Henri Biva (23 January 1848 – 2 February 1929) was a French artist, known for his landscape paintings and still lifes. He focused primarily on the western suburbs of Paris, painting outdoors in the plein-air tradition; his style ranging between Post-Impressionism and Realism with a strong Naturalist component. Biva's pictures are characterized by intricate strokes and a pure palette bathed with warm natural light (Biva devoted great attention to light effects). The artist was a member of the Société des Artistes Français and a Knight of the Legion of Honour (Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur).

Early life
Henri Biva was born in Montmartre at 18 rue du Vieux Chemin de Paris (named rue Ravignan after 1867). His official date of birth is 22 January 1848. He grew up in an artistic environment, both within his own family and in the neighborhood in which he lived. His younger brother Paul Biva (1851–1900) also became a painter, as would Henri Biva's son Lucien Biva (1878–1965).

In 1873 Biva studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, where many famous artists in Europe were trained. His teachers included Léon Tanzi (1846–1913), an esteemed Realist painter, and Alexandre Nozal (1852–1929) a respected landscape artist that perambulated from Impressionism to Post-Impressionism. A trace of both instructors can be contemplated in Biva's work. This, in addition to the lessons at l'Académie Julian with William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant and Jules Joseph Lefebvre, would ultimately propel Henri Biva to the fore as a career artist. These combined influences explain the skillfully controlled artistry of Henri Biva. The Académie had a very strict and rigorous philosophy toward paintings, yet throughout its history many artists that studied there from 1868 onwards had initiated new artistic movements, or were involved to some extent within them, as was the case of Biva.

Shortly thereafter, during the latter half of the 1870s, Henri Biva began showing his works in the Parisian salon's, while enjoying sufficient commercial success to make his living.

Painting career

At the Salon de 1879 (which opened on 12 May in Paris at the Palais des Champs-Élysées) Biva exhibited two paintings: Les roses du parc and Pavillon d'été du Chateau de Villeneuve-l'Étang, numbers 293 and 294 in the catalogue.

Janet Whitmore writes of Biva's work, something that could apply to many of his paintings:

"Like the naturalist painters such as Jules Bastien-Lepage or Rosa Bonheur, there is a strong tactile quality to Biva's work, focused on the shapes, colors and forms of the small plants beside the stream or the smooth grey surface of the tree trunks.

Equally important in the nineteenth-century marketplace, this type of landscape painting offered an intimate glimpse of a specific locale, a reminder of days spent in the French countryside, or perhaps at the immense forest preserves surrounding Paris. Unlike contemporaries such as Pissarro or Monet, Biva's landscapes suggest a time before industrialization when no railroad or factory disrupted rural vistas. Rather, these images show no evidence of human activity at all except for the occasional fisherman drowsing by the riverside."

With his style ranging between Post-Impressionism and Realism, with a pronounced Naturalist temperament—visible in Villeneuve-l'étang (soir) and Après le coucher du soleil—the paintings of Henri Biva gained in popularity amongst private collectors and public institutions.

"Although Biva's career seems to have flourished during the 1880s," writes Janet Whitmore, "he received particular acclaim in the 1890s beginning with his first honorable mention at the Salon des Artistes Français in 1892 when his work as a painter of landscapes and flowers was especially noted. Three years later, in 1895, he received a third class medal, and in 1896, a second class medal. With this third award in place, he was no longer obligated to submit his work to the annual jury for acceptance, but instead was guaranteed an automatic position at the Salon."

"The turn of the century brought Biva continued success and public renown. His landscapes and flower paintings, still widely sought after by art collectors, gradually evolved into more meditative images."

In 1886 Biva exhibited three works, including Une rue de Ville-d'Avray, La Nuit, at the Exposition Internationale de Blanc et Noir (Louvre, Pavillon de l'enseignement, Rue des Tuileries, Paris, 20 March-20 April 1886). Biva's was awarded the Médaille de bronze at the Exposition Universelle (1900), inviting the attention of the Purchasing Committee, while his teacher Alexandre Nozal was awarded the silver medal.

Upon recommendation of Le Ministre de l'Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts, 11 August 1900, Biva was decorated Chevalier de l'Ordre de la Légion d'Honneur, 29 November 1900, and breveted by the Grand Chancelier, 12 December of the same year.

This honorable accomplishment appears to have stimulated further commercial success in the years leading up to World War I. Following the war years, Biva's sales rebounded as he continued exhibiting paintings throughout the 1920s.

Biva exhibited his painting in the Salons des Artistes Francais, Paris, in 1900, 1903, 1904 and 1905. In 1923 Henri Biva was elected vice-president of the Salon d'Hiver (Winter Salon), founded in 1897, first exhibition 1904.

Biva continued to show regularly in Paris, with a conspicuous break during World War I (most of the Salons being closed for the duration 1914-1918). Some of Biva's documented exhibitions include: Salon 1905, Salon 1906, Salon 1908 (Société Lyonnaise des Beaux-Arts), Salon 1909, Salon des Artistes Français 1910, Salon d'Hiver 1910, Salon 1911, Salon d'Hiver 1911, Salon des Artistes Français 1912, Salon 1919, Salon 1921, Salon d'Hiver 1923, Le Salon 1928 Grand Palais des Champs-Elysées, Société des Artistes Français (the year before his death).

According to his death certificate (avis de décès), Biva died 2 February 1929 at his home in Paris, 72 rue du Château-d'Eau.

Selected works
 Matin à Villeneuve (From Waters Edge), 151.1 x 125.1 cm
 The woodland Pool, 155 x 129.5 cm
 Près de la rivière, 122 x 162 cm
 Au bord de la rivière ensoleillé (By the river), 53.3 x 59.7 cm
 Un coin tranquille, 50 x 61 cm
 Le Matin dans la brume à Villeneuve-l'Etang
 Après le coucher du soleil, 142.5 x 193 cm
 Les brumes et rosées du matin Villeneuve l'étang
 A woodland pond, 110.4 x 140.3 cm
 A Summer's day on the lake, 46.3 x 55.3 cm
 Attributed to Henri Biva, Fishing on a sunny afternoon, 100.4 x 77.5 cm
 Punts moored on still waters, 61 x 50 cm
 Paysage avec rivière, 50 x 61 cm
 A sun drenched river view, 64.8 x 54 cm
 Tranquility, 61 by 74 cm
 A woodland pond, 50.2 x 61 cm
 Au bord du lac, 65 x 81 cm
 La rivière, 61.5 x 50.5 cm
 The quite lake, 65.5 x 82 cm
 Rivière en sous bois, 61 x 50.5 cm
 Les nénuphars, 82 x 65 cm
 Paysage de rivière, 66 x 54 cm
 L'allée fleurie, 72.4 x 92.1 cm
 Summer on the river bank, 46 x 34 cm
 Lake scene, 60 x 73 cm

Gallery

Notes

References

Museums and institutions

 Musée municipal, Loire-Atlantique; Saint-Nazaire (L'après-midi à Villeneuve-l'Etang ) dat de l'acte 1907
 Musée, Loire; Roanne (Nature Morte)
 Paris, agence photo RMN, fonds Druet-Vizzavona, Paris (Les brumes et rosées du matin; Villeneuve-l'étang, exposé au Salon des Artistes Français de 1907)
 Musée du Luxembourg, Paris, Les brumes, Villeneuve-l'Etang, 1909

External links

 Villeneuve-l"Etang, postcards
 Réunion des musées nationaux, Grand Palais, Agence Photographique
 Sotheby's, New York, 24 October, 2006, lot 249, Henri Biva, A woodland pond, oil on canvas
 Sotheby's, New York, 28 January, 2006, lot 165, Henri Biva, By the river, oil on canvas

1848 births
1929 deaths
Painters from Paris
French landscape painters
French still life painters
Post-Impressionist artists
Impressionist artists
Modern painters
Realist artists
French naturalists
19th-century French painters
19th-century French male artists
French male painters
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
Knights of the Legion of Honour
People of Montmartre

Henri Biva


A group home, Also called an ''adult family home'', care home or congregate living facility (depending on country and region)is a private house that serves as a home for people who are not in the same family but have a common characteristic. In the United States and certain other countries, this would mean a home for people who need social assistance or who are not able to live alone or without proper care for safety reasons. Group homes provide a structured environment and assistance with some activities of daily living (Assisted living). Before the 1970s, these people lived in psychiatric hospitals, homes for the poor and orphanages.

People who live in a group home may be recovering drug addicts, developmentally disabled, abused or neglected youths, and/or young people with a criminal record. A group home is different from a halfway house because it is not restricted to recovering addicts or convicted criminals, and also because the people who live there usually have to help maintain the household by doing chores or helping to manage a budget. In most countries, people can still vote and attend university while in a group home.

There are typically from 3 to 16 residents, as well as a resident manager or service staff. Residents may have their own room or share rooms, and share facilities such as laundry, bathroom in most cases, kitchen and common living areas.  The opening of group homes is occasionally fought against by neighbours who fear that it will lead to a rise in crime and/or a drop in property values.

A group home can also refer to family homes in which children and youth of the foster care system are placed until foster families are found for them.

References

Disability

Group home


Friedrich Rudolf Klein (24 November 1885 – 29 May 1955), better known as Rudolf Klein-Rogge, was a German film actor, best known for playing sinister figures in films in the 1920s and 1930s as well as being a mainstay in director Fritz Lang's Weimar-era films. He is probably best known in popular culture, particularly to English-speaking audiences, for playing the archetypal mad scientist role of C. A. Rotwang in Lang's Metropolis and as the criminal genius Doctor Mabuse.  Klein-Rogge also appeared in several important French films in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

Biography
Friedrich Rudolf Klein was born in Cologne, Germany on 24 November 1885. His father, Hermann Rudolf Klein, was a military lawyer who served as  (the equivalent of Judge Advocate General) for the 15th Division of the Prussian Army, garrisoned at Cologne. His mother, Maria Bertha Emma Rose, was the daughter of a prominent landowner () in Lichteinen, East Prussia.

The elder Klein hoped his son would follow him into a military career and entered him in one of the elite Prussian cadet academies (possibly nearby Bensberg). These institutions were famous for their harsh discipline and dedication to Spartan ideals; many of Germany's most renowned 19th and 20th century military leaders attended such schools. On his deathbed, however, Klein-Rogge confided to a friend that when a teacher went after him () he ran away from school. Traveling by night and hiding during the day, the boy returned home only to be told by his father that he was a  and from henceforth he was the "black sheep" of his family.

His father's premature death in 1896 ended Klein-Rogge's tenure at the cadet school and he entered a local humanistic gymnasium in Cologne. One of his childhood friends was future film composer Gottfried Huppertz, who was to write the scores for Lang's Die Nibelungen as well as Metropolis. Huppertz dedicated his first composition,  ["Climbing Roses"], to Klein-Rogge.) It was likely the actor who introduced his old friend to Lang.

