Red Bull is an energy drink. It is based on the Thai soda Krating Daeng, which translates as "Red Bull". Red Bull is the most popular energy drink in the world, based on its share of sales. The company was founded by Thai national Chaleo Yoovidhya and Austrian national Dietrich Mateschitz. Chaleo Yoovidhya and his son own 51 percent interest in the company. Mateschitz is responsible for the company's operations through the Austrian company Red Bull GmbH.

Originally, Red Bull was only available in one flavor that was called Red Bull Energy Drink. Other variants were added later.

Red Bull's slogan is "it gives you wings". The product is strongly marketed through advertising, tournament sponsorship, sports team ownerships, celebrity endorsements, and with its record label. Red Bull sponsors Red Bull Air Race, Red Bull Crashed Ice. It owns the sports team Red Bull Racing, Scuderia Toro Rosso, EC Red Bull Salzburg, FC Red Bull Salzburg, Red Bull New York, and RB Leipzig. Red Bull started its own record label, Red Bull Records.

In 2009 it was discovered that Red Bull Cola exported from Austria contained trace amounts of cocaine. Red Bull has also been criticized about the possible health risks of the drink. However, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that the levels of taurine and glucuronolactone used in Red Bull and other popular energy drinks are safe.

History
Red Bull took many marketing and ingredient ideas from an energy drink in Thailand called Krating Daeng. Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian entrepreneur, developed the Red Bull Energy Drink brand. Mateschitz was the international marketing director for Blendax, a toothpaste company, when he visited Thailand in 1982 and discovered that Krating Daeng helped to cure his jet lag. Between 1984 and 1987, Mateschitz worked with TC Pharmaceutical (a Blendax licensee) to adapt Krating Daeng for the European market.

At the same time Mateschitz and Chaleo Yoovidhya founded Red Bull GmbH; each investing $500,000 of savings and taking a stake in the new company. Chaleo and Dietrich each held a 49% share of the new company. They gave the remaining 2% to Chaleo's son Chalerm, but it was agreed that Mateschitz would run the company. The product was launched in 1987, in a carbonated format.

Red Bull was launched first in Singapore in 1989 followed by Hungary, its second foreign market in 1992. It entered the United States market (via California) in 1997 and the Middle East in 2000. In 2008, Forbes magazine listed both Chaleo and Mateschitz as being the 260th richest persons in the world with an estimated net worth of $4.0 billion.

Ingredients
Red Bull contains taurine, glucuronolactone, caffeine, B vitamins, sucrose and glucose. Red Bull sugar-free also contains phenylalanine in place of sucrose and glucose.

Red Bull GmbH also manufactures Red Bull Cola, containing the coca leaf, which has sparked a controversy in Germany regarding minute traces of cocaine.

Health effects
A review published in 2008 found no documented reports of negative or positive health effects associated with the amount of taurine used in energy drinks, including Red Bull, concluding that "The amounts of guarana, taurine, and ginseng found in popular energy drinks are far below the amounts expected to deliver either therapeutic benefits or adverse events. However, caffeine and sugar are present in amounts known to cause a variety of adverse health effects."

Commonly reported adverse effects due to caffeine used in the quantities present in Red Bull are insomnia, nervousness, headache, and tachycardia (see Caffeine intoxication).
A 2008 position statement issued by the National Federation of State High School Associations made the following recommendations about energy drink consumption, in general, by young athletes:
 Water and appropriate sports drinks should be used for rehydration as outlined in the NFHS document "Position Statement and Recommendations for Hydration to Minimize the Risk for Dehydration and Heat Illness".
 Energy drinks should not be used for hydration. Nor should they be used for performance enhancement.
 Information about the absence of benefit and the presence of potential risk associated with energy drinks should be widely shared among all individuals who interact with young athletes.
 Energy drinks should not be consumed by athletes who are dehydrated.
 Energy drinks should not be consumed without prior medical approval, by athletes taking over the counter or prescription medications.

Cardiovascular effects
The results of a study conducted in 2008 showed that the ingestion of one, 250mL can of sugar-free Red Bull, in a sample of 30 healthy young adults, had an immediate detrimental effect on both endothelial function, and normal blood coagulation. This temporarily raised the cardiovascular risk in these individuals to a level comparable to that of an individual with established coronary artery disease.

Based on their results, researchers involved with the study cautioned against the consumption of Red Bull in individuals under stress, in those with high blood pressure, or in anyone with established atherosclerotic disease.
Red Bull representatives, however, stated that this observed increase in cardiovascular risk was not felt to be different from that associated with drinking a regular cup of coffee. They also stated that they believed that Red Bull must be safe, as it was felt the only way Red Bull could have such substantial global sales is if various health authorities had concluded the drink safe to consume.

There has been at least one case report of Red Bull overdose causing postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome in a young athlete.
A February 3, 2009 article in The Daily Telegraph called, "Red Bull 'may have triggered heart condition that killed student'"
reported on the death of a 21 year-old woman who died after drinking four cans of Red Bull as well as alcohol at "social levels". It was believed, but had not been proven, that she suffered from a rare heart condition called long QT Syndrome. She was on medication for epilepsy. A medical examination found that there were no illegal drugs in her system. The article quoted a doctor as saying, "The QT levels may have grown over a few years, or it may have been artificially pushed over the limit by caffeine".

Cocaine controversy
In April and June 2009, batches of "Red Bull Cola" drinks imported from Austria were found to contain between 0.1 - 0.3 micrograms of cocaine per litre, according to Hong Kong officials. In Taiwan it was found that the importer was due to launch a marketing campaign the next day. Importing cocaine to the island is an offense that is punishable by death or a life sentence in prison. In Germany, 11 out of 16 states had already banned the drinks by May 25, 2009.

Testing of Red Bull Energy Drink and its variations has shown that a person with a low tolerance for cocaine would have to consume two million cans of the drink in a single sitting before becoming critically ill from the cocaine. However, this finding is legally irrelevant since distribution of cocaine is illegal in any quantity in Taiwan. At this point, no further action has been taken on the matter in Taiwan.

Red Bull's claims

Red Bull claims to:
 Increase performance
 Increase concentration and reaction speed
 Improve vigilance
 Improve emotional status
 Stimulate metabolism
 Give you wings

Caffeine content
Red Bull's invigorating effects are attributed to its high caffeine content. A single can of Red Bull contains 80 mg/250 ml of caffeine. This is about the same as one cup of normal coffee, or slightly less depending on the brewing method  The actual caffeine level in Red Bull can vary depending on country, as some countries have legal restrictions on how much caffeine is allowed in drinks.

Red Bull drinkers may experience adverse effects as a result of caffeine.

Legal status
Red Bull has been subject to bans in France, Denmark and Norway. The ban has been lifted in Norway and Denmark. The French ban was challenged by the European Commission and (partially) upheld by the European Court of Justice in 2004.

Red Bull brand of sport asia dominate for first pumptrack league national to gear apparel by dream team in company figures supports.

Advertising

Red Bull has an aggressive international marketing campaign. The numerous sponsored activities range from extreme sports like windsurfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, kayaking, wakeboarding, cliff-diving, surfing, skating, freestyle motocross, rally, Formula 1 racing, and breakdancing to art shows, music, and video games. In keeping with their target market of young males, Red Bull has also enlisted help from celebrities, such as Eminem that would appeal to this group (sponsoring the Red Bull "EmSee Battle Rap championships"). It also hosts events like the "Red Bull Flugtag" (German for "flight day" or "flying day") and other such contests. Red Bull also sponsors association football teams, with clubs in Austria, Germany, the United States and Brazil featuring the Red Bull trademark in their names. By associating the drink's image with these activities, the company seeks to promote a "cool" public image and raise brand power. In addition, the slender container is used to suggest a "sexier" image than some other cola counterparts. Hence, this one energy drink has helped create a market for over 150 related types of merchandise, like Red Rooster and Blue Lightning.

Red Bull's slogan, "it gives you wings", is widely used in these marketing activities. Claims about the drink's effects and performance have been challenged on various occasions, with the UK's Advertising Standards Authority imposing advertising restrictions in 2001 in response to complaints first recorded as early as 1997. Even with all of the concerns regarding Red Bull, in 2000 the corporation earned around $1 billion in worldwide sales and Red Bull held 65% of the market share.

In the PlayStation 3's social app, PlayStation Home, Red Bull has developed its own in-game island, specifically advertising its energy drink and the Red Bull Air Race event. In late November 2009, Red Bull brought out two new spaces, the Red Bull Illume space, and the Red Bull Beach space featuring the Red Bull Flugtag, both released on the same day.

In the video game Worms 3D, Red Bull could be drunk by the worms, giving them the effect of faster movement.

Red Bull is displayed on virtual track-side billboards during gameplay and in the opening cinematic in the video game Wipeout XL.

Team ownerships
 Red Bull Brasil – a football (soccer) team currently playing in the Brazilian Campeonato Paulista Série A2
 RB Leipzig – a football (soccer) team currently playing in the German Bundesliga
 Red Bull New York – a soccer franchise competing in the United States' Major League Soccer
 Red Bull Racing – one of two Red Bull Formula One teams, this one based in Milton Keynes, England
 Scuderia Toro Rosso (Italian translation of Team Red Bull) – the other Red Bull Formula One team based in Faenza, Italy
 Team Red Bull – a racing team competing in the US based stock car racing competition NASCAR
 FC Red Bull Salzburg – an Austrian football (soccer) club based in Salzburg and competing in the Austrian Bundesliga
 EC Red Bull Salzburg – a member of the Austrian Hockey League based in Salzburg, Austria

Endorsements
In 2009, Red Bull added mainstream sport athletes to its roster of sports endorsements. Reggie Bush was the first NFL athlete to endorse the product. The announcement was made at the Super Bowl.

Other endorsements
 Lindsey Vonn

Events
 Red Bull Crashed Ice
 Red Bull X-Fighters
 Red Bull Air Race World Championship
 Red Bull Flugtag
 Red Bull Paperwings
 Red Bull sports events

References

Other websites

1987 establishments
Red Bull

Red Bull


Canal 36 is a television station in Honduras. It was briefly closed down by order of the government of Roberto Micheletti on September 28, 2009 during the 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis, along with Radio Globo, because of its support for deposed President of Honduras Manuel Zelaya, but then was re-opened. It is owned by Esdras Amado Lopez.

