Carl Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (25 May 1818 – 8 August 1897) was a Swiss historian of art and culture and an influential figure in the historiography of both fields. He is known as one of the major progenitors of cultural history. Sigfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: "The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well."

His best known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).

Life
The son of a Protestant clergyman, Burckhardt was born and died in Basel, where he studied theology in the hope of taking holy orders; however, under the influence of Wilhelm Martin Leberecht de Wette, he chose not to become a clergyman. He was a member of the patrician Burckhardt family.

He finished his degree in 1839 and went to the University of Berlin to study history, especially art history, then a new field. At Berlin, he attended lectures by Leopold von Ranke, the founder of history as a respectable academic discipline based on sources and records rather than personal opinions. He spent part of 1841 at the University of Bonn, studying under the art historian Franz Theodor Kugler, to whom he dedicated his first book, Die Kunstwerke der belgischen Städte (1842).

He taught at the University of Basel from 1843 to 1855, then at the Federal Polytechnic School. In 1858, he returned to Basel to assume the professorship he held until his retirement in 1893. He started to teach only art history in 1886. He twice declined offers of professorial chairs at German universities, at the University of Tübingen in 1867 and Ranke's chair at the University of Berlin in 1872.

Work
Burckhardt's historical writings did much to establish the importance of art in the study of history; indeed, he was one of the "founding fathers of art history" but also one of the original creators of cultural history. Contra John Lukacs, who has argued that Burckhardt represents one of the first historians to rise above the narrow 19th-century notion that "history is past politics and politics current history," Lionel Gossman claims that in stressing the importance of art, literature, and architecture as a primary source for the study of history, Burckhardt (in common with later Dutch cultural historian Johan Huizinga) saw himself as working in the tradition of the French romantic historian Jules Michelet. Burckhardt's unsystematic approach to history was strongly opposed to the interpretations of Hegelianism, which was popular at the time; economism as an interpretation of history; and positivism, which had come to dominate scientific discourses (including the discourse of the social sciences).

In 1838, Burckhardt made his first journey to Italy and published his first important article, "Bemerkungen über schweizerische Kathedralen" ("Remarks about Swiss Cathedrals"). Burckhardt delivered a series of lectures at the University of Basel, which were published in 1943 by Pantheon Books Inc., under the title Force and Freedom:  An Interpretation of History by Jacob Burckhardt. In 1847, he brought out new editions of Kugler's two great works, Geschichte der Malerei and Kunstgeschichte, and in 1853, he published his own work, Die Zeit Constantins des Grossen ("The Age of Constantine the Great"). He spent the greater part of the years 1853 and 1854 in Italy, collecting material for his 1855 Der Cicerone: Eine Anleitung zum Genuss der Kunstwerke Italiens (7th German edition, 1899) ("The Cicerone: or, Art-guide to painting in Italy. For the use of travellers"  Translated into English by A. H. Clough in 1873), also dedicated to Kugler. The work, "the finest travel guide that has ever been written" which covered sculpture and architecture, and painting, became an indispensable guide to the art traveller in Italy.

About half of the original edition was devoted to the art of the Renaissance. This was followed by the two books for which Burckhardt is best known today, his 1860 Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien ("The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy") (English translation, by S. G. C. Middlemore, in 2 vols., London, 1878), and his 1867 Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien ("The History of the Renaissance in Italy"). The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the 19th century and is still widely read.

In connection with this work Burckhardt may have been the first historian to use the term "modernity" in a clearly defined, academic context. Burckhardt understood Renaissance as drawing together art, philosophy and politics, and made the case that it created "modern man". Burckhardt developed an ambivalent interpretation of modernity and the effects of the Renaissance, praising the movement as introducing new forms of cultural and religious freedom but also worrying about the potential feelings of alienation and disenchantment modern men might feel. These claims proved quite controversial, but the scholarly judgements of Burckhardt's History of the Renaissance are sometimes considered to be justified by subsequent research, according to historians including Desmond Seward and art historians such as Kenneth Clark. Burckhardt and the German historian Georg Voigt founded the historical study of the Renaissance. In contrast to Voigt, who confined his studies to early Italian humanism, Burckhardt dealt with all aspects of Renaissance society.

Burckhardt considered the study of ancient history an intellectual necessity and was a highly respected scholar of Greek civilization. "The Greeks and Greek Civilization" sums up the relevant lectures, "Griechische Kulturgeschichte", which Burckhardt first gave in 1872 and which he repeated until 1885. At the time of his death, he was working on a four-volume survey of Greek civilization, which was published posthumously with additional work by others.

"Judgments on History and Historians" is based on Burckhardt's lectures on history at the University of Basel between 1865 and 1885.  It provides his insights and interpretation of the events of the entire sweep of Western Civilization from Antiquity to the Age of Revolution, including the Middle Ages, History from 1450 to 1598, the History of the Seventeenth and the Eighteenth Centuries.

Politics
There is a tension in Burckhardt's persona between the wise and worldly student of the Italian Renaissance and the cautious product of Swiss Calvinism, which he had studied extensively for the ministry. The Swiss polity in which he spent nearly all of his life was a good deal more democratic and stable than was the norm in 19th-century Europe. As a Swiss, Burckhardt was also cool to German nationalism and to German claims of cultural and intellectual superiority. He was also amply aware of the rapid political and economic changes taking place in the Europe of his day and commented in his lectures and writings on the Industrial Revolution, the European political upheavals of his day, and the growing European nationalism and militarism. Events amply fulfilled his prediction of a cataclysmic 20th century, in which violent demagogues (whom he called "terrible simplifiers") would play central roles. In later years, Burckhardt found himself unimpressed by democracy, individualism, socialism and a great many other ideas fashionable during his lifetime.

He also observed over a century ago that "the state incurs debts for politics, war, and other higher causes and 'progress'.... The assumption is that the future will honor this relationship in perpetuity. The state has learned from the merchants and industrialists how to exploit credit; it defies the nation ever to let it go into bankruptcy. Alongside all swindlers the state now stands there as swindler-in-chief".

Legacy

After his death, a medal was commissioned in his honour in 1898, which was made by the Swiss engraver Hans Frei (1868-1947).

Friedrich Nietzsche, appointed professor of classical philology at Basel in 1869 at the age of 24, admired Burckhardt and attended some of his lectures. Both men were admirers of the late Arthur Schopenhauer. Nietzsche believed Burckhardt agreed with the thesis of his The Birth of Tragedy, that Greek culture was defined by opposing "Apollonian" and "Dionysian" tendencies. Nietzsche and Burckhardt enjoyed each other's intellectual company, even as Burckhardt kept his distance from Nietzsche's evolving philosophy. Their extensive correspondence over a number of years has been published.

Burckhardt's student Heinrich Wölfflin succeeded him at the University of Basel at the age of only 28. In turn, Wölfflin's successor, Werner Kaegi, devoted his life's work to completing a six-volume intellectual biography of Burckhardt, in addition to translating the work of pioneering Dutch cultural historian Johan Huizinga into German. Gossman has argued that, "The extensive correspondence between Kaegi and Huizinga is evidence of the close intellectual and personal relation between Huizinga and the man who felt he had inherited the mantle of Burckhardt."

In 2018, the British Academy hosted an international conference on the occasion of Burckhardt's bicentenary. This conference tasked an interdisciplinary team of scholars of Renaissance studies as well as of Burckhardt himself to interrogate both the Swiss historian's own agenda as well as the contemporary validity and helpfulness of the label 'Italian Renaissance'.

Burckhardt was featured on the Swiss thousand franc banknote.

Works
English translations
1873. The Cicerone: or, Art-guide to Painting in Italy. For the Use of Travellers Translation by A. H. Clough.
1878. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. The Middlemore translation of the 1860 German original (Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, 1860); 1990 new edition. Penguin Classics.
1999. The Greeks and Greek Civilization, Oswyn Murray, ed. New York: St Martin's Griffin.  (translation of Griechische Kulturgeschichte, 1898–1902)
1929. Judgements on History and Historians The Letters of Jacob Burckhardt. .
1943. Reflections on History. (translation of Weltgeschichtliche Betrachtungen; originally published as Force and freedom: Reflections on History, shortened title from 1979). .

References
Notes

Further reading
Bauer, Stefan (2001): Polisbild und Demokratieverständnis in Jacob Burckhardts "Griechischer Kulturgeschichte". Basel: Schwabe.

Gossman, Lionel, 2000. Basel in the Age of Burckhardt: A Study in Unseasonable Ideas. The University of Chicago Press.
Grosse, Jurgen, 1999, "Reading History: On Jacob Burckhardt as Source-Reader," Journal of the History of Ideas 60: 525-47.
Gossman, Lionel. "Jacob Burckhardt: Cold War Liberal?" Journal of Modern History (2002) 74#3 pp. 538–572 in JSTOR
Hinde, John R., 2000. Jacob Burckhardt and the Crisis of Modernity. McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Ideas. McGill-Queen's University Press.
Howard, Thomas Albert, 1999. Religion and the Rise of Historicism: W.M.L. De Wette, Jacob Burckhardt, and the Theological Origins of Nineteenth-Century Historical Consciousness, Cambridge University Press.
 Kahan, Alan S., 1992. Aristocratic Liberalism: The Social and Political Thought of Jacob Burckhardt, John Stuart Mill, and Alexis de Tocqueville. Oxford University Press.
 Mommsen, Wolfgang. "Jacob Burckhardt- Defender of Culture and Prophet of Doom," Government and Opposition (1983) 18#4 pp. 458–475.
 Rüsen, Jörn. "Jacob Burckhardt: Political Standpoint and Historical Insight on the Border of Postmodernism," History and Theory (1985) 24#3 pp. 235–246
Sigurdson, Richard, 2004. Jacob Burckhardt's Social and Political Thought. Univ. of Toronto Press.
Trog, Hans, 1898. "Life" in Basler Jahrbuch 1898'' pp. 1–172.

External links

 Jacob Burckhardt at Zeno.org
 Jacob Burckhardt at Arthistoricum.net

1818 births
1897 deaths
Academic staff of ETH Zurich
Jakob
People from Basel-Stadt
19th-century Swiss historians
Swiss male writers
Swiss art historians
Cultural historians
University of Bonn alumni
Historians of the Renaissance
19th-century male writers
Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
People associated with the University of Basel

Jacob Burckhardt


PALFA is a large-scale survey for radio pulsars at 1.4 GHz using the Arecibo 305-meter telescope and the ALFA multibeam receivers. It is the largest and most sensitive survey of the Galactic plane to date.

Introduction
Most of the advances in pulsar astronomy were due to the discovery of new objects. A major increase in search sensitivity has already started a new era of discovery at the Arecibo Observatory.

This increase in search sensitivity is due first and foremost by the ALFA receiver and the pulsar surveys it makes possible, which are now being carried by the Pulsar Consortium using the Arecibo 305 m radio telescope. Preliminary estimates (see below) indicate that the Arecibo Galactic plane survey using ALFA could find many hundreds of new pulsars. As of November 2019, the survey had already discovered a total of 192 new pulsars.