Klein-Rogge spent three years at the University of Bonn (then Rhein-Universität) and in Berlin, studying art history. He also began taking acting lessons from Hans Siebert, a veteran of Vienna's Burgtheater, and made his stage debut in 1909, playing Cassius in Julius Caesar in Halberstadt. As there was a contemporary actor named Rudolf Klein, the future film star added "Rogge" to his name. (Rogge was the surname of his mother's first husband and his half-siblings.)

After his debut, Klein-Rogge went on to play in theaters located in Düsseldorf, Kiel and Aachen. In Aachen, Klein-Rogge wed actress Gerda Melchior, a cousin of the beloved silent film star Henny Porten, but the marriage ended when he met actress and novelist Thea von Harbou. The two married in 1914 and the following year, Klein-Rogge joined Nuremberg's Städtische Bühnen theatre as both an actor and director. In 1918, the pair moved to Berlin to capitalize on von Harbou's writing skills and her budding career as a scenarist and screenwriter, while Klein-Rogge was hired by Victor Barnowsky, director of Berlin's Lessing Theater.

Klein-Rogge's film career began in earnest in 1919, although he may have made an uncredited screen debut in 1913's Der Film von der Königin Luise, directed by Franz Porten. It has been more widely stated that he appeared in an uncredited role of a criminal in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari. However, recent research has found that the part was actually played by Ludwig Rex. The confusion may have stemmed from Klein-Rogge's skill in disguising his appearance with theatrical makeup, wigs and prosthetics, which has led at least one movie historian to dub him Germany's Lon Chaney.

At this time, von Harbou was having an affair with director Fritz Lang and eventually left Klein-Rogge to marry Lang. Despite the split, Klein-Rogge made several films that were written by von Harbou and directed by Lang, including Destiny, Dr. Mabuse the Gambler, Die Nibelungen, Metropolis and Spies. Klein-Rogge's intense look led him to similar roles such as a tyrant in Fritz Wendhausen's Der steinerne Reiter, a pirate in Arthur Robison's Pietro der Korsar, and the Czar in Alexandre Volkoff's Casanova. Klein-Rogge's last film with Lang was The Testament of Dr. Mabuse in 1933.

Klein-Rogge played the lead roles in two films written and directed by von Harbou: Elisabeth und der Narr and Hanneles Himmelfahrt. Klein-Rogge remarried twice, first to Margarete Neff, and lastly with the Swedish actress Mary Johnson in 1932, to whom he remained married until his death in 1955.

Selected filmography

 Das Licht am Fenster (1919)
 Spiele eines Milliardärs (1919)
 Das Geheimnis des Irren (1919)
 Morphium (1919)
 Flitter-Dörtje (1919)
 Die Launen eines Milliardärs (1919)
 Der Fall Tolstikoff (1919) - Ernst Rüdiger
 Die Schreckensnacht im Irrenhaus Ivoy (1920) - Dr. Harry Walker
Wildes Blut (1920)
The Black Count (1920)
The Wandering Image (1920) - Georgs Vetter Wil Brand
Four Around a Woman (1921) - Hehler Upton
The Nights of Cornelis Brouwer (1921)
Am Webstuhl der Zeit (1921)
Destiny (1921) - Derwisch / Girolamo
Circus of Life (1921) - Chauffeur Tom
Dr. Mabuse the Gambler (1922) - Dr. Mabuse
The Stone Rider (1923) - Der Herr vom Berge
Princess Suwarin (1923) - Cyrus Proctor
Warning Shadows (1923)
Die Nibelungen (1924) - King Etzel
Peter the Pirate (1925) - Salvatore, ein Korsarhauptmann
Her Husband's Wife (1926)
The Pink Diamond (1926) - Stuart, Theaterdirektor
Fadette (1926) - Rossini
Fighting the White Slave Traffic (1926) - Akkunian
White Slave Traffic (1926) - Simpat Karamanian / Arut Akkunian / ein deutscher Professor / ein asiatischer Hausierer / Dr. Papamarkos
Metropolis (1927) - Erfinder C.A. Rotwang / The Inventor
The Gypsy Baron (1927) - Mehmed Ali
Der Herr der Nacht (1927) - Eugen Lascano
The Queen Was in the Parlour (1927) - General Kish
The Loves of Casanova (1927) - Le Tsar Peter III
Tingel-Tangel (1927) - Don Fabio Coridon
Die raffinierteste Frau Berlins (1927) - William Pitts alias Francis Forest
The Girl from Frisco (1927)
Die Sandgräfin (1928)
Spies (1928) - Haghi
Mädchenschicksale (1928) - Lormand
Volga Volga (1928) - Kosak Hadschi-Ali
The Most Beautiful Woman in Paris (1928)
La faute de Monique (1928)
Eine Nacht in Yoshiwara (1928)
Tu m'appartiens! (1929) - Burat-Laussade
La maison des hommes vivants (1929)
The Shark (1930) - Vasseur
Tarakanova (1930) - Le Comte Chouvalof
Eskimo (1930) - Mariak
The White God (1932) - Mariak
The Testament of Dr. Mabuse (1933) - Docteur Mabuse
The Judas of Tyrol (1933) - Erster Offizier
 Elisabeth and the Fool (1934) - Michele
The World Without a Mask (1934) - Merker
Hanneles Himmelfahrt (1934) - Maurer Mattern
Border Patrol (1934) - Der Einäugige - ein Schmuggler
Paganini (1934) - Graf Hédouville / Kurier Napoleons
 Between Heaven and Earth (1934) - Der alte Nettenmaier
 The Brenken Case (1934) - Bert Benson, Artist
 The Tannhof Women (1934) - Jakob Aigner, der Tannenhofbauer
The Old and the Young King (1935) - Leopold Dessauer
The Cossack and the Nightingale (1935) - Dschahid-Bey, Tabakgroßhändler
Das Einmaleins der Liebe (1935)
 The Valley of Love (1935) - Herr von Roden
Ein seltsamer Gast (1936) - Polizeipräfekt
The Hour of Temptation (1936) - Kriminalrat Brandt
Der Kaiser von Kalifornien (1936) - Bankier
Moral (1936) - Polizeipräsident von Simbach
Die un-erhörte Frau (1936) - Professor der Nervenklinik
 (1936) - Ponbiquet
The Court Concert (1936) - Oberst Flumms
Truxa (1937) - Varieté-Direktor
 The Ruler (1937) - Direktor Bodlfing
The Divine Jetta (1937) - Stadtrat Müller
Madame Bovary (1937) - Prof. Canivet
Strife Over the Boy Jo (1937) -  Der Deutsche Gesandte
The Yellow Flag (1937) - Kapitän Ellis
Der Katzensteg (1937) - Landrat Krotkeim
Abenteuer in Marokko (1938) - Dr. Linder
Ab Mitternacht (1938)
Zwei Frauen (1938)
Sergeant Berry (1938)
Menschen vom Varieté (1939) - Kommissar Wiedemann
Parkstrasse 13 (1939) - Direktor Bremer
Wibbel the Tailor (1939) - Pangdich
Robert Koch (1939) - Rechnungsrat
Kennwort Machin (1939) - Schnellrichter in New York
Rheinische Brautfahrt (1939) - Landrat
Die unvollkommene Liebe (1940) - Konsul Henry Rasmus
Das Herz der Königin (1940) - General Ruthven
Kora Terry (1940) - Dunkler Ehrenmann, Komplize Vopescus
Wedding in Barenhof (1942) - Sanitätsrat
 (1949) - (final film role)

Notes

References

External links

The Official Rudolf Klein-Rogge Page (Germany)
Rudolf Klein-Rogge
Photographs of Rudolf Klein-Rogge

1885 births
1955 deaths
German male film actors
German male silent film actors
Male actors from Cologne
Actors from the Rhine Province
20th-century German male actors

Rudolf Klein-Rogge


Michele Mari (born 26 December 1955) is an Italian novelist, short story writer, academic critic and poet. The son of a Milanese industrial designer and artist, Enzo Mari, Mari teaches Italian literature at the Università Statale di Milano; he is considered one of the leading experts of 18th century Italian literature.

Important themes
Mari is a philologist and a connoisseur of science fiction (see his poetic essay "Le copertine di Urania" in Tu, sanguinosa infanzia, 1997) and comics. In his short stories the theme of childhood and adolescence as moments to be devoutly preserved recurs often (cf. the story "I palloni del signor Kurtz", in Euridice aveva un cane, 1993); other important motifs are the obsession for other people's life that one could not live (in the short story "Euridice aveva un cane", 1993, or in Rondini sul filo, 1999), of literature as ersatz life, of memory and its workings (Verderame, 2007).

Mari intensely dislikes change, so he mistrusts modernity in its more vulgar and showy aspects; he is fascinated by obsessive personalities (Walter Benjamin in Tutto il ferro della Torre Eiffel, Roger Waters in Rosso Floyd); he nonchalantly mixes fact and fiction in his works, both in those with an overwhelming autobiographic component (Rondini sul filo, Tu, sanguinosa infanzia, Filologia dell'anfibio), and in those novels where he uses, like a puppeteer, historical characters (Benjamin and Marc Bloch - plus countless other writers and artists - in Tutto il ferro della Torre Eiffel, the Italian romantic poet Giacomo Leopardi in Io venia pien d'angoscia a rimirarti, the members of the Pink Floyd band in Rosso Floyd) .

Mari is a parodist, whose prose may easily imitate that of more famous authors. He has a style similar to that of other Italian fiction writers like Carlo Emilio Gadda, Tommaso Landolfi and Giorgio Manganelli, and also the French author Louis-Ferdinand Céline (especially in Rondini sul filo). His two novels Verderame and Rosso Floyd, though continuing Mari's stylistic care and formal innovation (especially the latter), achieved some real suspense by borrowing narrative devices from crime, gothic, and horror fiction (something Mari had already done at the beginning of his career in his second novel, Io venia pien d'angoscia a rimirarti).

Mari won the Premio Grinzane Cavour in 2008, as Supervincitore of the Narrativa italiana section, with his novel Verderame.

Mari is also a poet (Cento poesie d'amore a Ladyhawke, Einaudi 2007) and an academic scholar (his essays include L'Iliade di Vincenzo Monti, 1982; Venere celeste e venere terrestre, 1988; Momenti della traduzione fra Settecento e Ottocento, 1994; Il genio freddo: La storiografia letteraria di Girolamo Tiraboschi, 1999); he also wrote essays on European and American fantastic literature (I demoni e la pasta sfoglia, Quiritta 2004). He played in the Osvaldo Soriano Football Club, the Italian writers' national football team.

Works

Fiction

Novels
Di bestia in bestia, Longanesi, 1989.
Io venia pien d'angoscia a rimirarti, Longanesi, 1990 (rpt. Marsilio, 1998; rpt. Cavallo di Ferro, 2012).
La stiva e l'abisso, Bompiani 1992 (rpt. Einaudi, 2002).
Filologia dell'anfibio, Bompiani, 1995 (rpt. Laterza, 2009).
Rondini sul filo, Mondadori, 1999.
Tutto il ferro della torre Eiffel, Einaudi, 2002.
Verderame, Einaudi, 2007.
Rosso Floyd, Einaudi, 2010 (rpt. Einaudi, 2012).
Di bestia in bestia (revised edition), Einaudi, 2013.
Roderick Duddle, Einaudi, 2014.
Leggenda privata, Einaudi, 2017.
Le maestose rovine di Sferopoli, Einaudi, 2021.