References

External links
CholusatSur Canal 36 Official site
CholusatSur Canal 36 Live on Honduras 504

Television in Honduras
Television channels and stations established in 2009

Canal 36


Jack Dent Maltester (August 6, 1913 – May 1, 2009) was mayor of San Leandro, California, from 1958 to 1978.

Biography

Jack D. Maltester was born in 1913 in San Leandro, California and was of Irish and Northern Italian descent.

Maltester was appointed to the San Leandro City Council in 1948, to replace Helen Lawrence when she was selected mayor of that city by the City Council. Lawrence became Maltester's mentor in city government. Maltester served until the election of April, when he lost his seat. In 1956, Maltester was elected to the City Council, and then selected to be vice mayor by the City Council. In 1958, he was selected to be mayor by the City Council.

In 1962, Maltester became the first Mayor of San Leandro to be elected by popular ballot. He was re-elected three times, in 1966, 1970 and 1974.

In 1963, responding to the national Civil Rights Movement, Maltester proposed a Committee on Human Rights and Responsibilities. The City Council rebuffed this initiative three times. He testified on housing discrimination at a hearing of the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights on May 6, 1967. Throughout the sixties, Maltester and the City Council lowered the city's tax rates to offset rising property assessments.

Maltester served as the president of the United States Conference of Mayors (USCM) from 1969 to 1970. In 1971 he sponsored a resolution at the annual USCM meeting in Philadelphia, entitled "Withdrawal from Vietnam and Reordering of National Priorities", which called upon President of the United States Richard Nixon "to do all within his power to bring about a complete withdrawal of all American forces from Vietnam by December 31, 1971." Speaking in support of the resolution, Maltester said,

 Although, never brought before the voters of San Leandro, Maltester insisted;
I might ask you: Have we left anything up until now to the military experts or have we been running a political war in Vietnam? My city, a small city in California with less than 70,000 people, proposed this resolution and it is supported by the citizens of the community. It is not a resolution of condemnation. It is not offered in rancor. It is a positive statement of principle. To support this position, I believe, is an obligation none of us can ignore in the name of humanity. I ask your vote for an end to this war.

The resolution was adopted by the body of mayors after vigorous debate that included speeches by conference guest speakers John Kerry and John O'Neill. New York City Mayor John Lindsay and Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley, whom Maltester greatly admired, were among those who voted for the resolution.

In 1972, Maltester was a prominent member of Democrats for Nixon, supporting President Nixon's re-election campaign, saying the president was doing "a tremendous job of building a country that is moving toward a peaceful prosperity."

In 1973, Robert W. Crown, who represented the district including San Leandro in the California State Assembly, was struck and killed by an automobile while jogging in Alameda. Maltester ran to represent the vacant seat for the 14th Assembly District, but lost to Crown aide and San Leandro Unified School District Board member Bill Lockyer in the Democratic primary election.

In April 1974, voters passed a charter amendment limiting City Council members and the mayor to two consecutive terms, preventing Maltester from running for a fifth consecutive term. When his final term expired, Maltester had served as mayor for 20 consecutive years. During his term, the San Leandro shoreline and marine recreational area were developed, a library was built and BART extended a line to the city. After leaving the mayor's office, Maltester became a "consultant" to various businesses who wished to do business in the City of San Leandro.

Maltester remained active in San Leandro business and politics, serving terms as President of the San Leandro Chamber of Commerce and the California League of Cities. In 1992, the channel leading into the San Leandro Marina was named the "Jack D. Maltester Channel".

Maltester died on May 1, 2009, at the age of 95.

In attendance at his funeral were State of California Treasurer Bill Lockyer and State Senator Ellen Corbett. Former Alameda County Sheriff Charles "Charlie" Plummer gave a eulogy in praise of Maltester, recounting with fondness about the day, despite barely knowing Maltester, he was invited to have lunch with Maltester.  When Plummer arrived at the restaurant he asked why was he invited since he barely knew Maltester, to which Maltester replied; "Because you're running for Sheriff".

References

General
 Obituary, San Leandro Bytes
Specific

External links
 Maltester's testimony before the U.S. Commission on Human Rights

Mayors of places in California
1913 births
2009 deaths
People from San Leandro, California
20th-century American politicians
Presidents of the United States Conference of Mayors

Jack D. Maltester


David Frakt is an American lawyer, law professor, and officer in the United States Air Force Reserve.

Education
Frakt is a 1987 graduate of the University High School, Irvine, California and a 1990 graduate of the University of California, Irvine, where he was named "Outstanding Senior" of his graduating class, and a 1994 honors graduate of Harvard Law School.

Career
Frakt is notable for his appointment to defend Guantanamo detainee Mohammed Jawad, an alleged combatant facing charges for events that took place when he was a minor. Jawad is one of two detainees, along with Omar Khadr, to be prosecuted for acts they allegedly committed while juveniles. Frakt also represents another Guantanamo detainee who faced a military commission, Ali Hamza al-Bahlul, the alleged Al Qaida propaganda chief from Yemen. Frakt retired in 2018 as a Lieutenant Colonel after 23 years in the U.S. Air Force Reserve JAG Corps.  He previously was a law professor at several law schools including Western State University College of Law in California, the Barry University Dwayne O. Andreas School of Law in Orlando, Florida, and the University of Pittsburgh School of Law. He was also an adjunct at the Georgetown Law Center.

In April 2014, Frakt was a candidate for the deanship of Florida Coastal School of Law.  In the middle of giving a presentation where he described his ideas for addressing major problems at the school such as declining enrollment, reduced admission standards, and low morale, he was reportedly stopped by the school's president, told to stop "insulting" the faculty, and was then asked to leave.  This episode was later dramatized in the 2017 documentary film Law School Confidential.

Challenged Brigadier Thomas Hartmann's role

On June 19, 2008 Frakt challenged the role of Brigadier General Thomas W. Hartmann in choosing his client Mohammed Jawad for trial.
Frakt argued that Hartmann had "...exercised unlawful command influence."

Hartmann had been appointed the legal advisor to the convening authority—the number two in the Office of Military Commissions, in the summer of 2007, and had immediately overrode the decisions of Colonel Morris Davis, who was then the Chief Prosecutor, when Davis was on leave.

Hartmann was widely quoted as saying the Prosecution should choose to charge captives based on whether their trials would: "...capture the imagination of the American people."

In May 2008 Captain Keith Allred, the Presiding Officer of Salim Ahmed Hamdan's Military Commission, ruled that Hartmann could no longer play any role in Hamdan's Commission process because of the appearance of impropriety shown by his participation to date.

Frakt argued to Colonel Stephen R. Henley, the Presiding Officer of Jawad's military commission, that Hartmann should be barred from any further participation in Jawad's Prosecution because of his exercise of "unlawful command interference."

The June 19, 2008, hearing where Frakt challenged Hartmann's participation and argued for dismissal of the charges based on torture and outrageous government conduct lasted 14 hours.

According to Carol Rosenberg, of the Miami Herald, Frakt argued that Jawad had been subjected to: "...pointless and sadistic treatment [in a] bleak underworld of barbarism and cruelty, of anything goes, of torture." Frakt's closing argument has been widely praised in the media. Jamil Dakwar, Director of the Human Rights Program for the ACLU called the argument "an historic closing argument that should be taught in every military academy across the country."
Deborah Colson, of Human Rights First, in a report in the Huffington Post, called the argument a "most powerful indictment of Bush administration policies."
Michael Winship, of Bill Moyer's Journal, called the argument "an unusual and especially fine expression of American patriotism."
Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Anthony Lewis described the argument as "a remarkable display of legal and moral courage."
Frakt also argued, during his challenge of Hartmann's unlawful influence, that the Prosecution had failed to release important records to the Defense, and that this showed that the process through which Jawad was charged was rushed and without proper preparation.

On August 14, 2008 Henley barred Hartmann from future participation in Mohammed Jawad's commission.
According to Mike Melia, writing for the Associated Press, Henley ruled that Hartmann: "...compromised his objectivity in public statements aligning himself with prosecutors and defending the Pentagon's system for prosecuting alleged terrorists."

However, Henley chose not to dismiss the charges against Jawad because of Hartmann's controversial conduct. He did rule that Frakt was authorized to submit arguments for dropping the charges against Jawad directly to Susan J. Crawford, the Convening Authority, as to whether charges against Jawad were justified. On September 12, Hartmann was removed from his position as Legal Advisor, and three days later Frakt submitted a plea to the Convening Authority to dismiss the charges, which included matters in mitigation and extenuation, legal arguments, and letters and a petition from concerned citizens. On September 23, Crawford rejected this appeal and reaffirmed her earlier decision to refer charges against Mohammad Jawad to trial.

Comments on Frakt's efforts to have the charges against Jawad dismissed due to abusive conduct, including the "frequent flyer program"

In June 2008, prosecutor Lt Col Darrel Vandeveld turned over detention records which had been previously withheld to the defense. These records demonstrated that Mohammed Jawad had been subjected to the controversial "frequent flyer program" a euphemistic term used by Guantanamo detention officials to describe a frequent cell movement program which resulted in sleep disruption and deprivation. These records were made available to Frakt shortly before Mohammed Jawad's first hearing before his Military Commission.
Based on these records, Frakt sought to have the charges against Jawad dismissed on the grounds of torture and "outrageous government conduct." Frakt reported at Jawad's June 19, 2008 Commission hearing that those records showed that Jawad had been moved 112 times in a two-week period in May 2004. Following previous inquiries into abusive treatment of detainees, this technique had reportedly been ordered discontinued two months prior to its use on Jawad by the then Commanding Officer of JTF-Guantanamo, Brig Gen Jay Hood.

On July 11, 2008, in another filing submitted to the Military Commission Frakt reported that the Prosecution had withheld evidence of the medical effects on his client of the two weeks of sleep deprivation.
Frakt reported that Jawad's medical records, which had only recently been made available to him, contradicted the Prosecution's claims that Jawad had suffered "no ill effects" from the sleep deprivation.
Frakt reported that the medical records showed that Jawad had lost ten percent of his body weight during his sleep deprivation, and that he had told doctors he had been urinating blood.

