Sparks, and Judd Nelson as their rival Nathaniel Burke. The plot centers on an accident caused by Burke which leaves Sparks paralyzed. The accident results in Irons quitting his job. Burke begins mass-producing weapons and selling them to criminals. In order to stop Burke, Irons and Sparks create a suit of armor that leads Irons to become the superhero Steel.

Written and directed by Kenneth Johnson, the film separates itself from the comic book series (and John Henry Irons' status as a supporting character of Superman) by using original protagonists and antagonists. On its initial release, Steel was a box-office bomb and was panned by critics, who complained about the film's "cheesiness" and bad acting.

Plot
John Henry Irons is a weapons designer who invents high-tech laser guns, protective armor, and sonic sound cannons for the United States military. One soldier, Nathaniel Burke, decides to show just what Irons' weapons can do and sets one of Irons' sonic cannons at the highest power setting, firing the device at an abandoned building. However, the weapon backfires and destroys the building the team is situated in. Irons' partner, Susan "Sparky" Sparks, is crushed by a large slab of concrete in the ensuing chaos. In court, Irons reveals Burke's role in the incident and Burke is dismissed from the military. Because his weapons resulted in Sparks becoming a paraplegic, Irons resigns in disgust. Meanwhile, Burke hatches a plot to sell Irons' weapons to criminal gangs, recruiting a video arcade manager to help him carry out this deed.

Irons witnesses a bank robbery organized by gang members wielding Burke's modified guns; they escape before he can interrogate them on where they obtained the weapons. The gang does not tell Irons anything when confronted directly in their hideout. Irons visits Sparks in a veteran's hospital and takes her to his own assembled laboratory, where he hopes he and Sparks can create weapons needed to combat the criminals. With the help of Uncle Joe, they forge a suit of armor and the weaponry necessary for Irons to carry out his war on crime and become the vigilante "Steel". However, during his crusade against crime, Irons is pursued by the cops and is forced to return to his lair. The next night, the robbers arrange to rob another bank. Irons, as Steel, tries to stop them, but is hindered by the robbers' weapons. When Irons returns to his grandmother's house, he is arrested.

Meanwhile, Burke prepares to auction off all his modified weapons to every criminal organization in the world over the Internet. When Irons is released from jail, Sparky is captured by Burke's thugs. Irons, as Steel, attempts to infiltrate Burke's headquarters, but is captured himself in the process. When Burke continues with the auction, he is tricked by Steel, which allows him and Sparks to rebel and destroy Burke's lair. Burke himself is killed when a laser he fires towards Steel reflects back towards him due to Steel's suit. After this, Steel, Sparky, Joe, and Martin escape Burke's lair.

The following day, Col. David talks to actor Arnold Schwarzenegger (actually Irons via voice changer) about Steel and the events on what happened the day before and offers him to help before realising it is actually Irons who he is talking to and after that, Irons declines David's offer.

In the grand opening of her restaurant, Irons' grandmother tells him about Steel and then tells Joe that everyone would be proud of his heroism. After Sparky shows the new modifications of her wheelchair that allows her to walk, Irons smiles and hugs her.

Cast

Production
Production of the film Steel started with music producer Quincy Jones and his partner David Salzman. Both Jones and Salzman were fans of the Steel character, especially Jones, who found personal reasons to support the project. Jones stated that he found children's "perspective on the future has changed for the worse, and I hate seeing young people who don't believe in the future. Steel—and I don't want to use that word 'superhero' because he doesn't fly or anything like that—represents a role model. Let's just call him a 'super human being'". Wesley Snipes was Kenneth Johnson first choice for the lead role. Jones and Salzman had initially approached Shaquille O'Neal and his agent Leonard Armato regarding a Hardware adaptation, but the basketballer said he related himself more to Steel. Johnson later admitted that Shaq was a bad choice for the role.

Writing
Kenneth Johnson was the screenwriter and director of Steel. Johnson was originally uninterested in doing a superhero film, having previously turned down similar projects after the success of his television series The Bionic Woman, Alien Nation, and The Incredible Hulk. Film producer Joel Simon described Steel as being different, stating that he was "a knight in shining armor in a contemporary setting". Johnson removed Steel's cape from his costume to reflect this.

Johnson described Steel's persona as a "blue-collar Batman" and removed Steel from his comic book storyline and replaced it with protagonists and antagonists of his own invention. To aid with the urban aspects of the dialog Johnson took a copy of the script to South Central Los Angeles and spent a day with a group of kids to ensure that the language of some of the characters was more believable. Throughout the film and script, Johnson created several allusions to his previous television series Alien Nation.

Filming
The filming schedule consisted of fifty-one days with thirty-two full nights of shooting in downtown Los Angeles. The shooting schedule presented difficulties for the director due to the schedule of the star Shaquille O'Neal. O'Neal was already committed for playing in the 1996 Summer Olympics, and training at the Los Angeles Lakers' camp in Hawaii. This left Johnson with five weeks to complete filming all scenes with O'Neal. O'Neal had one read-through of the script before the Olympics and then worked with acting coach Ben Martin in between games to work on his character. When O'Neal returned to act with the rest of the cast, he had all his lines memorized.

Music

As well as acting in the film, Shaquille O'Neal contributed to the soundtrack for the film. The single "Men of Steel" has him featured alongside rappers KRS-One, Ice Cube, B-Real, and Peter Gunz. The soundtrack was released on Quincy Jones' record label Qwest Records and included songs featured in the film and songs inspired by it. The album charted in the United States on the Billboard 200 at number 185 and on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums at number 26.

Reception

Box office
Steel was released in the United States on August 15, 1997, making only $870,068 across 1,260 theaters on its opening weekend. The film ended up considered a large box office bomb, earning just $1.7 million domestically with an estimated budget of $16 million.

Critical response
Steel was critically panned upon its original release. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of , based on  reviews, with an average rating of . The site's consensus reads: "Steel is a badly-acted movie that indulges not only in superhero clichés, but also the sappy TV-movie-of-the-week ones". On Metacritic the film has a score of 28% based on reviews from 12 critics, indiciating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.

Leonard Kladly of Variety wrote that the film is "too broad and episodic to attract anything other than the most undemanding crowd". Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle described it as a "tolerable stinker of a film" that "plays like a Saturday morning cartoon". Lawrence Van Gelder of The New York Times stated that the film is "slow to gather momentum and generates little excitement or tension". Shaquille O'Neal earned a Razzie Award nomination as Worst Actor for his performance in the film, but lost against Kevin Costner for The Postman.

References

External links

1997 films
African-American superhero films
1990s action films
1990s superhero films
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in St. Louis
Films shot in Los Angeles
American superhero films
Film
Films directed by Kenneth Johnson (producer)
Films produced by Quincy Jones
Films about paraplegics or quadriplegics
Live-action films based on DC Comics
1990s English-language films
1990s American films
Films based on DC Comics
Vigilante films
American vigilante films
1990s vigilante films

Steel (1997 film)


Roland Sales (born 1958) is a former running back for the University of Arkansas and a former professional football player. His career is significant because in the 1977 season's 1978 Orange Bowl, Sales set an Orange Bowl rushing record of 205 yards that stood until the 1998 Orange Bowl when Ahman Green broke it by rushing for 206 yards.  Sales and Razorbacks teammate Reggie Freeman were named 1978 Orange Bowl MVPs.

College career
An Arkansas native, Sales was recruited by head coach Frank Broyles to play for Arkansas. By his junior year he was playing backup to running back Ben Cowins. The Razorbacks had a powerhouse team in the 1970s. Behind the passing skills of Ron Calcagni, the rushing of Cowins, the defense played by future Chicago Bears star Dan Hampton and the record setting kicking of Steve Little the Razorbacks were always highly ranked during that period. Following Broyles' retirement from coaching he was replaced by head coach Lou Holtz. Up until that time Sales' career had been mediocre.

1978 Orange Bowl
Coming into the 1978 Orange Bowl the Arkansas Razorbacks were ranked sixth in the nation with a record of 10–1. The Oklahoma Sooners were ranked 2nd in the nation behind the rushing of  Heisman Trophy winner Billy Sims. Arkansas head coach Lou Holtz had a reputation for being strict with his players, but he shocked many when he suspended his two starting running backs Ben Cowins and Michael Forrest, and a wide receiver, Donny Bobo prior to the 1978 Orange Bowl. Ben Cowins and Donny Bobo had accounted for 78% of the points scored by the Razorbacks team in that season. The players protested, Holtz would not back down and the suspensions stood. Already considered a heavy underdog to Oklahoma, with the loss of those starters Arkansas was expected to give little competition in the game.

Arkansas was an 18-point underdog prior to the suspensions. After the suspensions they were given as 24-point underdogs by Las Vegas, Nevada odds. Also the #1 ranked University of Texas had just lost a game, which meant a victory over Arkansas by Oklahoma would make Oklahoma the national champions.  Thus the 1978 Orange Bowl would in all likelihood be the game that decided the National Championship.

Roland Sales started in the place of Ben Cowins. With Sales doing most of the running of the ball, Arkansas out-rushed Oklahoma 126 yards to 116 yards in the first half, with Sims also fumbling the ball once with the Razorbacks recovering on the Oklahoma 9-yard line. In total, Sales rushed 22 times for 205 yards and caught four passes for 52 yards. He scored two rushing touchdowns. Arkansas defeated Oklahoma 31–6. Arkansas finished the season ranked #3 in the nation behind #1-ranked Notre Dame and #2-ranked Alabama.

Professional career

Sales was chosen in the 11th round of the 1980 National Football League Draft by the Cleveland Browns as the 294th selection overall. He never played in the NFL, but played the 1980 season with the Canadian Football League's Montreal Alouettes. He rushed for only 54 yards total in three games, yet scored six touchdowns.