Short-Story Collections
Euridice aveva un cane, Bompiani, 1993 (rpt. Einaudi, 2004).
Tu, sanguinosa infanzia, Mondadori, 1997 (rpt. Mondadori, 1999; Einaudi, 2009), translated into English as You, Bleeding Childhood by Brian Robert Moore (And Other Stories, 2023).
Fantasmagonia, Einaudi, 2012.

Poetry
I sepolcri illustrati, Portofranco, 2000.
Cento poesie d'amore a Ladyhawke, Einaudi, 2007.
Dalla cripta, Einaudi, 2019.

Non-fiction
Milano fantasma, EDT, 2008 (illustrated by Velasco Vitali), travelogue.
I demoni e la pasta sfoglia, Quiritta, 2004 (rpt. Cavallo di Ferro, 2010), essay collection.

Awards
Di bestia in bestia, Berto prize 1989.
Io venìa pien d'angoscia a rimirarti, Bergamo prize 1990, Selezione Campiello prize 1990.
Euridice aveva un cane, Settembrini prize 1993.
Tu, sanguinosa infanzia, Chiara prize 1997, Palmi prize 1997.
Rondini sul filo, Vittorini prize 1999, Procida - Elsa Morante prize 1999.
Tutto il ferro della torre Eiffel, Bagutta prize 2002, Bari prize 2002.
Cento poesie d'amore a Ladyhawke, Pisa prize 2007, Tassoni prize 2007, La Ginestra prize 2007.
Verderame, Grinzane Cavour Prize 2007, Chianti prize 2007.
Rosso Floyd, Frignano prize 2010, Procida - Elsa Morante prize 2010.
Fantasmagonia, Cocito - Montà d'Alba prize 2012.
Roderick Duddle, Selezione Campiello prize 2014; Basilicata prize 2014; Asti d'Appello prize 2014; Fabriano prize 2014.

Selected further reading
 "Le ossessioni di Michele Mari", Alice Di Stefano, Sincronie, 2004, n. 16, 185-191.
 "Le strategie ipertestuali di Michele Mari", Alessandro Iovinelli, Narrativa, 2001, n. 20-21, 297-304.
 "Passages della critica e riuso della tradizione letteraria in Michele Mari", Franca Sinopoli, Storia e memoria nelle riletture e riscritture letterarie, Bessière, Jean and Franca Sinopoli (Eds.), Roma, Bulzoni, 2005, 126-42.
Michele Mari, Carlo Mazza Galanti, Cadmo - Scritture in corso, 2011

External links
An interview of Michele Mari on the website of the Italian state TV (in Italian)
An interview of Michele Mari on the website of the Swiss state TV (in Italian - long version)
 An interview of Michele Mari on the website of the Swiss state TV (in Italian - short version)
A review of Rosso Floyd (in Italian)
An extract from Rosso Floyd (translated into English)
Website on Michele Mari (in Italian)
Michele Mari on the sacrality of literature (in Italian)
Michele Mari speaks about his novel Verderame (in Italian)
Michele Mari speaks about his novel Rosso Floyd (in Italian)
A selection of Michele Mari's best writings (up to 1999), as chosen by him (in Italian)
Michele Mari speaks about Melville's Moby Dick (in Italian)
 The benefit of influence. A conversation with Michele Mari  (in Italian)
"The Priest's House" by Michele Mari, translated from the Italian by Brian Robert Moore (in English)

Writers from Milan
20th-century Italian novelists
20th-century Italian male writers
21st-century Italian novelists
Italian male short story writers
Italian science fiction writers
Italian horror writers
Italian fantasy writers
Living people
1955 births
Italian male novelists
20th-century Italian short story writers
21st-century Italian short story writers
21st-century Italian male writers

Michele Mari


Jerzy Kuryłowicz (; 26 August 1895 – 28 January 1978) was a Polish linguist who studied Indo-European languages.

Life
Born in Stanisławów, Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine), Kuryłowicz was a Polish historical linguist, structuralist and language theoretician, deeply interested in the studies of Indo-European languages. He studied at the Vienna University of Economics and Business (1913–1914), and then, after World War I, continued his studies at Lwów University, where his unusual language skills drew the attention of some prominent linguists. As a result, he was granted a scholarship in Paris. This gave him an opportunity to qualify as a university professor of Indo-European linguistics soon after his return to Poland. After obtaining the title, he became a professor at the University of Lwów. Later on, in 1946-48 Kuryłowicz filled in for Dr Krzyżanowski at the Institute of English Philology in Wrocław. Finally, he moved to Kraków, where he took the chair of General Linguistics at Jagiellonian University. He retired in 1965. Kuryłowicz was a member of the Polish Academy of Learning and the Polish Academy of Science. He died at the age of 82 in Kraków.

He was a member of the Polish Academy of Learning and the Polish Academy of Sciences.

He was the brother of the microbiologist Włodzimierz Kuryłowicz. His son, also named Jerzy Kuryłowicz (1925–2002), obtained his PhD from the Technical University of Warsaw.

Work in linguistics
Kuryłowicz did not belong to any of the structuralist linguistic schools. In his views he was close to glossematics, whose many assumptions he accepted and developed.
He is best known for his works on the Indo-European languages. The most important ones are Apophony in Indo-European (1956) and The Inflectional Categories of Indo-European (1964). In the latter, he discussed the inflectional categories of Indo-European languages and  later, on the basis of these studies, formulated the so-called Case Theory.

Laws of analogy
Building on prior work by Antoine Meillet, Kuryłowicz's is also known for his "Six Laws of Analogy" that have been widely used in historical linguistics to understand how analogical grammatical changes work. The laws consist of six predictive statements about the direction of analogical changes:
 A bipartite marker tends to replace an isofunctional simple marker.
 The directionality of analogy is from a "basic" form to a "subordinate" form with respect to their spheres of usage.
 A structure consisting of a basic and a subordinate member serves as a foundation for a basic member which is isofunctional but isolated.
 When the old (non-analogical) form and the new (analogical) form are both in use, the former remains in secondary function and the latter takes the basic function.
 A more marginal distinction is eliminated for the benefit of a more significant distinction.
 A base in analogy may belong to a prestige dialect affecting the form of a dialect imitating it.

Case theory
In this theory he proposes the division into grammatical and concrete cases. According to Kuryłowicz, the case is a syntactic or semantic relation expressed by the appropriate inflected form or by linking the preposition with a noun, so it is the category based on a relation inside the sentence or a relation between two sentences.

The category of case covers two basic case groups:
Grammatical cases: their primary function is syntactic, the semantic function is secondary. If we take the sentence: 'The boy sat down' (Fisiak 1975: 59) with an intransitive verb 'sit', we may notice that the sentence can be changed into causative construction: ''He made the boy sit down'' (ibid), where the word 'boy' is changed from nominative into accusative, with the superior position of nominative. (Nominativus, accusativus)
Concrete cases: they include instrumentalis, locativus and ablativus, whose primary function is the adverbial semantic function. They answer the questions: with what?, where?, from where?. The syntactic function of concrete cases is secondary. These cases are governed by semantically determined verbs.

For example, the Polish verb kierować (to drive) governs the direct object in the instrumental case, as in the expression kierować samochodem (to drive a car) (Fisiak 1975: 60)

Laryngeals
While studying the phonology of Indo-European languages, Kuryłowicz pointed to the existence of the Hittite consonant ḫ in his 1927 paper "ə indo-européen et ḫ hittite". This discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of coefficients sonantiques, elements that de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European. This led to the so-called laryngeal theory, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and a confirmation of de Saussure's theory.

Syntactic transformation
In 1936 Kuryłowicz introduced the idea of syntactic transformation, pointing at the same time that this syntactic (transformative) derivation does not change the meaning of syntactic form. Therefore, if we take the sentence like:
Kate washes the car.
and change it into passive:
The car is washed by Kate.
we can notice that the second sentence has the same meaning as the first one. They differ just in terms of style. The idea of transformative derivation proves that Kuryłowicz was ahead of his times, because what he described resembles one of the main assumptions of Chomsky's Transformative – Generative Grammar postulated several years later.

Foundation concept
Kuryłowicz  was also interested in the element hierarchy and the function of the language system. Analyzing the problem of hierarchy he introduced the concept of foundation, which is the relation between two forms or functions in a language. One of the forms or functions, so-called founding, always results in the presence of the founded, not conversely. For instance, in Latin, the endings -os and -or in the nominative singular both always correspond with the ending -orem in the accusative singular. This does not work the other way round, because the ending in the accusative does not allow one to predict the ending in the nominative case: it can be either -os or -or.  (Fisiak 1975: 56)

Publications
 Traces de la place du ton en gathique. Paris: Champion, 1925.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1927a. "Les effets du ə en indoiranien", Prace Filologiczne 11: 201–43.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1927b. "ə indo-européen et ḫ hittite", in Symbolae grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski, vol. 1. Edited by W. Taszycki & W. Doroszewski. Kraków: Gebethner & Wolff, pp. 95–104.
 Études indo-européennes. Kraków: Skład Główny w Ksiegarni Gebethnera i Wolffa, 1935.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1936. "Derivation lexicale et derivation syntaxique". In Kuryłowicz, J., 1960, 41–50.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1938. "Struktura morfemu". In Kuryłowicz, J., 51–65.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1949a. "La nature des proces dits 'analogiques'". Acta Linguistica 5: 121–38.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1949b. "La notion de l'isomorphisme". In Kuryłowicz, J., 1960, 16–26.
 Kuryłowicz, J., 1949c. "Le probleme du classement des cas". In Kuryłowicz, J., 1960, 131–154.
 L'apophonie en indo-européen. Wrocław: Zakład im. Ossolińskich, 1956.
 L'accentuation des langues indo-européennes. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1958.
 Esquisses linguistiques. Wrocław–Kraków: Polska Akademia Nauk / Zakład Naroldowy im. Ossolíńskich, 1960.
 The Inflectional Categories of Indo-European. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1964.
 (with Manfred Mayrhofer) Indogermanische Grammatik. Heidelberg 1968 ff.
 Die sprachlichen Grundlagen der altgermanischen Metrik. Vortrag, gehalten am 3. Juni 1970 in Rahmen einer Vortragswoche d. Univ. Innsbruck aus Anlass ihrer 300-Jahr-Feier. Edited by Jerzy Kuryłowicz. Innsbruck: Institut für Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck, 1970.
 Studies in Semitic grammar and metrics. Wrocław: Wydawn. Polskiej Akademii Nauk / Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich; London: Curzon Press, 1972.
 Studia indoeuropejskie; or, Études indo-européennes. Edited by Jerzy Kuryłowicz et al. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1974.
 Metrik und Sprachgeschichte. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1975.
 Problèmes de linguistique indo-européenne. Wrocław: Zakład narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1977.
 Studia językoznawcze, vol. 1: Wybór prac opublikowanych w języku polskim. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawn. Nauk., 1987.