On August 7, 2008 an article in The Washington Post reported that newly published documents showed that the prohibited sleep deprivation technique had been in wider use than had previously been known.The Washington Post report quoted Frakt's response to the news of this violation:
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|
"...no one actually knows the full scope of the abuses at Guantanamo."
"...all of these allegedly comprehensive investigations were whitewashes. This is only the tip of the iceberg."
"This program was approved at the highest levels. ... It suggests that people had simply lost their ability to distinguish right from wrong."
|}

Additional hearings were held on August 13–14 and September 26–27, 2008. At the August 13–14 hearing, an intelligence officer formerly stationed at Guantanamo testified that the frequent flyer program was "standard operating procedure" and was used on dozens of detainees until at least April 2005. On September 24, Col. Henley ruled that the frequent flyer program was cruel, abusive and inhumane treatment, and recommended those responsible be punished. However, he declined to dismiss the charges against Jawad, ruling that other lesser remedies were adequate to address the abuse. The next hearing is scheduled for December.

Comments on Lt Col Darrel Vandeveld's resignation

On September 9, 2008, former lead prosecutor Lieutenant Colonel Darrel Vandeveld, an Army Reserve JAG, requested to be reassigned to other duties rather than continue to serve as prosecutor on the Jawad case. On September 24, 2008 Frakt commented on Lt Col Darrel Vandeveld's recent resignation,
He said Vandeveld, whose resignation document has not yet been released: "could no longer continue to serve ethically as a prosecutor." According to The New York Times, Frakt said Vandeveld had been "troubled" by the orders he had been given. Frakt told The New York Times that Vandeveld had recommended a plea bargain and early release for Jawad, and had been overruled. Vandeveld later testified in a hearing on September 27, 2008 at Guantanamo that exculpatory evidence had been withheld from the Jawad defense, and that he had resigned because of concerns about the discovery process and his inability to determine whether all relevant discovery had been disclosed to the defense due to "systemic problems" with discovery at the Office of Military Commissions.

Mohammed Jawad's noncombatant status

In July 2009 US District Court Judge Ellen Huvelle ruled Mohammed Jawad was a noncombatant.
On July 28, 2009 Frakt filed a motion in Mohammed's military commission following Huvelle's ruling.
He argued that the military commissions were only authorized to try illegal enemy combatants, and since he was officially a noncombatant his military commission lacked jurisdiction.

Efforts to support Mohammed Jawad's re-integration into Afghan society

On September 21, 2009 historian Andy Worthington, author of The Guantanamo Files, published a letter from Frakt that documented the role he and his colleagues had hoped to play in Mohammed Jawad's re-integration into Afghan society.
Frakt had argued to Susan Crawford that while civilian Defense attorneys didn't traditionally play a role in the lives of their clients, after their trials, the tradition for military Defense counsel was the opposite. Further, he argued that, as a child captive the literature strongly recommended the released captive be in the company of trusted adults—and the only trusted adults in his life recently had been his Defense counsel.

Frakt also described, at length, the significant role played by his colleagues on "Team Jawad", Commander Katharine Doxakis, Major Eric Montalvo USMCR, Captain Chris Kannady, USMC, civilian counsels Hina Shamsi, Jonathan Hafetz, Art Spitzer, military and civilian paralegals, a team of law students from Duke University, and a law student named Joe Pace, from Yale Law School.

Publications

Frakt is the author of dozens of law review articles, book chapters, essays and op-eds. CNN published an Op-ed by Frakt, on March 17, 2010.
Frakt argued that those Guantanamo captives who were to be tried, should be tried in a regular court of law, not the irregular military commissions.

He congratulated Attorney General Eric Holder for his plans to try the most senior suspects in civilian court.
But he criticized Holder for planning to continue to try other suspects in the military commission system, writing:

He wrote that Ali Al Bahlul and Salim Ahmed Hamdan's convictions were being appealed, and he warned that it was not clear that their convictions would be upheld by the Court of Military Commission Review, due to many procedural errors.

In the winter of 2012 Frakt published a one hundred and twenty page article in the University of Pittsburgh Law Review, entitle: Prisoners of Congress: The Constitutional and political clash over detainees and the closure of Guantanamo''.

References

External links

Guantanamo Bay attorneys
Harvard Law School alumni
University of California, Irvine alumni
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
University High School (Irvine, California) alumni

David J. R. Frakt


2000 (MM) was a leap year that started on a Saturday of the common era, in accordance to the Gregorian calendar with any other year. It was the 2000th year of the Common Era or the Anno Domini designation. 2000 was also the last year of the second millennium and of the 20th century. It was also the first century leap year since 1600. The year 2000 was the first year of the 2000s decade. Popular culture holds the year 2000 as the first year of the 21st century and of the 3rd millennium, due to a tendency to group the years according to decimal values, as if year zero were counted. According to the Gregorian Calendar this distinction falls to the year 2001, also because the first century back then was retroactively said to start with year Anno Domini 1. Since the calendar has no year zero, its first millennium spans from years 1 to 1000, inclusively, and its second millennium from years 1001 to 2000. See more at Millennium. The year 2000 was the subject of Y2K concerns, fear that computers could not shift from 1999 to 2000 correctly. However, by the end of 1999, some companies have upgraded to new, or existed their shifting software. Some even obtained Y2K certification. In the actual event, relatively few problems occurred.

Leap year starting on Saturday


Proxy has different meanings when talking about different subjects:

Basically, "proxy" means "stands for".
In computing, a proxy server  is a server which clients use to access other computers.
A proxy marriage is when two people are getting married separately, but are getting married to one another.
A proxy murder is when a person murders on behalf of someone else.
A proxy vote is when a person votes on behalf of someone else, usually occurring in public and private companies requiring votes for decisions.
A web proxy is a server that fetches web pages for a user. Web proxies often hide your browser history and can bypass local internet restrictions.

Proxy


USS Hinsdale (APA-120) was a Haskell-class attack transport in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1974.

History

Hinsdale was built and used during World War II and was of the VC2-S-AP5 Victory ship design type and was named for Hinsdale County, Colorado. She was launched by the California Shipbuilding Corporation, Wilmington, Los Angeles, 22 July 1944; sponsored by Mrs. M. B. Harper; and commissioned 15 October 1944.

Iwo Jima
After shakedown in the San Diego-San Pedro area, the new attack transport sailed for the Pacific, reaching Pearl Harbor 12 December with 175 passengers. The war in the Pacific was steadily advancing across the ocean toward the Japanese home islands, and on 27 December 1944 Hinsdale embarked some 1,200 marines for the Iwo Jima invasion, a prelude to the invasion of Japan herself. Acting as flagship for Transport Division 44, she spent nearly a month of intensive practice-landings in preparation for the assault. Hinsdale sailed from Hawaii 27 January 1945, pausing at Saipan to join a huge transport flotilla, and arrived off Iwo Jima's rock bound heights at dawn on D-Day, 19 February.

Hinsdale'''s leatherneck passengers swarmed ashore with the first wave of the invasion forces, and she remained in the Iwo Jima area over a week embarking and disembarking troops and valuable cargo. Some of her most important work was as an auxiliary hospital ship, caring for the seriously wounded. Disembarking troops, offloading cargo, and tending the injured all took place under continuous mortar and artillery fire from well-entrenched Japanese shore batteries, but Hinsdale had only one close call. On the morning of 25 February, a projectile burst close aboard the transport, killing a Marine captain standing on deck and wounding several others. On 27 February, Hinsdale sailed from Iwo Jima, stopping at Saipan for fuel, and reached Guam 3 March to disembark 166 casualties.

 Okinawa
The Pacific war neared its climax. Hinsdale had only a brief rest at Guam before returning to Saipan 9 March to embark troops for the upcoming invasion of Okinawa, the largest amphibious operation of the Pacific war. With nearly 1,500 combat-bound marines and sailors on board, she again spent long hours in practice for the landings. On 27 March 1945 Hinsdale left Saipan to take her place in the Battle of OkinawaJoint Expeditionary Force-1,213 ships loaded with over a half million troops, headed for Okinawa. Sunday 1 April 1945, D-Day for Okinawa, was very nearly Hinsdale's last day in the Pacific. As she steamed toward the transport area through the pre-dawn blackness, marines already on deck and ready to disembark, Hinsdale's lookouts spotted an enemy plane skimming low over the water. With only a few seconds warning, Hinsdale could not evade the kamikaze; at 0600 the suicide plane crashed into her port side just above the water line and ripped into the engine room. Three explosions rocked the troop-laden transport as the kamikaze's bombs exploded deep inside her and tore the engine room apart; only one member of the watch survived death by scalding steam from the exploding boilers. The deck-log (page 215) of the Hinsdale has the following account: "0549 in a position about 12 miles south-southeast of the southern tip of Okinawa the ship was hit amidships on the port side and two explosions at intervals of about one second were felt.  Later investigation indicated that a Jap suicide plane, probably a Tony Kawasaki Ki-61 carrying three 132 lb. bombs hit the ship on the port side at the water line in the vicinity of frame 80.  The ship was holed in three places: A seven foot hole in the engine room at the water line caused by the engine and fuselage to which it is believed was attached a bomb which was the first explosion, a ten inch hole in the engine room about 2 feet above the water line caused by a bomb which was later discovered as a dud, and a four foot hole in Compartment A-304-EL a crew's berthing space, caused by a bomb which was the second explosion."Power failed immediately; lights and internal communication, so vital to damage control parties, were gone. Hinsdale came to a dead stop in the water, with three gaping holes in her port side. Marines on deck who had been ready to disembark were hastily shifted to the starboard rails to counteract a serious list to port. Below decks Hinsdale's crew were groping through the smoke-filled darkness to fight fires started by the kamikaze and to jury-rig patches. Fifteen men were dead; 40 missing or wounded. Despite the injury Hinsdale carried out her job to put the marines ashore. First Class Metalsmith James O. Perry saw the kamikaze plane approaching and cleared the topside of marines and sailors, saving many lives; in reward he was given the Type 94, Nambu pistol (SN 58787) the Japanese pilot was carrying.

Limited power was finally restored through an auxiliary diesel engine; the dangerous list to port of 13 degrees corrected; the ship taken in tow by ATR-80 at an agonizing 5 knots, for Kerama Retto, some 20 miles away. Emergency repair work began immediately amidst continued kamikaze attacks; Hinsdale exacted some revenge by assisting in the kill of at least two of the suicide craft. Her cargo, mainly equipment and stores needed by the Marines was shifted to , and then Hinsdale was pressed into service as a receiving ship for survivors of other kamikaze victims.

