Of the many and varied argument forms that can possibly be constructed, only very few are valid argument forms. In order to evaluate these forms, statements are put into logical form. Logical form replaces any sentences or ideas with letters to remove any bias from content and allow one to evaluate the argument without any bias due to its subject matter.

Being a valid argument does not necessarily mean the conclusion will be true. It is valid because if the premises are true, then the conclusion has to be true. This can be proven for any valid argument form using a truth table which shows that there is no situation in which there are all true premises and a false conclusion.

Valid syllogistic forms
In syllogistic logic, there are 256 possible ways to construct categorical syllogisms using the A, E, I, and O statement forms in the square of opposition. Of the 256, only 24 are valid forms. Of the 24 valid forms, 15 are unconditionally valid, and 9 are conditionally valid.

Unconditionally valid

Conditionally valid

Valid propositional forms

The following is a list of some common valid argument forms in propositional logic. It is nowhere near exhaustive, and gives only a few examples of the better known valid argument forms.

Modus ponens
One valid argument form is known as modus ponens, not to be mistaken with modus tollens, which is another valid argument form that has a like-sounding name and structure. Modus ponens (sometimes abbreviated as MP) says that if one thing is true, then another will be. It then states that the first is true. The conclusion is that the second thing is true. It is shown below in logical form.

If A, then B
A
Therefore B

Before being put into logical form the above statement could have been something like below.

If Kelly does not finish his homework, he will not go to class
Kelly did not finish his homework
Therefore, Kelly will not go to class

The first two statements are the premises while the third is the conclusion derived from them.

Modus tollens
Another form of argument is known as modus tollens (commonly abbreviated MT). In this form, you start with the same first premise as with modus ponens. However, the second part of the premise is denied, leading to the conclusion that the first part of the premise should be denied as well. It is shown below in logical form.

If A, then B
Not B
Therefore not A.

When modus tollens is used with actual content, it looks like below.

If the Saints win the Super Bowl, there will be a party in New Orleans that night
There was no party in New Orleans that night
Therefore, the Saints did not win the Super Bowl

Hypothetical syllogism
Much like modus ponens and modus tollens, hypothetical syllogism (sometimes abbreviated as HS) contains two premises and a conclusion. It is, however, slightly more complicated than the first two. In short, it states that if one thing happens, another will as well. If that second thing happens, a third will follow it. Therefore, if the first thing happens, it is inevitable that the third will too. It is shown below in logical form.

If A, then B
If B, then C
Therefore if A, then C

When put into words it looks like below.

If it rains today, I will wear my rain jacket
If I wear my rain jacket, I will keep dry
Therefore if it rains today, I will keep dry

Disjunctive syllogism
Disjunctive syllogism (sometimes abbreviated DS) has one of the same characteristics as modus tollens in that it contains a premise, then in a second premise it denies a statement, leading to the conclusion. In Disjunctive Syllogism, the first premise establishes two options. The second takes one away, so the conclusion states that the remaining one must be true. It is shown below in logical form.

Either A or B
Not A
Therefore B

When A and B are replaced with real life examples it looks like below.

Either you will see Joe in class today or he will oversleep
You did not see Joe in class today
Therefore Joe overslept

Disjunctive syllogism takes two options and narrows it down to one.

Constructive dilemma
Another valid form of argument is known as constructive dilemma or sometimes just 'dilemma'. It does not leave the user with one statement alone at the end of the argument, instead, it gives an option of two different statements. The first premise gives an option of two different statements. Then it states that if the first one happens, there will be a particular outcome and if the second happens, there will be a separate outcome. The conclusion is that either the first outcome or the second outcome will happen. The criticism with this form is that it does not give a definitive conclusion; just a statement of possibilities. When it is written in argument form it looks like below.

Either A or B
If A then C
If B then D
Therefore either C or D

When content is inserted in place of the letters, it looks like below.

Bill will either take the stairs or the elevator to his room
If he takes the stairs, he will be tired when he gets to his room
If he takes the elevator, he will miss the start of the football game on TV
Therefore Bill will either be tired when he gets to his room or he will miss the start of the football game

There is a slightly different version of dilemma that uses negation rather than affirming something known as destructive dilemma. When put in argumentative form it looks like below.

If A then C
If B then D
Not C or not D
Therefore not A or not B

References

Rules of inference
Valid argument forms
Arguments

List of valid argument forms


A post box, also known as pillar box, also known as a collection box, mailbox, letter box or drop box (American English) is a box where people can put mail for sending. The mail is collected by the agents of the postal service.

The term post box can also refer to a private letter box for incoming mail.

Containers
Postal services

Post box


Caiptain Alan Victor Harold Brooke, 3rd Viscount Alanbrooke, RA (born 24 November 1932; deed 10 Januar 2018) succeedit tae the viscoontcy in 1972 on the daith o his hauf-brither.

Educatit at Harrow & Bristol University [BEd Hons 1976] - qualified teacher. Served Breetish Airmy 1952-1972 Captain RA (Ret'd).

In his recreations in Debrett's he leets "enjoyin post-Lloyd's poverty, rearrangin the wreckage for remainin family."

He lived in Hartley Wintney, Hampshire whaur his faither the 1st Viscoont Alanbrooke is buried. There are nae heirs tae the title, in which case it deed wi him.

1932 births
2018 daiths
Alanbrooke, Alan Brooke, 3rd Viscoont

Alan Brooke, 3rd Viscoont Alanbrooke


A googolplex is the number 10googol, equivalent to 1010100  or 10Ten duotrigintillion or 1010,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Like the number googol, googolplex was thought of by Milton Sirotta, the nephew of mathematician Edward Kasner.

The company Google named their headquarters, the Googleplex, after the number.

A googolplexplex or googolplexian is a 1 followed by a Googolplex amount of zeros which is 10Googolplex (101010100 ).

Related pages
 Exponent
 Graham's number
 Googol

Integers

Googolplex


David Thornton (born 1978) is a British solo euphonium player for the Brighouse and Rastrick Brass Band.

Biography
Thornton began learning the euphonium at the age of eight and was soon after accepted as the first ever euphonium student at Chetham's School of Music in Manchester, England. During this time he held the principal euphonium position of the National Youth Brass Band of Great Britain. David went on to the Royal Northern College of Music, where he studied with Steven Mead, graduating in 2000. In July 2000 he was appointed as principal euphonium of the Black Dyke Band.

He left the Band at the end of 2010.

Thornton has earned several awards including scholarships from the Countess of Munster Trust and the Yamaha Music Foundation of Europe, the National Euphonium Conference Solo Prize 1995, 1997 and 1999, first prize at the Verso Il Millenio International Euphonium Competition, and the International Euphonium Player of the Year 2001.

He has been featured on BBC Television, BBC Radio and Classic FM. David has performed as a guest player with the BBC Philharmonic Orchestra, Birmingham's Royal Ballet, and Remix-Ensemble (Portugal's premier contemporary group).

Thornton teaches at the Royal Northern College of Music, the University of Huddersfield, the University of Leeds, the University of Manchester and Chetham's School of Music.  He became Associate Conductor of the Longridge band, based near Preston, Lancashire, in 2003.

Discography

Solo albums
 2004: Three Worlds
 2007: Devil's Duel

Featured as soloist
 2001: Essential Dyke III
 2001: Epic Brass
 2002: Black Dyke Plays Verdi
 2002: Call of the Cossacks
 2003: Spectacular Classics Vol. 3
 2004: Essential Dyke IV
 2004: Trumpets of the Angels
 2004: Kapitol Brass – Highlights of the 2004 National Finals
 2004: Spectacular Classics Vol. 4
 2005: Essential Dyke V
 2005: Spectacular Classics Vol. 5
 2006: The Black Dyke Christmas Carol
Jubilee Brass
Portrait of Peter Graham

DVD appearance as soloist
 2001: Epic Brass

References

External links
 David Thornton's website
 Profile on the Black Dyke Band website

Academics of the University of Huddersfield
1978 births
Living people
People educated at Chetham's School of Music

David Thornton (musician)


The Duke of Rutland is a title in the Peerage of England named for Rutland, a county in the East Midlands. Earldoms named after Rutland have been created twice in history. The ninth earl of the second creation was made a duke in 1703. The surname of the present duke's family is "Manners".  The heir to the title is known as the Marquess of Granby. Other titles: Marquess of Granby (1703), Earl of Rutland (1525), Baron Manners of Haddon (1679) and Baron Roos of Belvoir (1896). The Duke of Rutland is allowed to be addressed as His Grace. The traditional family seats are Haddon Hall in Derbyshire and Belvoir Castle in Leicestershire.