Decorations and awards
 1965: Honorary doctorate from the University of Vienna
 1973: Austrian Decoration for Science and Art

References

 Fisiak, J., 1975. Wstęp do współczesnych teorii lingwistycznych. Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. Warszawa.

1895 births
1978 deaths
20th-century linguists
Academic staff of Jagiellonian University
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
Indo-Europeanists
Linguists from Poland
Linguists of Indo-European languages
Members of the Polish Academy of Learning
Members of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
Recipients of the State Award Badge (Poland)
University of Lviv alumni
Victims of post–World War II forced migrations
Writers from Ivano-Frankivsk

Jerzy Kuryłowicz


Tremors: A Cold Day in Hell (also known as Tremors 6: A Cold Day in Hell) is a 2018 direct-to-video horror/sci-fi film directed by Don Michael Paul. It is the sixth film in the Tremors series of monster films. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray, as well as on Netflix on May 1, 2018.

Plot
In Canada's Nunavut Territory, a team of young researchers collecting ice core samples of glaciers are killed by a Graboid. After brushing off a tax agent, Burt Gummer and his son Travis Welker are asked by Dr. Rita Sims and young Graboid hunter Valerie McKee to investigate. Their plane is attacked by an Ass-Blaster, but Burt and Travis make it to the facility. They learn that Arctic heat conditions have made the area prime for Graboids. Burt suspects their research neighbors at DARPA are developing bio-weapons out of the Graboids. When an Ass-Blaster attacks the facility, Burt rescues a researcher but experiences an episode and collapses. He learns that he has been infected by a parasite based on Graboid venom, from when he was inside one years earlier, and that they need to extract the antibodies from a live one to save him.

As Graboids continue to kill off researchers and staff, several members of the group try to make their way from the lab to the generator area where the pilot Mac is repairing the plane, and the facilities manager Swackhamer has created a makeshift underground electric fence. Others head for the communications tower and to turn off a drill that has automatically activated. With his own research team attacked, Agent Cutts of DARPA joins Burt's group, revealing that his team was more interested in extracting the melted water and not fashioning bio-weapons. He agrees to Burt and Travis' conditions that the government remove the tax liens from their place in Perfection and exempt them from paying property taxes henceforth. The group eventually use a storage container to trap one of the Graboids, spearing it from the side to hold it in place, and cutting off its front tentacles. Travis reaches in the graboid's mouth with a syringe and draws venom from its internal gland sac, which is then used to save Burt. Cutts gives the Gummers the paperwork freeing them from taxes, then they blow up the last Graboid before Cutts gets any ideas of really using it as a bio-weapon.

Cast

 Michael Gross as Burt Gummer, the only resident left in the apparently abandoned and demolished Perfection, Nevada. Burt resides in and runs Chang's Market which appears to be all that is left of the town.
 Jamie Kennedy as Travis B. Welker, Burt's son who works as a filmmaker.

 Tanya van Graan as Dr. Rita Sims, the lead researcher at Boite Canyon Arctic Research Facility
 Jamie-Lee Money as Valerie McKee, a Graboid expert, and a student intern at the facility. She is the daughter of Valentine McKee and Rhonda LeBeck, lead characters from the first Tremors film.
 Kiroshan Naidoo as Hart Hansen, a researcher in geomorphology
 Keeno Lee Hector as Aklark, Valerie and Rita's assistant, a local to the area
 Rob van Vuuren as Swackhamer, facility manager
 Adrienne Pearce as Mac, the pilot who flew Burt and Travis in
 Francesco Nassimbeni as Dr. Charles Ferezze, a cowardly researcher who wants to get out of the area by any means possible
 Paul du Toit as Mr. Cutts, a DARPA agent in charge of the neighboring facility
 Christie Peruso as Geo-Tech Vargas, a researcher
 Jay Anstey as Dr. D, a researcher

Production
On September 20, 2016, Michael Gross announced on his official Facebook page that the film was in development. Filming commenced in late January 2017.

The crew had originally intended to shoot in the mountains of Bulgaria, but after the country had endured one of its largest blizzards, they opted to return to South Africa, where Tremors 5: Bloodlines was filmed. The opening scene was filmed in the desert, made to look like snow with filters and video processing techniques. The nice weather was explained by climate change causing unusual warmth in the Arctic. The crew used CGI for many of the Graboid scenes.

Reception
Tremors: A Cold Day in Hell received mixed reviews.  Tim Janson of The SciFi Movie Page gave the film two stars out of five, saying "While none of the Tremors sequels (nor the one prequel) have ever been able to hold a candle to the original, A Cold Day in Hell is definitely one to miss. This sleep-inducing bore fest cannot even be saved by Burt's over-the-top arrogance and crankiness." Gavin Al-Asif for the Houston Chronicle called the film "so bad it's nearly unwatchable" and said the film felt as if it were "made by people who absolutely loathe Tremors and want to insult the fans as much as possible". Conversely, Fred Topel of Bloody Disgusting gave the film a more positive review of 3.5 out of 5, noting that that arctic setting was "... a fun change of setting without compromising the monster attacks."  He also praised the performances of the cast, especially Gross and Money.

It earned $1,530,564 from domestic home video sales.

Sequel

A sequel, Tremors: Shrieker Island, was released on October 20, 2020, with Michael Gross reprising his role as Burt.

References

External links

2018 films
2018 direct-to-video films
2010s monster movies
Tremors (franchise)
Universal Pictures direct-to-video films
Direct-to-video action films
Direct-to-video science fiction films
Direct-to-video sequel films
Films set in Nunavut
Films set in the Arctic
Films shot in South Africa
Films directed by Don Michael Paul
Films scored by Frederik Wiedmann
American monster movies
South African horror films
English-language South African films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films

Tremors: A Cold Day in Hell


Euthydemus I (Greek: , Euthydemos)  – 200/195 BC) was a Greco-Bactrian king and founder of the Euthydemid dynasty. He is thought to have originally been a satrap of Sogdia, who usurped power from Diodotus II in 224 BC. Literary sources, notably Polybius, record how he and his son Demetrius resisted an invasion by the Seleucid king Antiochus III from 209 to 206 BC. Euthydemus expanded the Bactrian territory into Sogdia, constructed several fortresses, including the Derbent Wall in the Iron Gate, and issued a very substantial coinage.

Biography
Euthydemus was an Ionian-Greek from one of the Magnesias in Ionia, though it is uncertain from which one (Magnesia on the Maeander or Magnesia ad Sipylum), and was the father of Demetrius I, according to Strabo and Polybius. William Woodthorpe Tarn proposed that Euthydemus was the son of a Greek general called Antimachus or Apollodotus, born c. 295 BC, whom he considered to be the son of Sophytes, and that he married a sister of the Greco-Bactrian king Diodotus II.

War with the Seleucid Empire

Little is known of his reign until 208 BC when he was attacked by Antiochus III the Great, whom he tried in vain to resist on the shores of the river Arius (Battle of the Arius), the modern Herirud. Although he commanded 10,000 horsemen, Euthydemus initially lost a battle on the Arius  and had to retreat. He then successfully resisted a three-year siege in the fortified city of Bactra, before Antiochus finally decided to recognize the new ruler, and to offer one of his daughters to Euthydemus's son Demetrius around 206 BC. As part of the peace treaty, Antiochus was given Indian war elephants by Euthydemus.

Polybius also relates that Euthydemus negotiated peace with Antiochus III by suggesting that he deserved credit for overthrowing the descendants of the original rebel Diodotus, and that he was protecting Central Asia from nomadic invasions thanks to his defensive efforts.

The war lasted altogether three years and after the Seleucid army left, the kingdom seems to have recovered quickly from the assault. The death of Euthydemus has been roughly estimated to 200 BC or perhaps 195 BC. He was succeeded by Demetrius, who went on to invade northwestern regions of South Asia.

Activities on the Central Asian Steppe
Polybius claims that Euthydemus justified his kingship during his peace negotiations with Antiochus III in 206 BC by reference to the threat of attack by nomads on the Central Asian steppe:
"...[he said that] if [Antiochus] did not yield to this demand, neither of them would be safe: seeing that great hoards of Nomads were close at hand, who were a danger to both; and that if they admitted them into the country, it would certainly be utterly barbarised." (Polybius, 11.34).
Archaeological evidence from coin finds shows that Euthydemus' reign saw extensive activity at fortresses in northwestern Bactria (the modern Surkhan Darya region of Uzbekistan), especially in the Gissar and Köýtendag mountains. The Seleucid fortress at Uzundara was expanded and large numbers of Euthydemus' bronze coins have been found there, as was as hundreds of arrowheads and other remains indicating a violent assault. Coin finds also seem to indicate that Euthydemus was responsible for the first construction of the Derbent Wall, otherwise known as the "Iron Gate", a 1.6-1.7 km long stone wall with towers and a central fortress guarding a key pass. Landislav Stančo tentatively links the archaeological evidence with the nomad threat. However, Stančo also notes that Derbent wall seems to have been designed not to defend against an attack from Sogdia to the northwest, but from Bactria to the southeast. Hundreds of arrowheads also seem to indicate an attack on the wall from the southeast. Stančo proposes that Euthydemus was originally based in Sogdia and built the fortifications to protect himself from Bactria, before seizing control of the latter. Lucas Christopoulos goes further, proposing that he controlled a large area going from Sogdiana to Gansu and the Tarim basin walled cities together with enrolled Hellenized Saka horsemen even before he ascended the throne of Bactria in 250-230 BC.

Kuliab inscription

In an inscription found in the Kuliab area of Tajikistan, northeastern Greco-Bactria, and dated to 200-195 BC, a Greek by the name of Heliodotos, dedicating an altar to Hestia, mentions Euthydemus as the greatest of all kings, and his son Demetrius I.
This fragrant altar to you, Hestia, most honoured among the gods, Heliodotus established in the grove of Zeus with its fair trees, furnishing it with libations and burnt-offerings, so that you may graciously preserve free from care, together with divine good fortune, Euthydemus, greatest of all kings and his outstanding son Demetrius, renowned for fine victories
This is a further indication, alongside the passages from Polybius, that Euthydemus had made his son Demetrius a junior partner in his rule during his lifetime. The reference to Demetrius as a "glorious conqueror" might refer to a specific victory, in the conflict with Antiochus III or in India, or look forward to future victories.

Coinage

Euthydemus minted coins in gold, silver and bronze at two mints, known as 'Mint A' and 'Mint B'. He produced significantly more coins than any of his successors and was the last Greco-Bactrian coinage to include gold denominations until the time of Eucratides I (ca. 170-145 BC). Euthydemus' gold and silver issues are all minted on the Attic weight standard with a tetradrachm of ca. 16.13 g and all have the same basic design. On the obverse, his face is depicted in profile, clean-shaven, with unruly hair, and a diadem - this iconography is typical of Hellenistic kings, ultimately deriving from depictions of Alexander the Great. The reverse shows Heracles, naked, seated on a rock, resting his club on a neighbouring rock or on his knee, with a legend reading ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ ('of King Euthydemos'). Heracles was apparently a popular deity in Bactria, associated with Alexander the Great, but this reverse type is very similar to coins minted by the Seleucids in western Asia Minor, near Euthydemus' home city of Magnesia. Heracles continues to appear on the coinage of Euthydemus' immediate successors, Demetrius and Euthydemus II.