The survey is targeting low Galactic latitudes (|b|≤5°) in the Galactic longitude ranges accessible by the Arecibo telescope (32°<l<77°) and 168°<l<214°). Upon completion, it is expected to find hundreds of new pulsars. Highlights from the survey include the discoveries of the second most relativistic binary pulsar known, PSR J1906+0746, and the first eccentric binary millisecond pulsar in the Galactic plane, PSR J1903+0327
In addition, PALFA has produced the first pulsar discovery by volunteer computing, PSR J2007+2722, through the Einstein@Home distributed computing project.
The discoveries include all known varieties of rotation-powered neutron stars: millisecond pulsars, relativistic binaries, mildly recycled, normal, and energetic young pulsars. Fourteen of the ALFA objects have been identified through their intermittent single pulses and are likely rotating radio transients (RRATs).  The rest have been discovered via blind periodicity searches. Follow-up radio timing observations are carried out through a coordinated effort between Arecibo, Jodrell Bank, Greenbank, and Nançay to obtain phase-connected timing solutions for these pulsars.

The first fast radio burst to be discovered by a telescope other than the Parkes radio telescope was identified in a PALFA pointing in the Galactic anti-center. This was the first repeating fast radio burst ever discovered.

The PALFA survey is carried out by an international consortium of scientists from the United States, Canada, Germany, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Australia, and France. The Principal Investigator of the PALFA survey is Prof. Victoria Kaspi of McGill University.

Data acquisition
With ALFA, 47 pointings are needed to cover one square degree, compared to about 330 pointings needed to cover one square degree with similar density with a single-pixel feed. Initially, the survey used the Wideband Arecibo Pulsar Processors (WAPPs) to detect the signal from ALFA's seven beams. These cover 100 MHz of band (with dual polarization capability), initially centered at 1420 MHz and now at 1440 MHz. For search purposes, 256-channel spectra are produced every 64 microseconds. In 2009, the survey transitioned to new and improved back-ends, the Mock polyphase filterbank spectrometers, which are capable of covering 300 MHz (from 1225 MHz to 1525 MHz, the bandwidth covered by ALFA) for each of the seven beams (see detailed technical specifications here). This has led to greatly increased search sensitivity and better means to deal with all the radio frequency interference.

Data processing and storage

Many of the detections to date have been made with a quick reduction package that allows us to find pulsars almost in real time. This is made possible by reducing the spectral and time resolution by a factor of 16, and using a computer cluster, the Arecibo Signal Processor to search for pulsars in the data. This is a nice and quick way of detecting slow pulsars, but the sensitivity to fast pulsars is severely degraded. Re-processing these data with full resolution is, computationally, a very challenging task but is essential for detecting many fast (both young and recycled) pulsars so far hidden by Galactic plasma.

It is expected that, over the next several years, this survey will generate over 1000 Terabytes of data. The data is stored at the Cornell University Center for Advanced Computing. The full-resolution raw data is processed independently by three software pipelines.

The Cornell University pipeline has conducted standard periodicity search and single-pulse search without doing an acceleration search. It has been run on all WAPP data archived at the Cornell University Center for Advanced Computing and has provided 2.5 million signal candidates. Winnowing of this vast set of candidates is currently under way.

The second pipeline is based on PRESTO, a large suite of pulsar search and analysis software developed by Scott Ransom. It employs a Fourier-domain acceleration search technique, which compensates for the loss of detection sensitivity in a traditional periodicity search due to a rapidly changing frequency of the periodic pulsar signal. Such frequency modulation can occur, for instance, due to a pulsar's orbital motion in a compact binary. This approach thus significantly boosts sensitivity to binary pulsars. The PRESTO pipeline is run on dedicated clusters at several institutions that participate in the ALFA survey, producing over 3 million signal candidates. Over the past two years, the Guillimin supercomputer, managed by McGill University as part of CLUMEQ, has been processing most of the PALFA data with PRESTO.

Since March 2009, part of the Einstein@Home computing power is used to analyze PALFA data. The Einstein@Home algorithm is particularly sensitive to radio pulsars in tight binary systems (as short as 11 minutes), with a phase-space coverage that is complementary to that of the PRESTO pipeline. To date, it has re-detected 123 previously known radio pulsars as well as several previously unknown pulsars.

The data processed thus far has revealed that the radio frequency interference (RFI) environment at Arecibo significantly affects the detection threshold of the survey, creating unforeseen challenges in identifying the many weak pulsars that are likely lurking in the data. To address this, the PALFA consortium is actively developing novel techniques for identification, mitigation, and excision of RFI. We are also implementing a variety of heuristics as well as machine learning algorithms for identifying real pulsars among the millions of signal candidates, most of which appear to be due to RFI. The inevitable growth in the incidence and variety of man-made RFI suggests that this problem will likely be important for all future radio pulsar surveys.

Outreach efforts

The Arecibo Remote Command Center (ARCC) at the University of Texas at Brownsville, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, and Franklin & Marshall College is currently engaged in searching for radio pulsars in PALFA data. ARCC is an integrated research/education facility that allows students at the high school and undergraduate level to be directly involved with the research at the Arecibo telescope. Web based tools have been developed so that students can rank the pulsar candidates created by the PRESTO analysis.

Notes

Astronomical surveys
Pulsars
Radio astronomy
Observational astronomy

PALFA Survey


Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina or better Kamatera (,  – 1211) was a Byzantine Empress by marriage to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos.

Euphrosyne was the daughter of Andronikos Kamateros, a high-ranking official who held the titles of megas droungarios and pansebastos and wife, an unknown Kantakouzene. She was related to the Emperor Constantine X and Irene Doukaina, empress of Alexios I Komnenos. Both of her brothers had rebelled against Andronikos I Komnenos; one was imprisoned and the other was blinded.

Life
Euphrosyne married Alexios Angelos, the older brother of the future Emperor Isaac II Angelos in c. 1169. Although Isaac II bestowed many titles and honors upon his brother, Alexios seized the throne on April 8, 1195, deposing Isaac and proclaiming himself emperor. In this he was assisted by Euphrosyne, who had organized a party of aristocratic supporters. Euphrosyne took control of the palace and quelled the opposition herself, securing the accession of her husband to the throne by wholesale bribery.

Euphrosyne was a dominating woman with a talent for politics, and she virtually ruled the Empire in the name of Alexios III, who was concerned primarily with pleasure and idle pursuits. She issued commands herself and even altered Alexios' decrees when it suited her, and secured the recall of the capable minister Constantine Mesopotamites. Euphrosyne and Alexios were criticized for their love of finery and the enrichment of their relatives at state expense. Her own brother, Basil Kamateros, and her son-in-law, Andronikos Kontostephanos, accused Euphrosyne of adultery with one of her ministers, a nobleman named Vatatzes. Alexios III believed the allegations and had Vatatzes executed. Euphrosyne was stripped of her imperial robes and banished to a convent at Nematarea in October 1196. However, her relatives convinced Alexios to reinstate her, and she was recalled six months later in spring 1197.

In 1203, faced with the Fourth Crusade and the return of his nephew, Alexios IV Angelos, Alexios III fled Constantinople with a magnificent treasure and some female relatives, including his daughter Irene. Euphrosyne was left behind and was immediately imprisoned by the new regime. Alexios IV was soon strangled by Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos, the lover of Euphrosyne's daughter Eudokia, who then proclaimed himself emperor as Alexios V. In April 1204 Euphrosyne fled the city along with her daughter and Alexios V, and they made their way to Mosynopolis, where Euphrosyne's husband Alexios III had taken refuge. Alexios III had Alexios V blinded and abandoned to the crusaders, who had him executed.

Euphrosyne and Alexios III fled across Greece to Thessalonica and Corinth, but were finally captured by Boniface of Montferrat and imprisoned. In 1209 or 1210 they were ransomed by their cousin Michael I of Epirus, and Euphrosyne spent the remainder of her life in Arta. She died in 1210 or 1211.

Family
By her husband, Alexios III Angelos, Euphrosyne had three daughters:
 Eirene Angelina, who married (1) Andronikos Kontostephanos; (2) Alexios Palaiologos, by whom she was the grandmother of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
 Anna Angelina, who married (1) the sebastokratōr Isaac Komnenos, great-nephew of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos; (2) Emperor Theodore I Laskaris of Nicaea.
 Eudokia Angelina, who married (1) King Stefan I Prvovenčani of Serbia; (2) Emperor Alexios V Doukas; (3) Leo Sgouros, ruler of Corinth.

Sources
The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 1991
Garland, Lynda. Byzantine Empresses, 1999

1150s births
1211 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Angelid dynasty
Christians of the Fourth Crusade
12th-century Byzantine empresses
13th-century Byzantine empresses
Euphrosyne Doukaina

Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera


The first Japanese students in the United Kingdom arrived in the nineteenth century, sent to study at University College London by the Chōshū and Satsuma domains, then the Bakufu (Shogunate). Many went on to study at Cambridge University and a smaller number at Oxford University until the end of the Meiji period. The primary motive for this was an effort to modernise Japan in the long run. Since the 1980s, Japanese students in the United Kingdom have become common thanks to cheaper air travel.

Chōshū Five (1863)

At University College London supervised by Professor Alexander William Williamson

Itō Shunsuke (later Itō Hirobumi) – Genrō, 1st, 5th, 7th, and 10th Prime Minister of Japan
Inoue Monta (later Inoue Kaoru) – Genrō, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Agriculture and Commerce, Home, and Treasury
Nomura Yakichi (later Inoue Masaru) – 1st Director of Railways (Tetsudō-chō)
Endō Kinsuke – Head of Japan Mint (Zōheikyoku)
Yamao Yōzō – Minister of Industry, Director of Cabinet Legislation Bureau

Satsuma students (1865)

15 Satsuma students, one from Tosa and one from Nagasaki, and 4 supervisors (ometsuke). This group also studied at
University College London which was open to students of
all religions.
Niiro Hisanobu(Niiro Chuzō) - Leader of Students, Karō of Satsuma-Han
Matsuki Kōan (later Terashima Munenori) - Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Minister of Education
Godai Tomoatsu (Godai Saisuke) - Founder of Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Osaka Securities Exchange
Mori Arinori - 1st Minister of Education, Founder of Hitotsubashi University
Machida Hisanari - Ōmetsuke of Satsuma-Han, 1st Curator of Imperial Museum of Japan (later Tokyo National Museum)
Machida Shinsirō - brother of Machida Hisanari
Machida Seizō (later Takarabe Saneyuki) - brother of Machida Hisanari
Hatakeyaka Hatanosuke (later Hatakeyama Yoshinari) - head of Kaisei Gakkō (開成学校, one of predecessor of University of Tokyo), member of Iwakura Mission
Murahashi Hisanari - founder of brewery of Kaitakushi (Hokkaido Development Commission), later Sapporo Brewery
Asakura Moriaki (later Asakura Moriaki) redeveloper of Ikuno Silver Mine
Sameshima Naonobu - Envoy to France
Matsumura Junzō - Vice Admiral of Imperial Japanese Navy, Director of Imperial Japanese Naval Academy
Takami Yaichi (former Ōishi Danzō) formerly rōnin of Tosa-Han, assassin of Yoshida Tōyō
Yoshida Kiyonari - Envoy to USA
Isonaga Hirosuke (later Nagasawa Kanaye) - winemaker of Fountain Grove Winery in California
Nakamura Hironari (or Nakamura Hakuai) - Ministry to Belgium, member of House of Peers
Hori Takayuki - Interpreter of Dutch language in Nagasaki
Nagoya Tokinari
Togo Ainoshin - died in Boshin War