List of Dukes

John Manners, 1st Duke of Rutland (1638–1711), only son of the 8th Earl
John Manners, 2nd Duke of Rutland (1676–1721), son of the 1st Duke
John Manners, 3rd Duke of Rutland (1696–1779), eldest son of the 2nd Duke
John Manners, Marquess of Granby (1721–1770), eldest son of the 3rd Duke, predeceased his father
John Manners, Lord Roos (1751–1760), eldest son of Lord Granby, died young
Charles Manners, 4th Duke of Rutland (1754–1787), second son of Lord Granby
John Henry Manners, 5th Duke of Rutland (1778–1857), eldest son of the 4th Duke
George John Henry Manners, Marquess of Granby (1807), eldest son of the 5th Duke, died in infancy
George John Frederick Manners, Marquess of Granby (1813–1814), second son of the 5th Duke, died in infancy
Charles Cecil John Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland (1815–1888), third son of the 5th Duke, died unmarried
John James Robert Manners, 7th Duke of Rutland (1818–1906), fourth son of the 5th Duke
Henry John Brinsley Manners, 8th Duke of Rutland (1852–1925), eldest son of the 7th Duke
Robert Charles John Manners, Lord Manners (1885–1894), elder son of the 8th Duke, died young
John Henry Montagu Manners, 9th Duke of Rutland (1886–1940), younger son of the 8th Duke
Charles John Robert Manners, 10th Duke of Rutland (1919–1999), eldest son of the 9th Duke
David Charles Robert Manners, 11th Duke of Rutland (b. 1959), eldest son of the 10th Duke

The heir apparent is Charles John Montague Manners, Marquess of Granby (b. 1999), elder son of the 11th Duke

References

Rutland

Duke of Rutland


In parapsychology and spiritualism, an apport is the alleged paranormal transference of an article from one place to another, or an appearance of an article from an unknown source that is often associated with poltergeist activity or séances. Apports reported during séances have been found to be the result of deliberate fraud. No medium or psychic has demonstrated the manifestation of an apport under scientifically controlled conditions.

History

A famous apport fraud is attributed to Charles Bailey (1870–1947). During a séance, Bailey produced two live birds out of thin air but was undone when the dealer who sold him the birds appeared in the crowd. Common objects that are produced are stones, flowers, perfumes, and animals. These objects are said to be "gifts" from the spirit(s).

In March 1902 in Berlin, police officers interrupted a séance of the apport medium Frau Anna Rothe. Her hands were grabbed and she was wrestled to the ground. A female police assistant physically examined Rothe and discovered 157 flowers as well as oranges and lemons hidden in her petticoat. She was arrested and charged with fraud. After a trial lasting six days she was sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment.

In 1926, Heinrich Melzer was exposed as a fraud as he was caught in the séance room with small stones attached to the back of his ears by flesh coloured tape. According to neurologist Terence Hines "Some female mediums went so far as to conceal in their vagina or anus objects to be 'apported' during the seance and gauzy fabric that would become 'ectoplasm' during the seance. These were places that Victorian gentlemen, no matter how skeptical, were highly unlikely to ask to search."

There are many cases where apports have been smuggled into the séance room. Other apport mediums that were exposed as frauds were Lajos Pap and Maria Silbert.

See also

 Evocation
 Indriði Indriðason
 List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
 Materialization
 Psychokinesis
 Sleight of hand
 Teleportation

References

External links

Paranormal hoaxes
Paranormal terminology
Parapsychology
Spiritualism

Apport (paranormal)


A pyrheliometer is an instrument that can measure direct beam solar irradiance. Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded. The signal voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts per square metre.

Standards
Pyrheliometer measurement specifications are subject to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO) standards.
Comparisons between pyrheliometers for intercalibration are carried out regularly to measure the amount of solar energy received.
The aim of the International Pyrheliometer Comparisons, which take place every 5 years at the World Radiation Centre in Davos, is to ensure the world-wide transfer of the World Radiometric Reference.
During this event, all participants bring their instruments, solar-tracking and data acquisition systems to Davos to conduct simultaneous solar radiation measurements with the World Standard Group.

Applications
Typical pyrheliometer measurement applications include scientific meteorological and climate observations, material testing research, and assessment of the efficiency of solar collectors and photovoltaic devices.

Usage
Pyrheliometers are typically mounted on a solar tracker. As the pyrheliometer only 'sees' the solar disk, it needs to be placed on a device that follows the path of the sun.

See also
 Actinometer
 Active cavity radiometer
 Bolometer
 Pyrometer
 Solar constant

References

External links

Measuring instruments
Radiometry
Meteorological instrumentation and equipment

Pyrheliometer


Bohemia ( ;  ; ; ; ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohemian kings, including Moravia and Czech Silesia, in which case the smaller region is referred to as Bohemia proper as a means of distinction.

Bohemia was a duchy of Great Moravia, later an independent principality, a kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire, and subsequently a part of the Habsburg monarchy and the Austrian Empire. After World War I and the establishment of an independent Czechoslovak state, the whole of Bohemia became a part of Czechoslovakia, defying claims of the German-speaking inhabitants that regions with German-speaking majority should be included in the Republic of German-Austria. Between 1938 and 1945, these border regions were joined to Nazi Germany as the Sudetenland.

The remainder of Czech territory became the Second Czechoslovak Republic, and was subsequently occupied as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia until the end of World War II, after which Bohemia became part of the restored Czechoslovakia. In 1969, the Czech lands (including Bohemia) were given autonomy within Czechoslovakia as the Czech Socialist Republic. In 1990, the name was changed to the Czech Republic, which became a separate state in 1993 with the breakup of Czechoslovakia.

Until 1948, Bohemia was an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia as one of its "lands" (země). Since then, administrative reforms have replaced self-governing lands with a modified system of "regions" (kraje), which do not follow the borders of the historical Czech lands (or the regions from the 1960 and 2000 reforms). However, the three lands are mentioned in the preamble of the Constitution of the Czech Republic: "We, citizens of the Czech Republic in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia..."

Bohemia had an area of , and today is home to about 6.8 million of the Czech Republic's 10.8 million inhabitants. Bohemia was bordered in the south by Upper and Lower Austria (both in Austria), in the west by Bavaria (in Germany), and in the north by Saxony and Lusatia (in Germany and Poland, respectively), in the northeast by Silesia (in Poland), and in the east by Moravia (also part of the Czech Republic). Bohemia's borders were mostly marked by mountain ranges such as the Bohemian Forest, the Ore Mountains, and the Giant Mountains; the Bohemian-Moravian border roughly follows the Elbe-Danube watershed.

Etymology

In the second century BCE, the Romans were competing for dominance in northern Italy with various peoples, including the Gauls-Celtic tribe Boii. The Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia (194 BCE) and the Battle of Mutina (193 BCE). Afterward, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps. Much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied (the "desert of the Boii" as Pliny and Strabo called it) as Boiohaemum. The earliest mention was by Tacitus' Germania 28 (written at the end of the first century AD), and later mentions of the same name are in Strabo and Velleius Paterculus. The name appears to consist of the tribal name Boio- plus the Proto-Germanic noun *haimaz "home" (whence Gothic haims, German Heim, Heimat, English home), indicating a Proto-Germanic *Bajahaimaz.

Boiohaemum was apparently isolated to the area where King Marobod's kingdom was centred, within the Hercynian forest. Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII in his 10th-century work  also mentioned the region as Boiki (see White Serbia).

The Czech name "Čechy" is derived from the name of the Slavic ethnic group, the Czechs, who settled in the area during the sixth or seventh century AD.

History

Ancient Bohemia

Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, which was one of the events leading to the interventions of Julius Caesar's Gaulish campaign of 58 BC. The emigration of the Helvetii and Boii left southern Germany and Bohemia a lightly inhabited "desert" into which Suebic peoples arrived, speaking Germanic languages, and became dominant over remaining Celtic groups. To the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast, in present-day Hungary, were Dacian peoples.

In the area of modern Bohemia, the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king, Marobodus, after they had suffered defeat to Roman forces in Germany. He took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. They were able to maintain a strong alliance with neighbouring tribes, including (at different times) the Lugii, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones, and Buri, which was sometimes partly controlled by the Roman Empire and sometimes in conflict with it; for example, in the second century, they fought Marcus Aurelius.

In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared to the west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni (in the Helvetian desert), and the Bavarians (Baiuvarii). Many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westwards, even settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals, and Alans.

Other groups pushed southwards towards Pannonia. The last known mention of the Kingdom of the Marcomanni, concerning a queen named Fritigil, is from the fourth century, and she was thought to have lived in or near Pannonia. The Suebian Langobardi, who moved over many generations from the Baltic Sea, via the Elbe and Pannonia to Italy, recorded in a tribal history a time spent in "Bainaib".

After the Migration Period, Bohemia was partially repopulated around the sixth century, and eventually Slavic tribes arrived from the east, and their language began to replace the older Germanic, Celtic, and Sarmatian ones. These are precursors of today's Czechs, but the exact amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or three waves. The first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Lombards left Bohemia (circa 568 AD). Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samo's tribal confederation. His death marked the end of the old "Slavonic" confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia.

Other sources (Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii, Bavaria, 800–850) divide the population of Bohemia into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare (Bohemani), and Fraganeo. (The suffix -ani or -ni means "people of-"). Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but became dominant only much later, in the 10th or 11th century.

The 9th century was crucial for the future of Bohemia. The manorial system sharply declined, as it did in Bavaria. The influence of the central Fraganeo-Czechs grew, as a result of the important cultic centre in their territory. They were Slavic-speaking, thus contributed to the transformation of diverse neighbouring populations into a new nation named and led by them with a united "slavic" ethnic consciousness.