There are four distinct versions of the obverse portrait, presumably reflecting different models given to the die engravers. The first of these is an 'idealising' portrait, depicting him as a young or middle-aged man, with very large eyes, an arching eyebrow, pointed nose and protruding chin, the diadem is very broad. The overall appearance is very similar to images of Diodotus I on his coinage. The second shows him with a tall, large face with heavier jowls; his eye is smaller and the diadem is much narrower. The third portrait is similar, but with the hair above his forehead stylised as a series of semicircles. Finally, in the fourth portrait style, Euthydemus is portrayed as a visibly aged man with very large jowls; his hair also interacts with the diadem in a more natural way. Portrait type 1 is the earliest and portrait type 4 is the latest and these coins have often been interpreted as showing Euthydemus aging over the course of a long reign. However, Simon Glenn argues that the types instead represent a shift from 'idealising' portraiture to 'naturalising', pointing out that distinctions of age in the first three types are highly subjective. This shift to verism represents a substantial divergence from the usual iconography of Hellenistic kings, whose coinage usually showed them in a youthful, idealised guise, regardless of their age. Portrait type 4 has been compared with a Roman-period bust in the Torlonia Collection, which was accordingly identified by Jan Six (art historian) in 1894 as a bust of Euthydemus, known as the "Torlonia Euthydemus." This identification has been contested by R. R. R. Smith, who identifies the bust as a general of the Roman republic.

Relative chronology
Like the earlier Diodotid coinage and that of Euthydemus' successors, monograms and die links allow the precious metal coinage to be divided into two mints, which produced coins simultaneously. "Mint A" uses two types of monogram: one in the form of vertical line bisecting an equilateral triangle, with two shorter vertical lines hanging down from the corners of the triangle, and another with an Α contained within a Π. Mint B initially used three monograms, of which the most long-lasting was a combination of Ρ and Η; later these were replaced by a monogram combining a Ρ and a Κ. A putative "Mint C" has now been shown to be identical with "Mint B". Frank Holt and Brian Kritt identify "Mint B" with Bactra, the kingdom's capital. Holt identifies "Mint A" with Ai Khanoum, while Kritt prefers some other location near Ai Khanoum. Simon Glenn emphasises the that "we do not know the location of either mint" and that it is particularly uncertain whether there was a mint at Ai Khanoum at all.

The earliest coins use portrait type 1 and have a 6 o'clock die axis (i.e. the top of the obverse is aligned with the bottom of the reverse). At Mint A, these coins, Group I (A1-A10) consist of silver tetradrachms, drachms, and hemidrachms; they use either of the two monograms, plus the letters ΤΙ, ΑΝ, Α, Ν, or no monogram at all. These additional letters may have referred to the specific batch of bullion used in minting the coins. Partway through this issue, Mint A switches to a 12 o'clock die axis (i.e. the top of the obverse is aligned with the top of the reverse). At Mint A, Group I continues after this change. At Mint B ("Group I"), the coins consist of gold staters (ca. 8.27 g), and small numbers of silver tetradrachms and drachms, and all three monograms are used. Some of the gold staters are die-linked to earlier Diodotid coins minted in the name of "Antiochus," but it is possible that the linked coins are modern forgeries. At Mint B, these coins are followed by Group II (CR1-CR3), which consists of gold staters and silver tetradrachms with portrait type 1 (but with some features similar to portrait model 3). Most of these coins use the Η with triangle monogram.

The next period starts with the introduction of the second portrait type. At Mint A, Group II (A11-A14) only tetradrachms were minted in this period, all with the bisected triangle monogram, sometimes accompanied by a Ν or an Α. At Mint B this issue consisted of Group III (CR4), composed of gold staters and silver tetradrachms, with a monogram composed of Ρ, Η, and Α. This is followed by the first issue at Mint B to use a 12 o'clock die axis, Group IV (B13), consisting only of tetradrachms, all with the ΡΚ monogram, and produced in much large numbers than had previously been the case at Mint B. The third portrait type, introduced only at Mint B, characterises Group V (B14-B15), which consists of tetradrachms and drachms.

At Mint A, the introduction of portrait type 4 is marked by the start of Group III (A16-A17) and a gold octodrachm (A15) with a reverse modelled on Mint B's Group V, known from a single example weighing 32.73 g. This issue is generally associated with the end of Antiochus III's siege of Bactra in 206 BC. Group III is much smaller than previous issues at Mint A and is the last issue produced by the mint in Euthydemus' reign. At Mint B, the introduction of portrait 4 coincides with the large issue of Groups VI and VII (B17).

Bronze coinage
In addition to the precious metal coinage, Euthydemus also produced bronze coins. Almost all have a bearded male head, identified as Heracles, on the obverse and a rearing horse on the reverse with the legend ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΕΥΘΥΔΗΜΟΥ ('of King Euthydemos'). The earlier coins have thick flans with beveled edges (like the bronze of the Diodotids) and no monograms. These coins were issued in four denominations, referred to by modern scholars as a double unit (5.26-11.82 g), a single unit (2.95-5.07 g), a half unit (1.47-2.28 g), and a quarter unit (0.76-0.79 g). Some of the quarter units have a horse's head or a trident on the reverse instead of the usual reverse type. Apparently later issues have thinner, flat flans. These bronzes were minted in the double, single, and half denominations. Most of them have no monograms, but some of them bear the ΡΚ symbol associated with Groups IV-VII at Mint B, and a few have a trident, anchor with ΔΙ, or an Ε. The anchor was one of the main symbols of the Seleucid dynasty and ΔΙ is a monogram used by the Seleucids, so Holt interpreted it as commemorating Euthydemus' treaty with Antiochus III in 206 BC. Simon Glenn is sceptical of this argument, seeing the anchor and other symbols as control marks, but he entertains the possibility that the anchor indicates "a shared production process" between the anchor bronzes and the coinage produced by Antiochus III in Bactria.

Posthumous coinage
Euthydemus is also featured on the 'pedigree' coinage produced by the later kings Agathocles and Antimachus I. On this coinage he bears the royal epithet, Theos ('God'); it is unclear whether he used this title in life or if it was assigned to him by Agathocles. His coins were imitated by the nomadic tribes of Central Asia for decades after his death; these imitations are called "barbaric" because of their crude style. Lyonnet proposes that these coins were produced by refugees fleeing the destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom by the Yuezhi in the mid-second century BC.

Torlonia Euthydemus

The "Torlonia Euthydemus" or "Albani Euthydemus" bust, now in the Torlonia Collection in Rome but formerly belonging to the Villa Albani collection, has often been suggested as a possible statue of the Bactrian ruler Euthydemus, based on resemblance with his effigy on coinage. This is now rejected, as the statue in question is now considered as a 1st century portrait of a Republican commander or a client ruler. The style of the statue itself is consistent with the style of the Republican period, rather than the Hellenistic period. The style of the broad-brimmed hat on the statue is also very different from the Hellenistic kausia.

References

Bibliography

External links
 Coins of Euthydemus

Greco-Bactrian kings
Hellenistic Thessalians
3rd-century BC monarchs in Asia
Hellenistic satraps
Year of birth unknown
190s BC deaths
Euthydemid dynasty

Euthydemus I


Domenico Natale Sarro, also Sarri (24 December 1679 – 25 January 1744) was an Italian composer.

Born in Trani, Apulia, he studied at the Neapolitan conservatory of S. Onofrio. He composed extensively in the early 18th century. His opera Didone abbandonata, premiered on 1 February 1724 at the Teatro San Bartolomeo in Naples, was the first setting of a major libretto by Pietro Metastasio. He is best remembered today as the composer of Achille in Sciro, the opera that was chosen to open the new Teatro di San Carlo in 1737.

Of his many intermezzi, 'Dorina e Nibbio' or L'impresario delle Isole Canarie (1724) has had an extensive performance history. With a libretto by Pietro Metastasio (his only comic libretto), it was performed often and imitated internationally (with versions by Albinoni, Gasparini, Leo, Martini and others). In recent years it was performed in the State Theatre of Stuttgart, the Bochum Symphony as well as the Semperoper Dresden.

In addition to his Operas and other large scale works, Sarro has written a considerable number of vocal cantatas which show great charm and inventiveness. 'Coronatemi il crin' for Alto, two violins and continuo, is perhaps his most well known cantata.

The only known depiction of Domenico Sarro is Nicolò Maria Rossi's painting of the Viceroy at the festa of the Quattro Altari in the Harrach collection, Sarro is one of the many composers depicted as part of the Neapolitan Court (La festa dei Quattro Altari, 1745)

Operas

References

Grove Music On-line
Robinson, Michael F. (1972) Naples and Neapolitan Opera. Clarendon Press, Oxford. .
Fingere Per Godere: Comedia Per Music (1736) by Tomaso Mariani and Domenico Sarro

1679 births
1744 deaths
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Italian male classical composers
Italian Baroque composers
18th-century Italian composers
18th-century Italian male musicians

Domenico Sarro


Riaz Shahid (1927 - October 1, 1972) was a noted Pakistani filmmaker, movie writer, and journalist. His real name was Sheikh Riaz, but was called by his nickname Shahid.  Riaz was from Lahore where he started his career as a journalist for newspaper Chataan and later joined Faiz Ahmed Faiz's Lail-o-Nihar. He also wrote a novel named Hazar Dastaan.

In 1962, Riaz started his movie career as a director for the movie Susraal. From this point onwards, he went on to direct several hits like Zarqa, Shaheed, Farangi, and Yeh Aman.

Riaz Shahid was married to then famous actress Neelo and had three children. The first child their daughter was named Zarqa followed by two sons Shaan, who is now a well known Pakistani movie actor and Sarosh, who also worked in a couple of Pakistani movies.

Riaz died of leukemia in 1972.

1927 births
1972 deaths
Cinema of Pakistan
Pakistani entertainers
Writers from Lahore
Pakistani journalists
Movie directors
Cancer deaths in Pakistan
Deaths from leukemia

Riaz Shahid


Aden Colony (, ), also the Colony of Aden, located in the south of contemporary Yemen, was a Crown Colony of the United Kingdom from 1937 to 1963. It consisted of the port of Aden and its immediate surroundings (an area of ).

Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of India (originally as the Aden Settlement subordinate to the Bombay Presidency, and then as a Chief Commissioner's province). Under the Government of India Act 1935 the territory was detached from India and established as a colony of the United Kingdom; this separation took effect on 1 April 1937.

On 18 January 1963, Aden Colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden (, ) within the new Federation of South Arabia.  The federation in turn became the People's Republic of South Yemen on 30 November 1967, marking the end of British rule.

The hinterland of Aden Colony was separately governed as the Aden Protectorate.