Bakufu students (1866)

Supervisors:
Kawaji Taro
Nakamura Keisuke

Students: (12)
Naruse Jogoro
Toyama Sutehachi,
Mitsukuri Keigo
Fukuzawa Einosuke (no relation of Fukuzawa Yukichi)
Hayashi Tozaburo (later Hayashi Tadasu)
Ito Shonosuke
Okukawa Ichiro
Yasui Shinpachiro
Mitsukuri Dairoku (later Kikuchi Dairoku)
Ichikawa Morisaburo
Sugi Tokujiro
Iwasa Genji

Students in the Meiji era

Cambridge University
Kikuchi Dairoku
Suematsu Kenchō
Inagaki Manjirō
Okura Kishichiro
Tanaka Ginnosuke

Oxford University
Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu
Hachisuka Mochiaki
Nanjo Bunyu - professor of Sanskrit at Tokyo University
Takakusu Junjiro

Naval trainees
Prince Arisugawa Takehito
Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito
Tōgō Heihachirō
Yuzuru Hiraga

Other
Hayashi Tadasu
Takamine Jōkichi

After World War II

Naruhito, Emperor of Japan, Oxford
Masako, Empress of Japan, Oxford
Aiko, Princess Toshi, Eton
Fumihito, Crown Prince of Japan, Oxford
Mako Komuro, University of Edinburgh, University of Leicester
Princess Kako of Akishino, University of Leeds
Prince Tomohito of Mikasa, Oxford
Princess Tomohito of Mikasa, Rosslyn College
Princess Akiko of Mikasa, Oxford
Hisako, Princess Takamado, Cambridge
Princess Tsuguko of Takamado, University of Edinburgh
Katsuhiko Oku, Oxford
Hisashi Owada, Cambridge

see also: "For Japan's royals, studying abroad is freedom"

See also

Rikkyo School in England
Teikyo School United Kingdom
Teikyo University of Japan in Durham
Gyosei International School UK (closed)
Gyosei International College in the U.K. (closed)
Japanese community in the United Kingdom
Japan–United Kingdom relations

References

 Cobbing, Andrew. The Japanese Discovery of Victorian Britain. RoutledgeCurzon, London, 1998.
 Cobbing, Andrew. The Satsuma Students in Britain: Japan's Early Search for the Essence of the West. Curzon Press, 2000.
 Japanese Students at Cambridge University in the Meiji Era, 1868-1912: Pioneers for the Modernization of Japan, by Noboru Koyama, translated by Ian Ruxton , (Lulu Press, September 2004, ).
 Gardiner, Michael. At the Edge of Empire: The Life of Thomas B. Glover. Birlinn, Edinburgh, 2007.
 The History of the satsuma students , by Satsuma Students Museum

Meiji Restoration
Students in the United Kingdom

Japan–United Kingdom relations
S
Students in the United Kingdom
International education industry

Japanese students in the United Kingdom


The word syphon (, also spelled siphon) can refer to any device that conducts the flow of liquids through tubes. Used in the right way, the word refers to a tube in an upside-down U shape. The tube makes liquid flow up hill. It flows higher than the source of the liquid, to come out at a level lower than the surface of the source. The movement is done without pumps. It is powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity.

The syphon must touch the liquid in the (upper) reservoir (the source, where the liquid comes from) in order for it to work. This allows atmospheric pressure to push the liquid up the tube. The top of the tube is where the lowest pressure is, so the liquid will move towards that area in the same way as a barometer. The top of a syphon is the same as the height of a barometer, because they work in the same way. The lower pressure is caused by the liquid falling on the downhill side. A syphon can raise water to a height of 25 feet above the source elevation. New discoveries in Syphon Pump Metering allows for dispensing liquid above the source. United States Patent #5,358,000 was the first to teach this method.
A siphon can be used for irrigation purposes.
When both ends of a syphon are at atmospheric pressure (equal pressure), liquid flows from high to low. However, if the lower end is pressurised, liquid can flow from low to high. Most syphons have water as a fluid. Other fluids, such as mercury, or organic liquids or even gasses like carbon dioxide can also be syphoned.

References

Fluid mechanics
Tools

Syphon


Beeckestijn is a historical buitenplaats (summer house) dating from the 18th century in a park by the same name in Velsen-Zuid, Netherlands.

History

The Beeckestijn site was a buitenplaats in the 15th and 16th centuries before the current English-style garden was designed in the 18th century. The house and the accompanying gardens are listed for varying reasons in the National register of monuments. The original design of the current garden plan from 1772 was preserved in an engraving by the landscape designer Johann Georg Michael (1738-1800), who also designed the neighboring park Waterland. He was assisted by the painter and designer Johann Heinrich Müntz. They were commissioned by the owner Jacob Boreel who had visited England and wished for a garden in the style of Stowe, Kewe Gardens and Wimpole. The gardens were partially redesigned in 1936 by the landscape designer Leonard Springer (1855-1940). Throughout the park are three bunkers from World War II that were sunk after the war by pumping the sand beneath them away. One of these bunkers is below the shell pond near the rear of the house.

The house had various owners until being bought by the Trip family in the 17th century. Jan Trip the younger expanded the house to its present state in 1716-1721. The main building seen today has a sculpture on the facade and some stuccos within by Ignatius van Logteren (1685-1732). The house was occupied as a residence until 1924 when it fell into disuse. In 1939 it was used by a Dutch regiment who caused a lot of damage, and in 1941 it was occupied by German infantry. In 1942 the three Atlantikwall bunkers were built in the garden. After the war the house was occupied by Canadians before becoming the property of Jonkvrouwe Agnes Cremer-Boreel who sold it to Velsen. The restoration was completed in 1969 and the property opened as a museum, with a yearly garden festival and a yearly pop festival taking place there.

In 2006 the museum with rooms in the style of the owner Jacob Boreel was closed. The property now belongs to the Vereniging Hendrick de Keyser, which restores and manages other heritage sites in the area. Beeckestijn is due to reopen as a museum of landscape, due to its importance as a relic of Dutch garden history, as well as its role in the nearby water management history (the house was originally on the Wijkermeer).

References

Beeckestijn and its inhabitants, George Slieker, 2006 (in Dutch)
 Friends of Beeckestijn website (in Dutch)
  Vereniging Hendrick de Keyser website (in Dutch)

Rijksmonuments in North Holland
Velsen

Beeckestijn


The Pentewan Railway () was a  narrow gauge railway in Cornwall, England. It was built as a horse-drawn tramway carrying china clay from St Austell to a new harbour at Pentewan, and was opened in 1829. In 1874 the line was strengthened for locomotive working. It finally succumbed to more efficient operation at other ports and closed in 1918.

Origins

Tin mining had been the dominant industry in much of Cornwall in the eighteenth century, but that work was declining by the 1830s. China clay (referred to as kaolinite outside the United Kingdom) had been discovered in the area north and west of St Austell, in Cornwall, and Charles Rashleigh was prominent in developing the industry; he built a harbour at Charlestown from which the material could be shipped to market. The harbour was south-east of St Austell town and the principal sources of the mineral were to the north west, and that the china clay had to be conveyed on packhorses through the centre of the town.

In 1820 Sir Christopher Hawkins purchased land at Pentewan at the mouth of the St Austell River. He constructed a harbour there, and it was completed in 1826 at a cost of £22,000.

In 1827 a prospectus for a railway was published by him; the railway was to run from the West Road at St Austell to Pentewan Harbour; the West Road location was on the cartage route from the clay pits. Tenders for the construction of the line were invited on 26 September 1829. There were no substantial engineering difficulties and the line was announced as already open nine months later, on 1 July 1830; the cost was said to be £5,732 6s 8d. Hawkins appears to have managed the operation through a Pentewan Railway and Harbour Company.

The line in operation
The new railway was built to  narrow gauge. There had previously been no other edge railway of that gauge. It was the third public railway in Cornwall, after the Portreath Tramroad (a plateway) and the Redruth and Chasewater Railway. The northern part was on a steep gradient falling towards the harbour, so that loaded wagons could be gravitated; the remainder, and the uphill empty haul, was operated with horses.

Output of china clay in Cornwall increased rapidly at this time, from 12,790 tons in 1826 to 20,784 tons in 1838. The Pentewan Railway handled about a third of the traffic at first, but this declined to about a tenth in 1838.

In 1833 a coal yard and siding were built at London Apprentice to serve the tin mine at Polgooth. In time the line serviced a number of small mica works and other industries along the line, including the St Austell gas works, for which it provided coal. Coal was also brought in to the mica kilns, as well as to St Austell. Baltic timber was also taken from Pentewan to St Austell for making barrels.

Passengers
There appears to have been a limited passenger service on the line from 1830, but few details survive. An early account quotes the fare as 3d. There was no formal timetabled train service, and it is likely that persons were conveyed on an ordinary wagon on request. A sixteen-seat saloon carriage was built in 1875, but its use was confined solely to the Hawkins family.

 In August 1881 the children of St Austell Workhouse, were taken to Pentewan on the trucks for their annual treat, which was paid for by Mr Arthur Coode. From 1883 free Sunday School excursions to Pentewan took place, and these appear to have become a regular event on the line. The passenger were conveyed in the clay wagons

1874 improvements
While the line had originally been a pioneer, technological progress meant that lines built later were more efficient. The Cornwall Railway opened between Plymouth and Truro in 1859 using steam locomotives, and soon became the dominant land transport medium in the district. Silting of Pentewan Harbour had been a recurrent problem, limiting its attractiveness to shipping.

In 1874 an Act of Parliament was obtained authorising the use of locomotive traction on the Pentewan line, and also extensions northwards into the china clay fields. This ambitious scheme changed the name of the owning company to the St Austell and Pentewan Railway Harbour and Dock Company with capital of £50,000. Strengthening of the track had apparently already taken place, and indeed the use of locomotives had already been implemented: an 0-6-0 tender engine, Pentewan had arrived in 1874.

On 1 January 1876 the Cornwall Railway was taken over by the Great Western Railway and the larger company directed china clay traffic to its harbour at Fowey, providing better facilities and a more efficient transport link from connected china clay pits. The impact on the Pentewan traffic was dramatic; carryings fell from 19,672 tons in 1876 to 5,341 tons in 1877. The £50,000 capital of the expanding Pentewan company had only been authorised by Parliament, and few subscribers came forward with the money: by 1880 only £11,824 had been forthcoming by 1880, and profits from current operations were inadequate to pay the ground rent.