Přemysl dynasty

Bohemia was made a part of the early Slavic state of Great Moravia, under the rule of Svatopluk I (r. 870–894). After Svatopluk's death Great Moravia was weakened by years of internal conflict and constant warfare, ultimately collapsing and fragmenting because of the continual incursions of the invading nomadic Magyars. Bohemia's initial incorporation into the Moravian Empire resulted in the extensive Christianization of the population. A native monarchy arose to the throne, and Bohemia came under the rule of the Přemyslid dynasty, which would rule the Czech lands for the next several hundred years.

The Přemyslids secured their frontiers after the collapse of the Moravian state by entering into a state of semivassalage to the Frankish rulers. The alliance was facilitated by Bohemia's conversion to Christianity, in the 9th century. Continuing close relations were developed with the East Frankish Kingdom, which devolved from the Carolingian Empire, into East Francia, eventually becoming the Holy Roman Empire.

After a decisive victory of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia over invading Magyars in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld, Boleslaus I of Bohemia was granted the Moravia by German emperor Otto the Great. Bohemia would remain a largely autonomous state under the Holy Roman Empire for several decades. The jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire was definitively reasserted when Jaromír of Bohemia was granted fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia by Emperor King Henry II of the Holy Roman Empire, with the promise that he hold it as a vassal once he reoccupied Prague with a German army in 1004, ending the rule of Bolesław I of Poland.

The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" were the Přemyslid dukes Vratislav II (1085) and Vladislaus II (1158), but their heirs would return to the title of duke. The title of king became hereditary under Ottokar I (1198). His grandson Ottokar II (king from 1253 to 1278) conquered a short-lived empire that contained modern Austria and Slovenia. The mid-13th century had the beginning of substantial German immigration, as the court sought to replace losses from the brief Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241. Germans settled primarily along the northern, western, and southern borders of Bohemia, although many lived in towns throughout the kingdom.

Luxembourg dynasty

The House of Luxembourg accepted the invitation to the Bohemian throne with the marriage to the Premyslid heiress, Elizabeth and the crowning subsequent of John I of Bohemia (in the Czech Republic known as Jan Lucemburský) in 1310. His son, Charles IV, became King of Bohemia in 1346. He founded Charles University in Prague, Central Europe's first university, two years later.

His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first king of Bohemia to also be elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule, the Bohemian crown controlled such diverse lands as Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area around Nuremberg called New Bohemia, Luxembourg, and several small towns scattered around Germany.

From the 13th century on, settlements of Germans developed throughout Bohemia, making Bohemia a bilingual country. The German settlers particularly brought mining technology to the mountainous regions of the Sudetes. In the mining town of Sankt Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov), famous coins called Joachimsthalers were coined, which gave their name to the thaler and the dollar.

Meanwhile, Prague German intermediated between Upper German and East Central German, influencing the foundations of modern standard German. At the same time and place, the teachings of Jan Hus, the rector of Charles University and a prominent reformer and religious thinker, influenced the rise of modern Czech.

Hussite Bohemia

During the ecumenical Council of Constance in 1415, Jan Hus was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed despite the fact that Hus was granted formal protection by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg prior to the journey. Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court, but with the emperor's approval, he was executed on 6 July 1415. The execution of Hus, as well as five consecutive papal crusades against followers of Hus, forced the Bohemians to defend themselves in the Hussite Wars.

The uprising against imperial forces was led by a former mercenary, Jan Žižka of Trocnov. As the leader of the Hussite armies, he used innovative tactics and weapons, such as howitzers, pistols, and fortified wagons, which were revolutionary for the time, and established Žižka as a great general who never lost a battle.

After Žižka's death, Prokop the Great took over the command for the army, and under his lead the Hussites were victorious for another ten years, to the sheer terror of Europe. The Hussite cause gradually splintered into two main factions, the moderate Utraquists and the more fanatic Taborites. The Utraquists began to lay the groundwork for an agreement with the Catholic Church and found the more radical views of the Taborites distasteful. Additionally, with general war-weariness and yearning for order, the Utraquists were able to eventually defeat the Taborites in the Battle of Lipany in 1434. Sigismund said after the battle that "only the Bohemians could defeat the Bohemians."

Despite an apparent victory for the Catholics, the Bohemian Utraquists were still strong enough to negotiate freedom of religion in 1436. That happened in the so-called Compacts of Basel, declaring peace and freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. It lasted for only a short period of time, as Pope Pius II declared the compacts to be invalid in 1462.

In 1458, George of Poděbrady was elected to ascend to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up a pan-European "Christian League", which would form all the states of Europe into a community based on religion. In the process of negotiating, he appointed Leo of Rozmital to tour the European courts and to conduct the talks. However, the negotiations were not completed because George's position was substantially damaged over time by his deteriorating relationship with the Pope.

Habsburg Monarchy

After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria became the new king of Bohemia, and the country became a constituent state of the Habsburg monarchy.

Bohemia enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period. In 1609, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, who made Prague again the capital of the empire at the time, himself a Roman Catholic, was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish Maiestas Rudolphina, which confirmed the older Confessio Bohemica of 1575.

After Emperor Matthias II and then King of Bohemia Ferdinand II (later Holy Roman Emperor) began oppressing the rights of Protestants in Bohemia, the resulting Bohemian Revolt led to outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618. Elector Frederick V of the Electorate of the Palatinate, a Calvinist Protestant, was elected by the Bohemian nobility to replace Ferdinand on the Bohemian throne, and was known as the Winter King. Frederick's wife, the popular Elizabeth Stuart and subsequently, Elizabeth of Bohemia, known as the Winter Queen or Queen of Hearts, was the daughter of King James I of England and VI of Scotland.

After Frederick's defeat in the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, 27 Bohemian estates leaders together with Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague, were executed on the Prague's Old Town Square on 21 June 1621, and the rest were exiled from the country; their lands were then given to Catholic loyalists (mostly of Bavarian and Saxon origin). That ended the pro-reformation movement in Bohemia and also ended the role of Prague as ruling city of the Holy Roman Empire.

In the so-called "renewed constitution" of 1627, German was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. Czech formally remained the first language in the kingdom, but both German and Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes, although German became increasingly dominant, and Czech was spoken in much of the countryside.

The formal independence of Bohemia was further jeopardized when the Bohemian Diet approved administrative reform in 1749. It included the indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule, which essentially meant the merging of the Royal Bohemian Chancellery with the Austrian Chancellery.

At the end of the 18th century, the Czech National Revival movement, in cooperation with part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the kingdom's historic rights, whereby Czech was to regain its historical role and replace German as the language of administration. The enlightened absolutism of Joseph II and Leopold II, who introduced minor language concessions, showed promise for the Czech movement, but many of these reforms were later rescinded. During the Revolution of 1848, many Czech nationalists called for autonomy for Bohemia from Habsburg Austria, but the revolutionaries were defeated. At the same time, German-speaking towns elected representatives for the first German Parliament at Frankfurt. Towns between Karlsbad and Reichenberg chose leftist representatives, while Eger, Rumburg, and Troppau elected conservative representatives. The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved, although Czech experienced a rebirth as romantic nationalism developed among the Czechs.

In 1861, a new elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, and Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralist Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue").

After the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Hungarian politicians achieved the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, ostensibly creating equality between the Austrian and Hungarian halves of the empire. An attempt by the Czechs to create a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) failed in 1871. The "state-rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918.

Under the state-rights program, appealing to the stability of Bohemia's borders over many centuries, the Czech emancipation movement claimed the right to the whole of the Bohemian lands over the Germans' right to the lands, amounting to a third of Bohemia, where they formed the majority.

20th century

After World War I, the German Bohemians demanded that the regions with German-speaking majority be included in a German state. Czech political leaders however claimed the entire Bohemian lands, including majority German-speaking areas, for Czechoslovakia. By the end of October, bilingual towns had been occupied by Czech forces. By end of November, many purely German-speaking towns had been occupied. German or Austrian troops, bound by the cease-fire agreement, did not support Bohemian German self-defense, while the Czechoslovak army, having status of an Entete army, could freely operate. The absorption of the German-speaking areas in Czechoslovakia was hence a fait accompli.

As a result, the totality of Bohemia (as the largest and most populous land) became the core of the newly formed country of Czechoslovakia, which combined Bohemia, Moravia, Czech Silesia, Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) and Carpathian Ruthenia into one state. Under its first president, Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia became a liberal democratic republic, but serious issues emerged regarding the Czech majority's relationship with the native German and Hungarian minorities.

Following the Munich Agreement in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia historically inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans (the Sudetenland) were annexed to Nazi Germany. The remnants of Bohemia and Moravia were then annexed by Germany in 1939, while the Slovak lands became the separate Slovak Republic, a puppet state of Nazi Germany. From 1939 to 1945, Bohemia (without the Sudetenland), together with Moravia, formed the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren).

Any open opposition to German occupation was brutally suppressed by the Nazi authorities, and many Czech patriots were executed as a result. In 1942, Nazi forces murdered the population of a whole village, Lidice. After World War II ended in 1945, after initial plans to cede lands to Germany or to create German-speaking cantons had been abandoned, the vast majority of the Bohemian Germans were expelled by force by the order of the re-established Czechoslovak central government, based on the Potsdam Agreement that acquiesced to large-scale ethnic cleansing. The Bohemian Germans' property was confiscated by the Czech authorities, and according to contemporary estimates, amounted to a third of the Czechoslovak national income. Germans who were valued for their skills were allowed to stay to pass on their knowledge to the Czech migrants. The expulsion severely depopulated the area and from then on, locales were referred to in only their Czech equivalents regardless of their previous demographic makeup. The resettlement of the formerly German-settled areas allowed many poorer people to acquire property, thus "equalizing" Czechoslovak society.