On 14 April she departed Kerama Rotta, towed by  in a convoy of LSTs. Sailing slowly the convoy reached Ulithi 23 April; there Hinsdale, after a month of intensive work by repair ship , was ready for sea, and on 20 May sailed for the US.

 Operation "Magic Carpet" Hinsdale put into the Brooklyn Navy Yard 2 July 1945 for a complete overhaul. While she was there undergoing repairs, the Japanese surrendered, but Hinsdale was destined to make one last Pacific voyage. Departing 21 November, to participate in operation "Magic Carpet," the return of Pacific veterans, she sailed via Pearl Harbor to Sasebo and Nagasaki, embarked over a thousand troops and reached San Francisco 24 January 1946. Thence she sailed to Norfolk Navy Yard arriving on 20 February, was decommissioned 8 April 1946, returned to the Maritime Commission for disposal 12 April, and her name stricken from the Naval Vessel Register 1 May 1946. Hinsdale was subsequently placed in the National Defense Reserve Fleet and was berthed in the James River near Norfolk.

 Fate
In 1955 Hinsdale was withdrawn from the Reserve Fleet as part of a Repair Program, GAA-Stockard, and then returned. On 16 July 1974 she was sold to B. V. Intershitra, for $731,150, to be scrapped.  At 1015 EDT, on 11 September 1974 she was withdrawn from the Reserve Fleet and sent to the breaker's yard.

All that remains of Hinsdale is her brass builder's plate.

 Awards Hinsdale'' received two battle stars for World War II service.

References

Victory ships
Ships built in Los Angeles
Haskell-class attack transports
World War II amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Troop ships
Hinsdale County, Colorado
1944 ships

USS Hinsdale


Sir Henry Charles Husband (30 October 1908 – 7 October 1983), often known as H. C. Husband, was a leading British civil and consulting engineer from Sheffield, England, who designed bridges and other major civil engineering works. He is particularly known for his work on the Jodrell Bank radio telescopes; the first of these was the largest fully steerable radio telescope in the world on its completion in 1957. Other projects he was involved in designing include the Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station's aerials, one of the earliest telecobalt radiotherapy units, Sri Lanka's tallest building, and the rebuilding of Robert Stephenson's Britannia Bridge after a fire. He won the Royal Society's Royal Medal and the Wilhelm Exner Medal.

Early life and education

Husband was born in Sheffield in 1908 to Ellen Walton Husband, née Harby, and her husband, Joseph (1871–1961), a civil engineer who had founded Sheffield Technical School's civil engineering department and subsequently served as the University of Sheffield's initial professor in the discipline. Charles Husband attended the city's King Edward VII School and gained an engineering degree at Sheffield University in 1929.

Career
His first job was with Barnsley Water Board. He then worked under the civil engineer Sir Owen Williams in 1931–33, before spending three years on various major English and Scottish residential projects with the First National Housing Trust. In 1936, with Joseph Husband and Antony Clark, he founded the consulting engineering firm of Husband and Clark (later Husband & Co.) in Sheffield. During the Second World War, he first worked in the Ministry of Labour and National Service and later on aircraft manufacture for the Ministry of Works. After the war, Husband headed the engineering consultancy, successfully expanding their business, with clients in the immediate post-war years including the British Iron and Steel Research Association, National Coal Board and the Production Engineering Research Association.

Radio telescopes

Husband worked with Bernard Lovell – the founder of the Jodrell Bank Observatory near Holmes Chapel in Cheshire – on the design and construction of the observatory's first large steerable radio telescope, the "250-ft telescope" (now known as the Lovell Telescope). After attempting to adapt military radar equipment to detect cosmic rays shortly after the Second World War, Lovell had realised that a much larger aerial would be required, and constructed a 66-metre diameter dish, limited by being static, before proposing the development of an even larger steerable telescope. The idea posed such formidable engineering challenges that the project had been declared "impossible" by other engineers, but Husband is reported to have concluded at their first meeting in September 1949, "It should be easy—about the same problem as throwing a swing bridge over the Thames at Westminster."

He began work on the project early the following year, creating the initial drawings in January 1950 and detailed plans just over a year later. He and Lovell selected a dish diameter of 250 feet (76 metres). Construction began in 1952; despite Husband's optimism the project was beset with delays and escalating costs, caused by multiple changes to Lovell's specifications and the rising price of steel, among other factors. Wind-tunnel studies with a scale model played an important role in the final design. The telescope was eventually completed in 1957, when it was the largest fully steerable radio telescope in the world. It remains in service as of 2016. According to Lovell, the project was completed using "a desk calculator and slide rule", which led to a "sturdy" construction with "quite a lot of redundancy in the steelwork" which Lovell later credited for the telescope's longevity. The structure is a rare example of a post-war grade-I-listed structure, denoting its "exceptional interest", and was voted Britain's top "unsung landmark" in a 2006 BBC poll.

Husband also helped to design the steerable radio aerials at the GPO's Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station in Cornwall, as well as radio telescopes in the UK and elsewhere.

Other projects

Other innovative projects Husband & Co. undertook under Husband's leadership included designing a facility for testing jet engines at altitude in 1946. In the 1950s, Husband assisted the radiologist Frank Ellis in designing one of the earliest telecobalt radiotherapy units, for radiation treatment of cancer, which was installed at the Churchill Hospital in Oxford. Like the radio telescopes, the engineering problem involved moving a heavy weight, in this case the lead-shielded source, in three dimensions.

He designed many road and rail bridges. Husband was awarded the contract to rebuild the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait in Wales, after a 1970 fire. The original was an 1850 rail bridge by Robert Stephenson, and Husband faced criticism for designing a double-tier bridge including an additional road deck, which he stated formed part of Stephenson's original concept. The firm also designed the bridge used in the 1957 film, The Bridge on the River Kwai.

Outside the UK, Husband & Co. had an office in Colombo and undertook multiple projects in Sri Lanka. Husband was the architect of the Ceylon Insurance Building in Colombo, Sri Lanka (later Ceylinco House), a 16-storey building equipped with a helicopter landing pad on its roof. On completion in 1960, it was the tallest structure in Sri Lanka, at nearly 55 metres.

Awards, honours and societies
Husband was recognised with the CBE in 1964. He won the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1965 for "his distinguished work in many aspects of engineering, particularly for his design studies of large structures such as those exemplified in the radio telescope at Jodrell Bank and Goonhilly Downs"; he was the medal's first recipient in the applied sciences. He was also awarded the Wilhelm Exner Medal of the Österreichischer Gewerbeverein (1966), the Gold Medal of the Institution of Structural Engineers (1973), and the Benjamin Baker Gold Medal (1959) and James Watt medal (1976) of the Institution of Civil Engineers. He received honorary degrees from the universities of Manchester (1964) and Sheffield (1967). He was knighted in 1975.

He served as president of the Institution of Structural Engineers (1964–65), chaired the Association of Consulting Engineers (1967) and served on the board of the Council of Engineering Institutions from 1979 until his death. He also chaired Sheffield University's engineering and metallurgy advisory committee (1962–65) and served on Bradford Institute of Technology's civil engineering advisory board (1962–68). In addition to the Institution of Structural Engineers, he was an elected fellow of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Institution of Civil Engineers and the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and was among the founding members of the Fellowship of Engineering.

Personal life
In 1932, Husband married Eileen Margaret Nowill (1906-2000), an architect's daughter who was also from Sheffield. The couple had four children, with the elder of their two sons, Richard Husband, also becoming a civil engineer. He retired in 1982. Husband died in 1983 at Nether Padley, just outside Sheffield in Derbyshire.

Selected publications
H. C. Husband, R. W. Husband (1975). Reconstruction of the Britannia Bridge. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 58: 25–49
Henry Charles Husband (1958). The Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers 9: 65–86

See also
Mott MacDonald, into which Husband & Co. merged in 1990

References

Sources
Daniel Eagan. America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry (Bloomsbury; 2009) ()
Bernard Lovell. The Story of Jodrell Bank (Oxford University Press; 1968) ()
Peter Robertson. Beyond Southern Skies: Radio Astronomy and the Parkes Telescope (Cambridge University Press; 1992) ()

1908 births
1983 deaths
People educated at King Edward VII School, Sheffield
English civil engineers
Jodrell Bank Observatory
Royal Medal winners
Presidents of the Institution of Structural Engineers
IStructE Gold Medal winners
Engineers from Yorkshire

Charles Husband


The £1,000,000 Bank Note and Other New Stories is an 1893 collection of short stories by American writer Mark Twain.

Background
The collection was published in 1893, in a disastrous decade for the United States, a time marked by doubt and waning optimism, rapid immigration, labor problems, and the rise of political violence and social protest.

It was also a difficult time for Twain personally, as he was forced into bankruptcy and devastated by the death of his favorite daughter, Suzy. Yet the title story still brims with confidence and optimism, marking the moment of hope just before Twain turned to the grim stories of his later years.

Notes

External links

 The £1,000,000 Bank Note public domain book at Project Gutenberg

1893 short story collections
Short story collections by Mark Twain
Novels set in London
Chatto & Windus books


The Archaeology Museum of the American University of Beirut in Beirut, Lebanon is the third oldest museum in the Near East after Cairo and Constantinople.

History
The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut (AUB Archaeological Museum) was formed in 1868, after Luigi Palma di Cesnola gifted a collection of Cypriot pottery to the newly formed American University of Beirut. Georges Post was the first curator of this collection and Morris Jesup donated the funds for construction of Post Hall (pictured) which opened in 1902. There was much archaeological plundering in Lebanon due to weak governmental control, and people arrived daily at the museum with suggested artefacts plundered from clandestine excavations. Between 1902 and 1938 the museum acquired collections from all around the Middle East. The museum remained closed during World War II and re-opened in 1948. It expanded in the 1950s and doubled its floor space with a refurbishment under curator Dimitri Baramki, which opened to the public in 1964. The museum remained open during the years of crisis in Lebanon between 1975 and 1990 and underwent another complete renovation in 2006 under past director, Leila Badre. A mezzanine level was added that increased the space by one fifth using funds secured from the Joukowsky Family Foundation. Under current Curator Nadine Panayot, since September 1, 2020, the museum is entering a new digital era and undertaking major restoration work following the August 4th blast of Beirut. The AUB Archaeological Museum is the third oldest museum in the Near East, after Cairo and Constantinople

Displays
The collections are organized by chronology and themes, with displays along the sides of the gallery displaying the evolution of pottery. Other displays include the Cesnola Collection, showing pottery from Cyprus from the Bronze Age to the Roman era. The prehistoric collection includes Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. The Ksar Akil collection was donated by the University of Boston team who excavated this archaeological site in 1948. The display shows a  stratigraphic sequence of thirty seven layers and flint tools belonging to several cultures. The sequence is radiocarbon dated between 50,000 and 18,000 BP, and contained a human jaw dated to 40,000 BP and a complete skull dated to 35,000 BP.

