Laravel is a free and open-source PHP web framework, created by Taylor Otwell and intended for the development of web applications following the model–view–controller (MVC) architectural pattern and based on Symfony.  Some of the features of Laravel are a modular packaging system with a dedicated dependency manager, different ways for accessing relational databases, utilities that aid in application deployment and maintenance, and its orientation toward syntactic sugar.

The source code of Laravel is hosted on GitHub and licensed under the terms of MIT License.

History
Taylor Otwell created Laravel as an attempt to provide a more advanced alternative to the CodeIgniter framework, which did not provide certain features such as built-in support for user authentication and authorization.  Laravel's first beta release was made available on June 9, 2011, followed by the Laravel 1 release later in the same month.  Laravel 1 included built-in support for authentication, localisation, models, views, sessions, routing and other mechanisms, but lacked support for controllers that prevented it from being a true MVC framework.

Laravel 2 was released in September 2011, bringing various improvements from the author and community.  Major new features included the support for controllers, which made Laravel 2 a fully MVC-compliant framework, built-in support for the inversion of control (IoC) principle, and a templating system called Blade.  As a downside, support for third-party packages was removed in Laravel 2.

Laravel 3 was released in February 2012 with a set of new features including the cmd command-line interface (CLI) named Artisan, built-in support for more database management systems, database migrations as a form of version control for database layouts, support for handling events, and a packaging system called Bundles.  An increase of Laravel's userbase and popularity lined up with the release of Laravel 3.

Laravel 4, codenamed Illuminate, was released in May 2013.  It was made as a complete rewrite of the Laravel framework, migrating its layout into a set of separate packages distributed through Composer, which serves as an application-level package manager.  Such a layout improved the extensibility of Laravel 4, which was paired with its official regular release schedule spanning six months between minor point releases.  Other new features in the Laravel 4 release include database seeding for the initial population of databases, support for message queues, built-in support for sending different types of email, and support for delayed deletion of database records called soft deletion.

Laravel 5 was released in February 2015 as a result of internal changes that ended up in renumbering the then-future Laravel 4.3 release.  New features in the Laravel 5 release include support for scheduling periodically executed tasks through a package called Scheduler, an abstraction layer called Flysystem that allows remote storage to be used in the same way as local file systems, improved handling of package assets through Elixir, and simplified externally handled authentication through the optional Socialite package. Laravel 5 also introduced a new internal directory tree structure for developed applications.

Lumen 5.0 is the initial release of the Lumen framework, a light derivative of Laravel optimized for speed. This initial release is based on the Laravel 5.x series of PHP components, and following versions reflect the Laravel versions with which it shares common infrastructure. As of 2022, authors no longer recommend the use of Lumen for gaining these advantages, and promote Laravel Octane instead.

Laravel 5.1, released in June 2015, was the first release of Laravel to receive long-term support (LTS). New LTS versions were planned for one every two years.

Laravel 5.3 was released on August 23, 2016. The new features in 5.3 are focused on improving developer speed by adding additional out of the box improvements for common tasks.

Laravel 5.4 was released on January 24, 2017, with many new features like Laravel Dusk, Laravel Mix, Blade Components and Slots, Markdown Emails, Automatic Facades, Route Improvements, Higher Order Messaging for Collections, and many others.

Laravel 6 was released on September 3, 2019, shift blueprint code generation, introducing semantic versioning, compatibility with Laravel Vapor, improved authorization responses, improved job middleware, lazy collections, and sub-query improvements. The frontend scaffolding was removed from the main package and moved into the laravel/ui package.

Laravel 7 was released on March 3, 2020, with new features like Laravel Sanctum, Custom Eloquent Casts, Blade Component Tags, Fluent String Operations and Route Model Binding Improvements.

Laravel 8 was released on September 8, 2020, with new features like Laravel Jetstream, model factory classes, migration squashing, Tailwind CSS for pagination views and other usability improvements.

Laravel 9 was released on February 8, 2022.

Laravel 10 was released on February 14, 2023.

Release history
Versions designated LTS were supported with bug fixes for 2 years and security fixes for 3 years. Other releases were supported with bug fixes for 6 months and security fixes for 1 year.
As of version 8, major versions are released yearly, and the support timeline is: bug fixes for 18 months and security fixes for 2 years, for all releases. For additional libraries, only the latest major release receives bug fixes.

Source: Laravel

Features
The following features serve as Laravel's key design points (where not specifically noted, descriptions refer to the features of Laravel 3):

 Bundles provide a modular packaging system since the release of Laravel 3, with bundled features already available for easy addition to applications.  Furthermore, Laravel 4 uses Composer as a dependency manager to add framework-agnostic and Laravel-specific PHP packages available from the Packagist repository.
 Eloquent ORM (object-relational mapping) is an advanced PHP implementation of the active record pattern, providing at the same time internal methods for enforcing constraints on the relationships between database objects.  Following the active record pattern, Eloquent ORM presents database tables as classes, with their object instances tied to single table rows.
 Query builder, available since Laravel 3, provides a more direct database access alternative to the Eloquent ORM.  Instead of requiring SQL queries to be written directly, Laravel's query builder provides a set of classes and methods capable of building queries programmatically.  It also allows selectable caching of the results of executed queries.
 Application logic is an integral part of developed applications, implemented either by using controllers or as part of the route declarations.  The syntax used to define application logic is similar to the one used by Sinatra framework.
 Reverse routing defines a relationship between the links and routes, making it possible for later changes to routes to be automatically propagated into relevant links.  When the links are created by using names of existing routes, the appropriate uniform resource identifiers (URIs) are automatically created by Laravel.
 Restful controllers provide an optional way for separating the logic behind serving HTTP GET and POST requests.
 Class auto loading provides automated loading of PHP classes without the need for manual maintenance of inclusion paths.  On-demand loading prevents inclusion of unnecessary components, so only the actually used components are loaded.
 View composers serve as customizable logical code units that can be executed when a view is loaded.
 Blade templating engine combines one or more templates with a data model to produce resulting views, doing that by transpiling the templates into cached PHP code for improved performance.  Blade also provides a set of its own control structures such as conditional statements and loops, which are internally mapped to their PHP counterparts.  Furthermore, Laravel services may be called from Blade templates, and the templating engine itself can be extended with custom directives.
 IoC containers make it possible for new objects to be generated by following the inversion of control (IoC) principle, in which the framework calls into the application- or task-specific code, with optional instantiating and referencing of new objects as singletons.
 Migrations provide a version control system for database schemas, making it possible to associate changes in the application's codebase and required changes in the database layout.  As a result, this feature simplifies the deployment and updating of Laravel-based applications.
 Database seeding provides a way to populate database tables with selected default data that can be used for application testing or be performed as part of the initial application setup.
 Unit testing is provided as an integral part of Laravel, which itself contains unit tests that detect and prevent regressions in the framework.  Unit tests can be run through the provided  command-line utility.
 Automatic pagination simplifies the task of implementing pagination, replacing the usual manual implementation approaches with automated methods integrated into Laravel.
 Form request is a feature of Laravel 5 that serves as the base for form input validation by internally binding event listeners, resulting in automated invoking of the form validation methods and generation of the actual form.
 Homestead - a Vagrant virtual machine that provides Laravel developers with all the tools necessary to develop Laravel straight out of the box, including, Ubuntu, Gulp, Bower and other development tools that are useful in developing full scale web applications.
 Sail - Sail provides a great starting point for building a Laravel application using PHP, MySQL, and Redis without requiring prior Docker experience.
 Valet - Tooling to setup quickly a minimalist PHP local development environment on your Mac using the power of Homebrew, Nginx and DnsMasq.

First-party packages
Ready-to-use packages provided by Laravel through Composer and Packagist include the following:

 Cashier, introduced in Laravel 4.2, provides an interface for managing subscription billing services provided by Stripe, such as handling coupons and generating invoices.
 Envoy, introduced in Laravel 4.2, provides a clean, minimal syntax for defining common tasks you run on your remote servers. Using Blade style syntax, you can easily setup tasks for deployment, Artisan commands, and more.
 Socialite, provides simplified mechanisms for authentication with different OAuth providers, including Facebook, Twitter, Google, GitHub and Bitbucket.
 Passport, introduced in Laravel 5.3, provides a full OAuth2 server implementation for your Laravel application in a matter of minutes.
 Scout, introduced in Laravel 5.3, provides a simple, driver based solution for adding full-text search to your Eloquent models.
 Dusk, introduced in Laravel 5.4, provides an expressive, easy-to-use browser automation and testing API.
 Horizon, introduced in Laravel 5.5, provides a visual dashboard and code-driven configuration for your Laravel powered Redis queues.
 Telescope, introduced in Laravel 5.7, provides insight into the requests coming into your application, exceptions, log entries, database queries, queued jobs, mail, notifications, cache operations, scheduled tasks, variable dumps and more.
 Sanctum, introduced in Laravel 7.0, provides a featherweight authentication system for SPAs (single page applications), mobile applications, and simple, token based APIs. Firstly called Laravel Airlock, it has been renamed due to a trademark dispute regarding the name 'Airlock.'
 Jetstream, introduced in Laravel 8.0, this providing an application scaffold for Laravel. This package effectively builds on the idea of the UI tools built into past Laravel applications allowing the user to pick between two options, Livewire + Blade or Inertia.js + Vue. This package works with Laravel Fortify. There was some controversy with Taylor Otwell and Laravel users shortly after Laravel's release due to some believing old application scaffolds were being deprecated in favour of Jetstream. It has since been clarified this is not the case.
 Fortify, introduced in Laravel 8.0, providing an application scaffold for Laravel. Fortify is used to handle the manage of typical user tasks, building upon typical authentication to provide things like teams and two-factor authentication mechanisms. The package works closely with Laravel Jetstream. Fortify is somewhat based on features which were originally created for Laravel Spark.
Breeze, Laravel Breeze is a minimal, simple implementation of all of Laravel's authentication features, including login, registration, password reset, email verification, and password confirmation. Laravel Breeze's default view layer is made up of simple Blade templates styled with Tailwind CSS. Breeze provides a wonderful starting point for beginning a fresh Laravel application.