History
On 18 January 1839, the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden. Their aims were to establish a supply port and stop attacks by Arab pirates against British shipping to India. The British Government thereafter considered Aden to be an important settlement due to its location, as the Royal Navy could easily access the port for resupply and repairs. Later, British influence extended progressively into the hinterland, both west and east, leading to the establishment of the Aden Protectorate.

Aden soon became an important transit port and coaling station for trade between British India and the Far East, and Europe. The commercial and strategic importance of Aden increased considerably when the Suez Canal opened in 1869. From then and until the 1960s, the Port of Aden was to be one of the busiest ship-bunkering, duty-free shopping, and trading ports in the world.

In 1937, Aden was separated from British India to become a Crown colony, a status that it retained until 1963. It consisted of the port city of Aden and its immediate surroundings (an area of ). The Aden Settlement, and later Aden Colony, also included the outlying islands of Kamaran (de facto), Perim and Kuria Muria (see map).

Prior to 1937, Aden had been governed as part of British India (originally as the Aden Settlement under the Bombay Presidency, and then as a Chief Commissioner's province).  Under the Government of India Act 1935 the territory was detached from British India, and was re-organised as a separate Crown colony of the United Kingdom; this separation took effect on 1 April 1937.

Through the latter years of its existence, Aden Colony was plagued by civil unrest.

Elizabeth II visit

On 27 April 1954, Queen Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh visited the colony as part of their first Commonwealth tour. They were greeted by Governor of Aden Tom Hickinbotham and travelled to an enclosure to watch a military parade which included the RAF, Aden Protectorate Levies, Armed Police, Government Guards, Hadhrami Bedouin Legion, and Somaliland Scouts.

The visit saw Aden hold its first and only knighthood ceremony in which local leader Sayyid Abubakr bin Shaikh Al-Kaff was knighted whilst kneeling on a chair instead of bowing due to his Muslim faith. The Queen also knighted Claude Pelly who was Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Air Force in the Middle East.

A bronze plaque marks the foundation stone Elizabeth II laid for Al Jumhuriyah hospital during the visit. The hospital which was originally named after her until the end of British rule in 1967 was bombed by the Houthi in 2015 but remains open due to a UAE funded restoration project.

Administration

The fundamental law for the Crown colony of Aden was the Order of Council 28 September 1936, which follows the usual lines of basic legislation for British colonies. The town of Aden was noted as being tied "much more closely into the fabric of the British Empire", with a faster rate of development, than the area surrounding it.

Aden was notable in that sharia law was not used in the colony. "All suits, including those dealing with personal status and inheritance of Muslims, are entertained in the ordinary secular courts of the colony".

Within Aden Colony, there were three local government bodies. The Aden municipality, which covered the town, Tawali, Ma'alla and Crater, the Township authority of Sheikh Othman and finally Little Aden had been established in recent years as a separate body, covering the oil refinery and the workers' settlement. All of these bodies were under the overall control of the Executive Council, which in turn was kept in check by the Governor.

Until 1 December 1955, the Executive Council was entirely unelected. The situation improved only slightly after this date, as four members were elected. Judicial administration was also entirely in British hands. "Compared with other British possessions, the development towards self-government and greater local participation has been rather slow".

Education was provided for all children, both boys and girls, until at least intermediate level. Higher education was available on a selective basis through scholarships to study abroad. Primary and Intermediate education was conducted in Arabic while Secondary and independent schools conducted their lessons in Arabic, English, Urdu, Hebrew and Gujarati. There were also Quranic schools for both boys and girls, but these were unrecognised.

Economy and finances
After 1937, the economy of Aden continued to be largely dependent on the city's role as an entrepôt for east–west trade. During the course of 1955, 5239 vessels called at Aden, making its harbour the second busiest in the world after New York. However, tourism declined over the last years of the Colony with the number of tourists landing dropping by 37% from 204,000 in 1952 to 128,420 in 1966. At the end of British rule in 1967, the main revenues of the Colony were the Port Trust with an annual  gross revenue of £1.75 million (2014 prices: £28.4 million) and the British Petroleum refinery which made direct payments to the Aden Government of £1.135 million (2014 prices: £18.4 million).

In 1956, Aden Colony had a revenue of £2.9 million (approximately £65 million in 2014 prices). This was equivalent to around £58 per capita, one of the highest per head revenue earners amongst Britain's smaller colonies behind only the Falkland Islands, Brunei and Bermuda.  However, the benefit to the United Kingdom of this was tempered by their commitments to the Aden protectorates which had revenue per capita of only 2.5 pence (only 23p in 2014 prices).

By the time British rule was ending the Federation of South Arabia, of which the Colony was a part, was receiving £12.6 million (£209 million in 2014) from the British government to support its 1966–67 Budget.

Demographics
The colony's population was 80,516 in the census of 1946; in its second census in 1955, the total had risen to 138,230.

The 1955 census enumerated the colony's 103,879 Arabs as Aden Arabs (36,910), Protectorate Arabs (18,881) and Yemeni Arabs (48,088).  The European population consisted of 3,763 British (including military) and 721 other Europeans.  The colony's Somali population predated the arrival of the British in Aden.  The colony's Jewish population (qv.) had been over 7,000 in 1946, but dropped following the removal of most Jews to the new state of Israel in Operation Magic Carpet.

The colony's estimated population grew to well over 200,000 in the 1960s.

Domestic issues

Labour movements, trade unions and internal dissent

Trade unions formed the basis for most of the outlet of social dissatisfaction in Aden. The first union, the Aden Harbour Pilots Association, had been formed in 1952, quickly followed by two more by the end of 1954. By 1956 most trades had formed a Union. There had been an assumption that the British model of Trade Union development would be followed. However, in the local tangle of grievances, the nationalist and economic were difficult to differentiate.  As a result, strikes and demonstrations were often politically motivated, rather than by purely economic reasons.

The British Army returned to Aden in July 1955 after Yemeni-armed rebel tribesmen caused disturbances. Minor events continued into early 1956 when a British assistant adviser to part of the Western Aden Protectorate was wounded in a rebel ambush.

On the 19 March 1956, labourers at the Little Aden refinery went on strike. Workers stoned policemen at the refinery gates, with clashes resulting in some deaths. The strike lasted ten days, being called off on the 29 March, with agreement reached mainly on pay. The strikes in 1956 were marked by a good many attacks on non-Arab groups. It was during this time that the Army took over command of Aden from the Royal Air Force, with its presence maintained "in view of the importance of preserving internal security" according to War Secretary Antony Head. Days after the strike had ended, the Governor Sir Tom Hickinbotham conferred with almost all of the tribal leaders from the Aden Protectorates, where broad agreement was reached that they should "seek some form of close association with each other".

In May 1958 a state of emergency was declared and there were a number of bombings until the arrest of the principal instigators in July. However, in October 1958 there was a general strike, which was accompanied by widespread rioting and disorder which ended in the deportation of 240 Yemenis from Aden, as claimed by author Gillian King: "By ignoring the views of the local labour force, the British pushed much of the Arab population into opposition against their rule, who previously had been by no means captivated by Nasser".

At the time much of the blame for these disturbances was placed on the broadcasts from Radio Cairo encouraged by Nasser's anti-imperialist and Arab Nationalist regime there, as claimed by author R. J. Gavin: "Radio Cairo began to speak in the tones of revolutionary Arab Nationalism.  Men who had long lived in isolation now found a common political language and a breathtaking, liberating community of sentiment across the Arab world".

In December 1963 there was a grenade attack by an unidentified assailant on the high commissioner who was unharmed; however, three bystanders were killed.

Jews in Aden

There had been Jewish tribes in Aden and Yemen for millennia, where they had primarily constituted the artisans and craftsmen of these areas, but it was after the British occupation of 1839 that Aden became an important congregation.

During the two World Wars the Jews in Aden had prospered while those in Yemen suffered. The Balfour declaration had encouraged increased Jewish immigration into the Holy Land, and as a result many of the Jewish communities from all over the Middle East sought a new home there. The Palestine issue had a serious effect on British prestige in Aden.

During the Second World War, Jews from Yemen flocked in large numbers into Aden while en route to Palestine, where they were placed in refugee camps, primarily for their own safety. However conditions in the camps were difficult and in 1942 there was an outbreak of Typhus. The need for the camps was apparent when in December 1947, following the UN declaration for the creation of a Jewish state, there were serious riots in Aden Town, where at least 70 Jews were killed and much of the Jewish Quarter was burnt and looted. Until this point nearly all the refugees had been from Yemen and the Aden Protectorate, but now after the growing violence against Jews in the Town itself, most tried to leave. This was shown by the population figures which from a high of roughly 4,500 in 1947 less than 500 were left in 1963. "The 1947 incident found Government policies at odds with the whole Arab community, including those who manned the police forces".

The 1948 Arab–Israeli War made immigration into Israel very difficult, as the Red Sea and Suez Canal were closed by the Egyptian government. By 1949 and after the declaration of a cease fire, 12,000 Jews from Yemen, Aden and the Protectorate were gathered in camps, from where they were airlifted on average 300 a day to Israel, in Operation Magic Carpet.

Foreign policy issues
Aden was located in a vital strategic location, on the main shipping routes between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. During the days of Empire, the value of the port was in providing key communications and bunkering facility between the Suez Canal and India. Even after the independence of India, Aden continued to be regarded as a vital asset in Britain's worldwide defence network. By 1958, Aden was the second-busiest harbour in the world, after New York City, described as having importance that "cannot be overestimated" while protecting British oil interests in the region.
The Little Aden oil refinery was essential to the economy of Aden as it could process 5 million tons of crude oil annually and formed one of the Colony's only exports. The safety of this refinery was a clear priority for the government of Aden.

"As a temporary expedient, the Aden base has the merits of a stabiliser at a moment when the Yemen is split by civil war, when the Saudi Royal house has not yet made itself a name for consistent rule, when the Iraqi and Syrian governments are prone to overnight revolutions and when Egypt's relations with both of them are uncertain".

For much of Aden's later history, relations with the United Arab Republic (UAR) were of primary consideration. Its 1958 establishment was described as having "increased the importance of Aden as a British military base in this troubled corner of the world". However even before the formation of the UAR, Arab nationalism had been growing in the awareness of Adeni's. "In 1946, Students protested that the anniversary of the founding of the Arab league had not been made a public holiday".

The most serious problem facing Aden in the late 50s and 60s was the relationship with the Yemen and Yemeni raids along the borders. But the adherence of Yemen to the UAR created a delicate situation and several political problems arose. Immigration into the Colony was a major concern of the local Arab workforce.

Previously to the creation of the UAR, peace in Aden it was admitted came not from the presence of the tiny garrison, but from a lack of Arab poles of attraction for malcontents.

However some contemporary writers, such as Elizabeth Monroe thought that the British presence in Aden may have been self-defeating, as it provided a casus belli for Arab nationalists. So rather than supporting British peace efforts in the region, Aden was actually the cause of much anti-British sentiments in the region.

"As in Kuwait prosperous older men appreciate the advantages of the British connection, but young Arab nationalists and a vigorous trade union movement think it humiliating".