The Communist Party won the most votes in free elections, but not a simple majority. Klement Gottwald, the communist leader, became prime minister of a coalition government.

In February 1948, the non-communist members of the government resigned in protest against arbitrary measures by the communists and their Soviet protectors in many of the state's institutions. Gottwald and the communists responded with a coup d'état and installed a pro-Soviet authoritarian state. In 1949, Bohemia ceased to be an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia, as the country was divided into administrative regions that did not follow the historical borders.

In 1989, Agnes of Bohemia became the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized by Pope John Paul II before the "Velvet Revolution" later that year.

After the Velvet Divorce in 1993, the territory of Bohemia remained in the Czech Republic. The new Constitution of the Czech Republic provided for higher administrative units to be established, providing for the possibility of Bohemia as an administrative unit, but did not specify the form they would take. A constitutional act in 1997 rejected the restoration of self-governing historical Czech lands, and decided for the regional system that has been in use since 2000. Petr Pithart, former Czech prime minister and president of the Senate at the time, remained one of the main advocates of the land system, claiming that the primary reason for its refusal was the fear of possible Moravian separatism.

Bohemia thus remains a historical region, and its administration is divided between Prague and the Central Bohemian, Plzeň, Karlovy Vary, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Hradec Králové regions, as well as most of the Pardubice and South Bohemian region, and parts of the Vysočina and South Moravian regions. In addition to their use in the names of the regions, the historical land names remain in use in names of municipalities, cadastral areas, railway stations or geographical names. The distinction and border between the Czech lands is also preserved in local dialects.

Kladsko

The area around Kłodzko (; ; ) in south-western Poland was culturally and traditionally a part of Bohemia, and was settled by German speakers like neighboring Sudetenland. Kłodzko Land has now been a part of Lower Silesia since its conquest by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1763. Referred to as "Little Prague" (), the Kłodzko Valley region on the Nysa Kłodzka River was the focus of several attempts to reincorporate the area into Czechoslovakia, one of several Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts.

The last attempt occurred in May 1945, when Czechoslovakia tried to annex the area, whose German-speaking majority was being expelled by Polish authorities. The Czechs argued that because of the small Czech minority present in the western part of the Kłodzko Valley, which was called the region's "Czech Corner" by the German majority, the area should go over to Czechoslovakia instead of being assigned to Poland, as no relevant Polish minority lived in the area. Pressure brought on by the Soviet Union led to a ceasing of military operations, with the Czech minority being expelled to Germany and Czechoslovakia. According to canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, the area remained part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague until 1972.

Capitalizing on interest regarding the Kladsko area in the Czech national psyche, a special tourist area in the Náchod District has been designated as the Kladsko Borderland Tourist Area (tourism district; ). The area, entirely within the Czech Republic, was formerly known as the Jirásek's Region (), Adršpach rocks ().

Historical administrative divisions

Kraje of Bohemia during the Kingdom of Bohemia:
 Bechyně ()
 Boleslav ()
 Čáslav ()
 Chrudim
 Hradec Králové ()
 Kladsko ()
 Kouřim at Prague ()
 Litoměřice ()
 Loket ()
 Vltava ()
 Plzeň ()
 Podbrdsko at Beroun ()
 Prácheň at Písek
 Rakovník ()
 Slaný ()
 Žatec ()

See also
 Bohemianism
 Lands of the Bohemian Crown
 Flag of Bohemia
 Province of German Bohemia
 History of the Czech lands
 Kingdom Come: Deliverance
 Lech, Czech, and Rus'
 List of Bohemian monarchs
 Bohemian Rhapsody

References

Further reading
 Hugh, Agnew (2004). The Czechs and the Lands of the Bohemian Crown. Hoover Press, Stanford. .
 Knox, Brian (1962). Bohemia and Moravia: An Architectural Companion. Faber & Faber.
 Panek, Jaroslav; Tuma, Oldrich (2nd ed., 2019). A History of the Czech Lands. Karolinum Press. .
 Sayer, Derek (1998). The Coasts of Bohemia: A Czech History. Princeton University Press. .

External links

 Province of Bohemia official website of the Czech Catholic Church
 "Bohemia", a BBC Radio 4 discussion with Norman Davies, Karin Friedrich and Robert Pynsent (In Our Time, 11 April 2002)
 Travel Destinations and Sights in Bohemia at Amazing Czechia

Geography of Europe
Geography of the Czech Republic
Historical regions in the Czech Republic

Bohemia


André Guijon (November, 1548 – September, 1631) was a French churchman and orator.

He was born in Autun, the son of Jean Guijon, a physician and Oriental scholar, who travelled in the East and brought back to France a Greek manuscript copy of the New Testament, dating from the eleventh century. He had three brothers with more than one title to fame: Jacques, Jean, and Hugues, all three lawyers, writers, and savants.

Philibert de la Mare, counsellor at the Parliament of Dijon, collected the principal works of the four brothers in one volume, in quarto of 612 pages, under the title "Jacobi, Joannis, Andreæ et Hugonis fratrum Guiionorum opera varia" (1658). This contained both their prose works and Latin poems.

André became vicar-general to Cardinal de Joyeuse, and afterwards to the Bishop of Autun. He went to Rome to be consecrated and came back to France in 1586. His "Remontrance à la cour du Parlement de Normandie sur l'octroy des sentences fulminatoires" is extant. His "Eloge funèbre de Pierre Jeannin" has not been preserved.

References

1548 births
1631 deaths
16th-century French Roman Catholic priests
French poets
French male poets

André Guijon


In genealogy, a cadet is a younger son, as opposed to the firstborn heir.

Etymology
The word has been recorded in English since 1634, originally for a young son, identical to the French, which is itself derived from the Gascon Occitan (spoken in Gascony in southwest France) capdet "captain, chief", in turn from the Late Latin capitellum, the diminutive of Latin caput "head" (hence also chief).

Younger sons from Gascon families were apparently commonly sent to the French court to serve as officers; as a rule, non-heirs from the European nobility sought careers in the military or the clergy.

Usage
As an adjective, "cadet" is used to signify a junior branch of a family. Thus, the Orléans line was a cadet branch of the Bourbon family, which itself was a cadet branch of the House of Capet.

For the status as such, the noun cadency exists, as in the heraldic term mark of cadency, for a feature which distinguishes a cadet son's coat of arms from the father's which is passed on unaltered only to the (usually firstborn) heir.

Military has been the traditional career choice of the nobility throughout the centuries, and it has been customary that the firstborn son inherited the title, lands and possessions, while the younger sons of a noble family went to the military, often to be trained as officers. Hence the meaning "cadet branch" for a junior branch of a family and the term "cadet" for an officer trainee.

Genealogy
Kinship and descent

Cadet (genealogy)


A chemical change (chemical reaction) is a change of materials into other materials with different properties.

Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, or,  chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions.

Burning of wood is a chemical change as new substances which cannot be changed back (e.g. carbon dioxide) are formed. For example, if wood is burned in a fireplace, there is not wood anymore but ash. Other examples  include burning of a candle, rusting of iron, baking a cake, etc. Special details that describe how a chemical change takes place are called chemical properties.

Compare: physical change. The opposite of a chemical change is a physical change. Physical changes are a change in which no new substances are formed, and the substance which is changed is the same. For instance, if a stick of wood is broken, there is still a stick of wood; it is just broken.

More examples include changes of shape, changes of states, passing electricity through a copper wire, breaking of wood, shattering of glass, pouring of water, etc. Special details which do not change in a substance without new substances being formed are called physical properties.

Chemical reactions

Chemical change


Windows Live Writer is a web logging application. It was made by Microsoft and is part of the Windows Live Essentials group of applications. Writer has WYSIWYG post editing features. Writer lets users add images and maps to their posts as well as other things. The application works with Windows Live Spaces, SharePoint blogs, Blogger, LiveJournal, TypePad, WordPress and other services.

Microsoft Windows software

Windows Live Writer


Cleon (;  Kleon, ; died 422 BCE) was an Athenian politician and general known for his support of the Peloponnesian War. The historian Thucydides writes that Cleon was a demagogue and that he once ordered the Athenians to massacre an entire city for rebelling against Athens.

Cleon also dragged Aristophanes to court to prosecute him for his play The Babylonians. Aristophanes at the beginning of his next play The Acharnians said he would have revenge on Cleon. Aristophanes also wrote a comedy called The Knights to try and convince the people not to re-elect Cleon and another called The Wasps about Cleon being a populist.

According to Aristotle, Cleon was the first one who would shout down anyone who disagreed with him and accuse any and all opponents of being essentially traitors to 'the people' and who did everything he could to convince the people that the only way for them to have power was to let him do what he wanted even if it were against the Constitution.

422 BC deaths
Ancient Greek politicians
Ancient Greek generals
Year of birth unknown

Cleon


Fischingen is a municipality in the district of Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

History

Fischingen is first mentioned in 1328 as Fischinon. In 1972, Dussnang, Fischingen, Oberwangen and Tannegg merged with Fischingen.