Laravel's command-line interface (CLI), called Artisan, was initially introduced in Laravel 3 with a limited set of capabilities.  Laravel's later migration to a Composer-based architecture allowed Artisan to incorporate different components from the Symfony framework, resulting in the availability of additional Artisan features in Laravel 4.

The features of Artisan are mapped to different subcommands of the  command-line utility, providing functionality that aids in managing and building Laravel-based applications.  Common uses of Artisan include managing database migrations and seeding, publishing package assets, and generating boilerplate code for new controllers and migrations; the latter frees the developer from creating proper code skeletons.  The functionality and capabilities of Artisan can also be expanded by implementing new custom commands, which, for example, may be used to automate application-specific recurring tasks.

Conferences

Laracon is the official Laravel conference centered around the Laravel framework, covering its development, uses, and related general software development topics. Laracon has taken place in the United States, Europe and online in the past. Typically, the conference happens in the United States and Europe every year. 2017 was the first year a Laracon was held as an online event only. 2018 was the first year a Laracon was held in Australia. Each year the conference has a different variety of sponsors and organizers, but Laravel, Laravel News and UserScape are usually the primary organizers.

While the numerous Laracon conferences are officially run, a number of other conferences are run under the name of Laravel Live. Currently, there are yearly held Laravel Live UK and Laravel Live India conferences. While these are not officially run, they have the permission of Taylor Otwell to use the name Laravel.

See also

 Comparison of web frameworks
 Comparison of web template engines
 October, a content management system built upon Laravel
 Vue.js, a front-end framework that's shipped by default within Laravel

References

Further reading
 Laravel Design Patterns and Best Practices, Packt, , July 2014, by Arda Kılıçdağı and H. İbrahim Yilmaz

External links

Free software programmed in PHP
PHP frameworks
Software using the MIT license
Web frameworks

Laravel


Ilya Igorevich Lagutenko (; born 16 October 1968) is the founder and lead singer of the rock band Mumiy Troll.

Career
He was born in Moscow, Soviet Union. Soon after his birth his father died, and the family moved to Vladivostok. In school he became engrossed in studying Chinese. He sang with a children's choir that took him to many Russian cities as they traveled through half of the country. Ilya formed his first psychedelic punk band named "Boney P" (ostensibly drawing on the name of the band Boney M, which was quite popular in the Soviet Union around that time) at the age of 11. In 1992, he graduated from the  Far Eastern State University as a specialist in the Mandarin and Chinese Economy. He served in the Russian Air Navy. Ilya worked in China and Great Britain with a commercial consulting firm. In 1983, he founded the rock group Mumiy Troll.

He was chosen a "Man of the Year 2005" for November by Glamour magazine and "Musician of the Year" by GQ many times. Ilya Lagutenko has changed not only the music but also the clothes, hairstyles and behaviour of Russian young people.

Lagutenko starred as a vampire in the Russian blockbuster The Night Watch (Ночной Дозор). His face is on the cover of the American release.

In 2009, Lagutenko co-wrote the music on track "Intentions" and guested as a vocalist on Svoy's second album, Automatons, which was released in the U.S. and Japan, where it charted #100 in Billboard's Top Independent Albums. The album later won in several categories at the 10th Independent Music Awards in the United States.

Lagutenko is a well-known supporter of Siberian tiger conservation. He is a patron of AMUR, a British-Russian partnership to protect tigers and their habitat, and named a Mumiy Troll album Amba, after an indigenous word for tigers in the Russian Far East. Mumiy Troll was the first to support the activities of PSI organization fighting AIDS in Russia.

References

External links

 Mumiy Troll official website

1968 births
Living people
20th-century Russian male opera singers
Russian people of Polish descent
Singers from Moscow
Russian people of Belarusian descent
Far Eastern Federal University alumni
Russian activists against the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Ilya Lagutenko


Benzene, also known as  benzol, is an organic chemical compound with the formula C6H6. It is a colorless and flammable liquid with a sweet smell. Benzene molecules are a ring of six carbon atoms that are each bonded to one hydrogen atom. It is an aromatic compound, meaning the ring has alternating double bonds.

Benzene is carcinogenic, which means it can cause cancer. It has many real-world uses. It is used as an additive in gasoline, plastics, synthetic rubber, dyes and it is an industrial solvent, which means it can dissolve many other chemical molecules. Benzene is also a natural part of crude oil and is therefore present in gasoline. Many medicines contain parts made from benzene.

Structure
Benzene has special properties called aromaticity. All six carbon atoms in the ring are on the same flat plane. To account for all the bonds on a six carbon ring, there must be alternating double carbon bonds (Conjugated system):

If benzene had three double bonds, three sides of its ring would be shorter than the other three sides. X-ray diffraction shows that all of six carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length of 140 picometres (pm). The C–C bond lengths are greater than a double bond (135 pm) but shorter than a single bond (147 pm). This intermediate distance is consistent with electron delocalization: the electrons for C–C bonding are distributed equally between each of the six carbon atoms. The molecule is planar. One representation is that the structure exists as a superposition of so-called resonance structures, rather than either form individually. (In other words, the molecule's double bonds switch quickly between pairs of carbon atoms.) The delocalization of electrons is one explanation for the thermodynamic stability of benzene and related aromatic compounds. It is likely that this stability contributes to the peculiar molecular and chemical properties known as aromaticity. To indicate the delocalized nature of the bonding, benzene is often depicted with a circle inside a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms.

As is common in organic chemistry, the carbon atoms in the diagram above have been left unlabeled. Realizing each carbon has 2p electrons, each carbon donates an electron into the delocalized ring above and below the benzene ring. It is the overlap of p-orbitals both above and below the ring that produces the pi clouds.

In 1986, some chemists disputed the delocalized view of benzene in an article published in the journal Nature. They showed that the electrons in benzene are almost certainly localized to particular carbon atoms. They showed the aromatic properties of benzene come from spin coupling rather than electron delocalization. Other scientists wrote articles to support this view in Nature in 1987. But, chemists are slow to switch from the delocalized electrons view.

Derivatives of benzene occur sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a Unicode symbol in the Miscellaneous Technical block with the code U+232C (⌬) to represent it with three double bonds, and U+23E3 (⏣) for a delocalized version.

References

Hydrocarbons

Benzene


Valeen Tippetts Avery (December 22, 1936 – April 7, 2006) was an American biographer and historian of Western American and Latter Day Saint history.  With biographer Linda King Newell, she co-authored Mormon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith, a biography of the wife of the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Joseph Smith.

Biography
Avery was born in the agricultural and industrial city of Great Falls, Montana.  She attended Rocky Mountain College in Billings, and Brigham Young University, in Provo, Utah.  She married Charles C. Avery in 1961; the couple had four children, but divorced in 1986.  In 1996, Avery married Bryan Collier Short.

Avery attended graduate school at Northern Arizona University during her research for Emma Smith's biography.  She earned a master's degree in history in 1981, and her Ph.D. in history in 1984.  She served as president of the Mormon History Association between 1987 and 1988.  Avery was well known in the western history field for articles, reviews and commentaries.  She served as professor of history, with specialties in women's history and Colorado Plateau Studies, at Northern Arizona until her retirement in 2005.

Avery died in Flagstaff, Arizona.

Major biographies
Mormon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith was well received by the scholarly community when it was first published in 1984.  The biography won the Evans Biography Award, the Mormon History Association Best Book Award, and the John Whitmer Historical Association (RLDS) Best Book Award.  Avery and Newell provided the following note in the book's introduction:
Early leaders in Utah castigated Emma from their pulpits for opposing Brigham Young and the practice of polygamy, and for lending support to the Reorganization. As these attitudes filtered down through the years, Emma was virtually written out of official Utah histories. In this biography, we have attempted to reconstruct the full story of this remarkable and much misunderstood woman's experiences.
Despite its quality and recognition, the biography was startling and controversial among leaders, administrators and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.  Shortly after publication, Avery and Newell, both participating members in the church, were refused any opportunity to talk about their research or book in church meetings. In the preface to the second edition of the book, the authors write: «After a ten-months stalemate Linda Newell successfully petitioned church leaders to reconsider the prohibition. On April 26, 1986, she was informed that the restrictions ... were no longer in effect.» Yet the fact that the lifting of that ban was not reported by the church-owned newspaper Deseret News led them to say that it «gave the unmistakable message to faithful church members that both the book and its authors were still suspect.»

Avery produced a biography of the life of the youngest son of Joseph and Emma Smith, David Hyrum Smith, From Mission to Madness: Last Son of the Mormon Prophet in 1998.  This biography also won the Evans Award for the best biography in Western history.  She describes Smith's mental deterioration, starting with a probable breakdown early in 1870 and ending with his 1904 death in the Northern Illinois Hospital and Asylum for the Insane in Elgin, Illinois.  He was confined in the institution for twenty-seven years.  The book draws on a large body of Smith's correspondence and poetry to examine both his personality and his emotional state.