The Paleolithic showcase displays the journey of man through the Stone Age, covering important events such as the discovery of fire, hunting and cave paintings. The Neolithic showcase covers the dawn of agriculture, animal domestication, the beginnings of pottery, villages and religion. The terracotta figurines collection shows their evolution from the Bronze Age to the Roman era, and their importance in the development of religion. The metal figurines collection includes mostly males and gods, used as symbols of power. The Bronze Age displays show artefacts dated between 3000 BC and 1200 BC including evidence of early writing, trade and urbanization. The Iron Age displays shows evidence of the invasions of seafaring raiders and city states during the period between 1200 BC and 400 BC. The Phoenician showcases display the extraction of purple dye from murex shells, pottery and Phoenician glass. Phoenician religion is represented by a large stelae of a priest, a throne of Astarte, libation spoons and a glass amulet. Another notable feature of this section is the Ford Mandible dating from the 5th century BC showing the earliest known example of dentistry. The Bodashtar inscription is also displayed along with an explanation of the development of the linear alphabet. The Classical period collection includes funerary reliefs from Palmyra, Egypt and the Levant, a Byzantine mosaic and collection of funerary sarcophagi displayed on the staircase leading to the mezzanine. The Islamic period displays materials from the Umayyad Period in 656 AD to the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century where glazed tiles and plates are shown. The newly added mezzanine includes table cases displaying small objects such as a collection of coins, scarabs and seals, lamps, amulets, cosmetics, jewelry, tools and weapons.

Projects
The museum has been involved in archaeological research and recovery projects. In 1956–1974, the museum was involved in excavations at Tell el-Ghassil in the Beqaa Valley, an agrarian site with levels dating from 1800 to 600 BC. Some of the Iron Age material recovered is displayed in the museum including a goblet with an incised decoration of birds and ducks discovered at Tell el Yehudiyeh and dating from 1730 to 1550 BC. The goblet was found next to a skeleton and is presumed to be a funerary gift for use in the afterlife.

The museum has also carried out a number of excavations in Beirut Central District under the directorship of Leila Badre. These have included the ancient tell of Beirut, site BEY 003. The purpose of this excavation was to discover the "Biruta" of the Amarna Letters. Evidence was found of a fortification system that was constructed in the second millennium BC up to the Hellenistic period, along with the remains of a building dating back into the third millennium BC and a hoard of Egyptian objects. Another site the museum has been involved with is BEY 012, Saint Georges Cathedral of the Greek Orthodox, where excavations were carried out in 2001. Eight layers showed occupation from the Hellenistic period onwards and the remains of five, possibly six, successive churches. Another site investigated was BEY 215, the An-Nahar building, revealing six levels of occupation dating from the Persian to Byzantine eras, showing continuous inhabitation since the 4th century BC. Tell Kazel in Syria has also been excavated and studied by Leila Badre since 1985. Likely the ancient Simyra, levels from the Mameluk Period to the Bronze Age were discovered. Finds included a temple and rooms with sea shell-paved floors. Visitors to the museum can view relics such as cylinder seals, necklaces, pottery and temple offerings organized according to their site location. The museum has also embarked on the restoration of the wall paintings of Mar Sarkis and Bakhos in Kaftoun with the University of Warsaw.

Publications

Tell el-Ghassil
 Baramki, D., Excavation in Coele-Syria, Archaeological News, Archaeology, pp. 141–42, 1957.
 Baramki, D., First Preliminary Report on the Excavation at Tell el Ghassil, BMB vol.16, pp. 87–102, 1961.
 Baramki, D., Second Preliminary Report on the Excavation at Tell el Ghassil, BMB vol.17, pp. 47–103, 1964.
 Baramki, D., Third Preliminary Report on the Excavation at Tell el Ghassil, BMB vol.19, pp. 29–48, 1966.
 Joukowsky, M., The Pottery of Tell el-Ghassil in the Beqa'a. A Comparative Study and Analysis of the Iron Age and Bronze Age Wares, Beirut, Lebanon, 1972.
 Doumet-Serhal, C., Les Fouilles de Tell el-Ghassil de 1972 à 1974. Etude du matériel, B.A.H-T.146, Beyrouth, Liban, 1996.

BEY003
 Badre, L., BEY 003 Preliminary Report Excavations of the American University of Beirut Museum 1993–1996. Report from the excavations in the city center of Beirut under rehabilitation from the early 1990s, BAAL, vol.2, pp. 6–94, 1997.

Tell Kazel
 Badre, L. et al., Tell Kazel, Syria. AUB Museum Excavations 1985–1987. Preliminary Report. Berytus 38: 10–124, 1990.
 Badre, L. et al. Tell Kazel (Syrie), Rapport préliminaire sur les 4è-8è campagnes de fouilles (1988–1992). Syria 71: 259–346, 1994.
 Badre, L. et al. Tell Kazel, Syria. Excavations of the AUB Museum, 1993–1998. Third Preliminary Report. Berytus 44: 123-203 and CD ROM supplement, 1999–2000.

The Church of Mar Sarkis and Bakhos in Kaftoun
 Hélou, N., "Les fresques de Kaftoun au Liban : la cohabitation des deux traditions byzantine et orientale". Chronos, No.20, pp. 7–32, 2009.
 Chmielewski, K. and Waliszewski, T. 2007. "The Church of Mar Sarkis and Bakhos in Kaftûn and its Wall Paintings. Report 2003-2007". BAAL, Vol. XI, 2007, pp. 279–325.

Other publications
 Capet, E., Tell Kazel (Syrie), Rapport préliminaire sur les 9è-17è campagnes de fouilles (1993–2001) du Musée de l'Université Américaine de Beyrouth. Chantier II. Berytus 47: 63–121, 2003.
 Badre, L., Tell Kazel-Simyra: A Contribution to a Relative Chronological History in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age. Bulletin of American School of Oriental Research (BASOR) 343, 45–75,2006
 Gubel, E., Lecture in International Convention : "Urbanistica Fenicia E Punica", Roma. February 21 – 23, 2007. Eric Gubel (Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire de Bruxelles) Phoenician towns and harbours in the North: The case of Early Iron Age Amurru, 2007.
 Badre, L., and Capet, E., Les fouilles de Tell Kazel (Sumur?) in La Méditerranée des Phéniciens: special issue of Les Dossiers d'Archéologie HS-no.13: 46–49, 2007.
 Jung R. Die Mykenische Keramik von Tell Kazel (Syrien). Damaszener Mitteilungen Bd 15 Mainz. pp 147 – 218, 2006.
 Capet, E., Les Peuples des Céramiques "Barbares À Tell Kazel (Syrie). Scripta Mediterranea, Vol. XXVII-XXVIII, 2006–2007, pp. 187–207, 2006–2007.
 Badre, L., The Religious Architecture in the Bronze Age: Middle Bronze Beirut and Late Bronze Tell Kazel. in Interconnections in the Eastern Mediterranean, Lebanon in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Proceedings of the International Symposium, Beirut 2008. Hors-Série BAAL, Vol. VI, 2009, pp. 253–270, 2009.
 Mackay, D., A Guide to the Archaeological Collections in the University Museum (American University of Beirut), AUB, Beirut, Lebanon, 1951.
 Baramki, D., The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut, AUB, Beirut, Lebanon, 1967.
 Baramki, D., The Coins Exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut, Centennial Publications, 1968.
 Karageorghis, V. and Badre L., Cypriote Antiquities in the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut, Leventis Foundation, Nicosia, Cyprus, 2009.

Brochures
 Brochure of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut, 2006.
 Museums in Lebanon, Lebanon - Ministry of Tourism, 2009

Newsletter
 The Society of Friends of the Museum publishes a Newsletter twice a year, which gives an account of the museum's activities.

Visitor information
The museum's hours are 09:00–17:00 in the winter and 08:00–15:00 in the summer, Monday through Friday. The museum is closed on public holidays and during university holidays. Tours last approximately 1 hour. Group tours and school visits can be made by appointment by e-mail to the museum assistant. Entrance and tours are free of charge.

References

External links
 Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut Website - Organization

Museums in Beirut
Archaeological museums in Lebanon
Museums established in 1868
University museums
1868 establishments in the Ottoman Empire
American University of Beirut
19th-century establishments in Ottoman Syria
Museums of Ancient Near East in Lebanon


Max Schur (26 September 1897 – 12 October 1969) was a physician and friend of Sigmund Freud. He assisted Freud in euthanasia. Ernest Jones considered that "Schur was a perfect choice for a doctor... his considerateness, his untiring patience, and his resourcefulness were unsurpassable".

Life
Schur, who was of Jewish heritage, was born in Stanisławów, Austrian Galicia (present-day Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine). He "completed his high school education in Vienna after his family moved there in 1914 to escape the advancing Russian army. After attending medical school at the University of Vienna from 1915 to 1920, he had most of his postgraduate training at the Vienna Poliklinik. He remained there as an associate in internal medicine until he left Vienna in 1938."

After attending Freud's Introductory Lectures, Schur became interested in psychoanalysis, "had a personal analysis with Ruth Mack Brunswick from 1924-32 and was accepted into the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1932. It was this combination of psychoanalytic orientation and internal medicine that led to him becoming Freud's personal physician in 1929."

Schur contributed knowledge to both fields – medicine and psychoanalysis – founded two psychosomatic clinics, and explored the connection between psyche and soma in many of his 37 papers as well as in his book, Freud Living and Dying. Peter Gay considered the latter to be "invaluable for its private revelations and judicious, well-informed judgements".