The village was built north of the twelfth-century Benedictine Fischingen Abbey.  It was, together with Bichelsee, Balterswil, Ifwil, and probably Au, part of the old Fischinger court, which opened in 1432.   It was closely connected to the Tannegg Amt, which bought the Abbey in 1693.

The Catholic village church was supported by the Abbey, while the Reformed minority belonged to the Dussnang parish.  In 1848 the Abbey was closed and the Abbey church became the center of a new, separate parish.  The church was located on the way to Einsiedeln and its pilgrimage church, so in 16th and 17th Centuries a small pilgrimage industry grew up in Fischingen.  The pilgrimage chapel grew up around the grave of Saint Ida of Toggenburg, who had lived in the Abbey. In the 17th and 18th centuries the premises were rebuilt in the Baroque and Rococo styles. Between 1685 and 1687 a new abbey church was constructed, and in 1705 a new chapel dedicated to Saint Ida. In the 18th century part of the monastic premises was rebuilt, but could not be completed because of the abbey's accumulated debts.

Geography
Fischingen has an area, , of .  Of this area,  or 47.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while  or 46.2% is forested.   Of the rest of the land,  or 5.8% is settled (buildings or roads),  or 0.2% is either rivers or lakes and  or 0.3% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 2.5% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 0.3% and transportation infrastructure made up 0.5%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 2.4%.  Out of the forested land, 42.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 3.5% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees.  Of the agricultural land, 45.3% is used for growing crops, while 1.6% is used for orchards or vine crops.  All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

The municipality is located in the Münchwilen district, on the northern foot of the Hörnli.  It consists of the villages of Fischingen, Au, Dussnang, Oberwangen and Tannegg as well as over 100 scattered settlements.

Demographics
Fischingen has a population () of   , 7.8% of the population are foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1997–2007) the population has changed at a rate of -0.1%.  Most of the population () speaks German(96.2%), with Albanian being second most common ( 1.0%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 0.6%).

, the gender distribution of the population was 51.0% male and 49.0% female.  The population was made up of 1,225 Swiss men (47.0% of the population), and 104 (4.0%) non-Swiss men.  There were 1,178 Swiss women (45.2%), and 99 (3.8%) non-Swiss women.

In  there were 16 live births to Swiss citizens and 2 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 15 deaths of Swiss citizens.  Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 1 while the foreign population increased by 2.  There were 3 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland to another country, 6 non-Swiss men who emigrated from Switzerland to another country and 10 non-Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland to another country.  The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources) was an increase of 9 and the non-Swiss population change was an increase of 26 people.  This represents a population growth rate of 1.4%.

The age distribution, , in Fischingen is; 257 children or 10.0% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 360 teenagers or 14.1% are between 10 and 19.  Of the adult population, 286 people or 11.2% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old.  274 people or 10.7% are between 30 and 39, 482 people or 18.8% are between 40 and 49, and 373 people or 14.6% are between 50 and 59.  The senior population distribution is 259 people or 10.1% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 143 people or 5.6% are between 70 and 79, there are 108 people or 4.2% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 20 people or 0.8% who are 90 and older.

, there were 932 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.7 persons per household.   there were 440 single family homes (or 85.3% of the total) out of a total of 516 inhabited buildings.  There were 49 two family buildings (9.5%), 8 three family buildings (1.6%) and 19 multi-family buildings (or 3.7%). There were 476 (or 18.3%) persons who were part of a couple without children, and 1,616 (or 62.0%) who were part of a couple with children.  There were 99 (or 3.8%) people who lived in single parent home, while there are 16 persons who were adult children living with one or both parents, 19 persons who lived in a household made up of relatives, 15 who lived in a household made up of unrelated persons, and 94 who are either institutionalized or live in another type of collective housing.

The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 1.74%.  , the construction rate of new housing units was 7 new units per 1000 residents.   there were 1,007 apartments in the municipality.  The most common apartment size was the 6 room apartment of which there were 276.  There were 23 single room apartments and 276 apartments with six or more rooms.   the average price to rent an average apartment in Fischingen was 1074.61 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$860, £480, €690 approx. exchange rate from 2000).  The average rate for a one-room apartment was 597.50 CHF (US$480, £270, €380), a two-room apartment was about 779.21 CHF (US$620, £350, €500), a three-room apartment was about 883.58 CHF (US$710, £400, €570) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 1532.28 CHF (US$1230, £690, €980).  The average apartment price in Fischingen was 96.3% of the national average of 1116 CHF.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 46.35% of the vote.  The next three most popular parties were the CVP (22.58%), the Green Party (10.88%) and the FDP (7.3%).  In the federal election, a total of 1,003 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 52.4%.

The historical population is given in the following table:

Heritage sites of national significance
St. Martins Chapel, the Catholic Church of Dussnang, the Benedictine Monastery (now Priory) with Church and Ida Chapel and the ruins of Tannegg Castle are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance.  The entire Fischingen Monastery site is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Economy
, Fischingen had an unemployment rate of 0.86%.  , there were 233 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 98 businesses involved in this sector.  321 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 51 businesses in this sector.  538 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 88 businesses in this sector.   there were 1,862 workers who lived in the municipality.  Of these, 734 or about 39.4% of the residents worked outside Fischingen while 377 people commuted into the municipality for work.  There were a total of 1,505 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality. Of the working population, 6.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 44.1% used a private car.

Religion

From the , 1,403 or 53.9% were Roman Catholic, while 816 or 31.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.  Of the rest of the population, there were 3 Old Catholics (or about 0.12% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland there are 9 individuals (or about 0.35% of the population) who belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are 54 individuals (or about 2.07% of the population) who belong to another Christian church.  There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 51 (or about 1.96% of the population) who are Islamic.  There are 10 individuals (or about 0.38% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 165 (or about 6.33% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 93 individuals (or about 3.57% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
The entire Swiss population is generally well educated.  In Fischingen about 73.5% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).

Fischingen is home to the Fischingen primary and secondary school district.  In the 2008/2009 school year there were 298 students at either the primary or secondary levels.  There were 59 children in the kindergarten, and the average class size was 19.67 kindergartners.  Of the children in kindergarten, 32 or 54.2% were female, 1 or 1.7% were not Swiss citizens and 1 or 1.7% did not speak German natively.  The lower and upper primary levels begin at about age 5-6 and last for 6 years.  There were 94 children in who were at the lower primary level and 102 children in the upper primary level.  The average class size in the primary school was 21.78 students.  At the lower primary level, there were 39 children or 41.5% of the total population who were female, 5 or 5.3% were not Swiss citizens and 4 or 4.3% did not speak German natively.  In the upper primary level, there were 48 or 47.1% who were female and 1 or 1.0% who was not a Swiss citizen.

At the secondary level, students are divided according to performance.  The secondary level begins at about age 12 and usually lasts 3 years.  There were 59 teenagers who were in the advanced school, of which 38 or 64.4% were female, 2 or 3.4% were not Swiss citizens and 2 or 3.4% did not speak German natively.  There were 43 teenagers who were in the standard school, of which 16 or 37.2% were female, 4 or 9.3% were not Swiss citizens and 3 or 7.0% did not speak German natively.  The average class size for all classes at the secondary level was 17 students.

References

External links

Municipalities of Thurgau
Cultural property of national significance in Thurgau

Fischingen


The Swahili are a people and culture found on the East coast of Africa, mainly the coastal regions and the islands of Kenya and Tanzania, and north Mozambique. The Swahili number is at around 1,328,000. The number of Swahili speakers, on the other hand, numbers at around 90 million people.  The name Swahili comes from the Arabic word Sawahil and means "coastal dwellers". Swahili is official language only in Tanzania. Swahili speakers who live elsewhere in East Africa also have to use the official languages of their respective countries: English in Kenya, Portuguese in Mozambique, and French in Comoros. Only a small part of those who use Swahili are first language speakers and even fewer are ethnic Swahilis.  This point is often obscured by the Swahili linguistic tradition in which those who speak the language are often called Swahili (Waswahili) regardless of their actual ethnic origins.  In other words, the term 'Swahili' can mean 'those who speak Swahili' or it can mean 'ethnic Swahili people'.

Definition
The Swahili are unique Bantu inhabitants of the East African Coast mainly from Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique. They are mainly united by culture and under the mother tongue of Kiswahili, a Bantu language.  There are Arab, Persian, and other migrants who reached the coast some believe as early as the 7th-8th c. CE, and mixed with the local people there, that are regarded as Swahili now. Because of this influence the Swahili language contains many loan words from Arabic and Persian.  Archaeologist, Felix Chami thinks that Bantu settlements at the East African coast existed already at the beginning of the 1st millennium. From the 6th century onward they became more important as there was an increase in trade (mainly with Arab merchants), population growth, and further centralized urbanization. So the Swahili City-States developed.

Religion
Islam came to the East African coast around 1012 AD, when the traders from the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula continued to journey to these parts during monsoon seasons and to have contact with the local people through trade, marriage, and an exchange of ideas. Because of this interaction, most of the Swahili today are Muslim. The Swahili follow a very strict and orthodox form of Islam.