References

External links
Roland Sales and Arkansas outplay heavily favored Oklahoma in 1978 Orange Bowl
Lou Holtz suspends players
Game Shockers, Holtz suspending players before big game
Holtz 1978 suspensions at Arkansas a part of college football history
SEC Blitz, 1978 Orange Bowl against the odds
Orange Bowl news, 1978 Orange Bowl

1958 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Fayetteville, Arkansas
Players of American football from Arkansas
Arkansas Razorbacks football players
Montreal Alouettes players
American football running backs
Canadian football running backs

Roland Sales


Bülent Bezdüz (born 1967 in Ankara) is a Turkish operatic tenor.

Bezdüz graduated from Gazi University's Department of Music and started his vocal studies with Polish tenor Roman Werlinski. He was helped by Hüseyin Akbulut, director-general of the Turkish State Opera and Ballet. He decided to take the exam at the Mersin State Opera and Ballet and made his debut there as Alfredo in Verdi's La Traviata.

In 1997, he attended the European Opera Centre in Manchester and made his European debut in  Mozart´s Lucio Silla which went on tour in England, Ireland and Denmark.

Since then, he has sung in London, Dublin, Amsterdam, Cologne, Marseille, Rennes, Nancy, Lausanne, at the Teatro Regio di Parma, Teatro Regio di Torino, Portland, Oregon, Teatro Colón de Buenos Aires, with the Canadian Opera Company in Toronto, the Istanbul State Opera as well as in several other cities in Europe.

His repertoire includes Fenton in Verdi's Falstaff and Hellenus in Berlioz's Les Troyens, both of which he has recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra under Sir Colin Davis, Ottavio in Mozart's Don Giovanni, Rodolfo in La Bohème, and the title role in Gounod's Faust. He is ideally suited to the operas of Donizetti and has sung the following roles:  Alamiro in Belisario, Gennaro in Lucrezia Borgia, Leicester in Maria Stuarda and the title role in Roberto Devereux,   Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore and Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor in May–June 2007 for Scottish Opera.

Discography
Bulent Bezduz participated in two opera recordings conducted by Sir Colin Davis: Berlioz Les Troyens (in the role of Hellenus) and Verdi Falstaff (role of Fenton) which won three Grammy Awards in 2002 and 2006:
 Berlioz Les Troyens. Sir Colin Davis LSO Live 2002
 Verdi Falstaff. Sir Colin Davis LSO Live 2004
 Puccini Discoveries. Riccardo Chailly Decca 2004

References

External links
 Official website

Operatic tenors
20th-century Turkish male opera singers
Musicians from Ankara
Gazi University alumni
Grammy Award winners
Living people
1967 births

Bülent Bezdüz


The plain swift (Apus unicolor) is a medium-sized swift. Although this bird is superficially similar to a barn swallow or house martin, it is not related to those passerine species. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles.

Swifts have very short legs that they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces. They never settle voluntarily on the ground, and spend most of their lives in the air, feeding on insects that they catch in their beaks. They drink on the wing.

Plain swifts breed in colonies on cliffs, bridges and buildings on the Canary Islands and Madeira, laying two eggs in a saucer-shaped nest made of flowerheads glued with saliva. They are partially migratory, with many birds leaving to winter in mainland Africa. Until recently it was thought that the birds wintered on the African coast but recent studies suggest they travel much further to the equatorial forests of Liberia and Guinea, a distance of 2,600 kilometres. Small numbers are also believed to breed in Morocco between Agadir and Essaouira, where a colony was found on coastal cliffs and possibly also in Mauritania where there are frequent sightings

This 14–15 cm long species is very similar to the closely related common and pallid swifts, which also occur in the archipelagos, and separation is only possible with good views. Like its relatives, it has a short forked tail and very long swept-back wings that resemble a crescent or a boomerang.

It is entirely dark except for an indistinct pale throat patch. It is slimmer and more rakish than the pallid swift, and is darker than that species and lacks the obvious white throat.

Distinguishing the plain swift from the similarly plumaged common swift is much more difficult, although juvenile common can be easily eliminated due to its white throat. The plain is slimmer and appears longer winged than the common, and has scaly underparts, difficult to see except with excellent views. The call is a loud dry scream similar to that of the common swift, though possibly higher pitched.

References

 Swifts by Chantler and Driessens,

External links
 Madeira Birds: Plain Swift

Apus (genus)
Birds of the Canary Islands
Birds of Madeira
Birds described in 1830
Taxa named by Sir William Jardine

Plain swift


Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten, usually referred to as AG, is one of the two newspapers in Greenland distributed nationwide. The newspaper is published twice a week on Tuesdays and Thursdays.

The newspaper was created by a merger of a Kalaallisut newspaper (Atuagagdliutit) and a Danish newspaper (Grønlandsposten) and all articles are printed in both languages.

Atuagagdliutit
Atuagagdliutit was started in 1861 by the Danish geologist, inspector Hinrich Johannes Rink, who thought the Inuit population of Greenland was losing its cultural identity and a newspaper might stimulate the Greenlandic oral tradition by creating the opportunity to print and publish tales about life nationwide. The newspaper was at first published exclusively in Kalaallisut and was primarily concerned with the Inuit identity. The newspaper was for many years also the only window to the outside world for the majority of the Inuit population. It is claimed that a colour illustration published
in Atuagagdliutit in 1861, a woodcut showing the American navy visiting Nuuk, was the first ever newspaper color illustration.

During the 1930s, the newspaper gradually changed away from the focus on tales and towards social problems and other ordinary news.

Grønlandsposten
During World War II, Greenland was largely isolated from the outside world, and therefore a Danish language newspaper was circulated in the Greenland capital Nuuk by the name of Grønlandsposten. The newspaper became popular enough to be distributed after the end of World War II and it was distributed until 1952 when the two papers merged.

Distribution
The old Atuagagdliutit was for many years published monthly, and that pattern continued after the merger with Grønlandsposten. From the 1960s, the newspaper became published every fortnight, and within few years, the newspaper became published once every week, then twice a week, and then three times a week. In 1993, the newspaper was once again published only twice a week, mainly because of distribution problems.

2010 merger
In 2010 Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten merged with Sermitsiaq, the other Greenlandic newspaper. Both papers' websites now redirect to the combined Sermitsiaq.AG website.

See also
 List of newspapers in Greenland

References

External links
Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten website (in Kalaallisut and Danish)

Mass media in Greenland
Danish-language newspapers
Newspapers published in Greenland
1861 establishments in Greenland
Newspapers established in 1861
Greenlandic language
Bilingual newspapers

Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten


"When You Believe" is a song by American singers Whitney Houston and Mariah Carey. The song was made for the 1998 DreamWorks musical animated feature The Prince of Egypt. It was written and composed by Stephen Schwartz. A pop single version of "When You Believe", with additional music and lyrics by writer-producer Kenneth Edmonds (Babyface), was also recorded for the film's end credits and its soundtrack album by DreamWorks Records. Additionally, the song serves as the soundtrack's lead single on November 2, 1998 and for both Houston's fourth studio album, My Love Is Your Love by Arista Records and Carey's first compilation album, #1's by Columbia Records. The original version of the song, featured in the narrative portion of the film, is performed by Sally Dworsky, Michelle Pfeiffer, and a children's choir (children's choir soloist: Andrew Bryan). "When You Believe" is described as a big ballad, with meaningful and inspirational lyrics, describing the ability each person has to achieve miracles when they reach out to God and believe.

The song received generally positive reviews from music critics and experienced moderate success, peaking at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100, despite heavy media attention and live promotion. It achieved better charting throughout Europe and other nations, reaching number one in Hungary, peaking within the top five in Belgium, France, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. "When You Believe" was awarded the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 71st annual ceremony on March 21, 1999. Prior to their performance of the song that night, Schwartz left Babyface's name off the nomination submission sheet. He felt that because the additions Babyface added to the song were not featured in the actual film version, he did not deserve writing credits. However, while Babyface did not receive the Oscar, Carey and Houston performed his version of the song, because they were more familiar with it than the one in the film. Prior to their performance at the Academy Awards, they sang it on November 26, 1998, on The Oprah Winfrey Show, promoting the song, as well as both their albums.

The song featured two music videos. The first and most commonly seen video was filmed at Brooklyn Academy of Music performing arts center. The video features both singers, and begins with Houston and Carey performing in a large auditorium, giving the illusion of a concert. Towards the end of the video, clips of the film are projected onto a large screen at the concert, while they belt out the final verse. The alternate video was only released on NBC's special, When You Believe: Music Inspired by the Prince of Egypt, broadcast on December 13, 1998. It features a similar synopsis, with both singers performing on a large stage of an old Egyptian pyramid.

Background and recording

When Carey compiled her first compilation effort, #1's, "When You Believe" was included in the track listing. According to Carey, the song was included because she felt it was "a miracle" that she and Houston collaborated on a record. During the development of All That Glitters (a film Carey was working on at the time, later known as Glitter), she had been introduced to DreamWorks co-owner Jeffrey Katzenberg, who asked her if she would record the song "When You Believe" for the soundtrack of the animated film The Prince of Egypt. Houston, on the other hand, was introduced to the project through Kenneth "Babyface" Edmonds, with whom she had been collaborating on her album, My Love Is Your Love. After they were shown the film separately, both became very enthusiastic about participating in the project.