Selected publications
 "Emma Smith: An Unknown Sister," in Maren M. Mouritsen, ed., Blueprints for Living: Perspectives for Latter-day Saint Women, Volume Two (Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1980).
 "Emma Smith Through Her Writings" Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 17 (Autumn 1984).
 From Mission to Madness: Last Son of the Mormon Prophet.  University of Illinois Press, October 1998.  .
 "Insanity and the Sweet Singer: A Biography of David Hyrum Smith, 1844-1904" Ph.D. dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 1984.
 "Irreconcilable Differences: David H. Smith's Relationship with the Muse of Mormon History" Journal of Mormon History 15 (1989).
 "Sketches of the Sweet Singer: David Hyrum Smith, 1844-1904" John Whitmer Historical Association Journal 5 (1985).
 "The Last Years of the Prophet's Wife: Emma Hale Smith Bidamon and the Establishment of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints" (M.A. thesis, Northern Arizona University, 1981).

With Linda King Newell:
 "Jane Manning James: Black Saint, 1847 Pioneer", Ensign (official publication of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), Aug. 1979.
 "Lewis C. Bidamon, Stepchild of Mormondom" BYU Studies 19 (Spring 1979).
 Mormon Enigma: Emma Hale Smith, Prophet's Wife, Elect Lady, Polygamy's Foe.  Doubleday Publishing, September 1984.  .  2nd edition. rev., Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1994.
 "New Light on the Sun: Emma Smith and the New York Sun Letter"  Journal of Mormon History 6 (1979).
 "Sweet Counsel and Seas of Tribulation: The Religious Life of the Women in Kirtland," BYU Studies 20 (Winter 1980).
 "The Elect Lady: Emma Hale Smith". Ensign, Sept. 1979.
 "The Lion and the Lady: Brigham Young and Emma Smith," Utah Historical Quarterly 48.1 (Winter 1980).  Reprinted in Roger D. Launius and John E. Hallwas, eds., Kingdom on the Mississippi Revisited (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996), pp. 198–213.

With Linda King Newell and Maureen Ursenback Beecher:
 "Emma and Eliza and the Stairs" BYU Studies 22 (Winter 1982).

See also

 Brigham Young
 Jane Elizabeth Manning James
 polygamy / plural marriage
 Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
 The Sun (New York)

Notes

References
. Discusses the religious controversy following Mormon Enigma's'' initial publication in 1984 (page 40 to 48).

External links
The Valeen T. Avery Papers at Utah State University

1936 births
2006 deaths
20th-century American biographers
20th-century American historians
20th-century American women writers
American Latter Day Saints
American women historians
Brigham Young University alumni
Historians of the Latter Day Saint movement
Latter Day Saints from Montana
Northern Arizona University alumni
People from Great Falls, Montana
Rocky Mountain College alumni
American women biographers

Valeen Tippetts Avery


The 1902 municipal election was held December 8, 1902 for the purpose of electing a mayor and three aldermen to sit on the Edmonton Town Council, as well as five public school trustees and five separate school trustees.  There were six aldermanic positions on the council at the time, but three of them were already filled:  Cornelius Gallagher, Edmund Grierson, and Phillip Heiminck had been elected for two-year terms in 1901, and were still in office.

Voter turnout

Voter turnout figures for the 1902 municipal election are no longer available.

Results

(bold indicates elected, italics indicate incumbent)

Mayor

William Short was acclaimed as mayor.

Aldermen

Daniel Fraser - 200
James Ross - 192
Arthur Cushing - 166
 W H Heathcoate
 Joseph Henri Picard

Vote totals for defeated candidates are no longer available.

Public school trustees

H A Gray, Robert Lee, Kenneth McLeod, Alex Taylor, and Hedley C. Taylor were elected.  Detailed results are no longer available.

Separate (Catholic) school trustees

Nicolas Dubois Dominic Beck, H Morel, Joseph Henri Picard, J Pomerleau, and Antonio Prince were elected.  Detailed results are no longer available.

References

City of Edmonton: Edmonton Elections

1902
1902 elections in Canada
1902 in Alberta

1902 Edmonton municipal election


A chemical symbol is the shortform of the name of an element. Usually, it is made up of one or two letters, but sometimes it is made up of three letters. For example, the chemical symbol for oxygen is O. The chemical symbol for calcium is Ca. Before it is discovered and scientists decided what it would be called, the chemical symbol for ununennium was Uue.

All chemical symbols start with a capital letter, and any letters after that are lowercase.

The chemical symbols are listed with the elements in the periodic table. Chemical symbols are also used when writing chemical formulas. For example, the chemical formula for water is H2O, meaning that it contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

Many chemical symbols are the first one or two letters of the element. Others come from the name in another language. For example, the symbol for sodium is Na, which comes from the Latin name Natrium.

References

Chemistry

Chemical symbol


J. Lanier Yeates (born 1945) is an American lawyer and novelist.  Yeates was born in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, completed high school in El Dorado, Arkansas and resides in Houston, Texas. He is a graduate of Louisiana State University and the Paul M. Hebert Law Center and served in the U.S. Navy from 1968 to 1975.

Yeates is currently a partner practicing oil and gas law with the Gordon Arata McCollam Duplantis & Eagan LLP.

Yeates has published several legal books, including Louisiana Oil and Gas Legislation (1994: 2nd ed. 1998), and Selected Commentary on Oil and Gas Law (2000 and 1999). His many articles include Louisiana and Texas Oil & Gas Law: An Overview of the Differences (1992), Strategies Outlined for Doing Business in Russia (1992), The Accounting Provisions of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1994), and Indemnification and Anti-Indemnity Statutes as They Relate to Mineral Rights and Contracts (1986).

Yeates's first novel, Bay of One Hundred Fires (), published in 2004, is an alternate history based geo-political thriller that speculates what Saddam Hussein might have done with the deadly weapons many people believed he had. In the novel, the nuclear-powered USS California is overhauled and upgraded, and plays a key role in fighting Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein who has, at least in the book, created a stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.  Some of Yeates's inspiration for Bay came from his service in the U.S. Navy, where he served and developed expertise in 3-D radar aboard the California in 1974. When the California was delivered to the U.S. Navy, Yeates was at the helm when the ship departed the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company for its maiden voyage at sea. Yeates also helmed the California in 1998 when it sailed to the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to be scrapped.

References

External links
Yeates's law firm bio
Yeates's Martindale listing
Yeates's Avvo listing

1945 births
Living people
American legal scholars
Texas lawyers
Novelists from Texas
Writers from Arkansas
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
People from Pine Bluff, Arkansas
21st-century American male writers

J. Lanier Yeates


The First Battle of the Marne was a battle in the First World War. It was fought between the German Empire on one side, and

the French and British on the other. The battle ended with a tactical retreat of the German army. It was one of the first signs that the Schlieffen Plan had failed. The battle cost the lives of over one million French and British soldiers. It also cost the lives of over 750,000 soldiers on the German side. The battle was fought from 5 - 12 September 1914. The battle marked the end of the German advance into France. It marked the beginning of trench warfare that World War I became famous for.

Prelude
The Schlieffen Plan called for an attack through Belgium. The Germans were to avoid the main French fortifications, on the German frontier. They invaded Belgium on August 3rd 1914. The Germans pushed through the Belgium army with little difficulty. After destroying the main fortifications in Liege and Namur, the German First Army and Second Army under the command of Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow, moved toward Paris. At the Battle of Mons the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) halted the German forces temporarily. They inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans. But the French army and the BEF finally retreated towards the River Marne where they waited for the Germans.  With no real opposition the Germans moved as quickly as possible and prepared to face the French and British at the Marne River.

The battle

The German advance
The Germans moved to within  of Paris. The French government fled the capital for the safety of Bordeaux. The Germans were so close that they could fire their massive railway guns (massive cannons mounted on railroad cars) right into Paris.

The Parisian taxis
During the battle there was not any way to move French troops fast enough to the front. But there was a solution. General Gallieni called for every taxi and driver to report for duty. Paris had about 10,000 taxis but because of the war only had about 7,000 drivers. Gallieni's plan was to move the troops by taxi, which at the time was a very new invention. The taxis moved through the night and day to carry soldiers. The drivers received 0.20 francs (₣) per kilometer. But by September 8, the taxis had only brought about 5,000 soldiers from Paris. In a battle with over a million men, 5,000 could not make a great difference. Also, most of the soldiers that came by taxi were held in reserve.

A critical mistake
The German Second Army led by Bülow decided to move south to destroy the French Fifth Army. General Von Kluck did not know about this so he continued to move up and engage the French. With this movement a large gap was created between the two German armies. The British and French counterattacked into the gap and by September 10 the Germans retreated. Paris was saved.

The Germans retreated forty miles from the Marne. Since their plan had failed they did not know what to do. They had not been trained in trench warfare but their only recourse was to dig in and wait for the allies. Eventually the trenches they dug reached 300 miles in length.

References

Other websites
 PBS: The Outbreak of War

1914 in Europe
1910s in France
Battles involving France
Battles involving Germany
Battles involving the United Kingdom
Marne 1
September events

First Battle of the Marne


Lambertseter () is a suburb of the city of Oslo, Norway, and is part of the borough of Nordstrand.

Lambertseter was built over a short period starting from 1951, and was the very first modern suburb of Oslo. A Tram line was built to the neighborhood in 1957 and the Oslo T-bane metro system came in 1966, serving the Lambertseter station.

Lambertseter was also the name of a borough of Oslo until 1 January 2004.

Lambertseter also has a multi-use sports Stadium.

References

Geography of Oslo

Lambertseter


The Floating Light Bulb is a 1981 Broadway play by Woody Allen. Semi-autobiographical, it focuses on a lower middle class family living in Canarsie, Brooklyn, New York City, in 1945.