Freud
During the last decade of Freud's life, "Max Schur established himself as a figure almost as central to Freud as his daughter Anna". Schur followed Freud to London to escape the Nazi Anschluss. At their initial meeting, Freud had asked Schur to '"Promise me also: when the time comes, you won't let them torment me unnecessarily"'. Ten years later, in 1939, as he approached death from cancer, Freud reminded him of his promise, and "Schur pressed his hand and promised he would give him adequate sedation".

"In a period when paternalism was common, Schur modelled, through his treatment of Freud, a modern doctor-patient relationship based on veracity and respect for individual autonomy".

Affect
Schur made "considerable efforts to link the somatic and the psychological aspects of the affects", ultimately producing "a psychosomatic, compromise-formed view of the affects, in line with the trend in ego psychology".

Schur compared ethological and child developmental concepts, as can be seen in his critical discussion of John Bowlby's Grief and Mourning in Infancy (1960). Although rooted in Freud's thinking, Schur argued "firmly for a structured id and ... felt that the idea of the repetition compulsion as a regulatory principle was superfluous". Schur also took issue with Freud's Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Peter Gay wrote that "Schur, whom no one can accuse of reading Freud unsympathetically, said: 'We can assume only that Freud's conclusions...are an example of ad hoc reasoning to prove a preformed hypothesis ... so different from Freud's general scientific style'".

See also
 André Green
 Emma Eckstein

References

Bibliography
 Beldoch, Michael. The death of the hero. An essay on Max Schur's Freud: Living and Dying. Bulletin Menninger Clinic, 1974 Nov; 38(6):516–26
 Friend, Maurice R. "Max Schur – 1897–1969," International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 1971, 52:231–32
 Schur, Max, The id and the regulatory principles of mental functioning, International Universities Press, 1966
 Schur, Max, Freud: Living and Dying, International Universities Press, 1972
 Mazzarello, Giuseppe Paolo, The Struggle of Dr. Schur, History of Medicine, 2007 ()

1897 births
1969 deaths
20th-century Austrian physicians
Psychoanalysts from Vienna
Austrian people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United Kingdom
Physicians from Ivano-Frankivsk
Analysands of Ruth Mack Brunswick
Austrian emigrants to the United States

Max Schur


The Biblioteca William Mulloy (Spanish for William Mulloy Library; in Rapa Nui, Hare Puka ko Wiliam Mulloy) is a research library administered by the Father Sebastian Englert Anthropological Museum on Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in Chilean Polynesia. Named for the late Dr. William Mulloy, an American archaeologist, the library's collection focuses on Rapa Nui and Polynesian Studies, especially the prehistory, history, ethnology, archaeology, cultural anthropology, osteology and geology of Easter Island.

Mission

The mission of the Biblioteca William Mulloy is threefold.  Firstly, the Library seeks to support the field work of archaeologists, anthropologists, linguists, ethnologists and other scholars who come to Easter Island for research purposes. Secondly, the Library promotes the conservation and study of the cultural patrimony of the Rapa Nui people. Finally, the Library provides broad access within the island community to the best scholarly resources in Rapa Nui and Polynesian Studies.

Mulloy Collection

The collection of the Biblioteca William Mulloy includes books, journals, articles, archival materials, field notes, maps, photographs and audiovisual materials related to Rapa Nui. Dr. William Mulloy's personal library forms the core of the collection. The Father Sebastian Englert Anthropological Museum, the Chilean Directorate of Libraries, Archives and Museums (DiBAM), the Easter Island Foundation and the Mulloy family have contributed to the original collection, more than doubling it in a short period of time. The library, located on the campus of the museum in the Tahai district of the island, has climate-controlled stacks and a  lecture hall, which accommodates approximately thirty persons.

Background

Shortly before his death in 1978, the renowned archaeologist, William Mulloy, expressed the desire that his personal library, consisting of books, articles, reprints, field notes, maps, photographs and slides, find a permanent home on Rapa Nui in order to be of service to both specialized researchers coming to the island from abroad and to the general public.

After his death, his widow, Emily Ross Mulloy, consigned the collection to Mario Correa, Cultural Attaché of the Consulate General of Chile in Washington DC, who with the aid of Marilyn Pugh of LanChile, transferred the library to mainland Chile. At the time, lack of satisfactory facilities on Rapa Nui did not favor the immediate transfer of library or archival materials. Instead, the collection was entrusted to the Easter Island Foundation. The Foundation maintained the library at the Fonck Museum in Viña del Mar, hired a Rapa Nui librarian and placed the collection at the disposal of the public. In addition to its long-term financial support of the library, the Easter Island Foundation assisted with the relocation of Mulloy Library materials to the island when a suitable space was made ready on Museum premises.

After its transfer from Viña del Mar, the Biblioteca William Mulloy opened on Rapa Nui in 2002 and was dedicated by Dr. Mulloy's widow, Emily Ross Mulloy, Clara Budnik (Director of the DiBAM), and prominent members of the Rapa Nui community.

References

External links
 Biblioteca William Mulloy
 Father Sebastian Englert Anthropology Museum
 Chilean Directorate of Libraries, Archives and Museums
 Easter Island Foundation
 Fonck Museum

Research libraries
Archaeological collections
Libraries established in 2002
2002 establishments in Chile
2002 establishments in Oceania
Libraries in Chile
Buildings and structures in Easter Island

Biblioteca William Mulloy


The Murulla rail accident involved the collision of the Sydney-bound Northern Mail with runaway goods wagons near Murrurundi, in the Upper Hunter Valley on 13 September 1926; 26 persons died. A goods train had become divided and the attempts of the train crew to reunite the portions resulted in 12 vehicles running away down a steep gradient, and colliding with the approaching mail train. This was the worst accident on the New South Wales rail network until the Granville railway disaster in 1977.

The events
The signal box at Murulla controlled a loop line for trains to pass on a single-line railway;  no other connections were at the location. Electric Train Staff operated between Wingen and Murulla and Electric Tablet operated between Murulla and Blandford.

Train number 62, a southbound goods train, comprised a standard goods engine hauling 34 wagons and a brake van were to pass through Murulla on the main line. Another goods train, number 95, working in the opposing direction, had entered the loop line and was waiting for number 62 to pass. Number 62 had a length of 951 feet (290 m) and a load of 746 tons (758 t). All vehicles were fitted with Westinghouse air brakes.

The train slowed at Murulla signalbox for the exchange of the single-line tokens, and as the train staff for the onward section was received, the driver of number  62 put on steam. The shock resulted in the train becoming divided, with the rear 12 vehicles separating from the main train. This was later attributed to the failure of a drawhook. The division of the train was noticed by the driver and both portions of the train were safely brought to a stand.

Both portions of the train were verified to be within the clearance points of the loop line, so train number 95 was permitted to depart.

The detached portion of number 62 consisted of 12 vehicles, and its length 331 feet with a weight of 264 tons. Handbrakes were applied to these vehicles. The train staff in the possession of the engine crew apparently was returned to the instrument in the signal box at this time, and all vehicles were within the confines of the home signals.

After a number of attempts to fit a tailrope, the brake van had been shunted back, foul of the clearance point for the loop line. The two opposing vehicles at the separation were finally hitched with a single wire rope connection, but the airbrake hoses could not be connected. The signalman then requested that the train be brought forward so that it was clear of the clearance point so as to permit the approaching southbound number 8 mail train to pass through the loop.

The guard of number 62 released the handbrakes on the rear portion, leaving it unbraked, and the driver went forward to his engine. When he started the train, the tailrope broke and the rear portion began to run back down the grade towards Blandford, coming into collision with the approaching mail train just beyond the Up Distant signal. The collision resulted in the death of 26 persons. (Gunn has 27 fatalities.)

Coronial inquest
Following the disaster, a coronial inquest was held at Murrurundi, with evidence being taken over eight days. On 9 October 1926, the district coroner committed the driver and guard of the goods train for trial. He noted that no pin was in the train's guard's brake van to enable the two portions of the train to be coupled in accordance with regulations. Had the portions been properly coupled, the Westinghouse brake pipe hoses could have been connected so that in the event of a further break-away, the brakes on the rear portion would have been automatically applied. In the absence of that pin, essential principles of safe working had been overlooked.

Criminal court proceedings
On 6 December, the driver and guard appeared at the Central Criminal Court, charged with felonious slaying one of the mail train's passengers. The crown prosecutor alleged, "if the accused failed to link up the air brakes when the appliances were there, they were guilty of gross negligence."

In his summing up, Justice Ferguson said, "the charge of manslaughter could be established only if the crown proved gross negligence, criminal in character, and deserving of punishment". On 8 December, the two men were acquitted.

References

1926 in Australia
Railway accidents in 1926
Railway accidents and incidents in New South Wales
Runaway train disasters
Rail transport in the Hunter Region
1920s in New South Wales
Train collisions in Australia
September 1926 events
1925 disasters in Australia

Murulla rail accident


The World Prison Brief at PrisonStudies.org is an online database providing free access to information on prison systems around the world. It is now hosted by the Institute For Crime & Justice Policy Research (ICPR), Birkbeck College, University of London.

It was previously hosted by the International Centre for Prison Studies (ICPS). It was a research centre at the University of Essex. It was launched at the House of Lords on 4 April 2011. Between 1997 and 2010 ICPS was based in King's College London and was launched formally by Home Secretary Jack Straw in October 1997. In July 2010 the International Centre for Prison Studies incorporated and registered as a charity with the Charities Commission of England and Wales.  From the outset the Centre was independent of governmental and intergovernmental agencies, although it would work closely with them.

The Centre is self-funded and a number of charitable trusts gave generous grants which allowed the Centre to start work. The centre seeks to assist governments and other relevant agencies to develop appropriate policies on prisons and the use of imprisonment. It carries out its work on a project or consultancy basis for international agencies, governmental and non-governmental organisations.

It aims to make the results of its academic research and projects widely available to groups and individuals, both nationally and internationally, who might not normally use such work. These include policy makers, practitioners and administrators, the media and the general public.

In November 2014 the International Centre for Prison Studies merged with the Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research at Birkbeck, University of London.

People

The founding director is Andrew Coyle. The current director is Dr Jessica Jacobson. Baroness Stern is a senior research fellow at the centre.