An 1884 assessment
Symons summarised the story of the line, writing in 1884; implementation of locomotive traction seems to have met with objection:

The St. Austell and Pentewan Railway, made about 50 years ago, was for the conveyance of goods only. It was intended, recently, to work it by locomotives, but the opposition of Mr. Hawkins, a landowner, prevented it. Its chief use is for the conveyance of china clay to Pentewan.

Electrification proposed
This collapse seems to have been followed by a boom, for in 1882 45,270 tons were carried, generated a profit of £1,206. This buoyancy enabled the replacement of the original locomotive Pentewan with a new, similar, machine, named Trewithan in 1886. At the same time there were renewed proposals to extend the line northwards and to electrify it, using a central live rail.

This seems a huge leap of faith: at the time only Volk's Electric Railway (1883) and the  narrow gauge railways at the Giant's Causeway Tramway (1883) and the Bessbrook and Newry Tramway (1885) had been equipped with electric traction systems. The electrification scheme and the proposed extensions were not implemented.

The twentieth century
The line carried 20,694 tons in 1903; always susceptible to fluctuations in the china clay trade outside its own control, the line suffered with the slump following that year, but increased its carryings again, so that by 1910 34,123 tons were carried.

The locomotive Trewithan was replaced by a Canopus in 1901. A further locomotive, Pioneer, was acquired second hand from the War Department in 1912. The locomotives only worked up as fas as Iron Bridge;  horses were used for the final section in St Austell on grounds of public safety. The horses were brought up from Pentewan on the first train of the day; locomotive operation into St Austell was permitted in later years.

A strike in 1913 reduced earnings and the outbreak of war in 1914 took many men away from the china clay industry; the reduced output was increasingly diverted away from Pentewan which suffered from limitations of primitive handling methods and difficult navigational access, and the last china clay was carried on 29 January 1918; the last actual train ran on 2 March 1918.

The track gauge of  was used to service the trenches at the front in France, and the track and locomotives were acquired by the War Department.

Personnel
From 1887 to 1913, the driver and fireman was a father and son team. The fireman, J. H. Drew wrote a detailed account of life working on the Pentewan railway.

Locomotives

Remains
In 2006, there are few remains of the old railway system: a set of complete points are still in situ outside an old engine shed.
An unusual weigh bridge is also still in existence although being overgrown. There is now a cycle- and footpath which follows the route of the railway

See also

British narrow gauge railways

References

http://maps.google.co.uk/maps/ms?msa=0&msid=203436361982690910378.0004a5e6af6ecb7f2865d

External links

Rail transport in Cornwall
2 ft 6 in gauge railways in England
Early British railway companies
Industrial railways in England
Railway lines opened in 1829
Railway lines closed in 1919
Horse-drawn railways
1829 establishments in England
1919 disestablishments in England

Pentewan Railway


Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd is a 2011 case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court. It was a civil lawsuit filed in federal court. It argued that holding Muslim-Americans after the September 11 attacks was unconstitutional.

Background
A young man named Lavoni T. Kidd was a prominent football player at the University of Idaho. He is an American citizen. While at college, Kidd converted to Islam and took the name Abudulla al-Kidd.

In 2003, the police arrested Al-Kidd as he was boarding a flight to Saudi Arabia, where he planned to study.  He was held for 15 nights under the federal material witness statute (a law that allows police to hold people who are going to testify in court) because he was going to testify in the trial of Sami Omar Al-Hussayen.  FBI Director Robert S. Mueller told Congress that al-Kidd's capture was one of the FBI's "success" stories.  Al-Kidd was never charged with a crime or called as a witness. He was later released.

Al-Kidd went to court, suing John Ashcroft, who was United States Attorney General from 2001 to 2005.  Al-Kidd said he was strip-searched, shackled, interrogated without having a lawyer with him, and treated as a terrorist.  The American Civil Liberties Union lawyers who represented al-Kidd claimed he was one of 70 Muslim men who were treated this way.

Aschroft claimed that he had "absolute immunity" from civil lawsuits like al-Kidd's. In other words, because his actions were part of his duties as Attorney General, nobody can sue him about those actions.  Ashcroft also claimed that he had "qualified immunity" that prevents such lawsuits unless the official violated someone's constitutional rights.

In 2009, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit found that Ashcroft could be sued and held personally responsible for the wrongful holding of al-Kidd. On October 18, 2010, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear Ashcroft's appeal.

Supreme Court decision
On May 31, 2011, the Supreme Court ruled against al-Kidd by a vote of 8-0.  (Usually there are nine Supreme Court Justices, but Justice Elena Kagan did not participate in the al-Kidd case.)

To show that Ashcroft could be sued, al-Kidd's lawyers had to meet a very high burden of proof.  They needed to prove that Ashcroft was directly involved in holding al-Kidd, or that he knew what was happening to al-Kidd.  The Court ruled that al-Kidd's lawyers had not proved these things.  They suggested that al-Kidd's detention was handled mostly by people who were much less powerful than Ashcroft.

All eight Supreme Court Justices agreed that the Ninth Circuit's ruling should be reversed.  However, the Justices reached this decision for different reasons.

Majority opinion

Justice Antonin Scalia wrote a majority opinion.  He was joined by Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justices Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, and Samuel Alito.  Scalia wrote that a Magistrate Judge had issued a valid arrest warrant for al-Kidd based on specific information about him.  Al-Kidd was not arrested in a general effort to sweep a large group of Muslims into jail  he was specifically arrested because he was suspected.

In a footnote in his opinion, Scalia argues with Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg about what type of "individualized suspicion" is needed to justify arresting a person.  Scalia wrote that a person does not need to be suspected of "wrongdoing"  he just needs to be suspected.  Scalia found that Ashcroft was protected from any possible lawsuits for ordering this group of arrests:
The objectively reasonable arrest and detention of a material witness pursuant to a validly obtained warrant cannot be challenged as unconstitutional on the basis of allegations that the arresting authority had an improper motive.

Concurring opinions

Justice Kennedy wrote a concurring opinion.  He was joined by Justices Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Sonia Sotomayor for Part I of his opinion.  He also wrote that al-Kidd's lawsuit should be dismissed.

Kennedy wrote the second part of his opinion alone.  In this part, he described his concern that the Attorney General of the United States cannot be personally sued just because lower courts in some parts of the United States have made legal decisions opposing his policies.

Justice Ginsburg, joined by Justices Breyer and Sotomayor, wrote that it was "uncertain" just how powerful the Material Witness Statute was.  For example, she/ questioned whether a "law-abiding citizen" who was not suspected of wrongdoing could be sent to jail if he saw "a crime during the days or weeks before a scheduled flight abroad."  Ginsburg, Breyer, and Sotomayor were also concerned about how al-Kidd was treated in jail.  The Court did leave al-Kidd with the right to sue his jailers for mistreating him.

Justice Sotomayor, joined by Justices Ginsburg and Breyer, wrote that the Court did not have to think about Constitional questions to decide this case.

References

United States Supreme Court cases
2011 in the United States

Ashcroft v. Al-Kidd


Dan Hausel (born 1949 in Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.) a polymath of martial arts, geology, writing, astronomy, art, and public speaking. Hall-of-Fame 10th degree black belt grandmaster of Shorin-Ryu Karate and Kobudo, mineral exploration geologist who made several gold, colored gemstone, and diamond deposit discoveries in Alaska, Colorado, Montana and Wyoming, author of more than 600 publications including books, maps, professional papers and magazine articles, public speaker, artist, former astronomy lecturer for the Hansen Planetarium in Utah, and former rock musician.

Martial arts
In 1999, Hausel developed a hybrid style of Okinawn Shorin-Ryu Karate and Kobudo that was recognized by Zen Kokusai Soke Budo Bugei Renmei (an international governing organization of martial arts grandmasters) as a legitimate martial art and was awarded Soke Shodai (1st generation grandmaster) of this art. He is a member of more than a dozen Halls-of-Fame including the North American Black Belt Hall of Fame, the World Martial Arts Black Belt Hall of Fame and others. In 2006, he left Wyoming for Gilbert, Arizona, where he and his wife reside.

Hausel was also recently honored in 1998 by induction into two hall of fames, honored as instructor of the year by two international associations

Hausel began training in martial arts in the 1960s at the Black Eagle Federation Kyokushin Kaikan Dojo.

Geologist
While at the Wyoming Geological Survey on the University of Wyoming campus (1977–2006), Hausel discovered dozens of colored gemstone, diamond and gold deposits and occurrences. As a consultant for WestGold, a crew of six geologists including Hausel discovered the Donlin Creek gold deposit in Alaska in 1988; now recognized as one of the larger gold deposits discovered in North America in the last 100 years. He was inducted into the National Rock Hound and Lapidary Hall of Fame in 2001 for contributions to geological sciences and also presented the Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada's 2009 Thayer Lindsley Award for discovery of a major international gold deposit.

In addition to the Donlin Creek gold deposit he discovered the Rattlesnake Hills gold district in Wyoming in 1981 – a district with dozens of gold anomalies that is currently being explored and developed for both Kalgoorlie- and Cripple Creek-type gold deposits. He contributed to nearly one hundred books and 650 papers and maps on geological sciences and martial arts. Hausel is a diamond geology specialist and contributes to articles for the ICMJ Prospecting and Mining Journal.

Books By Dan Hausel
 Gold: A Field Guide for Prospectors and Geologists.
 Gems, Minerals and Rocks of Wyoming: A Guide for Rock Hounds, Prospectors and Collectors.
 Diamond Deposits: Origin, Exploration and History of Discovery.
 Gemstones and Other Unique Minerals and Rocks of Wyoming: A Guide For Collectors.
 Exploration for Diamond-Bearing Kimberlites in Colorado and Wyoming: An Evaluation of Exploration Techniques.
 Ore Deposits of Wyoming.
 Geology and Gold Mineralization of the Rattlesnake Hills, Granite Mountains, Wyoming.
 Gold Districts of Wyoming.
 The Geology of Wyoming's Precious Metal Lode and Placer Deposits.
 Minerals and Rocks of Wyoming.
 Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Kimberlite in the Laramie Range, Southeastern, Wyoming.
 Economic Geology of the Copper Mountain Supracrustal Belt, Owl Creek Mountains, Wyoming.
 Economic Geology of the South Pass Granite-Greenstone Belt, Wind River Mountains, Wyoming.
 Economic Geology of the Seminoe Mountains Mining District, Wyoming.
 Geology of Wyoming's Copper, Lead, Zinc, Molybdenum and Associated Metal Deposits.
 Diamonds and Mantle Source Rocks in the Wyoming Craton with Discussions on Other U.S. Occurrences.
 Geology of the Iron Mountain Kimberlite District.
 Geology and Geochemistry of the Leucite Hills Volcanic Field.