The song was co-written by Stephen Schwartz and Kenneth Edmonds, who also produced the song. Edmonds expressed how he went through more than one version of the song and described its production as a beautiful movie ballad that was something different from anything he, Carey, or Houston had ever previously recorded. In an interview with Vibe, Carey said that she "liked [the song] the way it was". She had characterised it as "a very big ballad but in an inspirational way" and denied speculation that there had been past rivalry or animosity between her and Houston prior to its recording: "I never even really talked to her until this. We never had any issues between us. The media and everybody made it an issue." In an interview with Ebony, Houston spoke about her relationship with Carey:
I enjoyed working with her very much. Mariah and I got along very great. We had never talked and never sang together before. We just had a chance for camaraderie, singer-to-singer, artist-to-artist, that kind of thing. We just laughed and talked and laughed and talked and sang in between that ... It's good to know that two ladies of soul can still be friends. We talked about doing other things together, enterprise-wise, which is cool, because she's got a good, vivid mind, that girl. She's a smart lady. I really like Mariah.
While the pair continued to express their positive feelings for one another, tabloids began writing the opposite. There were claims that the two bore ill will against each other, and that they had to record the song separately due to constant tension. While media speculation grew as the film's release date drew near, both singers maintained that they had become close friends, and had only the most positive things to say about each other.

Lyrical content
The Prince of Egypt is an adaptation of the Biblical story of the Exodus. "When You Believe" is sung in the film by characters Tzipporah and Miriam, and a chorus of people departing from the slavery of Egypt to the Red Sea and the Promised Land. The protagonists of this ballad recall tough times that have caused them to question their own faith: they have prayed for many nights to God, but those prayers have seemed to remain unanswered, and now they wonder if their faith has been only a waste of time. Nevertheless, the main characters realize that although the times may be difficult, their faith should remain strong. As a bridge, a chorus of children sings excerpts of the Song of the Sea in Hebrew.

The original draft of the song used the lyric "you can do miracles when you believe", but this seemed to imply that the believer, not God, was responsible for performing miracles; the lyric was later changed to "there can be miracles when you believe".

Houston had sung in a church choir while growing up, and Carey had always connected to her faith through music, especially during any difficult times. This song became one of the many reasons that both singers were so interested in the project. They each felt that spreading faith in God was an important and honorable aspect of their career. While describing the song's lyrics and message, Houston said the following in an interview with Ebony:
A powerful ballad; [songwriter] Stephen Schwartz is a genius. You have to be a child of God to understand the depth of this song. Mariah and I did it as we felt it. We both felt very connected to the song because of our background. What can I say? (It is) Just a beautiful song. What a lyric! I can't talk about it—just listen to it.

Composition

Originally, Schwartz composed the film version of "When You Believe", which was sung in the film by the characters of Tzipporah (Michelle Pfeiffer) and Miriam (Sally Dworsky).  It featured some different instrumentation from the original, and used a children's choir singing lines from the book of Exodus (the Song of the Sea) in Hebrew.

In order to give the song a wider radio and pop appeal, Edmonds changed some of the song's instrumentals and replaced the children's choir with a gospel one. His version was considered more "commercial" and would make the song "help sell the movie". Schwartz's original version was titled "When You Believe", while Edmonds' enhanced version was titled "The Prince of Egypt (When You Believe)". "When You Believe" is a slow tempo ballad, which incorporates pop, soul and R&B genres. A key change separates Houston and Carey's solo parts in the song. During the last bridge and chorus, gospel inspired background singers join the song, giving it a "layered sound" while Houston and Carey's voice switch off belting the bridge. After "When You Believe" was written, Babyface added additional instrumentation, as well as a final bridge.

The song is set in common time. Houston's verse is written in the key of B minor and features a basic chord progression of A-G1, and the song modulates to D major for her chorus. Her vocals in the song range from the note of F3 to F5. Carey's verse is set in the same key, but the song changes to E major for her chorus. Her vocal range in the song spans from the low note of E3 to the high note of A5 The song's key changes again in the last chorus, to F-sharp major. Steve Jones from USA Today called the song a "soaring duet" and felt that the song would be able to appeal to many types of listeners and "cross all genres." The beginning section of the song closely resembles the tune of Dance of the Yao People, composed by Liu Tieshan and Mao Yuan in 1952.

Critical reception
"When You Believe" was generally well-received by critics, who favorably described the track as "epic", "powerful", "beautiful", "stunning", "bombastic", and "a devout duet". Chuck Taylor of Billboard wrote, "The Babyface-stamped track is indeed lovely, offering an instantly accessible chorus and a squeaky clean message of "all things are possible when you believe in your dreams." He added, "The genuine story in this track is the return of Houston, who sounds fantastic—as clear and confident as ever." Another editor, Paul Verna stated that it is a "high-powered" duet, and later highlighted the song while reviewing Houston's album. However, some reviewers were not as enthusiastic. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called it "unexpected -- and unexpectedly dull", while David Browne complained it has "so much sap, maple trees will be jealous", particularly dismissing the song's religious aspect as "insipid" and its inspirational message forced and generic. Two decades later, the song was ranked the 96th best Carey song by Billboard, the second-best pop song of the 1990s by Elle, and the 42nd best track of any genre of the decade by Insider.

Chart performance
The song performed moderately in the United States, despite a performance of The Oprah Winfrey Show and the 71st annual Academy Awards. It peaked at number 15 on the Hot 100 and number three on Billboards Adult Contemporary Chart. On March 24, 1999, after fluctuating in the US charts, the song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of over 1,000,000 units. In Canada, the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 66 on the RPM issue dated December 7, 1998, and peaked at number 20 on the chart issue dated January 25, 1999. It was present on the chart for a total of ten weeks.

The song performed moderately in Australia, where it entered at number 25 on the ARIA Singles Chart during the week of December 6, 1998. It remained on the chart for 14 weeks, spending its last week on the chart at number 50; it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of over 35,000 units. In New Zealand, it peaked at number eight on the singles chart, and spent nine weeks fluctuating in the singles chart. "When You Believe" experienced its highest charting in Europe. In Belgium, it reached number five on the Flanders Ultratop 50, and peaked at number four and spent 20 weeks on the Wallonian Ultratop 40. During the week of December 5, 1998, "When You Believe" entered the Dutch Top 40 at number fifty-four. The song spent twenty-one weeks on the singles chart and was peaked at number four. Due to strong single sales, the song entered the Finnish Singles Chart at number 10, however, it only spent one week in the chart. In France, the song entered the French Singles Chart at number 14 on December 5, 1998 and eventually peaked at number five. After spending 20 weeks fluctuating in the singles chart, it was certified silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP). In Germany, it peaked at number eight on the German Singles Chart and was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie, denoting shipments of over 250,000 units. The song peaked at number seven in Ireland, where it spent 11 weeks in the Irish Singles Chart.

In Norway, "When You Believe" entered at number three on the VG-lista chart and peaked at number two, spending three consecutive weeks at the position. It was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) and spent 15 weeks on the chart. The song peaked at number two in Sweden and Switzerland, spending 20 and 24 weeks on the singles charts, respectively. The IFPI certified the song platinum in Sweden and gold in Switzerland. "When You Believe" experienced high charting in the United Kingdom. It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart during the week of December 19, 1998 and spent 14 weeks on the chart. As of 2010, sales of the song in the UK are estimated at 260,000 units.

 Music videos
The single's music video was filmed at the Brooklyn Academy of Music during the fall of 1998. The video begins with Houston entering a small arena as she begins to sing the song's first verse. As she finishes her part, Carey appears on the stage as well, performing the second verse and chorus. The video is set in a dark studio accented by Egyptian settings, backdrops, and scenes inspired by The Prince of Egypt. An audience is on hand to emulate a concert-like-setting, cheering on both singers. Occasionally, home video clips of Carey and Houston appear throughout the video, as well as clips of the final moments of the film, during the splitting of the Red Sea. The video ends as the room is illuminated, and the two singers are joined by a large choir. As they complete the song, Carey and Houston receive a standing ovation from the crowd, and exit the studio together, walking side by side as they disappear in the distance. For the video, Carey and Houston both donned similar low-cut black gowns, while Carey sported a long straight hairstyle, and Houston a pixie cut.

The song's alternate video features a similar synopsis, where Houston begins singing the song on a large stone altar in the middle of an auditorium. As she finishes her verse, Carey is seen walking up the ramp in the background, joining Houston for her verse. They continue singing the song together, standing side by side and holding hands. After completing the song, both singers exit the auditorium together as in the first video, simulating two friends enjoying time with each other. Both videos are very similar, only the alternate version does not feature an audience, choir or images, only the duo singing together atop the stone altar.

 Live performances
The duo performed the song live on The Oprah Winfrey Show on November 26, 1998. Aside from the joint performance, Houston and Carey sang their own singles at the time, "I Learned from the Best" and "I Still Believe", respectively. Additionally, they sang the song live at the 71st Annual Academy Awards on March 21, 1999. Before the performance, they were due to rehearse together a few days before their scheduled appearance. Houston however, called in sick and had to miss the rehearsal.  Reportedly, her excuse was not taken well, with academy executives calling it a "bullshit story." Conti, the academy's musical arranger, found a young female singer to take Houston's place, Janis Uhley. Before the performance, Carey walked down the stage in a white top and jeans, while choreographer Debbie Allen led the background singers. As they began the performance, Carey forgot the lyrics and stopped, as Uhley began singing in a "theatricality and gusto". Her boastful performance was not taken well by the directors, who called it "inappropriate and unnerving". After she was removed from the stage, a new date was chosen for the rehearsal, one that would accommodate both Houston and Carey.