See also
 Incarceration
 List of countries by incarceration rate

References

External links
 Core Publications of the World Prison Brief. Such as the World Prison Population List, and the World Female Imprisonment List.
 World Prison Brief - Highest to Lowest. A main portal of the World Prison Brief. Compare many nations. Select from menu: prison population total, prison population rate, percentage of pre-trial detainees / remand prisoners within the prison population, percentage of female prisoners within the prison population, percentage of foreign prisoners within the prison population and occupancy rate. Click on any country link for detailed info.

Birkbeck, University of London
King's College London
University of Essex
Prison-related organizations

World Prison Brief


Sigurd Ferdinand Olson (April 4, 1899 – January 13, 1982) was an American writer, environmentalist, and advocate for the protection of wilderness.  For more than thirty years, he served as a wilderness guide in the lakes and forests of the Quetico-Superior country of northern Minnesota and northwestern Ontario. He was known honorifically as the Bourgeois — a term the voyageurs of old used of their trusted leaders.

Biography
Born in Chicago, Illinois to Swedish Baptist parents, Olson grew up in northern Wisconsin where he developed his lifelong interest in the outdoors. They moved first to Sister Bay, then Prentice, then Ashland.   In June 1921, Olson took his first canoe trip where he fell in love with the canoe country wilderness of northern Minnesota that would become the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (with his help).  His first article, an account of a canoe expedition, was published by the Milwaukee Journal on July 31, 1921. In August of that year, Olson married Elizabeth Dorothy Uhrenholdt, and the two spent their honeymoon on another canoe trip in the Boundary Waters. He worked as a canoe guide for J.C. Russell's outfitters on Fall Lake in Winton, Minnesota, before purchasing the business in 1929.  Circa 1931 Olson ran Border Lakes Outfitters outside of Winton MN on the west end of Fall Lake serving the boundary waters area.

He led canoe expeditions for a group that became known as the "Voyageurs," which routinely included Eric W. Morse, Denis Coolican, Blair Fraser, Tony Lovink, Elliott Rodger, and Omond Solandt.

After studying agriculture, botany, geology, and ecology at Northland College, the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the University of Illinois, Olson moved to Ely, Minnesota to teach biology at Ely Junior College (now Vermilion Community College). He later chaired the science department and served as dean. in 1947 he resigned from his teaching position and began writing full-time.  He spent most of his life in the Ely area, working as a canoe guide during the summer months, teaching, and writing about the natural history, ecology, and outdoor life in and around the Boundary Waters.

On August 27, 1971, a little over a year after the celebration of the first Earth Day, Northland College hosted its first environmental conference.  Among those invited to address the two-day conference were Senator Gaylord Nelson and Sigurd Olson.  The conference became "the instrument of origin of the Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute," as Robert Matteson, the founder of the institute, wrote.  With energy to move in a new and exciting direction, and guided by the philosophies of Sigurd Olson, the institute opened its doors in spring of 1972, embarking on more than 30 years of serving Northland College and the Lake Superior region.

In 1974, Olson earned the John Burroughs Medal, the highest honor in nature writing. He died on January 13, 1982, of a heart attack while snowshoeing near his home.   He received a tribute from the US Senate on the 100th anniversary of his birth.  David Backes wrote a biography on Olson titled A Wilderness Within – The Life of Sigurd F. Olson which was published in the late 1990s.

In 2014, the Listening Point Foundation acquired Olson's cabin on Burntside Lake.  The property included the cabin Olson built near his home  where he did his writing, which has since been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  Everything is as he left it at his unexpected death including his photos, decoys, pipes, books, maps, a collection of rocks and other artifacts.  The typewriter he used to write all his articles, books, and letters still sits on the desk. The last thing he wrote on it is still on the paper in the typewriter: "A New Adventure is coming up / and I'm sure it will be / A good one."

Preservation work

Olson was influential in the protection of the Boundary Waters and helped draft the Wilderness Act of 1964, becoming vice-president of The Wilderness Society from 1963 to 1967 and president 1968 to 1971. He also helped establish Voyageurs National Park in northern Minnesota, Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and Point Reyes National Seashore in California. Sigurd also was a consultant to the Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall on wilderness and national park issues.

After over 50 years of hard work, Sigurd reached his goal. Full wilderness status was granted to the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness by Jimmy Carter in 1978, four years before Sigurd died. His hard work was commemorated in many different ways, including in the naming of a central building of YMCA Camp Widjiwagan, located on nearby Burntside Lake.  Olson was president of the National Parks Association and a member of its board of trustees.

List of works
 The Singing Wilderness (1956)
 Listening Point (1958)
 The Lonely Land (1961)
 Runes of the North (1963)
 Open Horizons (1969)
 The Hidden Forest (1969)
 Wilderness Days (1972)
 Reflections From the North Country (1976)
 Of Time and Place (1982)
 Songs of the North. Howard Frank Mosher, ed. (1987)
 The Collected Works of Sigurd F. Olson: The Early Writings, 1921–1934. Mike Link, ed. (1988)
 The Collected Works of Sigurd F. Olson: The College Years, 1935–1944. Mike Link, ed. (1990)
 The Meaning of Wilderness: Essential Articles and Speeches.  Edited and with an Introduction by David Backes. (2001)
 Spirit of the North: The Quotable Sigurd F. Olson.  Edited and with an Introduction by David Backes. (2004)

References

Further reading
 Backes, David. A Wilderness Within: The Life Of Sigurd F. Olson. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.

External links

 Listening Point Foundation – a non-profit organization dedicated to furthering Sigurd Olson's legacy
 The Sigurd Olson Environmental Institute at Northland College
 Sigurd Olson website at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
 Sigurd Olson at the Minnesota Historical Society's Author Biography Project
The  Sigurd Olson Papers are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society.
Interview with David Backes at Listening Point about his Sigurd Olson biography (Part One), Northern Lights Minnesota Author Interview TV Series #437 (1999)
Interview with David Backes at Listening Point about his Sigurd Olson biography (Part Two), Northern Lights Minnesota Author Interview TV Series #438 (1999)

1899 births
1982 deaths
American conservationists
American male non-fiction writers
Northland College (Wisconsin) alumni
University of Illinois alumni
Writers from Chicago
Writers from Minnesota
Writers from Wisconsin
American people of Swedish descent
People from St. Louis County, Minnesota
John Burroughs Medal recipients
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
American nature writers
Sierra Club awardees
20th-century American male writers

Sigurd F. Olson


ITV Local was a broadband TV service provided by UK commercial public service broadcaster ITV plc, the contractor and provider of ITV in 11 of the 15 television regions.  First established in 2005, the website provided local news, weather and features on demand 24 hours a day.

The project began with two trial services in Brighton and Hastings in the ITV Meridian region. Due to the success of this, the service was expanded to cover the entire Meridian region, then the whole of the ITV network.

On 4 March 2009, it was announced that ITV Local would close as a separate business. It did so on 17 March 2009, with the regions integrated into itv.com.

Features
ITV Local included the following:
 Local jobs, classified ads and dating
 All versions of the regional news bulletins
 Extended news features and updates through the day
 Entertainment features, extended interviews and an entertainments listings service
 Five-day weather forecasts for all regions
 Many regional programmes, such as Country Ways and current affairs series Focus as shown on Meridian and Metroland in London
 Short films sent in by viewers
 Live streaming cameras from scenic locations and special events
 Short features from local professional filmmakers

Each region's site also featured special channels unique to that area and short-duration special events. ITV Local hosted special features for the British University Sports Association, Cowes Week, the Notting Hill Carnival, Thames Festival, Latitude Festival and the British International Motor Show.

Additional UGC services
ITV Local also offered a range of user-generated content (UGC)-based multi-regional services under the brand, including an iReport-like video upload and social networking site known as YourNews and a site based around local sports events. A new photo-sharing and photo-mapping site was planned for mid-August.

ITV restructuring and planned closure
Changes to the regional structure and output of ITV  negatively affected ITV Local, which was heavily dependent on ITV regional content. ITV's core TV advertising business also performed poorly due to the economic downturn. The business was also hit by more general issues at ITV Online, surrounding their gaming offerings and Friends Reunited, which gave concern to shareholders and senior staff. As a result, on 4 March 2009 ITV announced that Local would close in April, as part of a 40% reduction in ITV Online Headcount. The Scoot sub-brand was marked for sale along with Friends Reunited. Some services such as news and weather were transferred to the ITV.com parent brand. ITV Local closed on 17 March 2009 as a separate business, with the regions integrated to itv.com.

References

External links

ITV (TV network)
Internet properties established in 2005
Internet properties disestablished in 2009
Mass media in Birmingham, West Midlands

ITV Local


Silas Sanford Smith (October 26, 1830 – October 11, 1910) was a Mormon pioneer, a politician in the Utah Territory, and the leader of the San Juan Expedition that settled San Juan County, Utah.

Smith was born in Stockholm, New York. His father, Silas Sr., was a younger brother of Joseph Smith Sr., which made Silas Jr. and Joseph Smith Jr. first cousins. Silas Sr. was baptized into Smith's Church of the Latter Day Saints in 1835 and the family became followers of Smith. After Silas Sr.'s baptism, the family moved to Kirtland, Ohio. A few years later they joined the Mormon settlers in Missouri and in 1839 they were driven out and settled in Nauvoo, Illinois. In 1847, after Joseph Smith was killed, the family left Nauvoo and crossed the American plains as Mormon pioneers, settling in the Salt Lake Valley.

In Utah Territory, Silas Jr. lived first in Salt Lake City and then in Farmington. In 1851, he married Clarinda Ricks, with whom he had four children. Shortly after their marriage, Brigham Young asked the couple to settle in Parowan. Smith practiced plural marriage and in 1853 married Sarah Ann Ricks, his first wife's sister. Smith and Sarah Ricks had five children. In 1854 to 1856, Smith was a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in Hawaii, where he learned to speak the Hawaiian language.

After he returned from Hawaii, Smith and his wives and children moved to Paragonah, Utah. Smith was a military leader in the Black Hawk War.

In 1859, Smith was elected as a representative in the Utah Territorial Legislature, where he served until 1878. Smith was also a deputy U.S. Marshal, a probate judge, and a bishop of the LDS Church in Paragonah. After the death of both of his wives within months of each other, Smith married Martha Eliza Bennet in 1864. Smith and Bennet had 12 children together.