Economy
For centuries the Swahili depended greatly on trade from the Indian Ocean. The Swahili have played a vital role as middle man between east, central and South Africa, and the outside world. Trade contacts have been noted as early as 100 A.D. by early Roman writers who visited the East African coast in the first century. Trade routes extended across Tanzania into modern day Zaire. Along these goods were brought to the coasts and were sold to Arab, Indian, and Portuguese traders and even reached as far as China and India. Materials of this trade were also found at Great Zimbabwe. During the Middle Ages, ivory and slaves became a substantial source of income. Many slaves who were sold in Zanzibar ended up in Brazil, which was then a Portuguese colony. Swahili fishermen of today still rely on the ocean to supply their primary source of income. Fish is sold to their inland neighbors in exchange for products of the interior.

Related pages
 Swahili language

References

Other websites
 The Story of Africa: The Swahili — BBC World Service
 Swahili Culture

Ethnic groups in Kenya
Ethnic groups in Tanzania
Mozambique

Swahili people


A flag is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol.

Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire. Flags also have meanings, the colors and the shapes they use. For example, the Japan flag has a white backgroud and a red circle in the middle. The red cirle is the red sun and the white background means honesty and purity.

There are many types of flags:

 A National Flag is the symbol of a country (nation). For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag' or 'Union Jack; the national flag of France is the Tricolore and the national flag of Flag of Cyprus has an image of a map of its own country on its flag.
 An Ensign is a special type of national flag for use on ships. Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns. For example, warships use a naval ensign which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships.
 A Rank Flag is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is.
 In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war. Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades.
 Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags. For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own state flags.
 A Signal Flag is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land. Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations. Signal flags are also used for racing.
 Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations.

Related pages

 Banner
 Ethnic flag
 Free Speech Flag
 Glossary of vexillology
 Pride flag
 Rainbow flag
 Rainbow flag (LGBT)

References

Basic English 850 words
Messaging

Flag


Surrogacy means getting pregnant and carrying a child for other persons/person who will become the child's parents\parent after their birth. Some reasons why people may look for surrogacy is if a single man wants a child, pregnancy is too much of a risk, or if a woman can't have children through their own pregnancy.  The carrier of the children is called a surrogate mother.

It may or may not involve monetary arrangements between the surrogate and the biological parents. In some countries like China, Japan, Germany and France it is considered illegal. In Australia and New Zealand commercial surrogacy is an offence. India is the main destination for this as surrogacy here is cheaper.

Other websites
 Types of surrogacy
Pregnancy and childbirth

Family law

Surrogacy


Thomas Humphry Ward (9 November 1845 – 6 May 1926) was an English author and journalist, (usually writing as Humphry Ward) but best known as the husband of the author Mary Augusta Ward, who wrote under the name Mrs. Humphry Ward.

Life
He was born in Kingston upon Hull, England; his parents were Henry Ward, a cleric, and Jane Sandwith, daughter of Humphry Sandwith III, a surgeon there. He studied at Merchant Taylors' School and at Brasenose College, Oxford, at which he became a Fellow in 1869 and a tutor in 1870.

His compositions consisted of editorials which he submitted to The Times. Additionally, he edited a four-volume anthology, The English Poets (1880); Men of the Reign (1885); The Reign of Queen Victoria (1887); English Art in the Public Galleries of London (1888); and Men of the Time, which ran to 12 editions. He wrote alone Humphry Sandwith, a Memoir (1884), and jointly The Oxford Spectator (1868) and Romney (1904). Elected a member of the Athenaeum Club, London in 1885, he also completed the centenary history of the club, a work started by Henry Richard Tedder before his death, and published in 1926, the year he himself died.

Family
Ward married Mary Augusta Arnold, who became a best-selling novelist of various genres including victorian values as Mrs Humphry Ward. Arnold was the daughter of a fellow Oxford academic, Tom Arnold and the marriage connected Ward to the influential intellectual families of the Arnolds and the Huxleys. They lived at 17 Bradmore Road in North Oxford, which Ward leased in 1872. They had one son and two daughters, including the MP Arnold Ward and the author and activist Janet Trevelyan.

References

External links

1845 births
1926 deaths
Writers from Kingston upon Hull
Journalists from Kingston upon Hull
People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
Fellows of Brasenose College, Oxford
English book editors

Thomas Humphry Ward


Rare Breeds Canada (RBC) is a Canadian non-profit organization dedicated to preserving rare breeds of Canadian livestock. The organization was founded in 1987. It focuses on the rare breeds of livestock originating in Canada, including varieties of horses, sheep, pigs, chickens and cows. RBC publishes a Rare Breeds Priority List that separates livestock breeds into "critical", "endangered", "vulnerable", "at risk" and "recovering" categories. To assist with the preservation of these breeds, RBC coordinates a breeding program which uses host farms to manage small breeding groups which are used to build new flocks of animals. As the new groups are created, animals are selected for breeding and moved to new host farms, where the process is repeated. With the continuous selection of breeding stock and expansion of the host farm program, the goal is to prevent rare livestock breeds, especially those native to Canada, from going extinct. RBC works closely with The Livestock Conservancy, a similar organization in the United States, to preserve and promote breeds that have populations in the US and Canada. In June 2011, RBC moved their head offices to Notre-Dame-de-l'Île-Perrot, Quebec.

See also
 Seeds of Diversity, a Canadian organization dedicated to preserving crop plants and pollinating insects

References

External links

 Rare Breeds Canada, official website

Non-profit organizations based in Manitoba
Agricultural organizations based in Manitoba
Rare breed conservation

Rare Breeds Canada


Aldo Rico (born 4 March 1943) is an Argentine retired Lieutenant Colonel and politician, famous for his role in the episodes of 1987 (usually referred to as "Semana Santa", or Easter week) and 1988 (the "Monte Caseros" mutiny) where sectors of the Armed Forces, known as carapintadas ("painted faces", due to their facial camouflage), revolted to protest the policies of President Raúl Alfonsín. Rico later created the MODIN political party and contested several elections. Rico was elected mayor of San Miguel (1997–2003) and was Minister of Police of Buenos Aires province for a short period in 1999.

Role in Falklands (Malvinas) war
Rico was born in Buenos Aires, and was an army major at the time of the 1982 Falklands (Malvinas) War, serving as commander of the 602 Commando Company.

The Carapintada uprising
After the Falklands war, Rico achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel and started agitating against the prosecution for crimes against humanity of the 1976-1983 juntas. In 1987, Rico and his followers took up arms in Easter week and negotiated a series of  demands. The Argentine public was overly sensitive to any military claims (as every President elected democratically since 1928 was deposed by successive coups d'état) and rallied around Alfonsín, who agreed to consider the demands of the Carapintadas. No blood was shed in the episode, but Alfonsín was accused of caving to insurgent demands, and came to be perceived as a weak president. Rico was condemned to house arrest and escaped in 1988, whereupon he led a second armed episode in 1988. In its aftermath, Rico was imprisoned. Mohamed Alí Seineldín took over the leadership of the military rebellion, and Rico shifted his focus to electoral politics.

Politics
President Carlos Menem pardoned Rico in 1989 (in the context of a series of pardons that included all Junta members). Rico created the MODIN party (Spanish initials of Movimiento por la Dignidad Nacional, "Movement for National Dignity"). Rico occupied several elective offices, including as a member of the Constitutional Convention during the Menem administration. He was elected as mayor of San Miguel in 1997. Two years later, Buenos Aires province governor Carlos Ruckauf named Rico as Minister of Police, but a series of scandals made Rico quit the post after four months.

In the 2000s, Modin was merged into the Peronists; Rico declared his intent of running again for mayor in 2011.

On 24 February 1998, Rico was accosted at the door of his house by two assailants in a pickup truck. One of them triggered a firearm twice, but it misfired. On 20 July 2007 he was attacked again while leaving his house to take his two step-daughters to school; he fired four or five shots in the air, and the robbers fled in a car.

On 6 February 2011 four or more armed men attempted to rob Rico and his family in their car at Moreno; he repelled the attack with his 9mm pistol. He was hit three times, and may have fatally wounded an attacker.

Notes

 Monte Caseros: incendio en las chilcas Aldo Rico, Carlos Bernardo Borovinsky, Novela, Ediciones de la Osa Mayor, Buenos Aires. 1988, 240 páginas.

External links
Aldo Rico: De carapintada a la política
Falta de mérito para Aldo Rico

1943 births
Living people
Military personnel from Buenos Aires
Politicians from Buenos Aires
Carapintadas
Argentine anti-communists
Argentine nationalists
Argentine military personnel of the Falklands War
Shooting survivors
Argentine Army officers
Argentine prisoners of war
Mayors of places in Argentina

Aldo Rico


The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia, and covers an area of some . In the north, the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea, which in turn connects to the Black Sea, by the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, respectively. The Aegean Islands are located within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea reaches a maximum depth of  to the west of Karpathos. The Thracian Sea and the Sea of Crete are main subdivisions of the Aegean Sea.