Plot
Matriarch Enid Pollack, who once aspired to be a dancer in George White's Scandals, spends her days hounding neighbors with telephone business schemes in order to support the family. Her philandering husband Max is a gambler, furtively planning his escape from his marriage. Stuttering teenaged son Paul is a frail, bright, shy boy who tries to perfect magic tricks — including a floating light bulb illusion — in his bedroom.

When talent agent Jerry Wexler arrives at the house, seemingly to audition Paul, Enid seizes the opportunity for Paul to shine in the spotlight that eluded her, only to have her hopes dashed when she realizes Wexler is more interested in wooing her than signing her son as a client.

Production
The play premiered on Broadway at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in Lincoln Center on April 27, 1981 and ran for 62 performances and 16 previews. Directed by Ulu Grosbard, the cast included Beatrice Arthur as Enid, Danny Aiello as Max, Brian Backer as Paul, and Jack Weston as Jerry.  The Magic Director was Robert Aberdeen who was responsible for the title effect, the floating lightbulb, and taught all the magic to Brian Backer who won the Tony Award for his performance.

Cast
Beatrice Arthur as Enid
Danny Aiello as Max
Brian Backer as Paul
Jack Weston as Jerry

Critical reception
In his review in The New York Times, Frank Rich called the play a "conventional, modest and at times pedestrian family drama" and "nothing to be embarrassed about" although "it could easily be mistaken for a journeyman effort by a much younger and less experienced writer." He added, "There are a few laughs, a few well-wrought characters, and, in Act II, a beautifully written scene that leads to a moving final curtain. But most of the time Light Bulb is superficial and only mildly involving. As a serious playwright, Mr. Allen is still learning his craft and finding his voice. Like so many young American plays, this one is overly beholden to the early Tennessee Williams."

Awards

Tony Awards
The Tony Award is presented by the American Theatre Wing and The Broadway League. Considered the highest honor in US theatre.

References

External links

1981 plays
Broadway plays
Autobiographical plays
Brooklyn in fiction
Plays by Woody Allen
Plays set in New York City
Plays set in the 1940s

The Floating Light Bulb


The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet is a narrative poem by Arthur Brooke, first published in 1562 by Richard Tottel, which was a key source for William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Brooke is reported to have translated it from an Italian novella by Matteo Bandello; by another theory, it is mainly derived from a French adaptation of Bandello's novella which involves a man by the name of Reomeo Titensus and Juliet Bibleotet by Pierre Boaistuau.

The plot of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet takes place over four days while Brooke's narrative takes place over many months.

Little is known about Arthur Brooke. He was admitted as a member of Inner Temple on 18 December 1561 under the sponsorship of Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton. He drowned in 1563 by shipwreck while crossing to help Protestant forces in the French Wars of Religion.

The poem's ending differs significantly from Shakespeare's play—in the poem, the nurse is banished and the apothecary hanged for their involvement in the deception, while Friar Lawrence leaves Verona to end his days in a hermitage.

References

External links
Arthur Brooke's Romeus and Juliet Complete original text, with a glossary and a search engine.
Essay: How Romeus Became Romeo Comparing Brooke's work with Shakespeare's

English poems
1562 books
Romeo and Juliet


Sierra is a fictional character portrayed by Dichen Lachman in the Fox science fiction series Dollhouse, created by Joss Whedon. Within the series' narrative, Sierra is an "Active" or a "doll", one of a group of men and women who can be programmed with memories and skills to engage in particular assignments; in their default state, Actives are innocent, childlike and suggestible. Before having her memories wiped, Sierra's name was Priya Tsetsang. Although Sierra does not exhibit the same self-awareness that Echo has, she develops feelings such as love in her doll state.

Character

Before the Dollhouse
Prior to entering the Dollhouse, Priya Tsetsang is an Australian who is possibly travelling around the United States. During which time she visited Venice, Los Angeles, California and was selling bohemian artworks by the beachside.

In the Dollhouse
Sierra makes her first appearance in the pilot episode "Ghost" as the Dollhouse's newest Active.  She is seen, apparently in significant pain, as Topher Brink maps her body tissue in preparation for her imprinting. She reappears later in the same episode, imprinted with a military persona directed to forcefully extract Echo and a client from a hostage situation.

After this, Sierra is commonly deployed to assist Echo on engagements, while in their doll states the two begin to develop a connection.  The episode "Stage Fright" sees the beginning of a friendship emerging between the dolls.  The two are shown exercising together, and when Sierra stumbles Echo moves to help her, explaining, "I didn't want you to get hurt. You're my friend." Sierra agrees that "friends help each other out". Later the two are imprinted and deployed on an engagement together, which goes badly wrong when Sierra is kidnapped.  Although the imprints have met only briefly, Echo shows great concern for Sierra. Apparently speaking of the client she insists that she "[has] to help her", but her words take on a double meaning as she is shown to be staring at a picture of Sierra.  In enacting her plan to rescue her fellow Active, Echo repeats Sierra's earlier remark, although her imprint ought not remember it: "Friends help each other out."

Sierra's friendship with both Echo and Victor become more apparent in subsequent episodes.  In "Gray Hour", Topher and Boyd Langton observe that the three dolls have developed the habit of eating lunch together at the same table every day.  Boyd wonders if they may be remembering each other, but Topher cites "herding instinct" and compares them to bison, flocking together in instinctual survival patterns that go deeper than memory.  Through "True Believer" and "Man on the Street" Sierra and Victor are shown to be developing a sexual attraction in their mind-wiped state.

In "Man on the Street", Sierra has an uncharacteristic outburst while in the Dollhouse, screaming in terror when Victor touches her shoulder from behind.  Further investigation finds that she has been crying in her sleeping pod each night, and a medical examination reveals that Sierra has had sexual intercourse while in the Dollhouse. The suspicion naturally falls on Victor, whose attraction to Sierra has not escaped the notice of the staff.  Ultimately, however, it emerges that Sierra's handler, Hearn, has been raping her in her doll state.  Hearn is apprehended and the traumas wiped from Sierra's mind, although later episodes she experiences flashbacks to the rape, demonstrating that the wipe was not entirely successful.

Background Story/Re-entering the Dollhouse
In the episode "Belonging", Sierra's past, and the story of how she came to be in the Dollhouse, is explored. It emerges that Sierra is an Australian artist called Priya Tsetsang, who sells her work by Venice Beach in Los Angeles.  In the course of this she meets Nolan Kinnard (first seen in "Needs"), a wealthy doctor who develops a fascination with both Priya and her artwork.  In an attempt to seduce Priya, Nolan commissions a large painting from her and arranges an elaborate showing of the finished artwork in his house.  To further impress her he employs the services of the Dollhouse, which sends Echo and Victor to the showing, both imprinted to enthuse about Nolan to Priya.  However, Priya is discomforted by the lavish party, and more interested in Victor than in Nolan.  She attempts to leave with Victor, which culminates in a confrontation with Nolan.  Rejecting his increasingly threatening advances, Priya leaves the party.

Some time later, the Los Angeles Dollhouse is searching for a new Active candidate and has located a young, apparently-paranoid schizophrenic woman who appears to meet their specifications. The woman is revealed to be Priya, and her debilitating mental condition has left her a patient in a psychiatric hospital run by Nolan. Upon meeting with Topher, Priya insists that she is a prisoner, having been kidnapped, tortured and poisoned in a plot to drive her crazy. Topher assumes these claims to be a part of her schizophrenic delusions, and Priya is brought to the LA Dollhouse to become the Active Sierra.

Topher is only driven to investigate Priya's history further after being confronted by Echo, who presents him with a painting of Sierra's dominated by a threatening black shape. Echo insists that Sierra is haunted by a "bad man".  When Topher re-examines Priya's original brain scan he discovers that it is not, as he had initially concluded, the brain of a paranoid schizophrenic, but rather that of a healthy brain suffering from the effects of misapplied anti-psychotic medication, inducing a psychotic state. Nolan, it emerges, had manufactured Priya's condition in order to create a pretext for sending her to the Dollhouse.  As an Active programmed to desire him, Priya cannot reject Nolan's advances, and since her entry into the Dollhouse he has been hiring her for frequent sexual engagements.

When Adelle DeWitt learns of this, she confronts Nolan, but he, having powerful connections within the Rossum Corporation, responds by demanding that he be given Sierra with a permanent imprint, lest he have DeWitt fired.  Left without a choice, DeWitt orders Topher to go through with the imprint, but Topher instead imprints Sierra with Priya's original personality.  Priya confronts Nolan and ultimately kills him in a heated exchange. Boyd and Topher help cover up the murder and Sierra re-enters the Dollhouse voluntarily, begging Topher, that when her body is returned to her, he withhold the memories of the murder.

Relationships

Victor
In the episode "True Believer" it comes to the attention of both Topher and Dr. Saunders that Victor is having erections. Upon further investigation, it is shown that Victor is actually attracted to Sierra. While being interviewed after Sierra was raped, Victor was asked how Sierra made him feel. He states that she makes him feel better.

Dr. Saunders has also observed Victor's feelings towards Sierra. During the self-fulfillment exercise Sierra needed to confront Nolan for putting her in the Dollhouse. Victor accompanies her. During their time together they remember details about their doll state. Sierra recalls how Victor always makes sure she is fine before they go to sleep in the pods. They swear to each to keep looking out for each other before sharing a kiss. Boyd wonders what Victor's self-fulfillment was. Dr. Saunders believes he loves her.

Sierra has seemingly reciprocated feelings towards Victor. In the closing scenes of the episode "Vows" they walk past each other and Sierra notices the scars on Victor's face are gone. They hold hands and walk off together.