In 1879, Smith was asked by the LDS Church to become the president of the San Juan Mission of the church in southern Utah. In this capacity, he was asked to locate a suitable spot for a Mormon settlement on the San Juan River. Smith led the San Juan Expedition via the Hole in the Rock Trail, establishing the settlement of Bluff. Smith remained president of the San Juan Mission until 1882. In April 1880, Smith became a member of the LDS Church's Council of Fifty.

After his term as president of the San Juan Mission, the LDS Church asked Smith to move to Colorado. From 1883 to 1892, he was the president of the San Luis Stake in Conejos, Colorado. He lived in Colorado until 1900, when he moved to Layton, Utah. Smith died in Layton of heart troubles.

Smith was the father of a total of 21 children with three wives.

Notes

References

Andrew Jenson, "Silas Sanford Smith", in Latter-Day Saint Biographical Encyclopedia (Salt Lake City, Utah: Western Epics, 1971), vol. 1.

External links
Silas S. Smith biography, The Hole-in-the-Rock Foundation, hirf.org

1830 births
1910 deaths
19th-century Mormon missionaries
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
American Mormon missionaries in the United States
Mission presidents (LDS Church)
Members of the Utah Territorial Legislature
19th-century American politicians
Mormon missionaries in Hawaii
Mormon pioneers
People from Conejos County, Colorado
People from Layton, Utah
People from Iron County, Utah
People from San Juan County, Utah
Smith family (Latter Day Saints)
American expatriates in the Hawaiian Kingdom
People from Stockholm, New York
Latter Day Saints from New York (state)
Latter Day Saints from Illinois
Latter Day Saints from Utah

Silas S. Smith


Plato Tiburtinus (, "Plato of Tivoli"; fl. 12th century) was a 12th-century Italian mathematician, astronomer and translator who lived in Barcelona from 1116 to 1138. He is best known for translating Hebrew and Arabic documents into Latin, and was apparently the first to translate information on the astrolabe (an astronomical instrument) from Arabic.

Plato of Tivoli translated the Arab astrologer Albohali's "Book of Birth"  into Latin in 1136.  He translated Claudius Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos from Arabic to Latin in 1138, the astronomical works of al-Battani, Theodosius' Spherics and the Liber Embadorum by Abraham bar Chiia.
He has worked together with the Jewish mathematician Savasorda (Abraham Bar Ḥiyya Ha-Nasi). His manuscripts were widely circulated and were among others used by Albertus Magnus and Fibonacci.

Works
To him are attributed four works in science-mathematics:
The Liber Embadorum ("Book of Areas," or "Practical Geometry"), it was transferred (after a date astronomical specified in the text ) in 1145 from the Hebrew. The book had an influence on the Geometry of Fibonacci book and contains one of the first comprehensive treatments of quadratic equations in the Occident.
The Spherics by Theodosius of Bithynia,
Al-Battān,i's al-Zij ("Astronomical Treatise")
The De usu astrolabii of Abu'l-Qāsim Maslama (Ibn al-Sạffār), The manuscript contains information about the first astrolabe in the West.
The translations from the Arabic of seven other works (five astrological, one geomantical, and one medical [now lost]) are ascribed to Plato:
Ptolemy's Quadripartitum,
The Iudicia Almansoris,
The De electionibus horarum of Ali ibn Aḥmad al-Imrani,
The De nativitatibus or De iudiciis nativitatum of Abu 'Ali al-Khaiyat,
The De revolutionibus nativitatum by Abū Bakr al-Ḥasan (Albubather),
The Questiones geomantice or Liber Arenalis scientie by "Alfakini, son of Abizarch" or "son of Abraham",
A De pulsibus et urinis by "Aeneas".

See also
Latin translations of the 12th century

Notes

Further reading
 Baldassarre Boncompagni: Delle versioni fatte da Platone Tiburtino. Atti dell' Accademia pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei, 4, 1851, S. 249–286
 F. J. Carmody: Arabic Astronomical and Astrological Sciences in Latin Translation: A Critical Bibliography. Berkeley, Los Angeles 1956
 Charles Homer Haskins: Studies in History of Medieval Science. Cambridge, Massachusetts 1924
 Charles Homer Haskins: The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1927
 George Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science. Band 2, Teil 1, Baltimore 1931, S. 177–179
 Moritz Steinschneider Die Europäischen Übersetzungen aus dem Arabischen bis Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts. Graz 1956
 Moritz Steinschneider: Abraham Judaeus: Savasorda und Ibn Esra … In: Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. Band 12, 1867, S. 1–44

External links

Translators
Article in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography by Lorenzo Minio-Paluello

People from Tivoli, Lazio
12th-century Italian mathematicians
Hebrew–Latin translators
Arabic–Latin translators
Christian Hebraists
12th-century astronomers
12th-century translators
Medieval Italian astronomers

Plato Tiburtinus


The Valencian Pilota Federation (in Catalan: Federació de Pilota Valenciana) is the Valencian public organization that promotes and manages the many varieties and competitions of the Valencian pilota sport. Its current president is Ramón Sedeño Clemente.

There are 2,003 licensed players and 28 teachers for the 756 students at the pilota colleges. There are 77 professional players (pilotaris) and 15 marxadors at the trinquets.

The "Federació de Pilota Valenciana" was founded on 1984, until then it was part of the "Confederación Española de Pelota", which was devoted to Basque pelota, a different handball. Its worry about the Valencian pilota was shown when the presidents of the Valencian federation were chosen at Madrid and they were unaware of this sport or whose only merit was being retired players of the Basque variety. This was the situation until a retired professional Valencian pilotari, Enrique Menéndez, got to be president but soon gave up protesting for the "ignorance" the local handball was suffering, according to him. His resignation, so, forced the raise of an independent Valencian pilota federation.

The FPV has named June 14 as "Pilota day", recalling the date playing pilota was forbidden at the streets of València in 1391.

Official competitions
Professionals
 Escala i corda
 Trofeu Individual Bancaixa
 Circuit Bancaixa
 Raspall
 Raspall singles championship
 Raspall team championship

International relationships
Since 1992, the FPV is a member of the International Ball game Confederation, which organizes every year the Handball International Championships.

External links

1984 establishments in Spain
Valencian pilota

Valencian Pilota Federation


Reece Tollenaere (born 27 June 1977) is an Australian footballer who plays as a striker.

Biography
He has played for the Queensland Roar in the A-League competition, and in the National Soccer League for Brisbane Strikers and Newcastle Breakers. Reece was signed by the Brisbane Strikers FC in the National Soccer League at the age of 17 after a successful two-year stint with the Queensland Academy of Sport, in which he won the NYL top goalscorer award with 23 goals in just 18 appearances.

In his early days with the Strikers he played predominantly as a wide midfielder under the guidance of Frank Farina and was a part of the Brisbane Strikers team to win the Ericsson Cup (NSL title) in the 1996/97 season. He was a part of the Australian under-20 squad and played three matches for his country before missing out on the final Youth World Cup squad in 1997.

In early 1998, whilst contracted to the Strikers, Reece transferred on loan to the Newcastle Breakers for the final 9 games of the season. He played in each game scoring 6 goals, which included a hat-trick against Perth Glory in a 4–3 win and a goal against the Strikers to deny his former team of a win. Reece returned to his hometown and the Strikers the next season with the Newcastle Breakers coach John Kosmina. Although the season started brightly with a headed goal against Marconi-Fairfield, he suffered a fracture to the ankle in the third game of the season against Sydney Olympic and struggled for the remainder of the season, requiring surgery to remove floating bone.

Reece suffered multiple facial fractures in a head clash in only his third game of the inaugural A-League season whilst playing for the Roar and was forced to miss the remainder of the season, undergoing two facial reconstructions.

After a long absence from the game he continued his playing career with the Brisbane Strikers, halfway through the 2006 Brisbane Premier League season. He managed to score 12 goals in as many games with the club helping the Strikers to the Premiership and Grand Final win with a double in the final. Reece continued playing for the Brisbane Strikers in 2007 and 2008 in both a striker and midfield role and has proved to be a prolific goalscorer.

Reece has a bachelor's degree in Science from the Queensland University of Technology, majoring in Biotechnology, a Bachelor of Science Honours in Genetics from the University of Queensland, and a Diploma of Business in Marketing.

References

1977 births
Living people
People from the Northern Rivers
A-League Men players
Australian men's soccer players
Brisbane Strikers FC players
Brisbane Roar FC players
Queensland University of Technology alumni
Men's association football forwards
Newcastle Breakers FC players
Sportsmen from New South Wales
Soccer players from New South Wales

Reece Tollenaere


In United States law, ripeness refers to the readiness of a case for litigation; "a claim is not ripe for adjudication if it rests upon contingent future events that may not occur as anticipated, or indeed may not occur at all." For example, if a law of ambiguous quality has been enacted but never applied, a case challenging that law lacks the ripeness necessary for a decision.

The goal is to prevent premature adjudication; if a dispute is insufficiently developed, any potential injury or stake is too speculative to warrant judicial action. Ripeness issues most usually arise when a plaintiff seeks anticipatory relief, such as an injunction.

The Supreme Court fashioned a two-part test for assessing ripeness challenges to federal regulations. The case is often applied to constitutional challenges to federal and state statutes as well. The Court said in Abbott Laboratories v. Gardner, :

Without undertaking to survey the intricacies of the ripeness doctrine it is fair to say that its basic rationale is to prevent the courts, through avoidance of premature adjudication, from entangling themselves in abstract disagreements over administrative policies, and also to protect the agencies from judicial interference until an administrative decision has been formalized and its effects felt in a concrete way by the challenging parties. The problem is best seen in a twofold aspect, requiring us to evaluate both the fitness of the issues for judicial decision and the hardship to the parties of withholding court consideration.

In both Abbott Laboratories and its first companion case, Toilet Goods Association v. Gardner, , the Court upheld pre-enforcement review of an administrative regulation. However, the Court denied such review in the second companion case because any harm from noncompliance with the FDA regulation at issue was too speculative in the Court's opinion to justify judicial review. Justice Harlan wrote for the Court in all three cases.

The ripeness doctrine should not be confused with the advisory opinion doctrine, another justiciability concept in American law.

See also

References

United States civil procedure
Legal doctrines and principles

Ripeness