The Aegean Islands can be divided into several island groups, including the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, the Sporades, the Saronic islands and the North Aegean Islands, as well as Crete and its surrounding islands. The Dodecanese, located to the southeast, includes the islands of Rhodes, Kos, and Patmos; the islands of Delos and Naxos are within the Cyclades to the south of the sea. Lesbos is part of the North Aegean Islands. Euboea, the second-largest island in Greece, is located in the Aegean, despite being administered as part of Central Greece. Nine out of twelve of the Administrative regions of Greece border the sea, along with the Turkish provinces of Edirne, Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Izmir, Aydın and Muğla to the east of the sea. Various Turkish islands in the sea are Imbros, Tenedos, Cunda Island, and the Foça Islands.

The Aegean Sea has been historically important, especially in regards to the civilization of Ancient Greece, who inhabited the area around the coast of the Aegean and the Aegean islands. The Aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between Europe and Asia. Along with the Greeks, Thracians lived among the northern coast. The Romans conquered the area under the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire held it against advances by the First Bulgarian Empire. The Fourth Crusade weakened Byzantine control of the area, and it was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669. The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onwards. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years, until it was replaced by modern Turkey.

The rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone, though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times. Of particular interest are the richly coloured sediments in the region of the islands of Santorini and Milos, in the south Aegean. Notable cities on the Aegean coastline include Athens, Thessaloniki, Volos, Kavala and Heraklion in Greece, and İzmir and Bodrum in Turkey.

A number of issues concerning sovereignty within the Aegean Sea are disputed between Greece and Turkey. The Aegean dispute has had a large effect on Greek-Turkish relations since the 1970s. Issues include the delimitation of territorial waters, national airspace, exclusive economic zones and flight information regions.

Name and etymology
The name Aegaeus, used by Late Latin authors, referred to Aegeus, who was said to have jumped into that sea to drown himself (rather than throw himself from the Athenian acropolis, as told by some Greek authors). He was the father of Theseus, the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. Aegeus had told Theseus to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. When Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions, and Aegeus thought his son had died, so he drowned himself in the sea.

The sea was known in Latin as Mare Aegaeum while under the control of the Roman Empire. The Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name Archipelago (, meaning "main sea" or "chief sea"), a name that held on in many European countries until the early modern period. In South Slavic languages, the Aegean is called White Sea (; ; ). The Turkish name for the sea is Ege Denizi, which is derived from the Greek name.

Geography
The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea and covers about  in area, measuring about  longitudinally and  latitudinal. The sea's maximum depth is , located at a point west of Karpathos. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, generally from west to east: Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes. The Anatolian peninsula marks the eastern boundary of the sea, while the Greek mainland marks the west. Several seas are contained within the Aegean Sea; the Thracian Sea is a section of the Aegean located to the north, the Icarian Sea to the east, the Myrtoan Sea to the west, while the Sea of Crete is the southern section.

The Greek regions that border the sea, in alphabetical order, are Attica, Central Greece, Central Macedonia, Crete, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, North Aegean, Peloponnese, South Aegean, and Thessaly. The traditional Greek region of Macedonia also borders the sea, to the north.

The Aegean Islands, which almost all belong to Greece, can be divided into seven groups:
 Northeastern Aegean Islands, which lie in the Thracian Sea
 East Aegean Islands (Euboea)
 Northern Sporades
 Cyclades
 Saronic Islands (or Argo-Saronic Islands)
 Dodecanese (or Southern Sporades)
 Crete

Many of the Aegean islands or island chains, are geographically extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean.

The bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning at the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the Mirabello, Almyros, Souda and Chania bays or gulfs, on the mainland the Myrtoan Sea to the west with the Argolic Gulf, the Saronic Gulf northwestward, the Petalies Gulf which connects with the South Euboic Sea, the Pagasetic Gulf which connects with the North Euboic Sea, the Thermian Gulf northwestward, the Chalkidiki Peninsula including the Cassandra and the Singitic Gulfs, northward the Strymonian Gulf and the Gulf of Kavala and the rest are in Turkey; Saros Gulf, Edremit Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Gulf of Çandarlı, Gulf of İzmir, Gulf of Kuşadası, Gulf of Gökova, Güllük Gulf.

The Aegean sea is connected to the Sea of Marmara by the Dardanelles, also known from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont. The Dardanelles are located to the northeast of the sea. It ultimately connects with the Black Sea through the Bosphoros strait, upon which lies the city of Istanbul. The Dardanelles and the Bosphoros are known as the Turkish Straits.

Extent
According to the International Hydrographic Organization, the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows:

 On the south: A line running from Cape Aspro (28°16′E) in Asia Minor, to Cum Burnù (Capo della Sabbia) the Northeast extreme of the Island of Rhodes, through the island to Cape Prasonisi, the Southwest point thereof, on to Vrontos Point (35°33′N) in Skarpanto [Karpathos], through this island to Castello Point, the South extreme thereof, across to Cape Plaka (East extremity of Crete), through Crete to Agria Grabusa, the Northwest extreme thereof, thence to Cape Apolitares in Antikithera Island, through the island to Psira Rock (off the Northwest point) and across to Cape Trakhili in Kithera Island, through Kithera to the Northwest point (Cape Karavugia) and thence to Cape Santa Maria () in the Morea.
 In the Dardanelles: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles.

Hydrography
Aegean surface water circulates in a counterclockwise gyre, with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey, before being displaced by less dense Black Sea outflow. The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of , then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of . The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece.

The physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the Dardanelles Strait.

Analysis of the Aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed three distinct water masses:

 Aegean Sea Surface Water –  thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 21–26 °C and winter temperatures ranging from  in the north to  in the south.
 Aegean Sea Intermediate Water – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40 to 50 m to  with temperatures ranging from 11 to 18 °C.
 Aegean Sea Bottom Water – occurring at depths below 500–1000 m with a very uniform temperature (13–14 °C) and salinity (3.91–3.92%).

Climate

The climate of the Aegean Sea largely reflects the climate of Greece and Western Turkey, which is to say, predominantly Mediterranean. According to the Köppen climate classification, most of the Aegean is classified as Hot-summer Mediterranean (Csa), with hotter and drier summers along with milder and wetter winters. However, high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water. This is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the Aegean, and within the Aegean islands. In the north of the Aegean Sea, the climate is instead classified as Cold semi-arid (BSk), which feature cooler summers than Hot-summer Mediterranean climates. The Etesian winds are a dominant weather influence in the Aegean Basin.

The below table lists climate conditions of some major Aegean cities:

Population
Numerous Greek and Turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast, as well as on towns on the Aegean islands. The largest cities are Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and İzmir in Turkey. The most populated of the Aegean islands is Crete, followed by Euboea and Rhodes.

Biogeography and ecology

Protected areas
Greece has established several marine protected areas along its coasts. According to the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean (MedPAN), four Greek MPAs are participating in the Network. These include Alonnisos Marine Park, while the Missolonghi–Aitoliko Lagoons and the island of Zakynthos are not on the Aegean.

History

Ancient history

The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC. Before that time, at the peak of the last ice age (about 18,000 years ago) sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared around 9,000 years ago, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that.

The subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese.

The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands, flourishing from around 3000 to 1450 BC before a period of decline, finally ending at around 1100 BC. It represented the first advanced civilization in Europe, leaving behind massive building complexes, tools, stunning artwork, writing systems, and a massive network of trade. The Minoan period saw extensive trade between Crete, Aegean, and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East. The most notable Minoan palace is that of Knossos, followed by that of Phaistos. The Mycenaean Greeks arose on the mainland, becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 BC. It is believed that the site of Mycenae, which sits close to the Aegean coast, was the center of Mycenaean civilization. The Mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean, including the Aegean, was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script, the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace-centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king, known as wanax.

The civilization of Mycenaean Greeks perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the so-called Greek Dark Ages. It is undetermined what cause the collapse of the Mycenaeans. During the Greek Dark Ages, writing in the Linear B script ceased, vital trade links were lost, and towns and villages were abandoned.

Ancient Greece

The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages in the 8th century BC. Greece became divided into small self-governing communities, and adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes, of which Athens, Sparta, and Corinth were closest to the Aegean Sea. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC many Greeks emigrated to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The Aegean Sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history, when on September 20, 480 B.C. the Athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the Persian fleet of the Xerxes II of Persia at the Battle of Salamis. Thus ending any further attempt of western expansion by the Achaemenid Empire.

The Aegean Sea would later come to be under the control, albeit briefly, of the Kingdom of Macedonia. Philip II and his son Alexander the Great led a series of conquests that led not only to the unification of the Greek mainland and the control of the Aegean Sea under his rule, but also the destruction of the Achaemenid Empire. After Alexander the Great's death, his empire was divided among his generals. Cassander became king of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, which held territory along the western coast of the Aegean, roughly corresponding to modern-day Greece. The Kingdom of Lysimachus had control over the sea's eastern coast. Greece had entered the Hellenistic period.

Roman rule
The Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies in the eastern Mediterranean against several different major Greek kingdoms. They resulted in Roman control or influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin, including the Aegean, in addition to their hegemony in the western Mediterranean after the Punic Wars. During Roman rule, the land around the Aegean Sea fell under the provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Thracia, Asia and Creta et Cyrenica (island of Crete)

Medieval period

The Fall of the Western Roman Empire allowed its successor state, the Byzantine Empire, to continue Roman control over the Aegean Sea. However, their territory would later be threatened by the Early Muslim conquests initiated by Muhammad in the 7th century. Although the Rashidun Caliphate did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the Aegean sea, its conquest of the Eastern Anatolian peninsula as well as Egypt, the Levant, and North Africa left the Byzantine Empire weakened. The Umayyad Caliphate expanded the territorial gains of the Rashidun Caliphate, conquering much of North Africa, and threatened the Byzantine Empire's control of Western Anatolia, where it meets the Aegean Sea.