References

1949 births
Living people
Writers from Salt Lake City
American male karateka
American geologists

Dan Hausel


The Deep Blue Organ Trio was an American, Chicago based jazz organ trio, made up of jazz guitarist Bobby Broom, Hammond B3 organist Chris Foreman and drummer Greg Rockingham.  In their individual careers they have performed and recorded with many prominent musicians in the field of jazz and blues.   The group disbanded in 2013 after opening for a few Steely Dan summer tours.

Although they played together beginning in 1992, they officially formed this co-led group in 2000 and recorded four albums, two for Delmark Records in 2004 and 2006 and two for Origin Records, one in 2007 and one in 2011.  The trio displayed elements of the soul jazz and hard bop styles of jazz, and utilized blues music as well as the rhythm & blues and funk music mediums in their music.

Discography
 Deep Blue Bruise (Delmark, 2004)
 Goin' to Town: Live at the Green Mill (Delmark, 2006)
 Folk Music (Origin, 2007)
 Wonderful! (Origin, 2011)

DVDs
 Goin' to Town: Live at the Green Mill (Delmark, 2006)

References

American jazz ensembles from Illinois
Delmark Records artists
Hard bop ensembles

Deep Blue Organ Trio


Ernst Christof Friedrich Zündel (; 24 April 1939 – 5 August 2017) was a German neo-Nazi publisher and pamphleteer of Holocaust denial literature. He was jailed several times: in Canada for publishing literature "likely to incite hatred against an identifiable group", and on charges of being a threat to national security; in the United States, for overstaying his visa; and in Germany for charges of "inciting racial hatred". He lived in Canada from 1958 to 2000.

In 1977, Zündel founded a small press publishing house called Samisdat Publishers, which issued such neo-Nazi pamphlets as his co-authored The Hitler We Loved and Why and Richard Verrall's Did Six Million Really Die? The Truth At Last, which were both significant documents to the Holocaust denial movement. Verrall's pamphlet should not be confused with Barbara Kulaszka's book Did Six Million Really Die? Report on the Evidence in the Canadian "False News" Trial of Ernst Zündel, 1988.

On 5 February 2003, Ernst Zündel was detained by local police in the U.S. and deported to Canada, where he was detained for two years on a security certificate for being a foreign national considered a threat to national security pending a court decision on the validity of the certificate. Once the certificate was upheld, he was deported to Germany and tried in the state court of Mannheim on outstanding charges of incitement of Holocaust denial dating from the early 1990s. On February 15, 2007, he was convicted and sentenced to the maximum term of five years in prison. All these imprisonments and prosecutions were for inciting hatred against an identifiable group. He was released on March 1, 2010.

Background
Zündel was born in Calmbach (now part of Bad Wildbad) in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, in 1939 and was raised mostly by his mother, Gertrude. His father, Fritz, a lumberjack, was drafted into the German Army shortly after Ernst's birth and served as a medic on the Eastern Front. His father was captured and incarcerated as a prisoner of war and did not return home until 1947, by which time he had become an alcoholic. Ernst was the fourth in a family of six children consisting of a brother, who later became a lawyer in the United States, and four sisters.

He studied graphic art at trade school, graduating in 1957 and emigrated to Canada in 1958, when he was 19, to avoid conscription by the German military. In 1960, he married French-Canadian Janick Larouche, whom he met in a language class in Toronto, and with whom he had sons Pierre and Hans. The couple moved to Montreal in 1961, where Zündel would eventually come under the tutelage of Canadian fascist politician Adrien Arcand.

Professionally, Zündel worked as a graphic artist, photographer, photo retoucher, and printer. He got his first job in the art department at Simpson-Sears in Toronto before opening his own art studio in Montreal. In 1969, he moved back to Toronto, where he founded Great Ideas Advertising, a commercial art studio. On several occasions in the 1960s he was commissioned to illustrate covers for Maclean's magazine. His controversial views were not well known in the 1960s and 1970s, since he published his opinions under the pseudonym Christof Friedrich. At the time, he was also an organizer among immigrants for the Ralliement des créditistes, Quebec's Social Credit party. In 1968, he joined the Liberal Party of Canada and ran in that year's Liberal leadership convention under the anglicized name Ernest Zundel as a self-described "nuisance candidate", running on an "immigrant rights" platform. He used his candidacy to campaign against anti-German attitudes. He dropped out of the contest prior to the election, but not before delivering his campaign speech to the convention.

Under his Friedrich pseudonym, he wrote a preface to Savitri Devi's Nazi-Esoteric book The Lightning and the Sun.

Zündel gained prominence during the 1970s as spokesman for Concerned Parents of German Descent, a group that claimed German-Canadians and their children were the target of discrimination due to anti-German stereotyping in the media. In the late 1970s, Zündel, as the group's spokesman, issued press releases protesting the NBC Holocaust miniseries for its depiction of Germans. In the late 1970s, reporter Mark Bonokoski unmasked Zündel and ended his career as a credible media spokesperson by revealing that he was publishing neo-Nazi and antisemitic pamphlets such as The Hitler We Loved and Why under the pseudonym Christof Friedrich.

In 1994, Zündel campaigned in Canada to ban the movie Schindler's List as "hate speech" and celebrated the movie being banned in Malaysia and effectively banned in Lebanon and Jordan.

On 8 May 1995, his Toronto residence was the target of an arson attack, resulting in $400,000 in damage. A group calling itself the "Jewish Armed Resistance Movement" claimed responsibility for the arson attack; according to the Toronto Sun, the group had ties to extremist organizations, including the Jewish Defense League and Kahane Chai. The leader of the Toronto wing of the Jewish Defense League, Meir Weinstein (known then as Meir Halevi), denied involvement in the attack; however, five days later, Weinstein and American JDL leader Irv Rubin were caught trying to break into the Zündel property, where they were apprehended by police. No charges were ever filed in the incident. Weeks after the fire, Zündel was targeted with a parcel bomb that was detonated by the Toronto Police bomb squad. The investigation into the parcel bomb attack led to charges being laid against David Barbarash, an animal rights activist based in British Columbia, but they were eventually stayed.

Holocaust denial
His publishing company, Samisdat Publishers, disseminated neo-Nazi literature, including Zündel's The Hitler We Loved and Why, Richard Verrall's Did Six Million Really Die?, and works by Malcolm Ross.

By the early 1980s, Samisdat Publishers had grown into a worldwide distributor of Nazi and neo-Nazi posters, audiotapes, and memorabilia, as well as pamphlets and books devoted to Holocaust denial and what he claimed were Allied and Israeli war crimes. He purportedly had a mailing list of 29,000 in the United States alone. Advertisement space for Samisdat Publishers was purchased in well-known reputable American magazines and even comic books. West Germany became another large market, in violation of West German Volksverhetzung (incitement of the masses) laws preventing Holocaust denial and dissemination of Nazi and neo-Nazi material, with Samisdat going so far as to send mass mailings to every member of the West German Bundestag (parliament).

In December 1980, the West German Federal Ministry of Finance told the Bundestag that between January 1978 and December 1979, "200 shipments of right-wing content, including books, periodicals, symbols, decorations, films, cassettes, and records" had been intercepted entering West Germany; these shipments "came overwhelmingly from Canada." On 23 April 1981, the West German government sent a letter to the Canadian Jewish Congress, confirming that the source of the material was Samisdat Publishers.

From 1981 to 1982, Zündel had his mailing privileges suspended by the Canadian government on the grounds that he had been using the mail to send hate propaganda, a criminal offence in Canada. Zündel then began shipping from a post office box in Niagara Falls, New York, until the ban on his mailing in Canada was lifted in January 1983.

Holocaust denial trials in the 1980s

In 1983, Sabina Citron, a Holocaust survivor and founder of the Canadian Holocaust Remembrance Association, filed a private complaint against Zündel before the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal. In 1984, the Ontario government joined the criminal proceedings against Zündel based on Citron's complaint. Zündel was charged under the Criminal Code, section 181, of spreading false news by publishing Did Six Million Really Die? The Truth At Last.

Zündel underwent two criminal trials in 1985 and 1988. The charge against Zündel alleged that he "did publish a statement or tale, namely, Did Six Million Really Die? that he knows is false and that is likely to cause mischief to the public interest in social and racial tolerance, contrary to the Criminal Code". After a much publicized trial in 1985, Zündel was found guilty. One of the prosecution witnesses, Auschwitz survivor Arnold Friedman, a Holocaust educator in Toronto, testified that "prisoners marched off to the ovens never returned" to which Zundel's lawyer, Doug Christie, replied "if those who disappeared might not have been led out a nearby gate".

His conviction was later overturned in an appeal on a legal technicality, leading to a second trial in 1988, in which he was again convicted. Zündel was originally found guilty by two juries but was finally acquitted upon appeal by the Supreme Court of Canada which held in 1992 that section 181 (formerly known as section 177) was a violation of the guarantee of freedom of expression under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

The 1988 trial relied on testimony from Holocaust deniers David Irving and Fred A. Leuchter, a self-taught execution technician. Leuchter's testimony as an expert witness was accepted by the court, but his accompanying Leuchter report was excluded, based on his lack of engineering credentials. In 1985, key expert testimony against Zündel's Holocaust denial was provided at great lengths by Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg, who refused to testify at Zündel's 1988 trial. Zündel was convicted in 1988 and sentenced to 15 months imprisonment by an Ontario court; however, in 1992 in R v Zundel his conviction was overturned by the Supreme Court of Canada when the law under which he had been charged, reporting false news, was ruled unconstitutional.

Canadian Human Rights Commission; first departure from Canada
In 1997, Zündel's marriage with his second wife, Irene Marcarelli, ended after 18 months. She subsequently testified against him in the late 1990s when he was under investigation by the Canadian Human Rights Commission for promoting hatred against Jews via his website. In January 2000, before the commission had completed its hearings, he left Canada for Sevierville, Tennessee, in the US, where he married his third wife, Ingrid Rimland, and vowed never to return to Canada.

Detention, deportation, and imprisonment

Deportation from the United States
In 2003, Zündel was arrested by the United States government for violating immigration rules, specifically visa waiver overstay, which he argued was a trumped up charge. After two weeks he was deported. A warrant for his arrest for Volksverhetzung (incitement of the masses) had been issued in Germany, where he remained a citizen, in the same year. At his hearing, Zündel described himself as "the Gandhi of the right".

Detention and deportation from Canada
Although Zündel lived in Canada for more than 40 years prior to moving to the United States, he never gained Canadian citizenship. Applications for citizenship were rejected in 1966 and 1994 for undisclosed reasons. On his return to Canada, he had no status in the country as he was not a citizen and as his landed immigrant status had been forfeited by his prolonged absence from the country. When returning to Canada, Zündel claimed refugee status in hopes of preventing his deportation to Germany. This claim elicited public ridicule; Rex Murphy, a columnist for The Globe and Mail and a well-known commentator on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, wrote, "If Ernst Zündel is a refugee, Daffy Duck is Albert Einstein ... Some propositions are so ludicrous that they are a betrayal of common sense and human dignity if allowed a moment's oxygen."