Priya admits she is in love with Victor in the episode "Belonging." When Sierra was due for a treatment, Victor attempted to come with her, however Topher stops Victor and he waits for Sierra to return. Priya states to Nolan she is in love with someone she does not even know. Upon seeing Victor back in the Dollhouse, she asks Topher if the love is real. He says it is and that the feelings are mutual. After being wiped Sierra and Victor walk off holding hands and are eventually seen sleeping in a pod together.

In Epitaph 2: Return it is revealed that Priya and Victor have a child, "T", and she is furious over Victor's decision to leave them and become a Techhead. At the end they are a family once more and were last seen reading a story to T while waiting underground in the Los Angeles Dollhouse.

Echo
Echo first saw Sierra while Sierra was undergoing a tissue mapping procedure by Topher. Echo inquires about her pain but Topher implies they are helping her and she will have a new friend shortly.

Echo always seems to look out for Sierra. When Sierra was being raped by Hearn, she told Boyd that Sierra cries while she is in the Pod. Also, at the end of "Stage Fright", in order to protect Sierra, she shrugs off Sierra as she tries to greet her in the presence of Hearn. Echo was also the one to bring Nolan to the attention of Topher.

Topher has noted that Echo is "mother-hen about Sierra".

See also
 List of Dollhouse characters

References

Science fiction television characters
Characters created by Joss Whedon
Fictional Australian people
Fictional artists
Fictional slaves
Fictional prostitutes
Television characters introduced in 2009

Sierra (Dollhouse)


Robert Milton McGovern (1928 – January 30, 1951) was an officer in the United States Army during the Korean War. He posthumously received the Medal of Honor for his actions on January 30, 1951.

Biography
McGovern was a Washington D.C. native and a 1946 graduate of St. John's College High School in the District. He joined the Army later that same year.

He was hit and wounded as he and his platoon from the 5th Cavalry Regiment came under withering machine gun fire, But he continued up Hill 312, encouraging his men to meet and defeat the Chinese defense. His Medal of Honor recommendation was prepared for him at his men's insistence. His brother, Second Lieutenant Francis Jerome McGovern was also killed in action, eleven days later.

When his Medal of Honor was announced in January 1952, Robert's father, J. Halsey McGovern of Washington, created a stir when he refused to accept the award. He also refused to accept the Silver Star posthumously awarded to his second son, Jerome, a member of the 187th Airborne Regiment who was killed in action on February 10, 1951. The senior McGovern's refusal was based on his belief that medals were superfluous. He felt that they did not do justice to all of the heroes of the war in Korea and, as he told reporters, he did not feel that Truman "was fit to confer medals on anyone's sons."

Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: First Lieutenant, U.S. Army, Company A, 5th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division

Place and date: Near Kimnyangjang-ni 김냥장리 (a small hamlet east of Suwon), Korea, January 30, 1951

Entered service at: Washington, D.C.

Birth: Washington, D.C.

G.O. No.: 2, January 8, 1952.

Citation:

1st Lt. McGovern, a member of Company A, distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life above and beyond the call of duty in action against an armed enemy of the United Nations. As 1st Lt. McGovern led his platoon up a slope to engage hostile troops entrenched in bunker-type pillboxes with connecting trenches, the unit came under heavy machine gun and rifle fire from the crest of the hill, approximately 75 yards distant. Despite a wound sustained in this initial burst of withering fire, 1st Lt. McGovern, assured the men of his ability to continue on and urged them forward. Forging up the rocky incline, he fearlessly led the platoon to within several yards of its objective when the ruthless foe threw and rolled a vicious barrage of hand grenades on the group and halted the advance. Enemy fire increased in volume and intensity and 1st Lt. McGovern realizing that casualties were rapidly increasing and the morale of his men badly shaken, hurled back several grenades before they exploded. Then, disregarding his painful wound and weakened condition he charged a machine gun emplacement which was raking his position with flanking fire. When he was within 10 yards of the position a burst of fire ripped the carbine from his hands, but, undaunted, he continued his lone-man assault and, firing his pistol and throwing grenades, killed 7 hostile soldiers before falling mortally wounded in front of the gun he had silenced. 1st Lt. McGovern's incredible display of valor imbued his men with indomitable resolution to avenge his death. Fixing bayonets and throwing grenades, they charged with such ferocity that hostile positions were overrun and the enemy routed from the hill. The inspirational leadership, unflinching courage, and intrepid actions of 1st Lt. McGovern reflected utmost glory on himself and the honored tradition of the military services.

Legacy
The U.S. Army named a camp after 1st Lt. McGovern in the Republic of Korea near Ungdam-ni in 1960.  It later named another camp after him, Camp McGovern, near the Brcko district, Bosnia.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients
http://McGovernbrothers.com

Notes

References

External links

1928 births
1951 deaths
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
American military personnel killed in the Korean War
Military personnel from Washington, D.C.
Korean War recipients of the Medal of Honor
United States Army officers
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
St. John's College High School alumni

Robert M. McGovern


Clopton House is a 17th-century country mansion near Stratford upon Avon, Warwickshire, now converted into residential apartments. It is a Grade II* listed building.

The Manor of Clopton was granted to the eponymous family in the 13th century and in 1492 was owned by Hugh Clopton then Lord Mayor of London. In the late 16th century Joyce Clopton daughter of William Clopton (1538-1592), (a recusant Catholic), and heiress to the estate, married Sir George Carew (later Baron Carew and Earl of Totnes). They had no issue, and the estate fell to their nephew, Sir John Clopton. Thereafter the manor passed by marriage through the female line to the Partheriche, Boothby and Ingram families; the latter two changed their name to Clopton.

A manor house existing on the site in 1450 was owned by John Clopton, Alderman of the Trinity Guild of Coventry, and was rebuilt in the 16th century. The present house is a 17th-century creation by Sir John Clopton around the core of the 16th-century manor, with 19th-century extensions and improvements. The earliest part of the house on the north was substantially rebuilt in the 1840s. The south and east wings date from 1665 to 1670 in the Restoration style. The south front is two storied with attics and dormers. It has seven bays, the projecting central three being pedimented. The pediment over the entrance carries the Clopton family crest. The east wing is a similar but unpedimented seven bay range. The entrance porch bears an inscription FHH 1904.

The Cloptons sold the estate in 1824 to the Meynells, who sold it again in 1870 to George Lloyd of Welcombe House. His nephew Charles Thomas Warde (High Sheriff of Warwickshire  in 1846) carried out the significant extensions of the 1840s and also built the Grade II listed coachhouse and Clopton Tower, a Grade II listed belvedere in the grounds.

In 1872 the estate was acquired by Sir Arthur Hodgson, High Sheriff in 1881. On the death of his son Rev Francis H Hodgson (FHH) in 1930 the estate was broken up.

In 1605 Ambrose Rookwood, a Gunpowder Plot conspirator, lived in the house.

References

  Image and architectural description
  A History of the County of Warwick Vol 3 (1945)pp258-66 from British History Online

Grade II* listed buildings in Warwickshire
Country houses in Warwickshire
Folly castles in England
Grade II* listed houses

Clopton House


Doris Betts (June 4, 1932 – April 21, 2012) was a short story writer, novelist, essayist and Alumni Distinguished Professor Emerita at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She was the author of three short story collections and six novels.

Profile
Betts was born in Statesville, North Carolina in 1932, the only child of Mary Ellen and William Elmore. In 1950 she graduated from Statesville High School, and attended the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. While an undergraduate student she married then law student Lowry Betts, who later became a district judge in Chatham and Orange Counties, North Carolina; they had three children. She won the Mademoiselle College Fiction contest during her sophomore year (1953) for the story "Mr. Shawn and Father Scott".

After working as a newspaper reporter for a number of years, Betts joined the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1966. She received the UNC Putnam Book Prize in 1954 for her first book, The Gentle Insurrection, three Sir Walter Raleigh Awards (1958, 1965, and 1973) for the best fiction books by a North Carolinian, a Guggenheim Fellowship in Creative Writing (1958–1959), the North Carolina Award and Medal (1975), the Distinguished Service Award for Women (Chi Omega), and the John Dos Passos Award from Longwood College. She has also written articles for professional journals, lectured at writers' conferences, and delivered speeches on major college campuses. In 1980 she was named a UNC Alumni Distinguished Professor of English. She received the Tanner Award for distinguished undergraduate teaching in 1973 and the Katherine Carmichael Teaching Award in 1980.

Violet, a film adaptation of "The Ugliest Pilgrim", her most widely reprinted short story, won Best Live Action Short at the 54th Academy Awards. In 1998, it was the basis of a musical, also named Violet, which won the New York Drama Critics Circle Award.

Coinciding with her retirement from teaching, the Doris Betts Distinguished Professor in Creative Writing, an endowed chair, was established in her honor. SHE served as the Chancellor of the Fellowship of Southern Writers.

Producer, Nancy Bevins, adapted Betts's short story, "This is the Only Time I'll Tell It" into a short film in 1998. Awarded a Humanities Council Grant, the film premiered at Salem College in Winston-Salem, North Carolina with Betts in attendance.

Betts died at her Pittsboro, North Carolina home of lung cancer on April 21, 2012, aged 79.

Awards
 G.P. Putnam-U.N.C. Booklength Fiction prize, 1954
 Sir Walter Raleigh Best Fiction by Carolinian award, 1957, for Tall Houses in Winter; 1965, for Scarlet Thread
 Guggenheim Fellow 1958
 North Carolina Medal, 1975, for literature
 Parker award, 1982–1985, for literary achievement
 John dos Passos award, 1983
 American Academy of Arts and Letters Medal of Merit, 1989, for short story
 Academy Award, for Violet.