The next night, after they began the rehearsal, both singers had trouble performing the film version of the song. After hours of practice and confusion, they reached a compromise; they would sing a mash-up of the film and single versions, which featured an additional bridge and instrumentation by Edmonds. For the Oscar ceremony, Houston and Carey wore matching white gowns, symbolizing "humbleness and simplicity." Houston entered the arena, performing her verse, followed by Carey. As the song's finale drew near, a full gospel choir joined the performance from large suspending golden scaffolding, all wearing large white tunics. After the original was nominated for the Academy Award, Schwartz refused to give Edmonds writing credits in nomination forms submitted to the academy.

In 2016, Carey performed the song on her Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour solo as Houston had died four years prior to the tour.

 Awards and nominations

 Track listings and formats

 European CD single "When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:35
 "When You Believe" (TV Track) – 4:35
 U.S. CD single "When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:38
 "When You Believe" (Instrumental) – 4:30
 European CD maxi-single "When You Believe (Album Version)" – 4:35
 "I Am Free" – 3:08
 "You Were Loved" – 4:09

 Japanese CD maxi-single When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:35
 "When You Believe" (TV Track) – 4:32
 "I Am Free" – 3:08
 "You Were Loved" – 4:11
 U.K. CD maxi-single'''
 "When You Believe" (Album Version) – 4:35
 "Sweetheart" (The M!'s Pounding Vocal) – 9:43
 "You Were Loved" – 4:09

 Charts

 Weekly charts

 Year-end charts

 Certifications and sales

 Release history

 Cover versions

"When You Believe" was performed by American Idol contestant and winner Candice Glover on the twelfth season of the show. A studio recording of the song was also released as a single on iTunes.
Glover performed "When You Believe" on American Idol on the "Divas" theme night on April 17, 2013.
Glover's performance was met with praise from the show's judges and it was generally considered the best performance of the night. Rolling Stone wrote that Glover "got judges on their feet" with her "impeccable" performance. Nicki Minaj exclaimed at the end of the performance that "And that is how you do a Mariah Carey/Whitney Houston song". Likewise, Billboard called Glover's performance "best single showing of the night" and commented on the vocal delivery that "she knows precisely when to hit the sweet spot of a song, building up to that point with masterful restraint". MTV News commented that Glover "positively slay[ed]" the song.

The song was recorded by Irish musical ensemble Celtic Woman and released as a single from their fifth studio album Celtic Woman: Songs from the Heart (2010). The song also appears on the Japanese release of their seventh studio album Celtic Woman: Believe (2011). The song features lead vocals from one of the group's singers Chloë Agnew.
In an interview for Chicago Music Magazine, Chloë Agnew described the lyrics of the song as "really incredible". She stated that "It is a songs that I listen to and wish I had written. It's really so special. I think a lot of people have found strength and hope in the lyrics. It's been really rewarding to meet and talk to people at our meet and greet events come up and tell me how much that song means to them and how it has helped them". Irish singer Chloë Agnew recorded the track for her debut album Chloë (2002).

In 2011, the first season winner of The X Factor, Melanie Amaro covered this song during the live performance. In 2014, the song was performed live by Teodora Sava when she was 13 years old, in duet with Nico, as special guests of the Romanian kids talent show Next Star. Pentatonix and Maren Morris covered the song for Pentatonix's 2018 Christmas album Christmas Is Here!. Their cover is also featured on The Best of Pentatonix Christmas.

American Belz Hasidic singer Shulem Lemmer covered the song, in his album The Perfect Dream, released in 2019. Cynthia Erivo and Shoshana Bean, with piano accompaniment by Stephen Schwartz, performed the song as part of the Saturday Night Seder on April 11, 2020. This version was then released as a single on June 30, 2020. Swede Isak Danielson, released a version as a single in November 2020.

 Leon Jackson version

"When You Believe" was recorded by The X Factor winner Leon Jackson in December 2007, with slightly altered lyrics in the second verse, removing some religious overtones within the song. The single was available to download from midnight after the result of the show on December 15, 2007, and a CD was rush-released mid-week, on December 19, 2007. This was unusual as most new singles were released on a Monday to gain maximum sales for the UK Singles Chart the following Sunday. Exceptions included the previous two X Factor winners whose were singles released in this fashion, in order for them to compete to be the Christmas number-one single, which they all became. A video for the single was made by each of the final four of the series; Jackson, Rhydian Roberts, Same Difference, and Niki Evans. However, only the winner's version of the song and video was released.

The song ended 2007 as the year's fourth biggest-selling single in the UK and remained number one into 2008. However, it only managed to stay in the top 40 for seven weeks, despite being atop the chart for three weeks. It also soon disappeared from the top 100, and was gone by late February.

 Music video
The music video, like previous X Factor winners singles, is very simple, with Jackson singing the song in front of a large projection, with swooping shots of various landscapes behind him. It also features several clips from his time in The X Factor'', from his first audition to the moment he was announced the winner and performed his single to close the series. Simon Cowell, Sharon Osbourne, Dannii Minogue, Louis Walsh, Dermot O'Leary and runner-up Rhydian Roberts all feature within the clips.

Chart performance
On December 23, 2007, it debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart, making it the coveted Christmas number one with sales of over 275,000 copies. It stayed at number one for three weeks until it fell down to number five on its fourth week and then fell another ten places to number fifteen in its fifth week. According to The Official Charts Company, the song has sold 506,000 copies in the UK as of December 2012.  Additionally, It also spent three weeks at the top of the Irish Singles Chart.

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

See also
 List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 2000s
 List of number-one singles of 2007 (Ireland)

References

External links

 When You Believe at Discogs
 When You Believe (Leon Jackson) at Discogs

1990s ballads
1998 singles
1998 songs
2007 debut singles
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs
Christmas number-one singles in the United Kingdom
Contemporary R&B ballads
Gospel songs
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Leon Jackson songs
Mariah Carey songs
Music videos directed by Mary Lambert
Music videos directed by Phil Joanou
Number-one singles in Hungary
Number-one singles in Scotland
Pop ballads
Song recordings produced by Babyface (musician)
Songs from The Prince of Egypt
Songs written by Babyface (musician)
Songs written by Stephen Schwartz (composer)
Soul ballads
Whitney Houston songs
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Female vocal duets
The X Factor (British TV series)
DreamWorks Records singles
Arista Records singles
Columbia Records singles
Syco Music singles

When You Believe


Thomas Hugh Eastwood (12 March 1922 – 25 October 1999) was a British composer.

He was born in Hawley, Hampshire, the son of General Sir Thomas Ralph Eastwood and Lady Mabel Vivian Temperley Eastwood. His grandmother was Ellinor Hall Smyth (married name Eastwood), sister of the British composer Dame Ethel Smyth.

Tom Eastwood was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge University. During World War II he was aide-de-camp to his father who was then Governor of Gibraltar.

He first studied music in Turkey with Necil Akses, then in Berlin and London with Boris Blacher and Professor Erwin Stein. Tom Eastwood's inspirations included Greek theatre and later in life his musical imagination was fired by Brazilian folklore, history and music. His music encompasses contemporary themes such as the murdered environmental activist, Chico Mendes. He won a prize at the 1949 Cheltenham Music Festival for his String Trio.

Tom Eastwood worked for the British Council in Ankara and Berlin 1947–54, was a member of the Council of the Society for the Promotion of New Music from 1959 and was on the executive committee in 1959. In 1969 he wrote a television opera for the BBC, The Rebel.

References

1922 births
1999 deaths
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
English classical composers
20th-century classical composers
20th-century English composers
English male classical composers
20th-century British male musicians

Tom Eastwood


The Primitive Advent Christian Church is a small body of Adventist Christians which separated from the Advent Christian Church. They have a common early history. Adventists who had adopted the "conditional immortality" views of Charles F. Hudson and George Storrs formed the Advent Christian Association in Salem, Massachusetts in 1860.

Like Primitive Baptists, and Primitive Methodists the Primitive Advent Christian Church uses the modifier Primitive to signify the idea that they represent the original teachings of the church. They differ from the parent body mainly in two points. They observe feet washing as a rite of the church, and they teach that reclaimed backsliders should be baptized (even though they had formerly been baptized). This is sometimes referred to as rebaptism.

Officers in the Primitive Advent Christian Church are pastors, elders and deacons. A conference for church business is conducted annually.

The church had 427 members in 9 congregations in 1990, all of which were located in central West Virginia.

External links
Adherents.com

References
Churches and Church Membership in the United States (1990), Glenmary Research Center
Encyclopedia of American Religions, J. Gordon Melton, editor

Adventism
Christianity in West Virginia
Christianity in Appalachia

Primitive Advent Christian Church


Democratic-Republican Societies were local political organizations formed in the United States in 1793 and 1794 to promote republicanism and democracy and to fight aristocratic tendencies.  They were independent of each other and had no coordinating body. Historians use the term "Democratic-Republican" to describe the societies, but that name was rarely used by the societies themselves. They usually called themselves "Democratic," "Republican," "True Republican," "Constitutional," "United Freeman," "Patriotic," "Political," "Franklin," or "Madisonian."<ref>Foner found only two that used the actual term "Democratic-Republican," including the "Democratic-Republican Society of Dumfries," Virginia, 1794. Foner, ed., 'The Democratic-Republican Societies, pp 350, 370.</ref>

The Germans of Philadelphia began the first society in April 1793 and were inspired by Peter Muhlenberg. Philadelphia was then the national capital, and soon, an English-speaking society was formed in the city by David Rittenhouse, Charles Biddle (a prominent Quaker merchant), Dr. George Logan, and Alexander J. Dallas. Its charter was widely copied. At least 35 societies had sprung up by 1795, located in most important American cities. Many leaders soon became active in Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party, a national political party that he founded. As foreign affairs became dominant issues of the day, members of such groups opposed the British, rallied behind Jefferson, and proclaimed their friendship with the revolutionary French Republic.