Monetary system in Aden

Being an extension of British India, the British Indian rupee was the currency of Aden until shortly after India gained independence in 1947. In 1951, the rupee was replaced by the East African shilling which was on par with the shilling sterling. Then with the advent of the South Arabian Federation, a new South Arabian dinar was introduced in 1965 which was on par with the pound sterling.  The South Arabian dinar was a decimal unit divided into fils.

Aden became independent as the South Yemen on 30 November 1967 without joining the Commonwealth, but the South Arabian dinar continued at the one-to-one parity with sterling until 1972. In June 1972, the British Prime Minister Edward Heath unilaterally reduced the sterling area to include only the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and Ireland (and Gibraltar the following year).

The South Yemen reciprocated immediately by introducing its own exchange controls and ending the fixed peg to sterling. South Yemen was still however listed in British law as being part of the overseas sterling area, that being a list of scheduled territories which continued to enjoy some exchange control privileges with the United Kingdom right up until 1979 when Geoffrey Howe abolished all United Kingdom exchange controls.

Federation and the end of Aden colony

To solve many of the above problems, as well as continuing the process of self-determination that was accompanying the dismantling of the Empire, it was proposed that Aden Colony should form a federation with the protectorates of East and West Aden.  It was hoped that this would lessen Arab calls for complete independence, while still allowing British control of foreign affairs and the BP refinery at Little Aden to continue. It was the hope of the government of Harold Macmillan that creating a federation that would be dominated by the traditional sultans would allow for indirect British control as he wrote in his diary that his government planned to use "the Sultans to help us keep the colony and its essential defence facilities". However, the population of Aden was urban, well educated, secular and generally left-wing while the population of the protectorates were rural, mostly illiterate, religious and generally conservative, making the proposed federation a mismatch.

Federalism was first proposed by ministers from both the colony and protectorates, the suggested amalgamation would be beneficial they argued, in terms of economics, race, religion and languages.  However the step was illogical in terms of Arab Nationalism, for it was taken just prior to some impending elections, and was against the wishes of Aden Arabs, notably many of the trade unions. An additional problem was the huge disparity in political development, as at the time Aden colony was some way down the road to self-government and in the opinion of some dissidents, political fusion with the autocratic and backward Sultanates was a step in the wrong direction. In the federation, Aden colony was to have 24 seats on the new council, while each of the eleven sultanates was to have six.  While the federation as a whole would have financial and military aid from Britain. The federation was opposed by the majority of the people of Aden, leading to a series of strikes and protest marches while the elections for the council were rigged in favour of supporters of the federation. Right from start, the federation was seen as illegitimate.

On 18 January 1963, the colony was reconstituted as the State of Aden (Arabic: ولاية عدن Wilāyat ʿAdan), within the new Federation of South Arabia. With this Sir Charles Johnston stepped down as the last Governor of Aden.

Many of the problems that Aden had suffered in its time as a colony did not improve on federation. Internal disturbances continued and intensified, leading to the Aden Emergency and the final departure of British troops. British rule ended on 30 November 1967.

The federation became the People's Republic of South Yemen, and in line with other formerly British Arab territories in the Middle East, it did not join the Commonwealth of Nations.

Governors of Aden colony

 Sir Bernard Rawdon Reilly (1 April 1937 – 24 October 1940)
 John Hathorn Hall (24 October 1940 – 1 January 1945) (From 2 December 1940, Sir John Hathorn Hall)
 Reginald Stuart Champion (1 January 1945 – 1950) (From 1 January 1946, Sir Reginald Stuart Champion)
 William Allmond Codrington Goode (1950 – April 1951) (Acting)
 Sir Tom Hickinbotham (April 1951 – 13 July 1956)
 Sir William Luce (13 July 1956 – 23 October 1960)
 Sir Charles Johnston (23 October 1960 – 18 January 1963)

Chief Justices of Aden Colony
 James Taylor Lawrence (1938–1942; died 1944)
 Geoffrey Barkitt Whitcombe Rudd (1944; acting and afterwards in Kenya)
 Ronald Knox-Mawer (1952; acting and afterwards in Fiji)
 Ralph Abercrombie Campbell (1956–1960; afterwards Chief Justice of the Bahamas, 1960)
 Richard Lyle Le Gallais (1960–1963)

See also
 British foreign policy in Aden
 Jews of Aden
 Yemen

Notes

Citations

General references
 Colonial Reports. Aden Report: 1953 & 1954, HM Stationery Office 1956.
 Paul Dresch. A History of Modern Yemen. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
 R.J. Gavin. Aden Under British Rule: 1839–1967. London: C. Hurst & Company, 1975.
 Gillian King. Imperial Outpost: Aden: Its Place in British Foreign Policy. Chatham House Essay Series, 1964.
 H. J. Liebensy. Administration and Legal Development in Arabia. Middle East Journal, 1955.
 Tom Little. South Arabia: Arena of Conflict. London: Pall Mall Press, 1968.
 Elizabeth Monroe. Kuwayt and Aden: A Contrast in British Policies. Middle East Journal, 1964.

 E. H. Rawlings. The Importance of Aden. Contemporary Review, 195, 1959.
 Jonathan Walker. Aden Insurgency: The Savage War in South Arabia 1962–67, Spellmount, 2004.
 D. C. Watt. Labour Relations and Trade Unionism in Aden: 1952–60. Middle East Journal, 1962.

Further reading

States and territories established in 1937
Former countries in the Middle East
Gulf of Aden
Former British colonies and protectorates in Asia
United Kingdom–Yemen relations
1937 establishments in Asia
1937 establishments in the British Empire
1963 disestablishments in Asia
1963 disestablishments in the British Empire
Aden in World War II
States and territories disestablished in 1963

Aden Colony


Samogitian (Samogitian: , , , ) is a dialect of the Lithuanian language, although it is sometimes considered a separate language. Samogitian is spoken mostly in Samogitia (in the western part of Lithuania).

History

The Samogitian language, heavily influenced by Curonian, originated from the East Baltic proto-Samogitian dialect which was close to Aukštaitian dialects.

During the 5th century, Proto-Samogitians migrated from the lowlands of central Lithuania, near Kaunas, into the Dubysa and Jūra basins, as well as into the Samogitian highlands. They displaced or assimilated the local, Curonian-speaking Baltic populations. Further north, they displaced or assimilated the indigenous, Semigallian speaking peoples. Assimilation of Curonians and Semigallians gave birth to the three Samogitian subdialects: "Dounininkų", "Donininkų" and "Dūnininkų."

In the 13th century, Žemaitija became a part of the Baltic confederation called Lietuva (Lithuania), which was formed by Mindaugas. Lithuania conquered the coast of the Baltic sea from the Livonian order. The coast was populated by Curonians, but became a part of Samogitia. From the 13th century onwards, Samogitians settled within the former Curonian lands, and intermarried with that population over the next three hundred years. The Curonians had a huge cultural influence upon Samogitian and Lithuanian culture, but they were ultimately assimilated by the 16th century. Its dying language has enormously influenced the dialect, in particular phonetics.

The earliest writings in Samogitian language appeared in the 19th century.

Phonology
The earliest writings in Samogitian language appeared in the 19th century.

Samogitian and its subdialects preserved many features of the Curonian language, for example:
widening of proto Baltic short i (i → ė sometimes e)
widening of proto Baltic short u (u → o)
preservation of West Baltic diphthong ei (standard Lithuanian  → Samogitian ėi)
no t' d' palatalization to č dž (Latvian š, ž)
specific lexis, like cīrulis (lark), pīle (duck), leitis (Lithuanian) etc.
retraction of stress
shortening of ending -as to -s like in Latvian and Old Prussian (Proto-Indo-European o-stem)
as well as various other features not listed here.

The earliest writings in Samogitian language appeared in the 16th century (Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas has been written mostly in south Samogtian dialect), more in 18th century (starting with "Ziwatas Pona Yr Diewa Musu Jezusa Christusa" written in 1759 in north Samogitian dialect).

() ė may be retracted in some sub-dialects to form () represented by the letter õ. Tėkrus → tõkrus, lėngvus → lõngvus, tėn → tõn. The vowel can be realized as close-mid central [ɘ] or close-mid back [ɤ], depending on the speaker.

Grammar
The Samogitian dialect is highly inflected like standard Lithuanian, in which the relationships between parts of speech and their roles in a sentence are expressed by numerous flexions.
There are two grammatical genders in Samogitian – feminine and masculine. Relics of historical neuter are almost fully extinct while in standard Lithuanian some isolated forms remain. Those forms are replaced by masculine ones in Samogitian. Samogitian stress is mobile but often retracted at the end of words, and is also characterised by pitch accent. Samogitian has a broken tone like the Latvian and Danish languages. The circumflex of standard Lithuanian is replaced by an acute tone in Samogitian.

It has five noun and three adjective declensions. Noun declensions are different from standard Lithuanian (see the next section). There are only two verb conjugations. All verbs have present, past, past iterative and future tenses of the indicative mood, subjunctive (or conditional) and imperative moods (both without distinction of tenses) and infinitive. The formation of past iterative is different from standard Lithuanian. There are three numbers in Samogitian: singular, plural and dual. Dual is almost extinct in standard Lithuanian. The third person of all three numbers is common.
Samogitian as the standard Lithuanian has a very rich system of participles, which are derived from all tenses with distinct active and passive forms, and several gerund forms. Nouns and other declinable words are declined in eight cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative (inessive), vocative and illative.

Literature
The earliest writings in Samogitian dialect appear in the 19th century. Famous authors writing in Samogitian:
 and his heroic poem "Biruta", first printed in 1829. "Biruta" became a hymn of Lithuanian student emigrants in the 19th century.
Simonas Stanevičius (Sėmuons Stanevėčios) with his famous book "" (Six fables) printed in 1829.
Simonas Daukantas (Sėmuons Daukonts in Samogitian), he was the first Lithuanian historian writing in Lithuanian (actually in its dialect). His famous book – "" (Customs of ancient Lithuanian highlanders and Samogitians) was printed in 1854.
Motiejus Valančius (Muotiejos Valončios or Valontė) and one of his books "" (Joseph of Palanga), printed in 1869.
There are no written grammar books in Samogitian because it is considered to be a dialect of Lithuanian, but there were some attempts to standardise its written form. Among those who have tried are , , Sofija Kymantaitė-Čiurlionienė, B. Jurgutis, .
Today, Samogitian has a standardised writing system but it still remains a spoken language, as nearly everyone writes in their native speech.

Differences from Standard Lithuanian
Samogitian differs from Standard Lithuanian in phonetics, lexicon, syntax and morphology.

Phonetic differences from standard Lithuanian are varied, each Samogitian subdialect (West, North and South) has different reflections.