Books

Short fiction collections
The Gentle Insurrection (1954)
The Astronomer and Other Stories (1966)
Beasts of the Southern Wild and Other Stories (1973)

Novels
Tall Houses in Winter (1957)
The Scarlet Thread (1965)
The River to Pickle Beach (1972)
Heading West: A Novel (1981)
Souls Raised from the Dead (1994)
The Sharp Teeth of Love (1998)

References

External links
"The big questions: an interview with Doris Betts", Christian Century, October 8, 1997, by Dale W. Brown

1932 births
2012 deaths
People from Statesville, North Carolina
People from Pittsboro, North Carolina
Novelists from North Carolina
Deaths from lung cancer in North Carolina
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill faculty
American women short story writers
American women novelists
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American short story writers
American women academics
21st-century American women

Doris Betts


The Harleian Miscellany is a collection of material from the library of the Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer collated and edited by Samuel Johnson and William Oldys between 1744 and 1753 on behalf of the publisher Thomas Osborne. Its subtitle was  A Collection of Scarce, Curious, And Entertaining Pamphlets And Tracts, as well In Manuscript As In Print, Found In The Late Earl Of Oxford's Library, Interspersed With Historical, Political, And Critical Notes.

Provenance
The "late Earl of Oxford" whose library was the source of the texts could refer either to Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer (died 1724), or to his son, Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer (died 1741). A passage at the beginning of the first volume emphasizes the role of Robert Harley, the first earl, in the creation of the library:
There can be no Objection against the Prefixing the reasons for Creating the Right Honorable Robert Harley, Esq., a Peer of Great-Britain, and Earl of Oxford; especially, as the valuable Collection, intended to be published in this Form, was made by the Greatness of his Knowledge in all Branches of Learning, and at the vast Expence of that noble Family. ...his Library consisted of more than 100000 different Authors: He, I say, cannot be denied the first Place in this Miscellany, which esteems it an Honour to bear his Name.

Edward Harley, the second earl, who had died only a few years before The Harleian Miscellany was published, was also a bibliophile who had greatly expanded the library.

References

External links
 The original, 1744 edition in the Internet Archive: volumes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
 The 1808–1811 reprint, which rearranged the pieces into chronological order, in the Internet Archive: volumes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

1744 non-fiction books
British non-fiction books
Books by Samuel Johnson

The Harleian Miscellany


The Robots of Death is the fifth serial of the 14th season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who, which was first broadcast in four weekly parts on BBC1 from 29 January to 19 February 1977.

In the serial, the Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker) and Leela (Louise Jameson) arrive on a sandminer whose crew, from a robot-dependent civilisation, are being murdered.

Influenced by the works of Agatha Christie, Isaac Asimov and Frank Herbert, The Robots of Death was the second script written for the series by Chris Boucher, Philip Hinchcliffe's penultimate story as producer and Michael E. Briant's final contribution to the series as a director. It has been described by Radio Times as a "fan favourite", "suspenseful" and "beautifully designed" serial featuring Tom Baker "in his prime". It was chosen to represent the era of the Fourth Doctor at the British Film Institute's 50th anniversary celebration of Doctor Who.

Plot
The Fourth Doctor and Leela arrive in the TARDIS inside "Storm Mine 4", a large sand-crawling mining vehicle used to gather valuable minerals that are brought to the surface of a desert planet by powerful sandstorms. They find the vehicle has a minimal human crew that oversee the menial work done by numerous robots, which are divided into three classes: dark-green-coloured "Dum" robots that cannot speak, gold-green-coloured "Voc" robots that can interact with the human crew, and a silver-coloured "Super Voc" robot, SV7, who manages the other robots.

The Doctor and Leela arrived shortly after the discovery of the corpse of one of the human crew, meteorologist Chub, recently murdered. The Doctor offers to help to find the murderer and prove their innocence. During the search, Leela comes across D84, a Dum who is secretly a Super Voc who is able to speak. The investigation is cut short when two more of the crew, Kerrill and Cass, are found killed, and the Doctor and Leela are secured in the robot repair section. However, crew member Poul is doubtful of the Doctor's or Leela's involvement, and when Poul finds Commander Uvanov standing over the corpse of yet another victim, he allows them to go free, convinced that Uvanov was guilty.

The vehicle's engines go out of control, threatening the crew, and they find the ship's engineer Borg appears to be another murder victim. The Doctor helps to regulate the engines to get them out of danger, while an engineer called Dask stays behind to repair the damage to the controls. The Doctor and Leela continue to investigate the murders, with the Doctor convinced one of the robots is behind it. Leela takes him to meet D84, and D84 explains that he and Poul were planted on the vehicle as a precautionary measure against a robot revolution that may be initiated by Taren Capel, a scientist that had been raised by robots and with delusions of power. D84 joins them to search the vehicle, and they discover a secret laboratory where the other robots have been reprogrammed to kill humans. Suspecting that Taren is aboard, the Doctor requests all the humans to meet them on the bridge.  Poul, however, having discovered a damaged robot in the repair shop with a bloody left hand, realizes that the robots are responsible for the murders, goes mad, and shelters in the shop.

However, Dask refuses, and reveals himself as Taren; he shuts down all of the robots except those he had reprogrammed (excluding D84), and orders SV7 to start hunting down the remaining humans. As D84 retrieves Poul, the Doctor and Leela return to the robot repair section, and find the damaged robot with Borg's blood on it; the Doctor surmises that Borg had been strong enough to put up a struggle against his robot assassin, and that this discovery had driven Poul insane. The Doctor uses the spare parts to construct a deactivator that will shut down all robots in close range, and then instructs Leela to hide with a canister of helium gas to use when Taren returns.

Taren is lured to the laboratory by the Doctor and D84, and D84 sacrifices himself to use the deactivator to shut down the Voc guard in the laboratory and itself. When SV7 arrives to kill the remaining humans, Taren begins to give SV7 orders to kill the Doctor, but the helium released by Leela causes Taren's voice to become high-pitched and unrecognisable by SV7. The Super Voc then kills him. The Doctor helps to shut down SV7 and revert Taren's programming. After ensuring that Poul and the others are safe and help is on the way, the Doctor and Leela take their leave.

Production
Early titles for the script included Planet of the Robots and The Storm-mine Murders.

The treatment of robots in this serial has many intentional nods to Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics. The villain of the story is named Taren Capel, which is a reference to Karel Čapek, who is credited with first coining the word "robot". Uvanov's name is a reference to Isaac Asimov, while Poul is a reference to the science fiction writer Poul Anderson. The script several times refers to Robophobia (the irrational fear of robots) as 'Grimwade's Syndrome', an inside joke reference to Peter Grimwade, a production assistant who directed some of the filmed scenes in the episode. Grimwade had frequently lamented that he was always working on material involving robots.

The sandminer was derived from Dune.

Cast notes

Russell Hunter was allegedly cast against the intention of the script, which implied that Commander Uvanov should be a physically imposing man, much in the mould of an eighteenth-century sailing master. David Collings, who plays Poul, previously appeared as Vorus in Revenge of the Cybermen and would later appear as Mawdryn in Mawdryn Undead as well as an alternative incarnation of the Doctor in the Big Finish Productions' Doctor Who Unbound audio drama Full Fathom Five. Pamela Salem, who plays Toos, had provided voice work in the preceding story The Face of Evil and would later appear as Professor Rachel Jensen in Remembrance of the Daleks. Salem had been one of the actresses considered for the part of Leela. David Bailie went on to play the Celestial Toymaker in the audio plays The Nightmare Fair and Solitaire.

Broadcast and reception

Episodes 1 & 2 and Episodes 3 & 4 were combined into two 50-minute episodes for repeat on 31 December 1977 and 1 January 1978, reaching 10.0 and 7.0 million viewers respectively.

Paul Cornell, Martin Day, and Keith Topping, in The Discontinuity Guide (1995), called the script "one of the best ever" and praised how it was enhanced by the design, acting, and direction. In The Television Companion (1998), David J. Howe and Stephen James Walker expressed similar praise, describing it as a "true classic" and praising the Art Deco design. In 2010, Mark Braxton of Radio Times observed a few production errors but overall praised the design and voices of the robots and the score. He also called the story "extraordinary", despite there being a coldness between Baker and Jameson that made it to the screen. DVD Talks Ian Jane was less positive, giving the story three and a half out of five stars. He found the plot "a fairly standard murder mystery" but still "a good amount of fun", and praised Baker and Jameson. Charlie Jane Anders of io9 recommended The Robots of Death, remarking that "it might be becoming my favorite classic Doctor Who story". In Doctor Who: The Complete Guide, Mark Campbell awarded it ten out of ten, writing "fabulous design work, hugely suspenseful music and a very believable scenario make this one of the programme's most durable tales. The killer may be obvious, but the tension is wrung out to the bitter end."

Commercial releases

In print

A novelisation of this serial, written by Terrance Dicks, was published by Target Books in May 1979. This novelisation was the shortest and notable for featuring the character of Cass attending a meeting after being murdered in the previous chapter.

Home media
This story was released on VHS in omnibus format in April 1986 and in episodic format in February 1995. It was released on DVD on 13 November 2000. A special edition of the DVD, with new bonus features, was released in the UK on 13 February 2012 in the third of the ongoing Revisitations DVD box sets.

References

External links

 BBC Episode guide
 Essay on The Robots of Death

Target novelisation

1977 British television episodes
Doctor Who serials novelised by Terrance Dicks
Fourth Doctor serials
Television episodes about robots

The Robots of Death


The Lewis structures, also called Lewis-dot diagrams or electron dot diagrams or Lewis dot structure  are pictures that show the bonding between a pair of electrons and the atoms of a molecule.