On May 2, 2003, Canadian Citizenship and Immigration Minister Denis Coderre and Solicitor General Wayne Easter issued a "national security certificate" against Zündel under the provisions of the Canadian Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, indicating that he was a threat to Canada's national security owing to his alleged links with violent neo-Nazi groups, including Aryan Nations leader Richard Girnt Butler, neo-Nazi Christian Worch, and former Canadian Aryan Nations leader Terry Long, as well as Ewald Althans, convicted in a German court in 1995 of charges that included insulting the memory of the dead and insulting the state.

Zündel moved twice to have Canadian Federal Court justice Pierre Blais recuse himself from the case for "badgering and accusing the witness of lying" and exhibiting "open hostility" towards Zündel, and filed two constitutional challenges, one in the Ontario courts and one in the federal courts, both unsuccessful. During the hearing, Zündel characterized his position as "Sometimes I feel like a black man being convicted on Ku Klux Klan news clippings."

Zündel meanwhile moved to be released from detention on his own recognizance while the legal proceedings were ongoing. His lawyer, Doug Christie, introduced as a "surprise witness" Lorraine Day, a California doctor who practiced alternative cancer treatments, to testify that Zündel's incarceration at Toronto's Toronto West Detention Centre was causing his chest tumor (revealed to the court a few weeks previously) to grow and his blood pressure to rise, that the medication supplied to control his blood pressure was causing side effects such as a slow heart rate and loss of memory, and that he needed "exercise, fresh air, and freedom from stress. The whole point is we need to have his high blood pressure controlled without the drug." On January 21, 2004, after three months of hearings including both public and secret testimony, Justice Blais again ruled against Zündel with a damning statement.

During his imprisonment, Canadian right-wing leader Paul Fromm attempted to hold numerous rallies in support of Zündel, both in Ontario and in Alberta. The rallies were met with formidable opposition, namely by the Anti-Racist Action group, which heightened its opposition to Fromm's pro-Zündel work in the summer of 2004. The anti-racist efforts included participation by numerous Toronto activist groups and individuals, including Shane Ruttle Martinez and Marcell Rodden, and successfully managed to prevent similar future congregations of the neo-Nazis. Fromm eventually ceased his efforts after being advised by Zündel's attorneys that public clashes between supporters and opponents of Zündel were not assisting the image of their client's case.

On February 24, 2005, Justice Blais ruled that Canada could deport Zündel back to Germany at any time, and on February 25, Zündel's lawyer, Peter Lindsay, announced that his client would not attempt to obtain a stay against the deportation and that his fight to remain in Canada was over. In his decision, Justice Blais noted that Zündel had had the opportunity to respond to the allegations of the decision of January 21 by explaining the nature of his contacts with the extremists mentioned and/or providing exonerating witnesses, but had failed to do so. Blais found that "Mr. Zündel's activities are not only a threat to Canada's national security, but also a threat to the international community of nations."

Zündel was deported to Germany on March 1, 2005. Upon his arrival at Frankfurt airport, he was immediately arrested and detained in Mannheim prison awaiting trial for inciting racial hatred. In 2007, Zündel's appeal to the UN Human Rights Committee against deportation was rejected, partly for his failure to exhaust all domestic remedies through a thorough defence as required by its charter, and partly because the committee ruled the case inadmissible as it did not find his rights had been violated.

Trial and imprisonment in Germany
German prosecutors charged Zündel on July 19, 2005, with 14 counts of inciting racial hatred, which is punishable under German penal code, Section 130, 2.(3) (Agitation (sedition) of the People) with up to 5 years in prison. The indictment stated Zündel "denied the fate of destruction for the Jews planned by National Socialist powerholders and justified this by saying that the mass destruction in Auschwitz and Treblinka, among others, were an invention of the Jews and served the repression and extortion of the German people."

His trial was scheduled for five days beginning November 8, 2005, but ran into an early delay when Judge Ulrich Meinerzhagen ruled that lawyer Horst Mahler, whose licence to practise as a lawyer was withdrawn in 2004 and who, in January 2005, was sentenced to nine months in prison for inciting racial hatred, could not be part of the defence team. Mahler had been associated with the violent far-left Red Army Faction in the 1970s, but had since become a supporter of far-right and antisemitic groups. Zündel's public defender Sylvia Stolz was also dismissed on the grounds that her written submissions to the court included Mahler's ideas. On November 15, 2005, Meinerzhagen announced that the trial was to be rescheduled to allow new counsel time to prepare.

The trial resumed on February 9, 2006, for several court sessions but then adjourned on March 9 when the trial judge asked for Sylvia Stolz to be removed as Zündel's defence lawyer after she repeatedly disrupted the trial and had to be dragged out of the court by two bailiffs. Stolz signed "Heil Hitler" on court motions, said the Holocaust was "the biggest lie in world history," and yelled that the judge deserved the death penalty for "offering succour to the enemy". In 2008, Stolz was sentenced to three-and-a-half years in prison and stripped of her licence to practice law for five years.

The trial again resumed on June 9, 2006, and continued, intermittently, into early 2007. The prosecution concluded its case on January 26, 2007, calling for Zündel to be handed the maximum sentence of five years' imprisonment with state prosecutor Andreas Grossman calling him a "political con man" from whom the German people needed protection. After quoting extensively from Zündel's writings on the Holocaust, Grossman argued "[you] might as well argue that the sun rises in the West ... But you cannot change that the Holocaust has been proven." In its closing arguments the defence called for Zündel to be acquitted.

On February 15, 2007, Zündel was sentenced to five years in prison, the maximum sentence possible for violating the Volksverhetzung law in the German penal code which bans incitement of hatred against a minority of the population, which is how his Holocaust denial was interpreted by the Federal German court.

His time in pre-trial confinement in Canada was not taken into account on his sentence, but only the two years he was confined in Germany since 2005. One of his lawyers, Jürgen Rieger, a leading member of Germany's NPD, was forbidden to voice petitions and ruled to put them down in writing; he let another lawyer read them aloud. Another lawyer read parts of Mein Kampf and parts of the NS race legislation aloud in his closing speech. Zündel asked for the inception of an expert's commission to examine the Holocaust. The judge in his emotional closing speech called Zündel a "" ("well-poisoner and arsonist, an admirer of this human-despising barbarian Adolf Hitler, of whom he rambles on with brash impertinence"). Holocaust deniers used Zündel trials to claim that freedom of speech was impaired in Germany as that it depended on the ideology of the speaker.

Release from prison
Zündel was released on March 1, 2010, five years after his deportation to Germany. Following the end of his prison term, Canadian Minister of Public Safety Vic Toews reiterated that Zündel would not be permitted to return to Canada. "In 2005, a Federal Court judge confirmed that Zündel is inadmissible on security grounds for being a danger to the security of Canada", Toews said in a written statement, adding that, "The decision reinforced the government of Canada's position that this country will not be a safe haven for individuals who pose a risk to Canada's national security."

Zündel returned to his childhood home in the Black Forest, which had been vacant since his mother's death in the 1990s, and lived there until his own death.

Barred from entering the United States
On March 31, 2017, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Administrative Appeals Office ruled Zündel inadmissible to the United States, rejecting his application for an immigrant visa which he had sought in order to be reunited with his wife. He was classified as inadmissible, because he has been convicted of foreign crimes for which the sentence was five years or more and a waiver deemed unwarranted due to Zündel's "history of inciting racial, ethnic, and religious hatred". Legal writer and law professor Eugene Volokh expressed the opinion that while his exclusion from the United States on hate speech grounds was not a violation of the First Amendment, it may be an incorrect application of current immigration law.

UFOlogy
When Zündel started Samisdat Publishers in the 1970s, he became interested in ufology when the subject was at its peak of worldwide attention. His main offerings were his own books claiming that flying saucers were secret weapons developed by the Third Reich and now based in Antarctica.

Under the pseudonyms Christof Friedrich and Mattern Friedrich, Zündel also wrote several publications promoting the idea that UFOs were craft developed by German scientists who had fled to New Swabia, Antarctica. These titles include "Secret Nazi Polar Expeditions" (1978) and "Hitler at the South Pole" (1979). He promoted the idea of Nazi secret bases in Antarctica, Nazi UFOs, secret polar bases and Hollow Earth theories.

Along with Willibald Mattern, a German émigré living in Santiago, Chile, Zündel also wrote UFOs: Nazi Secret Weapon? on Nazi UFOs in German and translated into English.

It is not clear whether Zündel really believed these theories or whether they were merely speculative fiction.

In the Samisdat Publishers newsletter of 1978, Zündel advertised an expedition to Antarctica to find these bases and UFOs. A ticket would cost $9,999 for a seat on an exploration team to locate the polar entrance to the hollow earth. This expedition never took place.

According to Frank Miele, a member of The Skeptics Society in the United States, Zündel told him that his book UFOs: Nazi Secret Weapon? (which became an underground bestseller, going through several printings) was nothing more than popular fiction to build publicity for Samisdat. Zündel said in a telephone conversation with Miele:
"I realized that North Americans were not interested in being educated. They want to be entertained. The book was for fun. With a picture of the Führer on the cover and flying saucers coming out of Antarctica it was a chance to get on radio and TV talk shows. For about 15 minutes of an hour program I'd talk about that esoteric stuff. Then I would start talking about all those Jewish scientists in concentration camps, working on these secret weapons. And that was my chance to talk about what I wanted to talk about." "In that case," I asked him, "do you still stand by what you wrote in the UFO book?" "Look," he replied, "it has a question mark at the end of the title." Zündel continued to defend these views as late as 2002.

Ancestry
According to Toronto Sun columnist Mark Bonokoski, Zündel's mother was Gertrude Mayer, the daughter of Isadore and Nagal Mayer. Isadore Mayer was a trade union organizer for the garment industry in the Bavarian city of Augsburg.

According to Bonokoski, Ernst's ex-wife, Irene Zündel, claimed that the possibility of being at least partly Jewish bothered Zündel so much that he returned to Germany in the 1960s in search of his family's Ariernachweis, a Third Reich certificate of pure Aryan blood, but was unable to find any such document.

In 1997, Zündel granted an interview to Tsadok Yecheskeli of the Israeli newspaper, Yedioth Ahronoth, that includes the following exchange:

Death
Zündel died at his home in Germany, of a heart attack, on August 5, 2017. He was survived by two children, and his widow Ingrid Rimland, who died on October 12, 2017.

See also
 Neo-Nazism in Canada

Notes

Further reading
 Wieman, Gabriel and Winn, Conrad (1986) Hate on Trial: The Zundel Case, the Media and Public Opinion in Canada Toronto: Mosaic Press.