Activities
The societies usually met once a month, more often during election season. Applicants for membership had to have five members attest to their "firm and steadfast friend of EQUAL RIGHTS OF MAN" and a couple of members could blackball an applicant. "Apostasy from Republican principles" was ground for expulsion. Officers were rotated regularly, in one case every month.

The societies politicked in local elections officially or quietly. They often joined parades and celebrations of July 4 and were credited in 1794 with having made that day "more universally celebrated" than it had been. They also celebrated July 14, the French Bastille Day. Some societies engaged in direct action to help France in its war with Britain, such as by equipping French privateers.

Endless discussions and rounds of resolutions fill the minute books; most common were general addresses and resolutions critical of the Washington administration. In the western states, members of the societies agitated against the British for holding the frontier posts and against the Spanish for closing the Mississippi River. In the eastern states, they denounced Britain for "piracy" against American shipping. In the Carolinas, they demanded a uniform currency and adequate representation for the growing backcountry.

The societies strongly protested the excise tax on whiskey. They denounced John Jay as special envoy to London and vehemently repudiated Jay Treaty, which he signed. They complained about secret sessions of Congress and the state legislatures and demanded that public officials abandon the use of "dark, intricate, antiquated formalities" and "obsolete phraseology," which only lawyers and classical scholars could understand.

Grievances
The societies viewed excessive power as the enemy of liberty and were wary of the undue corrupt accumulation of power in the central government. The Society of Newcastle, Delaware, stated, "If we consult the lamentable annals of mankind, and cast our eyes back over the historic page we shall find this solemn truth recorded in large characters; that all governments however free in their origin, have in the end degenerated into despotism." The societies adhered to Jeffersonian thought and believed that the infant nation was fragile and needed careful protection by a vigilant population. The societies feared that Hamilton's financial policies edged too closely to English aristocracy and saw them as "prescriptions of Aristocracy, under the masque of Federalism." They opposed the growing class of commercial elites and speculators. One society in New York City stated that it had "less respect to the consuming speculator, who wallows in luxury, than to the productive mechanic who struggles with indigence."

The societies grieved a lack of virtue and patriotism in the 1790s. They viewed "jealousy" and suspicion of the government not as protest, but as the duty of a virtuous vigilant citizen to maintain the republic. Tunis Wortman, secretary of the Democratic Society of New York, stated, "It is a truth too evident to be disguised, that since the completion and final establishment of our revolution, the flame of liberty has burned less bright, and become less universal in its operation. The charms of wealth, the allurements of luxury, the thirst for gain and the ruinous system of speculation, have borne down like the irresistible flood upon us, and have threatened destruction to the most valuable elements of social life:-the desire of affluence and the love of ease, have absorbed every honorable and patriotic consideration; have rendered us supine and indolent, and have nearly banished from our minds the sentiment of public virtue, destroyed the ardor of liberty, and diminished our attachment to the sacred interests of our country."

Doctrines
The societies preached equal justice and a general diffusion of knowledge as essential "pillars supporting the sacred temple of liberty." A primary purpose of the societies was to disseminate political information, as their members believed ignorance to be the greatest threat to democracy. They worked closely with republican newspaper editors by publishing numerous letters, editorials and essays.

"To support and perpetuate the EQUAL RIGHTS OF MAN" was the New York society's "great object," and toward that end, it would "constantly express our sentiments."  The "Equal Rights of Man" meant to them the right to freedoms of speech, press, and assembly; the right to criticize governmental representatives and to demand an explanation of their public acts; and the right to publish their reactions in a free press.

Born from the grassroots organization of the Sons of Liberty, the societies challenged existing notions of the social and political hierarchy. The societies united disparate groups of people from different classes, usually the lower and middle classes, which were made up of farmers, artisans, mechanics, and common laborers were led by richer merchants, local politicians, militia captains, naval officers, doctors, lawyers, and printers. Their persistence of egalitarian and republican thought revolutionized ideas about liberty through the Jacksonian era and beyond.

The members often included dissenting teachers and theologians who were striving to create a more progressive, humanitarian, and enlightened society. Their ideas were also influenced by classical and modern republicanism, particularly the works of Aristotle and Machiavelli, and by the 'Common Sense' philosophy of the Scottish Enlightenment. That philosophy led the societies to oppose many of the Federalist Party's policies. The societies advocated both a system of publicly-funded and locally-controlled education for all classes and a broadening of the franchise. Standing to Jefferson's ideological left, they advocated a much more democratic political agenda than he supported, including attempts to create a permanent organization of popular dissent directed against the federal government and an educational philosophy based on a dialectical and democratic approach to learning.

Pennsylvania frontier and Whiskey Rebellion
Most societies were urban, but three formed on Pennsylvania's western frontier: the Democratic Republican Society of the County of Washington, the Society of United Freemen of Mingo Creek, and the Republican Society at the Mouth of the Youghiogheny. Members dreamed of a yeoman farmer empire and thought that the western farmers were exploited by wealthy easterners, particularly merchants and land speculators. They demanded justice and were careful not to address with deference those who possessed wealth and power. They considered the whiskey tax inspector John Neville, a reasonably-wealthy man, as an agent of their eastern enemies. James McFarlane, chairman of the Society of United Freemen, was killed while he was trying to force Neville's resignation, an event that triggered the Whiskey Rebellion.

Decline
The Federalist Party opposed such groups and claimed that they had been started by Citizen Genêt as a tool of the revolutionary government in Paris. Members responded by claiming they were inspired by the Sons of Liberty, the Whig Clubs, and other republican groups of the 1770s. President Washington vehemently denounced the societies in late 1794. After his successful quelling of the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington complained that the Democratic-Republican societies in western Pennsylvania had helped to instigate the revolt and thus were enemies of the new government and nation. By 1796, most of the groups had disbanded.

As educational organizations, the societies had some influence. They believed that a republican nation required citizens to act together to deal with social problems at the grassroots. It considered the mobilized citizenry to be essential to defeat aristocracy, which they identified with Alexander Hamilton. In opposing rule by the few, they helped define what rule by the many might be.

References
Notes

Bibliography
 Dotts, Brian W. Citizen Dissent in the New Republic: Radical Republicanism and Democratic Educational Thought during the Revolutionary era (PhD dissertation, Indiana University 2005),  portions online
 Elkins, Stanley  and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995)
 Foner, Philip S. ed.; The Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790-1800: A Documentary Sourcebook of Constitutions, Declarations, Addresses, Resolutions, and Toasts (1976).
  Luetscher, George D. Early Political Machinery in the United States (1903) online ch 2
 Link, Eugene Perry. Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790-1800 (1942)
 Owen, Kenneth. Political community in revolutionary Pennsylvania, 1774-1800 (Oxford University Press, 2018).
 Schoenbachler, Matthew. "Republicanism in the Age of Democratic Revolution: The Democratic-Republican Societies of the 1790s". Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 18, No. 2. (1998) in JSTOR
 Sioli, Marco M. "The Democratic Republican Societies at the End of the Eighteenth Century: the Western Pennsylvania Experience." Pennsylvania History 1993 60(3): 288-304. ISSN 0031-4528
 Wilentz, Sean. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln'' (2005).

1790s in the United States
Democratic-Republican Party politicians
Political history of the United States
Presidency of George Washington
Republicanism in the United States
Classical liberalism
Liberalism in the United States
Radicalism (historical)
Left-wing populism in the United States
Jeffersonian democracy

Democratic-Republican Societies


Triiodothyronine, also known as T3, is a thyroid hormone.  It affects almost every physiological process in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, body temperature, and heart rate.

Production of T3 and its prohormone thyroxine (T4) is activated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is released from the anterior pituitary gland. This pathway is part of a closed-loop feedback process: Elevated concentrations of T3, and T4 in the blood plasma inhibit the production of TSH in the anterior pituitary gland. As concentrations of these hormones decrease, the anterior pituitary gland increases production of TSH, and by these processes, a feedback control system stabilizes the level of thyroid hormones in the bloodstream.

At the cellular level, T3 is the body's more active and potent thyroid hormone. T3 helps deliver oxygen and energy to all of the body's cells, its effects on target tissues being roughly four times more potent than those of T4. Of the thyroid hormone that is produced, just about 20% is T3, whereas 80% is produced as T4. Roughly 85% of the circulating T3 is later formed in the liver and anterior pituitary by removal of the iodine atom from the carbon atom number five of the outer ring of T4. In any case, the concentration of T3 in the human blood plasma is about one-fortieth that of T4. The half-life of T3 is about 2.5days. The half-life of T4 is about 6.5days. T3 levels start to rise 45minutes after administration and peak at about 2.5hours. Allthough manufacturer of Cytomel states half-life to be 2.5days the half-life variability is great and can vary depending on the thyroid status of the patient. Newer studies have found the pharmakokinetics of T3 to be complex and the half-life to vary between 22hours.

Production

Synthesis from T4

T3 is the more metabolically active hormone produced from T4. T4 is deiodinated by three deiodinase enzymes to produce the more-active triiodothyronine:
 Type I present in liver, kidney, thyroid, and (to a lesser extent) pituitary; it accounts for 80% of the deiodination of T4.
 Type II present in CNS, pituitary, brown adipose tissue, and heart vessel, which is predominantly intracellular. In the pituitary, it mediates negative feedback on thyroid-stimulating hormone.
 Type III present in placenta, CNS, and hemangioma.  This deiodinase converts T4 into reverse T3, which, unlike T3, is inactive.