Each dot represents one electron. Two dots side by side represent a lone pair of electrons.

To show a bond between atoms, a line representing a pair of shared electrons is placed between the two atoms. This is showing water also known as H2O.

One idea for how to understand Lewis structures

1. First we have to select central atom.

2. Central atom is that which is  present in list in number.

      if not

3. central atom is that which has more number of valence electron.

4. Hydrogen is never central atom.

5. Then we arrange the rest of the atom and their electron as such they become stable.

Basic physics ideas
Chemical bonding

Lewis structure


The geology of the Baltic Sea is characterized by having areas located both at the Baltic Shield of the East European Craton and in the Danish-North German-Polish Caledonides. Historical geologists make a distinction between the current Baltic Sea depression, formed in the Cenozoic era, and the much older sedimentary basins whose sediments are preserved in the zone.
Although glacial erosion has contributed to shape the present depression, the Baltic trough is largely a depression of tectonic origin that existed long before the Quaternary glaciation.

Ancient sedimentary basin

Tectonic evolution

The Baltic Sea sedimentary basin was formed on top of the East European Craton millions of years after it consolidated.

This occurred during the Late Ediacaran and the Early Cambrian when the weakest part of the craton was reactivated. Since then the basin has been deepened mainly through subsidence caused by extensional tectonics. In the northern part of the Baltic Sea basin, including the Gulf of Bothnia and the Bothnian Sea, the depression originated as a series of interconnected rifts that were not active enough to split the East European Craton. Subsidence in the southern parts was most pronounced during a period starting in the Late Ordovician and lasting to Middle Silurian. At this time the Baltic sea basin and the East European Craton were part of a continent and tectonic plate known as Baltica. Baltica collided with the continent Laurentia in the Late Silurian and Early Devonian. This caused compression in the basin in a north-west to south-east direction.

This collision further led to the formation of a fold and thrust belt and faults north of the Danish–North German–Polish Caledonides. During the Carboniferous and Permian the basin areas around Rügen and northern Poland were subject to the intrusion of magma. After the Permian there was little tectonic activity in the Baltic for most of the Mesozoic until the Cretaceous. During the Cretaceous a tectonic inversion occurred in the southwestern part of the basin.

Sedimentary fill

The oldest sedimentary rocks in the Baltic Sea area that are not metamorphosed are Jotnian orthoquartzite, siltstones and conglomerates. Jotnian sediments are scattered. In the south and east of the Baltic crystalline shield the rocks are overlain by an extensive sedimentary cover that constitutes part of the East European platform. In the Baltic area of the platform there are sedimentary units of all geological periods from the Ediacaran (Vendian) to the Cenozoic. Paleogene and Neogene marine sediments are however absent in the whole Baltic area except for the southern fringes.

Origin and shape of modern depression

Scientists do not agree on the formation process of the present Baltic Sea depression. Scholars like Voipio (1981) and Šlaiupa (1995) consider the depression to have been formed in the Cenozoic, before the Quaternary, by tectonic processes. Some others like Marks (2004) stress erosion was key to the formation of the depression.

In the Cenozoic, long before the Quaternary glaciations the Baltic was the site of a large river called Eridanos. This river drained westward towards the North Sea. The Neogene uplift of the South Swedish Dome deflected Eridanos river from its original path across south-central Sweden into a course south of Sweden in the Pliocene.

Glacial erosion has superficially scoured an elongated area of the Baltic spanning from northern Småland, via Stockholm and Åland to the coast at the Finnish-Russian border. The scoured area and other zones made up of crystalline Fennoscandian Shield rocks (northern and western Baltic Sea) have experienced overall very limited glacial erosion during the Quaternary. Bathymetry of linear depressions in the Baltic seabed shows that the depression has been subject to glacial overdeepening. The date during which glacier ice carved these troughs is not known but it could have happened during the first glaciations that affected the Baltic region. Alternatively overdeepening could have built-up gradually during the successive glaciations that affected the area.

Quaternary seas and lakes
The hydrology, extent and nature of the Baltic Sea has varied considerably through the Quaternary. Its great overturns are linked to its geographic position, in particular its high latitude, that has made it prone to glaciations. During many Quaternary glaciations the whole depression was repeatedly covered by ice sheets. These glaciation have influenced the Baltic Sea depression by bringing eroded sediments from adjacent areas to the depression, downwarping the lithosphere during glaciations and causing isostatic rebound after thinning and retreat. Important to the understanding of the Baltic basin during the Quaternary was its connection to the open ocean in the west through the area of Denmark and Scania. The depth of the connection in particular has been critical to shape oceanographic conditions such as salinity.

Eemian and Weichselian

When the Eemian interglacial began about 130 thousand years ago, the formerly ice-filled Baltic depression turned to a freshwater lake for a "brief" time of 300 years before becoming a more saline sea. This sea was during its first 2500 to 2000 years of existence connected to the White Sea through Karelia due to the isostatic depression caused by the ice sheet of the earlier Saalian ice age.

Little is known about the Baltic Sea during the oscillations of the Weichselian ice age, the last glaciation. The first Weichselian glaciations, corresponding to MIS 5b and 5d, penetrated parts of the Baltic Sea depression from north to south but did not got south beyond Åland. The Weichsel ice sheet reached northern Denmark about 65–60 thousand years ago.

Holocene

When the last ice sheet began to retreat north from the Baltic Sea depression in the early Holocene (ca. 10,000 years ago) glacier meltwater accumulated between the front of the ice sheet and the southern shores that were free of glacier ice. This accumulation of freshwater constituted a lake known as the Baltic Ice Lake. This lake did not mix with seawater from the west because the ground on the whole depression rose faster than sea level did. Eventually mixing and connection to the ocean did occur when the glacier front retreated to the north beyond Billingen about 11,500 years ago. The Baltic Ice Lake drained then rapidly reaching sea level. From this point on the Baltic water body became the Yoldia Sea. About 10,700 years ago the continued land rise separated the Baltic water body from the ocean again and Yoldia Sea turned into the Ancylus Lake. This lake lasted until 10,000 years before present when a new connection to the ocean was established, this time in the Danish straits forming the Littorina Sea. Land rise did not close off Littorina sea but it made its connection the ocean over time more shallow allowing less salt water to enter it, thus gradually it evolved into the current Baltic Sea with somewhat brackish water.

Economic geology

Baltic amber

Limestone

Hydrocarbons

There are two kinds of oil shale in Estonia, both of which are sedimentary rocks laid down during the Ordovician geologic period. Graptolitic argillite is the larger resource, but, because its organic matter content is relatively low, it is not used industrially. The other one is kukersite, which has been mined for almost a hundred years and is expected to last for another 25–30 years. By the end of 2012, the total kukersite resource was 4.8 billion tonnes, of which up to 650 million tonnes was recoverable. Kukersite deposits in Estonia account for 1.1% of global oil shale deposits.

Exploratory wells have revealed the existence of petroleum of Lower Paleozoic age beneath Gotland.

References

Bibliography

Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea

Geology of the Baltic Sea


The Montreal Alouettes is a Canadian Football League team based in Montreal, Quebec. It is part of the CFL's East Division. It has won the league's Grey Cup championship seven times, the last time in 2010.

The team plays its home games in Percival Molson Memorial Stadium.

Canadian football clubs
Sports teams in Montreal

Montreal Alouettes


The History of the United States (1789–1849), sometimes called the Antebellum period, is the history beginning with the Presidency of George Washington and ending just before the American Civil War. The first government, formed under the Articles of Confederation, had ended and a new government based on the United States Constitution began. In the early 19th century, the country went though a number of dramatic changes. The country expanded its borders, cities became industrial centers and the economy grew. Sections of the United States developed differently leading to conflicts and eventually up to a civil war.

Federalist Era
This is the period from 1789 to about 1801 when the Federalist Party controlled the American government.

In 1789, Washington was elected the first President of the United States. The Constitution only gave a vague outline of what a president should be. Washington defined the position of President and left office after two terms. During Washington's term, there was a Whiskey Rebellion, where country farmers tried to stop the government from collecting taxes on whiskey. In 1795, Congress passed the Jay Treaty, which allowed for increased trade with Britain in exchange for the British giving up their forts on the Great Lakes. However, Great Britain was still interfering with the U.S., such as impressment (making American sailors join the British Royal Navy).

John Adams defeated Thomas Jefferson in the election of 1796 to become the second President of the United States.	 This was the first American election that was between two political parties. Under Adams, the United States Navy was created on April 30, 1798. It replaced the earlier Continental Navy which had been disbanded by 1785. By the end of 1798 the U.S. Navy had 14 ships with more being built. Adams pushed for and signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts.

In the election of 1800, Jefferson defeated Adams. One of the most important things he did as President was to make the Louisiana Purchase from France, which made the United States twice as big. By 1800 24 treaties had been signed with nine European powers.

Jeffersonian period
This is the period from 1800 through 1815 which includes the administrations of two Democratic-Republican Party presidents, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. They are commonly called Jeffersonian Republicans. During this time the country nearly doubled in size with the Louisiana Purchase from France. This, in turn, was one of the causes behind the War of 1812, when Great Britain attempted to re-claim her former American colonies.<!Era of good feelings • http://www.ushistory.org/us/23a.asp -->

Era of good feelings
In 1816, the Federalist Party candidate Rufus King ran against the Democratic-Republican candidate James Monroe. Monroe received 183 electoral votes to King's 34. That was the last time the Federalist Party ran a candidate. The Congressional election of 1818 gave the Democratic-Republicans a majority of 85%. Monroe served for two terms from 1817 to 1825. Due to the dominance of one political party this is often called the "Era of Good Feelings". But the party was deeply divided by this time. Many of the Federalist policies of Alexander Hamilton were adopted during this time and Monroe continued many of the economic policies of Madison. Three in particular were a national bank, protective tariffs and federal funding of the infrastructure.