During the 820s, Crete was conquered by a group of Berbers Andalusians exiles led by Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi, and it became an independent Islamic state. The Byzantine Empire launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under Theoktistos, but the reconquest was not completed and was soon reversed. Later attempts by the Byzantine Empire to recover the island were without success. For the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate of Crete was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the Aegean Sea. Crete returned to Byzantine rule under Nikephoros Phokas, who launched a huge campaign against the Emirate of Crete in 960 to 961.

Meanwhile, the Bulgarian Empire threatened Byzantine control of Northern Greece and the Aegean coast to the south. Under Presian I and his successor Boris I, the Bulgarian Empire managed to obtain a small portion of the northern Aegean coast. Simeon I of Bulgaria led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion, and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts of the Aegean. The Byzantines later regained control. The Second Bulgarian Empire achieved similar success along, again, the northern and western coasts, under Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria.

The Seljuq Turks, under the Seljuk Empire, invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which they annexed almost all the territories of Anatolia, including the east coast of the Aegean Sea, during the reign of Alp Arslan, the second Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. After the death of his successor, Malik Shah I, the empire was divided, and Malik Shah was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I, who founded the Sultanate of Rum. The Byzantines yet again recaptured the eastern coast of the Aegean.

After Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade, the area around the Aegean sea was fragmented into multiple entities, including the Latin Empire, the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Empire of Nicaea, the Principality of Achaea, and the Duchy of Athens. The Venetians created the maritime state of the Duchy of the Archipelago, which included all the Cyclades except Mykonos and Tinos. The Empire of Nicaea, a Byzantine rump state, managed to effect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. Byzantine successes were not to last; the Ottomans would conquer the area around the Aegean coast, but before their expansion the Byzantine Empire had already been weakened from internal conflict. By the late 14th century the Byzantine Empire had lost all control of the coast of the Aegean Sea and could exercise power around their capital, Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire then gained control of all the Aegean coast with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669.

Modern Period

The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onward. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its dissolution following World War I, when it was replaced by modern Turkey. During the war, Greece gained control over the area around the northern coast of the Aegean. By the 1930s, Greece and Turkey had about resumed their present-day borders.

In the Italo-Turkish War of 1912, Italy captured the Dodecanese islands, and had occupied them since, reneging on the 1919 Venizelos–Tittoni agreement to cede them to Greece. The Greco-Italian War took place from October 1940 to April 1941 as part of the Balkans Campaign of World War II. The Italian war aim was to establish a Greek puppet state, which would permit the Italian annexation of the Sporades and the Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea, to be administered as a part of the Italian Aegean Islands. The German invasion resulted in the Axis occupation of Greece. The German troops evacuated Athens on 12 October 1944, and by the end of the month, they had withdrawn from mainland Greece. Greece was then liberated by Allied troops.

Economy and politics
Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays. In ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland, and to some extent, the coastal areas of Anatolia. Many of the islands are volcanic, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains.

Of the main islands in the Aegean Sea, two belong to Turkey – Bozcaada (Tenedos) and Gökçeada (Imbros); the rest belong to Greece. Between the two countries, there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the Aegean space, including the size of territorial waters, air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf. These issues are known as the Aegean dispute.

Transport
Multiple ports are located along the Greek and Turkish coasts of the Aegean Sea. The port of Piraeus in Athens is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe and the third largest in the world, servicing about 20 million passengers annually. With a throughput of 1.4 million TEUs, Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and the top container port in the Eastern Mediterranean. Piraeus is also the commercial hub of Greek shipping. Piraeus bi-annually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention, known as Posidonia, which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world. Piraeus is currently Greece's third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods transported, behind Aghioi Theodoroi and Thessaloniki. The central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of Greece, the island of Crete, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, and much of the northern and the eastern Aegean Sea, while the western part of the port is used for cargo services.

As of 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki was the second-largest container port in Greece after the port of Piraeus, making it one of the busiest ports in Greece. In 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki handled 14,373,245 tonnes of cargo and 222,824 TEU's. Paloukia, on the island of Salamis, is a major passenger port.

Fishing
Fish are Greece's second-largest agricultural export, and Greece has Europe's largest fishing fleet. Fish captured include sardines, mackerel, grouper, grey mullets, sea bass, and seabream. There is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones; with respect to pelagic fisheries, the catches from the northern, central and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated, respectively, by anchovy, horse mackerels, and boops. For demersal fisheries, the catches from the northern and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated by grey mullets and pickerel (Spicara smaris) respectively.

The industry has been impacted by the Great Recession. Overfishing and habitat destruction is also a concern, threatening grouper, and seabream populations, resulting in perhaps a 50% decline of fish catch. To address these concerns, Greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by the government. Although some species are defined as protected or threatened under EU legislation, several illegal species such as the molluscs Pinna nobilis, Charonia tritonis and Lithophaga lithophaga, can be bought in restaurants and fish markets around Greece.

Tourism

The Aegean islands within the Aegean Sea are significant tourist destinations. Tourism to the Aegean islands contributes a significant portion of tourism in Greece, especially since the second half of the 20th century. A total of five UNESCO World Heritage sites are located the Aegean Islands; these include the Monastery of Saint John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on Patmos, the Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos in Samos, the Nea Moni of Chios, the island of Delos, and the Medieval City of Rhodes.

Greece is one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world with over 33 million visitors in 2018, and the tourism industry around a quarter of Greece's Gross Domestic Product. The islands of Santorini, Crete, Lesbos, Delos, and Mykonos are common tourist destinations. An estimated 2 million tourists visit Santorini annually. However, concerns relating to overtourism have arisen in recent years, such as issues of inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding. Alongside Greece, Turkey has also been successful in developing resort areas and attracting large number of tourists, contributing to tourism in Turkey. The phrase "Blue Cruise" refers to recreational voyages along the Turkish Riviera, including across the Aegean. The ancient city of Troy, a World Heritage Site, is on the Turkish coast of the Aegean.

Greece and Turkey both take part in the Blue Flag beach certification programme of the Foundation for Environmental Education. The certification is awarded for beaches and marinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria. As of 2015, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 395 beaches and 9 marinas in Greece. Southern Aegean beaches on the Turkish coast include Muğla, with 102 beaches awarded with the blue flag, along with İzmir and Aydın, who have 49 and 30 beaches awarded respectively.

See also

 Exclusive economic zone of Greece
 Geography of Turkey
 List of Greek place names
 Aegean Boat Report

References

External links

Seas of Greece
Seas of Turkey
Marginal seas of the Mediterranean
European seas
Seas of Asia
Geography of Europe
Geography of West Asia
Landforms of Çanakkale Province
Landforms of Muğla Province
Landforms of İzmir Province
Landforms of Balıkesir Province
Landforms of Edirne Province
Landforms of Aydın Province

Aegean Sea


Slash can mean:
 Slash (musician) (born Saul Hudson in 1965), Velvet Revolver & Guns N' Roses  guitarist.
 Slash (punctuation), the "/" punctuation character also called virgule (=a solidus is a typographic variant).
 Slash chord, in popular music.
 Slash (fanzine), a punk rock fanzine founded in 1977.
 Slash fiction, a genre of fan fiction dealing with homosexual relationships or sexual encounters.
 Slash (logging), woody debris generated by timber harvesting
 Slash (wrestler), professional wrestler.
 Slash notation, a form of music notation.
 Slash Pine, a tree native to the southeast United States.
 Slash Records, a punk record label.
 Slash (TMNT), a character from the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles fictional universe.
 Slash (weblog system), the weblogging software which powers the Slashdot website.
 Slash and burn, an agricultural procedure.
 Slash'EM, a variant of the computer game NetHack
 Feynman slash notation, of quantum field theory.
 Slash rating, a US National Electrical Code circuit interrupt hardware qualifier.

Slash


The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants is a series of books by Ann Brashares. It is about a group of girls named Bridget (the leader), Lena Kigales (the shy and beautiful), Carmen (the dramatic one), and Tibby (the rebellious girl). These girls find a pair of pants that fit all four of them, though one girl is fat, one girl is short and one girl is super thin. There are 4 books in the series. It was made into a film in 2005.

American young adult novels
Series of books
2000s books
21st-century American novels

The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants


A central business district (CBD) is the commercial and business center of a city. It contains offices and shops. In larger cities, it may be called the city's "financial district". It is often located in the city center but not always.

Examples of CBDs include Midtown Manhattan which is the largest central business district in New York City or the Xinyi Planned Area in Taipei

The city's history influences the way a CBD looks. Some cities have strong laws that forbid tall buildings, to retain the character of the history and culture. This is quite common for European cities such as Paris or Vienna. In cities in the New World a single central area or downtown will often contain most of the metropolitan area's tallest buildings and act both as the CBD and the commercial and cultural city centre. Increasing urbanization in the 21st century has created megacities, particularly in Asia, that will often have multiple CBDs scattered across the urban area.

Neighborhoods

Central business district