T4 is synthesised in the thyroid follicular cells as follows.
 The sodium-iodide symporter transports two sodium ions across the basement membrane of the follicular cells along with an iodine ion. This is a secondary active transporter that utilises the concentration gradient of Na+ to move I− against its concentration gradient.
 I− is moved across the apical membrane into the colloid of the follicle.
 Thyroperoxidase oxidises I− to form the I radical.
 The thyroperoxidase iodinates the tyrosyl residues of the thyroglobulin within the colloid. The thyroglobulin was synthesised in the ER of the follicular cell and secreted into the colloid.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) released from the anterior pituitary gland binds the TSH receptor (a Gs protein-coupled receptor) on the basolateral membrane of the cell and stimulates the endocytosis of the colloid.
 The endocytosed vesicles fuse with the lysosomes of the follicular cell. The lysosomal enzymes cleave the T4 from the iodinated thyroglobulin.
 These vesicles are then exocytosed, releasing the thyroid hormones.

Direct synthesis
The thyroid gland also produces small amounts of T3 directly.  In the follicular lumen, tyrosine residues become iodinated. This reaction requires hydrogen peroxide. Iodine bonds carbon 3 or carbon 5 of tyrosine residues of thyroglobulin in a process called organification of iodine. The iodination of specific tyrosines yields monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT). One MIT and one DIT are enzymatically coupled to form T3. The enzyme is thyroid peroxidase.

The small amount of T3 could be important because different tissues have different sensitivities to T4 due to differences in deiodinase ubiquitination in different tissues.  This once again raises the question if T3 should be included in thyroid hormone replacement therapy (THRT).

Mechanism of action
T3 and T4 bind to nuclear receptors (thyroid hormone receptors). T3 and T4, although being lipophilic, are not able to passively diffuse through the phospholipid bilayers of target cells, instead relying on transmembrane iodothyronine transporters. The lipophilicity of T3 and T4 requires their binding to the protein carrier thyroid-binding protein (TBG) (thyroxine-binding globulins, thyroxine binding prealbumins, and albumins) for transport in the blood. The thyroid receptors bind to response elements in gene promoters, thus enabling them to activate or inhibit transcription. The sensitivity of a tissue to T3 is modulated through the thyroid receptors.

Transportation

T3 and T4 are carried in the blood, bound to plasma proteins. This has the effect of increasing the half-life of the hormone and decreasing the rate at which it is taken up by peripheral tissues. There are three main proteins that the two hormones are bound to. Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) is a glycoprotein that has a higher affinity for T4 than for T3. Transthyretin is also a glycoprotein, but only carries T4, with hardly any affinity at all for T3. Finally, both hormones bind with a low affinity to serum albumin, but, due to the large availability of albumin, it has a high capacity.

The saturation of binding spots on thyronine-binding globulin (TBG) by endogenous T3 can be estimated by the triiodothyronine resin uptake test. The test is performed by taking a blood sample, to which an excess of radioactive exogenous T3 is added, followed by a resin that also binds T3. A fraction of the radioactive T3 binds to sites on TBG not already occupied by endogenous thyroid hormone, and the remainder binds to the resin. The amount of labeled hormones bound to the resin is then subtracted from the total that was added, with the remainder thus being the amount that was bound to the unoccupied binding sites on TBG.

Effects
T3 increases the basal metabolic rate and, thus, increases the body's oxygen and energy consumption. The basal metabolic rate is the minimal caloric requirement needed to sustain life in a resting individual. T3 acts on the majority of tissues within the body, with a few exceptions including the spleen. It increases the synthesis and activity of the Na+/K+-ATPase (which normally constitutes a substantial fraction of total cellular ATP expenditure) without disrupting transmembrane ion balance. In general, it increases the turnover of different endogenous macromolecules by increasing their synthesis and degradation.

Skeletal growth
Thyroid hormones are essential for normal growth and skeletal maturation. They potentiate the effect of growth hormone and somatomedins to promote bone growth, epiphysial closure and bone maturation.

Protein
T3 stimulates the production of RNA polymerase I and II and, therefore, increases the rate of protein synthesis. It also increases the rate of protein degradation, and, in excess, the rate of protein degradation exceeds the rate of protein synthesis. In such situations, the body may go into negative ion balance.

Glucose
T3 potentiates the effects of the β-adrenergic receptors on the metabolism of glucose.  Therefore, it increases the rate of glycogen breakdown and glucose synthesis in gluconeogenesis.

Lipids
T3 stimulates the breakdown of cholesterol and increases the number of LDL receptors, thereby increasing the rate of lipolysis.

Heart
T3 increases the heart rate and force of contraction, thus increasing cardiac output, by increasing β-adrenergic receptor levels in myocardium. This results in increased systolic blood pressure and decreased diastolic blood pressure. The latter two effects act to produce the typical bounding pulse seen in hyperthyroidism.  It also upregulates the thick filament protein myosin, which helps to increase contractility. A helpful clinical measure to assess contractility is the time between the QRS complex and the second heart sound. This is often decreased in hyperthyroidism.

Development
T3 has profound effect upon the developing embryo and infants. It affects the lungs and influences the postnatal growth of the central nervous system. It stimulates the production of myelin, the production of neurotransmitters, and the growth of axons. It is also important in the linear growth of bones.

Neurotransmitters
T3 may increase serotonin in the brain, in particular in the cerebral cortex, and down-regulate 5HT-2 receptors, based on studies in which T3 reversed learned helplessness in rats and physiological studies of the rat brain.

Physiological function
Thyroid hormones act to increase protein turnover. This might serve an adaptive function in regard to long-term calorie restriction with adequate protein. When calories are in short supply, reduction in protein turnover may ameliorate the effects of the shortage.

Measurement

Triiodothyronine can be measured as free triiodothyronine, which is an indicator of triiodothyronine activity in the body. It can also be measured as total triiodothyronine, which also depends on the triiodothyronine that is bound to thyroxine-binding globulin.

Uses

Treatment of depressive disorders
The addition of triiodothyronine to existing treatments such as SSRIs is one of the most widely studied augmentation strategies for refractory depression, however success may depend on the dosage of T3. A long-term case series study by Kelly and Lieberman of 17 patients with major refractory unipolar depression found that 14 patients showed sustained improvement of symptoms over an average timespan of two years, in some cases with higher doses of T3 than the traditional 50 µg required to achieve therapeutic effect, with an average of 80 µg and a dosage span of 24 months; dose range: 25–150 µg. The same authors published a retrospective study of 125 patients with the two most common categories of bipolar disorders II and NOS whose treatment had previously been resistant to an average of 14 other medications. They found that 84% experienced improvement and 33% experienced full remission over a period of an average of 20.3 months (standard deviation of 9.7). None of the patients experienced hypomania while on T3.

Use as a fat loss supplement
3,5-Diiodo-L-thyronine and 3,3′-diiodo-L-thyronine are used as ingredients in certain over-the-counter fat-loss supplements, designed for bodybuilding. Several studies have shown that these compounds increase the metabolization of fatty acids and the burning of adipose fat tissue in rats.

Alternative medicine
Triiodothyronine has been used to treat Wilson's syndrome, an alternative medical diagnosis not recognized as a medical condition by mainstream medicine. This diagnosis involves various non-specific symptoms that are attributed to the thyroid, despite normal thyroid function tests. The American Thyroid Association has raised concern that the prescribed treatment with triiodothyronine is potentially harmful.

History
In 1950 Dr Jack Gross, a Canadian endocrinologist, came to the British National Institute for Medical Research to work with Rosalind Pitt-Rivers as a postdoctoral fellow. Gross had previous experience working at McGill University under Professor Charles Leblond, where they used radioactive iodine to study the physiology of thyroid hormone and applied chromatography to analyze radioiodinated proteins in human blood after radioiodine therapy. Gross and Leblond found an unknown radioactive compound in the blood of rats given radioactive iodine. The compound migrated close to thyroxine in chromatography and they initially named it 'unknown 1' . Around that time a group led by Jean Roche in Paris described a deiodinating activity in the sheep thyroid gland, raising the possibility that 'unknown 1' is the less iodinated analogue of T4, triiodothyronine. In march of 1952 Gross & Pitt-Rivers published a paper in The Lancet titled "The identification of 3: 5: 3'-L-triiodothyronine in human plasma".

While Gross & Pitt-Rivers are normally credited with discovering T3, this compound was actually first isolated by the biochemists Hird & Trikojus at the University of Melbourne in 1948. It has been suggested that their published paper was little-known and thereby easily ignored. It has also been stated that Pitt-Rivers had read this paper but failed to mention it.

See also
 Polar T3 syndrome

 TRC-150094

References

External links
 Triiodothyronine bound to proteins in the PDB
 T3 at Lab Tests Online

Iodinated tyrosine derivatives
Hormones of the thyroid gland
Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis
Human hormones
Toxicology
Thyroid
Thyroid hormone receptor agonists
Diphenyl ethers

Triiodothyronine


A plantation economy is an economy based on agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops, grown on large farms worked by laborers or slaves. The properties are called plantations. Plantation economies rely on the export of cash crops as a source of income. Prominent crops included cotton, rubber, sugar cane, tobacco, figs, rice, kapok, sisal, and species in the genus Indigofera, used to produce indigo dye.

The longer a crop's harvest period, the more efficient plantations become. Economies of scale are also achieved when the distance to market is long. Plantation crops usually need processing immediately after harvesting. Sugarcane, tea, sisal, and palm oil are most suited to plantations, while coconuts, rubber, and cotton are suitable to a lesser extent.

Conditions for formation
Plantation economies are factory-like, industrialised and centralised forms of agriculture, owned by large corporations or affluent owners. Under normal circumstances, plantation economies are not as efficient as small farm holdings, since there is immense difficulty in proper supervision of labour over a large land area. When there are large distances between the plantations and their markets, processing can reduce the bulk of the crop and lower shipping costs.