Two party system
The one-party Era of Good Feelings system of cooperation between politicians lasted only about a decade. It was replaced by a new two-party system, which continues to today. Political parties took on the job of building coalitions between many different groups with different interests. This new system broke away from the patronage system based on personal loyalties. The Founding Fathers of the United States had never imagined a system based on political parties but by the 1830s they had become the main system of American politics.

The presidential election of 1824 had no Federalist party candidate. There were five candidates with Andrew Jackson winning the electoral college with 99 votes. Second to Jackson was John Quincy Adams with 84 votes and third was William H. Crawford who received 41 votes. Because nobody received a clear majority of electoral votes, following the Twelfth Amendment, the decision would be made by the House of Representatives.

The Speaker of the House was Henry Clay, another of the five candidates for President in 1824. Despite his state legislature instructing him to vote for Jackson, Clay formed a coalition to elect Adams president. On the first vote, Adams won the majority of votes. At first, Jackson accepted the decision gracefully. But after Adams became president he appointed Clay his Secretary of State. This brought cries of a "corrupt bargain" between Clay and Adams. Jackson's 1828 political campaign to end government corruption began immediately afterwards to make sure Adams would be a one-term president.

Era of Jacksonian Democracy
Andrew Jackson was elected president in 1828. He got nearly 70% of the electoral votes and over 60% participation in his election. This was largely due to Jackson's popularity as "Old Hickory", the hero of the Battle of New Orleans. His military career had included service in the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812 and the Seminole Wars. Jackson also benefited from the perceived corrupt bargain between Adams and Clay to expand his political base.

During his presidency, Jackson founded the party that began calling itself the "American Democracy". Changes in the electoral rules and political campaigns also contributed towards the feeling the country was becoming more democratic than it had been up to this point. For both reasons this era was called Jacksonian democracy. The period itself was from 1828 into the 1840s but its influence lasted much longer. It was a period of democratic reforms in voting and changes to the structure of the federal government. Some historians see it as a contradiction in terms since it also defended slavery, the pushing of Native Americans westward and white supremacy. Jackson's policies during his two terms were best described as laissez-faire.

Democratic Party
His Democratic Party stood for a smaller simpler government that did not involve itself in the economy or in regulating business. They opposed religious intrusion into government, especially in the forms of temperance, abolitionism and in officially keeping the Sabbath. Jackson and his Democrats wanted to keep government spending to a minimum.

The Democrats, under Jackson and his successor Martin Van Buren, became much better organized. They created a structure of local, state and national branches which controlled organizing membership as well as their caucuses and political conventions. They popularly claimed to be a grassroots party but were in fact controlled from Washington. They represented themselves as defending the common man against the "aristocrats" of the Whig Party. They started a spoils system of rewarding party loyalty with government jobs. After the War of 1812, Constitutional changes allowed more men to vote by erasing the requirement to own property. By Jackson's presidency, nearly all white men could vote. In 1812, only half of the states chose their electors in a presidential election by popular vote. By 1832, all states except South Carolina chose their presidential electors by popular vote. The Democrats were quick to take advantage of these changes.

Nullification Crisis
Jacksonian Democrats fought against the Second Bank of the United States. They wanted to remove the political influence of bankers on the national economy. They helped farmers and planters by taking away the lands of Native Americans and making cheap land available for settlers. But this did not get them the support of all planters in the South. Mostly centered in South Carolina, some thought the Jacksonian egalitarianism might threaten the institution of slavery itself. This led to the Nullification Crisis of 1832-1833. Farmers and planters had hoped that when Jackson was elected, he would reduce the unpopular tariffs that benefited Northern manufacturers and hurt the economy of the South. South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Nullification which declared the federal tariffs of 1828 and 1838 illegal within the borders of South Carolina. They also began to raise funds for a military to defend themselves.

In November 1832, Jackson sent a fleet of seven navy ships and one warship to Charleston. He called the state act "insurrection and treason". While other states in the south may have sympathized with South Carolina, they called the state's actions unconstitutional. South Carolina finally gave in and removed their objections to the tariff. In response, in 1833, Henry Clay got a bill through Congress that reduced the tariff in stages for any that were over 20%. So in the end South Carolina had shown it could force its will on Congress by resisting a federal law.

Social reforms
A number of reform movements began during this period after 1815. The improved economy after the War of 1812 provided a new class of people who had the time and financial resources to become involved in social movements. New technologies in printing increased the number of publications including those about subjects such as abolition. Better transportation meant lecturers could move from place to place more easily. A temperance movement began about 1819. A religious movement, sometimes called the Second Great Awakening, swept through the country during this time. Common themes ran through most of these reform movements. One of the most important was the belief that people had the ability to choose between right and wrong. For example, slavery was wrong. The term "slave" was used to show anything that was held to be wrong in society. Drunkards were "slaves" to alcohol, workers were "slaves" to the factory owners, and women were "slaves" to men. It was also common for those who believed in anti-slavement movements to also believe in women's rights, religious reforms and temperance reforms. People were given to joining local organizations because there were no strong political leaders championing these causes. There were no national church organizations to lead these causes. Reform movements went around the political and religious systems, at least until the 1840s. The movements themselves, such as the abolitionist movement, were not completely unified and had internal disagreements over what should be done or how to go about it.

Antebellum slavery
Slavery was mainly concentrated in the South by 1830. Slaves were used on small farms and large plantations. They were also used in towns as domestic workers and labor for various industries. Slaves were considered to be property because they were black. They were kept as slaves by the constant threat of violence. They were not allowed to forget they were slaves even though they lived with their masters. Many slaveowners genuinely cared about their slaves, but never saw them as their equal. But the largest percentage of Southerners did not own slaves. Most Southerners worked their own farms yet, curiously, they defended slavery as an institution. Many resented the wealth and power of the large plantation owners but at the same time held out the hope that someday they could join those ranks. Also, while poor Southerners were looked down on by rich plantation owners, they could themselves look down on blacks as an inferior group.

Cotton had become the largest cash crop. But plantations also grew corn, rice, sugarcane and tobacco. Slaves on plantations may have averaged 50 or less, but the largest plantations had hundreds of slaves. In addition to field work, slaves also were skilled in trades such as blacksmithing, carpentry and mechanics. Domestic slaves did the cooking for the family, raised their children and performed all the work in the household. They were always supervised and had to work at all times they were not sleeping. Domestic slaves had virtually no privacy. Young white children formed close attachment to their black nannies. But as they grew up they were educated as to how slaves were to be treated.

The Agrarian South

During this time period cotton plantations became very profitable in the South. Advances such as the cotton gin, power looms and the Sewing machine created a demand for cotton. It was exported from the South to New England and to England. Plantation owners needed more land and more slaves to grow more cotton. They were especially interested in expanding into new territories. They needed more slaves and after the ban on importing African slaves into the U.S., the prices went up. Small farmers found it profitable to sell their slaves to the large plantation owners. Wealth in the South often reflected how many slaves a planter owned. Slaves gave them political power and prestige.

The industrial North

The textile industry started the industrial revolution in the North. Other advances in manufacturing were in making paint, furniture, paper and glass. Between 1814 and 1865, the population grew by a factor of four. Manufacturing output grew to twelve times and the price of manufactured goods grew to eight times what it was before. Most of this growth was in New England. Rivers provided power for mills. In Pennsylvania coal and iron ore were mined. Agriculture remained an important industry in the North. Schools provided education provided a literate supply of workers and inventors. Large ports and ships provided transportation to foreign markets. Also railroads and water transportation such as the Erie Canal provided goods and services further west. A steady supply of immigrants provided much of the labor force that ran the Northern industries. During this period a number of social movements including anti-slavery began to have noticeable effects on society. In 1831 more radical forms of abolitionist  movements emerged.

U.S. presidents

Notes

References

Other websites
 Antebellum America; YouTube
 The Jeffersonian Era; YouTube

18th century in the United States
19th century in the United States
Origins of the American Civil War


The Reichsmarine, later called Kriegsmarine (, War Navy) was the Navy of Weimar Republic from 1919 to 1935 and Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It replaced the Imperial German Navy of World War I and the inter-war Reichsmarine. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht, the armed forces of Nazi Germany.

History
The Kriegsmarine was developed during the German naval rearmament of the 1930s. The Treaty of Versailles had limited the size of the German navy after World War I. It also prevented Germany from building submarines. But by 1934 Germany had secretly stockpiled most of the parts they needed to construct submarines (called U-boats). In early 1935 Hitler ordered the U-boats to be built. In January 1939 Plan Z was ordered, calling for the construction of many surface naval vessels. The ships of the Kriegsmarine fought during the Spanish Civil War and World War II. The commander of the Kriegsmarine was Karl Dönitz.

Ships
The Kriegsmarine's most famous ships were the U-boats. Most of them were built after Plan Z was abandoned at the beginning of World War II. Wolfpacks were groups of submarines that attacked British convoys. Most of the attacks were during the first half of the Battle of the Atlantic. Along with the U-boats, commerce raiders and cruisers were used to disrupt Allied shipping in the early years of the war. The most famous of these were the heavy cruisers Admiral Graf Spee and Admiral Scheer and the battleship Bismarck. However, the allied adoption of convoy escorts greatly reduced the danger from commerce raiders.

References

Other websites
 The Nazi German Navy 1935-1945 (Kriegsmarine)
 Kriegsmarine Ships

German military organizations

Kriegsmarine