External links

Anti-Defamation League on Ernst Zundel
Nizkor Project archive criticism of Zündel

1939 births
2017 deaths
20th-century German criminals
21st-century German criminals
Applicants for refugee status in Canada
German nationalists
German neo-Nazis convicted of crimes
German people convicted of Holocaust denial
German prisoners and detainees
German expatriates in Canada
Holocaust denial in Canada
People convicted of racial hatred offences
People deported from Canada
People deported from the United States
People from Calw (district)
United Nations Human Rights Committee case law
People from Sevierville, Tennessee
Criminals from Baden-Württemberg
Prisoners and detainees of Germany

Ernst Zündel


Dallas is an American soap opera. It is about the Ewings, a family from Texas involved in oil and cattle ranching. The show began as a television miniseries during April 1978. It was broadcasted until May 3, 1991 on CBS. The cast included Charlene Tilton, Victoria Principal, Priscilla Presley, Patrick Duffy, and Larry Hagman as J.R. Ewing. The series lasted for fourteen seasons.

The show was revived on TNT in June 2012.

Other websites

1978 television series debuts
1991 television series endings
1970s American television series
1970s drama television series
1980s American drama television series
1980s soap operas
1990s American drama television series
1990s soap operas
American soap operas
CBS network shows
Television series set in Texas
English-language television programs

Dallas (1978 TV series)


Terry's Chocolate Orange is a chocolate product created by Terry's in 1932 at Terry's Chocolate Works in York, England. The brand has changed ownership several times, and production was moved to Poland in 2005. Since 2018, the Terry's Chocolate Orange has been produced in Strasbourg, France, by Carambar.

Development

Chemist Joseph Terry joined a York sweets company in 1823, where he developed new lines of chocolate, candied peel, and marmalade. In 1830 he became sole owner of the business and following his death it was eventually passed to his sons, including Joseph Jr. who managed the company. In 1895 it became Joseph Terry and Sons Ltd., with directors including Joseph Jr. and his own son Thomas.
The company opened the Art Deco-style factory known as Terry's Chocolate Works in 1926, and began launching new products. These included the Dessert Chocolate Apple (1926), Terry's All Gold (1931) and the Chocolate Orange (1932).

At the onset of World War II, confectionery production was immediately halted. The factory was taken over by F. Hills and Sons of Manchester as a shadow factory to manufacture and repair aircraft propeller blades. With the factory handed back to the company post-war, production was difficult due to continued rationing in the United Kingdom, and limited imports of raw cocoa. In 1954, production of the chocolate apple was phased out in favour of increased production of the chocolate orange. In 1979, Terry's launched the Chocolate Lemon, but it was withdrawn three years later.

In the North American market, where it has had a variety of importers over the years, it was briefly sold as a Tobler (maker of the Toblerone) product.

Chocolate oranges appeared on the South Korean market in the GS25 chain of convenience stores in 2017.

2005 saw the closure of the Terry's factory in York, and Chocolate Orange manufacturing was moved to continental Europe by then-owner Kraft Foods. Following the 2016 sale of the brand by Mondelez to investment company Eurazeo, manufacture was consolidated in 2018 in Strasbourg, France, as a product of Carambar & Co.
 The company says that global sales of Terry's Chocolate Oranges doubled from 2019 to 2022, including a tripling of sales in the United States, for a total of 44 million Oranges annually, in countries including the UK, Ireland, the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Japan.

Structure

The Terry's Chocolate Orange comprises an orange-shaped ball of chocolate mixed with orange oil, divided into 20 segments, similar to a real orange, and wrapped in orange-skin patterned foil.  When packaged, the segments are stuck together firmly in the centre; therefore, prior to unwrapping, the ball is traditionally tapped severely on a hard surface to cause the segments to separate from each other (dubbed "Tap and Unwrap" or "Whack and Unwrap").

Spin-offs
There have been a number of spin-off products, currently including:
Chocolate Orange bar: a bar of six segments, initially produced with smooth vertical segments (similar to a Toblerone bar), then, later, with textured segments that mimic those of the traditional orange shape.
Chocolate Orange minis: a bag of small segments
Chocolate Orange White Eggs: egg-shaped white chocolate versions of Chocolate Orange that were available for one Easter
Segsations: individual segments of chocolate in different flavours, including: milk chocolate, puffed rice, honeycomb, cornflake and a "double seg" of layered milk and dark chocolate, all flavoured with orange oil.
Segsations Mini Eggs: individual foil-wrapped eggs of chocolate in same flavours as Segsations, for Easter
Chocolate Orange – Egg & Spoon: a milk chocolate egg filled with an orange fondant filling (similar to Cadbury's Creme Egg)
Chocolate Mint: A mint-flavoured version of the Chocolate Orange.

Advertising
The Chocolate Orange product is known for its unusual marketing, which is usually at its heaviest around Christmas. At one time it was estimated that the Chocolate Orange was found in a tenth of British Christmas stockings. Actress Dawn French has fronted numerous campaigns for the brand, often in a posed scene of defending and hiding "her" Chocolate Orange from others. Famous marketing phrases include:
Tap it and unwrap it (since replaced with "whack and unwrap")
It's not Terry's, it's mine
Don't tap it... Whack it!

More recent advertisements (after the rebranding) do not feature French and contain the new slogan "Round but not round for long" (some include the Countdown timer music). The newest advertising campaign in the United Kingdom features various situations in which people are trying to break the segments of their Terry's Chocolate Orange apart with the slogan "Smash it to pieces, love it to bits".

A new advert in 2020, featuring voiceover by Brian Blessed, explains how the Chocolate Orange is a catalyst for "British Unsquaredness", along with a new slogan, "Deliciously Unsquare".

Product range

 Terry's Dessert Chocolate Apple (1926–1954; precursor to the Orange)
 Terry's Chocolate Lemon (short-lived 1979-1980s variant)
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Dark (formerly 'Plain')
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Milk
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Snowball (white chocolate)
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Mint (discontinued 2012, reintroduced 2023 as "Chocolate Mint")
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Toffee
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Bars (chocolate bars, either individual or sharing bar)
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Mini segments/Segsations (individually wrapped segments)
 Terry's Chocolate Orange White Egg
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Flavour Carte D'Or ice cream (no longer in production)
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Tangy
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Cookies
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Exploding Candy
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Siesta
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Hazelnut
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Raspberry
 Terry's Chocolate Orange White Chocolate Smasher
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Toffee Crunch
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Birthday Cake
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Orange
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Ice-Creams (currently sold as limited edition)
 Terry's Chocolate Orange Milk with Crushed Mini Eggs Easter Edition

Changes to product weight in 2016
On 29 May 2016, the UK product size was reduced from 175g to 157g by changing the moulded shape of each segment to leave an air gap between each piece. Despite this, the price doubled in some retail outlets.

References

External links

Brand name chocolate
British confectionery
British brands
Yorkshire cuisine
Mondelez International brands
Products introduced in 1932
Candy
Citrus dishes

Terry's Chocolate Orange


An Ecuadorian American is an American who is of Ecuadorian ancestry. Ecuadorian Americans can be Mestizo, White, Afro-Ecuadorian, Indigenous, Mulato, or Zambo.

American singer Christina Aguilera is of Ecuadorian descent. Former Ecuadorian Presidents Sixto Durán Ballén and Galo Plaza were born in the United States, but their parents were from Ecuador. Voice actor Mike Judge was born in Ecuador to American parents.

Ethnic groups in the United States

Ecuadorian Americans


Tony Pond  (23 November 1945 – 7 February 2002) was a British rally driver.

Career
His first outings in a rally car were on the then regular (in the early '60s) Saturday night road rallies in the home counties around London, driving a Mini Cooper S. Using the same car he also became successful at auto-testing – the practice of manoeuvering the car against the clock around a series of cones.

He then prepared a Lotus Cortina for an attempt on the Lombard RAC Round Britain Rally, and was running in the top twenty when a visit to a ditch in icy conditions put an end to the outing.

At this time Ford had launched the Mexico Rally Championship, and Pond persuaded the local Ford dealer in his home town, Norman Reeves of Uxbridge, to prepare and supply a car for the Championship. He finished second overall, the reward for which was a drive in a works supported Escort RS1600 on the Scottish International Rally. He finished in the top ten, which was enough incentive for Norman Reeves to prepare and supply him with an ex-factory Escort RS1600 for a season.

Using this car he was a regular top ten finisher in the British Rally Championship, competing against and beating the likes of Jimmy McRae (Colin's father) and Russell Brookes, culminating in a third place on the Welsh International Rally in 1973, beating Tony Fall into fourth place. At this time Fall was competitions manager for the Dealer Opel Team (DOT), and the offer of a works supported drive was not long in coming.

Unfortunately, although DOT and Pond were successful with the 2 litre Opel Kadett, General Motors had taken the decision to stop selling Opels in the UK and concentrate on the Vauxhall brand, and so DOT was disbanded. In 1975 he won the Avon Tour of Britain driving a privately entered Escort RS2000 - the Tour was a mixture of special stages and race circuits, and rally drivers tended to dominate.
He was very quickly approached by British Leyland to take on the Triumph TR7. 1976 until 1978, saw him in the Triumph then in 1979 he championed a Talbot Sunbeam Lotus before returning to the TR7 in 1980, completing a number of outings for the British Leyland factory team.

Around 1979-1982 he also often visited South Africa on weekends to pilot the factory-entered Datsun Stanza, with navigator Richard Leeke, in the SA National Rally Championship as Datsun's (later Nissan SA) number 1 driver. In 1981 he won the Radio 5 Rally outright against stiff competition like Geoff Mortimer in a Chevrolet Chevair and Jan Hettema, a double-Springbok, in a Toyota Corolla.

1981 through to the end of 1984 had Pond competing with varying success in a varied selection of cars, including the Datsun Violet, Vauxhall Chevette HSR, Nissan Violet, Nissan 240RS and Rover SD1. For the 1985 season, Pond was recruited by the Austin Rover dealer team to drive the Group B MG Metro 6R4. Finishing third overall on the 6R4's international debut at the Lombard R.A.C. Rally, Pond, improving on his 4th place overall in the 1975 and 1978 events, gave the car its best-ever finish on a World Rally event. He stayed with the Austin Rover team until 1986 when the Group B formula was cancelled and the cars banned after a number of fatal accidents.

Pond mostly retired from Rallying at the end of 1986, however, he was retained on Austin Rover's books as a development driver, and was involved in the design and production of the MG F.

In 1988 Pond attempted to achieve the first-ever average 100 mph lap around the Isle of Man TT motorcycle race circuit in a standard-specification production Rover Vitesse, but was unsuccessful, largely due to wet weather on the mountain section of the course. For his second attempt on 6 June 1990 he again drove a demonstration lap using a standard production Rover 827 Vitesse, which became the first production car to average over 100 mph around the course. This feat stood until 2011, when Mark Higgins bettered the time and later improved on his own performances.

Throughout his life he was also a keen motorcyclist, riding fast road bikes and trials bikes successfully.

Tony Pond succumbed to pancreatic cancer in 2002 and is survived by his wife, Nikki, and son, James.