Large plantations produce large quantities of a good are able to achieve economies of scale for expensive processing machinery, as the per unit cost of processing is greatly diminished. This economy of scale can be achieved best with tropical crops that are harvested continuously through the year, fully utilising the processing machinery. Examples of crops that are suitable to be processed are sugar, sisal, palm oil, and tea.

North American plantations

In the Thirteen Colonies, plantations were concentrated in the South. These colonies included Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. They had good soil and long growing seasons, ideal for crops such as rice and tobacco. The existence of many waterways in the region made transportation easier. Each colony specialized in one or two crops, with Virginia standing out in tobacco production.

Slavery

Planters embraced the use of slaves mainly because indentured labor became expensive. Some indentured servants were also leaving to start their own farms as land was widely available. Colonists tried to use Native Americans for labor, but they were susceptible to European diseases and died in large numbers. The plantation owners then turned to enslaved Africans for labor. In 1665, there were fewer than 500 Africans in Virginia but by 1750, 85 percent of the 235,000 slaves lived in the Southern colonies, Virginia included. Africans made up 40 percent of the South's population.

According to the 1840 United States Census, one out of every four families in Virginia owned slaves. There were over 100 plantation owners who owned over 100 slaves. The number of slaves in the  15 States was just shy of 4 million in a total population 12.4 million and the percentage was 32% of the population.

Number of slaves in the Lower South:   2,312,352 (47% of total population) 4,919 million.
Number of slaves in the Upper South:   1,208,758 (29% of total population) 4,165 million.
Number of slaves in the Border States: 432,586  (13% of total population) 3,323 million.

Fewer than one-third of Southern families owned slaves at the peak of slavery prior to the Civil War. In Mississippi and South Carolina the figure approached one half. The total number of slave owners was 385,000 (including, in Louisiana, some free African Americans), amounting to approximately 3.8% of the Southern and Border states population.

On a plantation with more than 100 slaves, the capital value of the slaves was greater than the capital value of the land and farming implements.
The first plantations occurred in the Caribbean islands, particularly, in the West Indies on the island of Hispaniola, where it was initiated by the Spaniards in the early 16th century. The plantation system was based on slave labor and it was marked by inhumane methods of exploitation. After being established in the Caribbean islands, the plantation system spread during the 16th,17th and 18th century to Mexico, Brazil, Britain's southern Atlantic colonies in North America and Indonesia. All the plantation system had a form of slavery in its establishment, slaves were initially forced to be labors to the plantation system, these slaves were primarily native Indians, but the system was later extended to include slaves shipped from Africa. Indeed, the progress of the plantation system was accompanied by the rapid growth of the slave trade.
The plantation system peaked in the first half of the 18th century, but later on, during the middle of 19th century, there was a significant increase in demand for cotton from European countries, which means there was a need for expanding the plantation in the southern parts of United States. This made the plantation system reach a profound crisis, until it was changed from being forcing slave labour to being mainly low-paid wage labors who contained a smaller proportion of forced labour. The monopolies were insured high profits from the sale of plantation products by having cheap labours, forced recruitment, peonage and debt servitude.

Atlantic slave trade

Enslaved Africans were transported from Africa by European slave traders to Europe's colonies in the Western Hemisphere. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to the New World. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called "the middle passage", and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa.

By some estimates, it is said that some ten million Africans were brought to the Americas. Only about 6% ended up in the North American colonies, while the majority were taken to the Caribbean colonies and South America. A reason many did not make it to the colonies at all was disease and illness. Underneath the slave ship's decks, Africans were held chest-to-chest and could not do much moving. There was waste and urine throughout the hold; this caused the captives to get sick and to die from illnesses that could not be cured.

As the plantation economy expanded, the slave trade grew to meet the growing demand for labor.

Industrial Revolution in Europe

Western Europe was the final destination for the plantation produce. At this time, Europe was starting to industrialize, and it needed a lot of materials to manufacture goods. Being the power center of the world at the time, they exploited the New World and Africa to industrialize. Africa supplied slaves for the plantations; the New World produced raw material for industries in Europe. Manufactured goods, of higher value, were then sold both to Africa and the New World. The system was largely run by European merchants.

Sugar plantations

Sugar has a long history as a plantation crop. Cultivation of sugar had to follow a precise scientific system to profit from the production. Sugar plantations everywhere were disproportionate consumers of labor, often enslaved, because of the high mortality of the plantation laborers. In Brazil, plantations were called casas grandes and suffered from similar issues.

The slaves working the sugar plantation were caught in an unceasing rhythm of arduous labor year after year. Sugarcane is harvested about 18 months after planting and the plantations usually divided their land for efficiency. One plot was lying fallow, one plot was growing cane, and the final plot was being harvested. During the December–May rainy season, slaves planted, fertilized with animal dung, and weeded. From January to June, they harvested the cane by chopping the plants off close to the ground, stripping the leaves and then cutting them into shorter strips to be bundled off to be sent to the sugar cane mill.

In the mill, the cane was crushed using a three-roller mill. The juice from the crushing of the cane was then boiled or clarified until it crystallized into sugar. Some plantations also went a step further and distilled the molasses, the liquid left after the sugar is boiled or clarified, to make rum. The sugar was then shipped back to Europe. For the slave laborer, the routine started all over again.

With the 19th-century abolition of slavery, plantations continued to grow sugar cane, but sugar beets, which can be grown in temperate climates, increased their share of the sugar market.

Indigo plantations

Indigofera was a major crop cultivated during the 18th century, in Venezuela, Guatemala—and Haiti until the slave rebellion against France that left them embargoed by Europe and India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The indigo crop was grown for making blue indigo dye in the pre-industrial age.

Mahatma Gandhi's investigation of indigo workers' claims of exploitation led to the passage of the Champaran Agrarian Bill in 1917 by the British colonial government.

Southeast Asia
In Southeast Asia British and Dutch colonies established plantations to produce agricultural commodity products including tea, pepper and other spices, palm oil, coffee, and rubber. Large scale agricultural production continues in many areas.

Currencies

The currency for the Georgia colony was the pound sterling, a gold coin or very light green bill with the national pound symbol. The currency is worth about one and one half U.S. dollar.

The currency for the New York was at the time of the colony the New York pound. This currency was primarily used and made in the 1700s.

See also
Banana republic
History of commercial tobacco in the United States
History of sugar
King Cotton
Latifundium
Sugar plantations in the Caribbean
Tropical agriculture

References

Agricultural economics
Economic systems
History of Virginia
Slavery in North America
Plantations
Economy

Plantation economy


Ronald Caltabiano (born December 7, 1959) is an American arts administrator and composer of contemporary classical music, with his music showing elements of modernism and romanticism.

He holds B.M., M.M., and D.M.A. degrees from the Juilliard School, where he studied composition with Elliott Carter and Vincent Persichetti. He also has studied composition with Peter Maxwell Davies and conducting with Harold Farberman and Gennady Rozhdestvensky. His music has been commissioned by the Emerson Quartet, the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, the San Francisco Symphony, the Dallas Symphony Orchestra, and the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra; additional ensembles that have performed his works include the Arditti Quartet, the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Hong Kong Sinfonietta, and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra. A theatrical work, the chamber opera Marrying the Hangman (1999), is on a text by Margaret Atwood and was written for the Psappha New Music Ensemble.

Caltabiano has received awards from the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI), and the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP).

Caltabiano worked as an assistant to Aaron Copland during the last five years of that composer's life, and has served on the faculties of the Manhattan School of Music,  Peabody Institute (Peabody Conservatory) of the Johns Hopkins University, and San Francisco State University, where he also was Associate Dean of the College of Creative Arts until June 2011.

In January 2011 Ronald Caltabiano was named dean of the Jordan College of Fine Arts at Butler University (Indianapolis, Indiana).

He was Dean of the DePaul University School of Music in Chicago from July 2016 to September 2022. During his tenure he faced heavy criticism from students the wake of the George Floyd protests.

Notes

External links

Ronald Caltabiano official site
Ronald Caltabiano's page at Theodore Presser Company
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition (2001), online through Oxford Music Online
Jordan College of Fine Arts, Butler University

1959 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Manhattan School of Music faculty
Peabody Institute faculty
San Francisco State University faculty
Butler University faculty
Juilliard School alumni
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians

Ronald Caltabiano


Richard Grey D.D. (6 April 1696 – 28 February 1771) was an English churchman and author, archdeacon of Bedford from 1757. He is now remembered for his Memoria Technica, a work on a memory system.

Life
He was born in Newcastle, the son of John Grey. He matriculated at Lincoln College, Oxford, 20 June 1712, and graduated B.A. in 1716 and M.A. 16 January 1719. He was ordained in 1719, and became chaplain and secretary to Nathaniel Crew, bishop of Durham. Crew had him  presented in the following year to the rectory of Hinton, Northamptonshire. Through the same influence Grey obtained the little rectory of Steane Chapel, and in 1725 the additional living of Kimcote, near Lutterworth, Leicestershire. He was also appointed a prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, and official and commissary of the archdeaconry of Leicester. He proceeded D.D. in 1731, and was archdeacon of Bedford from 1757 for the rest of his life.

Grey was a friend of Philip Doddridge, was well known to Samuel Johnson, who admired his learning, and was intimate with John Moore. He died on 28 February 1771 and was buried at Hinton, where he had been rector for fifty years.