Racing record

Complete IMC results

Complete WRC results

Complete British Saloon Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)

Complete European Touring Car Championship results

(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

References

External links

Tony Pond - EWRC Profile page
Rallybase stat page

1945 births
2002 deaths
English rally drivers
British Touring Car Championship drivers
World Rally Championship drivers
Nismo drivers

Tony Pond


Dragon Ball (ドラゴンボール, Doragon Bōru) is a Japanese media franchise by Akira Toriyama. The manga series was originally published in Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine from 1984 to 1995, and the 519 chapters put into 42 volumes. The series follows the main character Son Goku, an alien originally thought to be a human, as he trains in martial arts and explores the world in search of the mysterious Dragon Balls. When the seven Dragon Balls are gathered, one wish will be granted by Shenlong the Dragon. Goku is accompanied by Bulma and trained by Master Roshi while he fights a wide variety of villains. Dragon Ball is separated into two anime series, Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z, having two sequels, Dragon Ball GT and Dragon Ball Super. Spin-offs include a trading card game, several movies, and multiple video games, making the most popular anime franchise worldwide. And of course the legendary manga in which recent chapters the deuteragonist Vegeta has surpassed Goku in terms of power with his new form, Ultra Ego.

Plot
The series begins with Goku and Bulma finding all seven Dragon Balls, which can summon the dragon Shenlong to grant the user a wish. Their journey takes them to many people like Yamcha, Chi-Chi (Goku mistakenly agrees to marry), and Pilaf, an evil man who seeks the Dragon Balls to grant his desire to rule the world. Goku then must go through intense training by Master Roshi to fight in the Tenkaichi Budōkai, a fighting tournament. A monk named Krillin becomes Goku's best friend and training partner. After the tournament, Goku looks for the Dragon Ball his adoptive grandfather left him and almost single-handedly takes down the Red Ribbon Army and their assassin Taopaipai. Goku reunites with his friends to defeat fortuneteller Baba's fighters to locate the last Dragon Ball to revive a friend killed by Taopaipai.

Three years later, Goku and his friends oppose Master Roshi's rival Tsuru-Sen'nin, and his students Tenshinhan and Chaozu at Tenkaichi Budōkai. Krillin is killed after the tournament and Goku tracks down and is defeated by his killer, Piccolo Daimao. The samurai Yajirobe takes Goku to Karin, where he heals and gets a power boost. After the deaths of Master Roshi, Chaozu, and even Shenlong, Goku then kills Piccolo Daimao (who is young again), who, just before dying, spawns his son/reincarnation Piccolo Jr. Karin takes Goku to Kami, the original creator of the Dragon Balls, to bring back Shenlong and revive his friends. Goku trains with Kami for three years, reuniting with his friends at the next Tenkaichi Budōkai where he narrowly wins against Piccolo and leaves with Chi-Chi, marrying her.

Five years later, Goku is a young adult and father to Gohan, when Raditz arrives to Earth, and reveals to Goku that he is part of an alien race called the Saiyans who sent Goku with a mission to take over Earth for them before he suffered a head injury. Goku teams up with Piccolo to defeat Raditz but is also killed. Goku trains with King Kai in the afterlife, until he is revived to defeat Nappa and Vegeta, but Yamcha, Tenshinhan, Chaozu and Piccolo are killed. Krillin learns of other Dragon Balls on planet Namek and joins Bulma and Gohan to look for them to revive their friends and bring back Earth's Dragon Balls. The quest leads them to fights with the galactic tyrant Frieza's henchmen, the Ginyu Force, and Vegeta. In the battle with Frieza, Vegeta and Krillin are killed, and the fight ends when Goku transforms into the legendary Super Saiyan and defeats him.

A group of Androids created by Dr. Gero, a former Red Ribbon Army member, appear three years later looking for revenge against Goku. During this time, an evil artificial life form called Cell emerges and, after absorbing two of the Androids to transform into his perfect form, holds his own fighting tournament to challenge Goku and his friends. Gohan defeats Cell, when Goku dies again. Seven years later, Goku, revived for a day, and his friends must defeat Majin Boo. After a lot of battles, and after the re-creation of Earth, Goku destroys Boo with a Genki-Dama attack and wishes for him to be reincarnated as a good person. Ten years later, Goku meets and trains Boo's human reincarnation Oob, to have him becoming the world's protector.

Characters

Primary
 Goku: The main hero. He is a Saiyan with large, black, pointy hair. His deadly attack is the Kamehameha. His wife is Chi-Chi, and his two sons are Gohan and Goten.
 Bulma: Goku's lifelong friend, Vegeta's wife, and the mother of Trunks and Bulla.
 Gohan: He is the oldest son of Goku and Chi-Chi, and father of Pan.
 Goten: The youngest son of Goku and Chi-Chi. He is the youngest Super Saiyan in history.
 Trunks: The son of Vegeta and Bulma. Both his future (Future Trunks), and present day(Kid Trunks) characters play key roles.
 Chi-Chi: Goku's wife, and the mother of Gohan and Goten.
 Krillin (called "Kuririn" in the Japanese version): One of Goku's friends. He later marries Android 18 and has a daughter.
 Vegeta: Vegeta is the rival of Goku. He also became a Super Saiyan and is the husband of Bulma, and father to Trunks and Bra.
 Piccolo: King Piccolo's last son; he is also one of Gohan's favorite teachers; Piccolo used to be evil. His deadly attack is Makannkousappou.His body is green.He can reproduct his body if his head is not damaged.
 Bardock:is a Saiyan mercenary who married Gine and has two sons Goku and Raditz.

Secondary
 Chi-Chi: Goku's wife, and the mother of Gohan and Goten.
 Bra (also known as "Bulla"): The daughter of Vegeta and Bulma, and sister of Trunks
 Videl: Gohan's girlfriend (later wife) and Pan's mother.
 Uub: (also known as Oob) Uub is the reincarnation of Kid Buu.
 Majin Buu (also known as Majin Boo)
 Hercule (also known as Mr. Satan)
 Tenshinhan
 Chaozu
 Yamcha
 Yajirobe
 Chauzu
 Korin
 Dende
 Mr. Popo
 Master Roshi (Goku's Master)
 Marron: Daughter of Krillin and Android 18
 Androids (mainly 17, 18,8 and 16)
 Kami: The guardian of Earth before Dende
 Bardock: Goku's late father

Other Dragon Ball characters
 Janemba

Frieza's force
Frieza is the first major villain in Dragon Ball Z. He is often seen with a group of other fighters who help him.
 King Cold
 Cui
 Dodoria
 Zarbon
 Captain Ginyu: leader of the Ginyu Force, a group of mercenaries for Frieza.
 Nappa: A Saiyan and Vegeta's old partner)
 Raditz: Goku's Saiyan brother who is killed by Piccolo.
 Saibamen
 Sorbet

Androids
Androids are a group of human-machine hybrids created by Dr. Gero, appearing in the Androids and Cell sagas. A few are:
 Android 16
 Android 17
 Android 18
 Android 19
 Android 20 (Dr. Gero)
 Cell, the second major villain in Dragon Ball Z.

Saiyans
Saiyans are a race of endangered aliens. They are naturally aggressive warriors who have great powers and technology. Most Saiyans travel from planet to planet destroying the people who live there so that they can sell the planet and worked for Frieza. Most Saiyans can be easily noticed by their tail but some have lost their tails. Saiyans without tails include Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Trunks, Goten and Broly. The Saiyans lived on the planet Vegeta which was later destroyed by Frieza.

Super Saiyans
Super Saiyans
Are very powerful warriors who can power up by anger. Some Saiyans can become Super Saiyans, including half-Saiyan hybrids like Gohan and Goten. A Super Saiyan is a transformation a Saiyan can go through and makes them stronger and changes their hair to blonde. Only a few Saiyans have the potential to become Super Saiyans. The legend goes, once every 1,000 years a Super Saiyan emerges. Saiyans play a very important role once it is revealed that Goku is one.

Only a few Saiyan characters have been able to become Super Saiyans:
 The Original Super Saiyan
 Son Goku
 Son Gohan
 Son Goten
 Vegeta
 Trunks
 Bardock
 Cabba
 Kale
Caulifla
 Broly

Cell also achieves the power of Super Saiyan. Kale and Caulifla are two female Saiyans. They can also transform into Super Saiyans.

Fusion warriors
Fusion warriors are warriors made out of two fighters by the means of fusion. There are three ways of fusion:the first being the Namekian fusion, which a namekian fuses with another Namekian, giving the former a power boost. There are three users of this technique
 Piccolo
 Saonel
 Pillina
The second fusion technique is the potara fusion which two warriors wear potara earrings and merge into one entity or fighter or being stronger then the two combined, is like it creates a new warrior. The earrings comes from the deities called the Kais and when a deity fuses with another deity the fusion stays permanent. The users of this are:
 Goku
 Vegeta
 Kibito
 Supreme Kai
 Goku Black/Zamasu
 Caulifla
 Kale
 Xeno Goku
 Xeno vegeta
The potara fusion warriors are:
 Vegito
 KibitoKai
 Merged Zamasu/Zamasu
 Kefla
 Xeno Vegito
The third and final technique is the metamorian fusion or fusion dance,it is similar to the potara fusion but it requires a special dance in which you and another warrior must dance the steps in perfect harmony or it you'll fuse into an incomplete and weaker form like veku. This fusion technique also creates a new warrior like the potara and the fusion warrior will be stronger then the two warriors combined. The users of this technique are:
 Goku
 Vegeta
 Goten
 Kid Trunks
The metamorian fusion warriors are:
 Gogeta
 Gotenks

Namekians
Namekians,are green slug like beings from planet Namek who possess many abilities like regeneration or creation. Most Namekiams have the ability to create dragon balls but unlike their namekian ancestor Solomon who created the Super dragon balls.There many types of nameks like:
Namekian warriors
They are warriors from planet Namek,some use their power to protect while others use it for their evil desires. The Namekian warriors are:
 Piccolo
 King Piccolo
 Lord Slug
 Nail
 Saonel
 Pillina
Namekian Guardians
There are Namekians who look over their planet. Guru is the only one in the series who uses the same ability to release one's true strength like Elder Kai/Old Kai. The Namekian Guardians/Elders are:
 Kami(Previous Guardian of Earth)
 Guru(Previous Guardian of Namek)
 Muuri
 Dende(Current Guardian of Earth)

Other media
The series has been adapted into two anime. Dragon Ball is based the first 194 chapters of the manga, while Dragon Ball Z is based on the last 325 chapters and last 26 volumes of the Dragon Ball manga. It basically begins where ''Dragon Ball'' left off. Dragon Ball GT aired from 1996 to 1997. Dragon Ball Super, the newest series for the franchise aired from 2015 to 2018.''DRAGON Ball first Arc'' Dragon Ball: Saiyan race

Dragon Ball
Anime
Mass media franchises introduced in 1984

Dragon Ball