Memoria Technica
In 1730 appeared Grey's 'Memoria Technica; or a new Method of Artificial Memory.' Grey's system consisted in changing the last syllable of names into letters which represented figures according to an arbitrary table, and in stringing together the new formations in lines with a hexameter beat. It therefore uses strings of letters to remember numbers. Example: az = 10, tel = 325, teib = 381. The 'Memoria Technica' was applied to the dates and figures of chronology, geography, measures of weight and length, astronomy, and so on, and though uncouth and complicated met with great favour. The book went through several editions in the author's lifetime, and continued to be reprinted with modifications till 1861. On Grey's system were founded Solomon Lowe's 'Mnemonics,' and several aids to memory connected with other names.

According to Francis Fauvel Gouraud, Grey indicated that a discussion on Hebrew linguistics in William Beveridge (bishop)'s Institutionum chronotogicarum libri duo, una cum totidem arithmetices chronologicæ libellis (London, 1669) inspired him  to create his system of mnemotechniques which later evolved in to the Mnemonic major system.

Other works
Greay's numerous publications began with An Answer to Barbeyrac's Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of all Ages as to the Doctrines of Morality, 1722. In 1730 he published A System of English Ecclesiastical Law, extracted from the "Codex Juris Ecclesiastici Angli" of Bishop Edmund Gibson, for the use of students for holy orders. It was in recognition of this work, which passed through four editions in a few years, that the University of Oxford gave him the degree of D.D.

In 1736 Grey published The Miserable and Distracted State of Religion in England, after previous consultation with Dr. Zachary Grey. Three pedagogic works on Hebrew were A New and Easy Method of Learning Hebrew without points, to which is added by way of Praxis the Book of Proverbs divided according to the metre, with the Masoretical readings in Roman letters (1739, 3 parts), Tabula exhibens Paradigmata Verborum Hebraicorum (1739), and Historia Josephi Patriarchi; praemittitur nova methodus Hebraice discendi. Liber Jobi in versiculos metrice divisus; accedit canticum Moysis from 1742 resulted in the 1744 An Answer to Mr. Warburton's "Remarks on several Occasional Reflections" so far as they concern the preface to a late edition of the Book of Job, in allusion to which William Warburton in the second part of his 'Remarks' called him an "impotent railer". The Last Words of David, divided according to Metre, with Notes Critical and Explanatory and the 1754 Of the Immortality of the Soul, from the Latin of I. H. Browne were translations. Grey also printed sermons and pamphlets on religious subjects.

Family
Grey married Joyce, youngest daughter of John Thicknesse, rector of Farthingo, Northamptonshire, and brother of Philip Thicknesse. She died on 12 January 1794, aged 89. He left three daughters, of whom the eldest, Joyce, married at the age of forty-five Dr. Philip Lloyd, dean of Norwich, and was known for painted windows in Norwich Cathedral. The youngest, Bridget, married the Rev. William Thomas Bowles, and was mother of William Lisle Bowles.

Notes

References

Attribution

English non-fiction writers
1696 births
1771 deaths
Archdeacons of Bedford
English male non-fiction writers

Richard Grey (priest)


Haplodiploidy is a sex determination system in which males develop from unfertilized eggs and are haploid, and females develop from fertilized eggs and are diploid.

Haplodiploidy determines the sex in all members of the insect order Hymenoptera (bees, ants, and wasps), and the Thysanoptera ('thrips').p408 The system also occurs sporadically in some spider mites, coleopterans (bark beetles) and rotifers.

In this system, sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives. An offspring formed from the union of a sperm and an egg develops as a female, and an unfertilized egg develops as a male. This means that the males have half the number of chromosomes that a female has, and are haploid.

The haplodiploid sex-determination system has a number of peculiarities. Most importantly, the relatedness between the sisterhood of worker bees in a hive or nest is 0.75. This means the workers are significantly more closely related than siblings in other sex determination systems. It is this point which drives the kin selection theory of how eusociality evolved.p465 Whether haplodiploidy did in fact pave the way for the evolution of eusociality is still a matter of debate.

The thing to remember is that in normal sexual reproduction, the father has two sets of chromosomes, and crossing over takes place between the chromatids of each pair during the meiosis which produces the sperm. Therefore, the sperms are not identical, because in each chromosome of a pair there will be different alleles at many of the loci. But when the father is haploid all the sperm will be identical (except for a small number where gene mutations have taken place in the germline). So, as long as all the female queen mates only with one male, all the female offspring will inherit the male's chromosome 100% intact. In fact in Hymenoptera, the males almost all produce enough sperm to last the female for a whole lifetime.

Another feature of the haplodiploidy system is that lethal and deleterious alleles will be removed from the population rapidly because they will automatically be expressed in the males.

References

Chromosomes
Biological reproduction
Hymenoptera

Haplodiploidy


The Cuban Revolution (1953-1959) was an armed revolt in the mid-1950's. It was led by Fidel Castro against the government of Fulgencio Batista. The revolt took place between 1953 and 1959. Batista was finally removed from office on January 1, 1959. He was replaced by a revolutionary government led by Castro. This government changed to communism, and became the Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965.

The revolt began with the assault on the Moncada Barracks on July 26, 1953.  It ended on December 31st, 1958, when Batista was forced to leave the country and Santa Clara and Santiago de Cuba were taken by rebels. Che Guevara and Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro and Huber Matos led the rebels.  Guevara led the group at Santa Clara. Raúl Castro and Matos led the rebels at Santiago de Cuba. Castro used guerilla warfare methods.

The United States of America tried to sabotage the new government (Led by Fidel Castro) Cuba. The U.S tried to send them and more soldiers to the Bay of Pigs to try and create a surprise attack. Somehow, Fidel Castro got wind of their attack and sent his army to the bay to fight. The U.S force was outnumbered, and faced defeat. Many soldiers were captured and killed in public.

1950s in Cuba
20th-century rebellions
Rebellions in North America
Revolutions
Anti-imperialism

Cuban Revolution


The ShoqBox is a flash memory-based MP3 player from Philips with attached speakers. Its name is formed from a portmanteau of "shock" and "boombox".

The Philips ShoqBox PSS110 has 256 mb of built in memory.CNET Review of Philips PSS110

The ShoqBox has line-in and radio inputs in addition to the integrated MP3 player. The USB interface for music transfer only supports version 1.1 (2.0 in the European version), which provides much lower maximum bandwidth resulting in longer transfer times.

The ShoqBox is a USB mass storage class device and therefore supports driverless file transfer on most systems; however, files transferred via this method will not be available for playback on the device as they must also be added to an SQLite database. This is done automatically by a customized version of Musicmatch Jukebox included with the player, but alternative software has been developed to update the database.

External links
MP3 ShoqBox website
ShoqBox Buddy

Philips products
Digital audio players

ShoqBox


Morris Joseph Starsky (February 1, 1933 – January 20, 1989), an American political and social activist and philosophy professor, served as a tenured faculty member in the Arizona State University Philosophy Department until his termination by the Arizona Board of Regents in 1970.

Early career
Starsky graduated with a BA degree from the University of Rochester in 1955.  He went on to earn his MA degree (1958) and PhD degree (1967) in Philosophy from the University of Michigan.

Prior to being hired at Arizona State, Starsky was a lecturer at University of Washington.  He taught a number of courses including a seminar on Spinoza.  His approach to philosophy was eclectic but in the analytic tradition.  The anti-Vietnam war protests had not yet fully taken hold, but Starsky was an outspoken opponent even then.

Starsky was hired by Arizona State University as an Assistant Professor of Philosophy in 1964 while he was completing work on his doctoral degree. While he avoided politicizing his class lectures, he became a controversial and outspoken opponent of the Vietnam War, a vigorous supporter of organized labor, and an active participant in the Socialist Workers Party. He was the faculty coordinator for the ASU chapter of Students for a Democratic Society. His aggressive and at times profane commentary landed several radio and television news appearances.

Rally and termination
On January 14, 1970 Starsky requested and was granted permission by his department chair to dismiss class so he could attend an anti-racism rally at Tucson. He appeared in support of eight University of Arizona students who were arrested while demonstrating against their university's participation in sports competitions with Brigham Young University. Termination proceedings citing several violations of university and regent policy were initiated by the ASU administration, but the Academic Freedom and Tenure Committee of the Faculty Senate chaired by Political Science Professor Ross Rice and ASU President Harry Newburn would not support termination. That spring, the Arizona Board of Regents refused to renew Starsky's contract - effectively firing him.  Starsky's termination would lead to a later response by the American Association of University Professors.

Advocacy
In 1975 Starsky became one of the first US citizens to receive federal records under the newly created Freedom of Information Act. He received FBI files that revealed he was the subject of illegal wiretap and surveillance activities, and that the FBI attempted to facilitate his dismissal from ASU by sending an anonymous letter to university officials accusing Starsky of fomenting violence. He was one of the first people targeted by the FBI program known as COINTELPRO, and subsequent litigation later resulted in a significant award of damages paid to the Socialist Workers Party.

Later life and ASU settlement
Following his termination, the American Association of University Professors censured ASU for failing to respect professors' right to tenure. Starsky worked a variety of jobs after his separation from ASU, including temporary teaching appointments at San Diego State University and Cleveland State University.  In 1981, ASU President J. Russell Nelson agreed to a settlement with Starsky for a small portion of back wages, which Starsky accepted because of his deteriorating health. Starsky's declining health had forced him to retire in 1978 and he subsisted on disability payments. Starsky died of a degenerative heart disease in 1989.

Starsky was survived by his wife, Lorraine Starsky, and their two sons, Jacob Benjamin and Samuel Elliot.

References

Further reading

 "The March to the Right: A Case Study in Political Repression" by Thomas Ford Hoult, Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., Cambridge, MA 1972.

1933 births
1989 deaths
American anti–Vietnam War activists
Arizona State University faculty
COINTELPRO targets
University of Michigan alumni
University of Rochester alumni
Cleveland State University faculty
San Diego State University faculty
Activists from California

Morris Starsky