Standard Lithuanian → Samogitian

i → short ė, sometimes e;
u → short o (in some cases u);
ė → ;
o → uo;
 → long ė, ėi, ī (y) (West, North and South);
uo → ō, ou, ū (West, North and South);
ai → ā ;
ei, iai → ē;
ui → oi;
oi (oj) → uo;
an → on (an in south-east);
un → on (un in south-east);
ą → an in south-eastern, on in the central region and ō or ou in the north;
ę → en in south-eastern, ėn in the central region and õ, ō or ėi in the north;
ū → ū (in some cases un, um);
ų in stressed endings → un and um;
unstressed ų → o;
y → ī (y), sometimes in;
i from ancient ī → ī;
u from ancient ō (Lithuanian uo) → ō, ou, ū (West, North and South)
i from ancient ei (Lithuanian ) → long ė, ėi, ī (West, North and South)
č → t (also č under Lithuanian influence);
dž → d (also dž under Lithuanian influence);
ia → ė (somewhere between i and e);
io → ė (somewhere between i and e);
unstressed ią → ė (somewhere between i and e);

The main difference between Samogitian and standard Lithuanian is verb conjugation.
The past iterative tense is formed differently from Lithuanian (e.g., in Lithuanian the past iterative tense, meaning that action which was done in the past repeatedly, is made by removing the ending -ti and adding -davo (mirti – mirdavo, pūti – pūdavo), while in Samogitian, the word liuob is added instead before the word). The second verb conjugation is extinct in Samogitian, it merged with the first one. The plural reflexive ending is -muos instead of expected -mies which is in standard Lithuanian (-mės) and other dialects. Samogitian preserved a lot of relics of athematic conjugation which did not survive in standard Lithuanian. The intonation in the future tense third person is the same as in the infinitive, in standard Lithuanian it shifts. The subjunctive conjugation is different from standard Lithuanian. Dual is preserved perfectly while in standard Lithuanian it has been completely lost.

The differences between nominals are considerable too.
The fifth noun declension has almost become extinct, it merged with the third one. The plural and some singular cases of the fourth declension have endings of the first one (e.g.: singular nominative , plural nom. , in standard Lithuanian: sg. nom. , pl. nom. ). The neuter of adjectives is extinct (it was pushed out by adverbs, except  'warm',  'cold',  'hot') while in standard Lithuanian it is still alive. Neuter pronouns were replaced by masculine. The second declension of adjectives is almost extinct (having merged with the first declension)—only singular nominative case endings survived. The formation of pronominals is also different from standard Lithuanian.

Other morphological differences

Samogitian also has many words and figures of speech that are altogether different from typically Lithuanian ones, e.g.,  – basket (Lith. , Latvian ""),  – thin (Lith. , Latvian ""),  – ribs (Lith. , Latvian – ""),  – "can't be!" (Lith. ) and many more.

Subdialects

Samogitian is also divided into three major subdialects: Northern Samogitian (spoken in Telšiai and Kretinga regions), Western Samogitian (was spoken in the region around Klaipėda, now nearly extinct, – after 1945, many people were expelled and new ones came to this region) and Southern Samogitian (spoken in Varniai, Kelmė, Tauragė and Raseiniai regions). Historically, these are classified by their pronunciation of the Lithuanian word Duona, "bread." They are referred to as Dounininkai (from Douna), Donininkai (from Dona) and Dūnininkai (from Dūna).

Political situation
The Samogitian dialect is rapidly declining: it is not used in the local school system and there is only one quarterly magazine and no television broadcasts in Samogitian. There are some radio broadcasts in Samogitian (in Klaipėda and Telšiai). Local newspapers and broadcast stations use standard Lithuanian instead. There is no new literature in Samogitian either, as authors prefer standard Lithuanian for its accessibility to a larger audience. Out of those people who speak Samogitian, only a few can understand its written form well.

Migration of Samogitian speakers to other parts of the country and migration into Samogitia have reduced contact between Samogitian speakers, and therefore the level of fluency of those speakers.

There are attempts by the Samogitian Cultural Society to stem the loss of the dialect. The council of Telšiai city put marks with Samogitian names for the city at the roads leading to the city, while the council of Skuodas claim to use the language during the sessions. A new system for writing Samogitian was created.

Writing system
The first use of a unique writing system for Samogitian was in the interwar period, however it was neglected during the Soviet period, so only elderly people knew how to write in Samogitian at the time Lithuania regained independence. The Samogitian Cultural Society renewed the system to make it more usable.

The writing system uses similar letters to standard Lithuanian, but with the following differences:

There are no nasal vowels (letters with ogoneks: ą, ę, į, ų).
There are five additional long vowels, written with macrons above (as in Latvian): ā, ē, ė̄, ī, and ō. Lithuanian only has one letter with a macron: ū.
Long i in Samogitian is written with a macron above: ī (unlike standard Lithuanian where it is y).
The long vowel ė is written like ė with macron: Ė̄  and ė̄. Image:E smg.jpg In the pre-Unicode 8-bit computer fonts for Samogitian, the letter 'ė with macron' was mapped on the code of the letter õ. From this circumstance a belief sprang that 'ė with macron' could be substituted with the character õ. It is not so, however. In fact, if the letter 'ė with macron' is for some reason not available, it can be substituted with the doubling of the macron-less letter, that is, 'ėė'.
There are two additional diphthongs in Samogitian that are written as digraphs: ou and ėi. (The component letters are part of the standard Lithuanian alphabet.)

As previously it was difficult to add these new characters to typesets, some older Samogitian texts use double letters instead of macrons to indicate long vowels, for example aa for ā and ee for ē;  now the Samogitian Cultural Society discourages these conventions and recommends using the letters with macrons above instead.  The use of double letters is accepted in cases where computer fonts do not have Samogitian letters; in such cases y is used instead of Samogitian ī, the same as in standard Lithuanian, while other long letters are written as double letters. The apostrophe might be used to denote palatalization in some cases; in others i is used for this, as in standard Lithuanian.

A Samogitian computer keyboard layout has been created.

Samogitian alphabet:

Samples

References

External links

Samogitia
Maps of Lithuania with Samogitian Dialects' Borders
Samogitian dictionary

Lithuanian dialects
Articles citing ISO change requests
Dialect

Samogitian language


The Harbor Defense Museum, sometimes called The Caponier, located within the grounds of Fort Hamilton in the Bay Ridge section of Brooklyn is  a 19th-century fort, New York City's only military museum and one of only seventy military museums in the United States that is funded and operated by the Defense Department.

Caponiers, the technical name of the structure that now houses the museum, are outworks; in the case of Fort Hamilton its mission was to protect the main fortress from rear attacks. Originally a small fort within the larger fort, it now serves as the guardian of Fort Hamilton's history. Robert E. Lee served at Fort Hamilton in the 1840s, when there was only one Army.
Because it was used as a warehouse after it was no longer needed for military purposes, it was better preserved than other parts of the fort. While the museum and fort were in danger of closing in the mid-1990s due to budget cuts, it was preserved due to an agreement between the fort and the United States Army Center of Military History and preservation efforts of the Fort Hamilton Historic Society. The museum continues to serve an educational role in explaining the history of the evolution of New York Harbor.

Fort Hamilton is the "second-oldest continuously garrisoned federal post in the nation", second only to West Point and its ties to the community are part of the charm of the museum and the fort. Although The Caponier was always prepared for battle, with a 24-pound cannon aimed at New York Harbor, the fort never experienced a battle. The museum houses an array of artifacts from New York's military history including American Revolutionary War relics, uniforms from various wars, old maps of the fort, the post's old switchboard, an exhibit on a secret tunnel that connected Fort Hamilton with another base a half-mile away, a Confederate mine and a piece of the net that protected New York Harbor from German U-boats in World War I. It is also the temporary home of a Bay Ridge time capsule that was unearthed prematurely due to construction.

References

External links
Official Facebook page
Harbor Defense Museum website (dead link 30 Nov 2016)
Harbor Defense Museum at NYC Arts.org

Museums in Brooklyn
Military and war museums in New York (state)
United States Army museums
Museums established in 1980
Bay Ridge, Brooklyn
1980 establishments in New York City

Harbor Defense Museum


W. Max Finley Stadium is the home stadium for the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga football team and Chattanooga FC (NISA), a professional Division 3 soccer team. The stadium also hosts various high school sports and musical concerts. It is located in Chattanooga, Tennessee, United States. The stadium, which opened in 1997, has a current capacity of 20,412, and hosted the NCAA Division I National Championship Game from its opening season through 2009, after which the game moved to Pizza Hut Park in the Dallas suburb of Frisco, Texas. The stadium will host the TSSAA Football Championships in 2021 and 2022.

The stadium is named in honor of W. Max Finley, former chairman of the Rock Tenn Corporation, who was an alumnus and active supporter of the University of Tennessee system. The playing field is named in honor of Gordon Lee Davenport, the president and CEO of the Krystal Company from 1975 to 1985 who served as Chairman of the Stadium Corporation and Campaign and worked endlessly and tirelessly in the planning and actual development of the facility. Bronze busts of both Finley and Davenport adorn the main entryway to the stadium.

History
In 1997, the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga football program stopped using Chamberlain Field and started using Finley-Davenport. On Oct. 18, 1997, the Mocs opened up their new home, Finley Stadium Davenport Field, as an overflow crowd of 22,646 watched UTC defeat Tennessee State 28-7.

The 20,412-seat facility (original capacity: 20,668) is part of the city's Southside revitalization project. A stadium project for UTC and Chattanooga had been talked about by city leaders for quite some time before it came to fruition. Chamberlain Field on the UTC campus, which opened in 1908, had the distinction of being the second-oldest on-campus stadium in the nation. Officials agreed that something needed to be done.

The $28.5 million project needed supporters to become a reality and got plenty of them. Donations from the private sector ranged anywhere from a 10 dollar bill to $1 million. In fact, nearly 40 percent, or $10.2 million of the project, came from private donations. The City of Chattanooga and Hamilton County contributed $13 million, the State of Tennessee gave $3.5 million, and the University donated $2.9 million.

Ground breaking on the site that was once the Rock Tenn plant was held March 7, 1996. Seven months later, the Stadium Corporation named the facility Finley Stadium Davenport Field.

In 2015, a new turf surface was installed to replace the old for $600,000 – with the ability to erase football lines or soccer lines depending on the event to be held.

Features
The facility, designed by Derthick, Henley & Wilkerson and built by C&I Specialty, both of Chattanooga, contains 32 luxury sky boxes and 1,566 preferred seats with chairbacks. The $350,000 scoreboard includes a giant matrix screen and the Stadium Club can hold 250 for pregame or postgame functions. The press box can hold 60 media representatives, has three radio booths, and a television broadcast booth. Prior to 2015, on either side of the pressbox was the stadium's "Wall of Champions", featuring a plaque celebrating each of the 13 NCAA Division I FCS teams to have won a championship here. Identical home and visitors locker rooms contain a separate training area and coaches locker room, as well as an extensive player locker area.

Adjacent to the stadium is the First Horizon Pavilion. The old Ross-Meehan Foundry has been renovated into an open-air pavilion which has become a favorite for tailgaters, complete with food and beverage concessions and a children's area. The pavilion offers tailgaters a perfect atmosphere around the stadium while providing protection from the weather without being indoors.

Notable Events
The U.S. Men's National soccer team played a friendly match vs. Jamaica on February 3, 2017 at Finley Stadium. The U.S. defeated Jamaica 1–0.

NCAA Division I Football Championship

See also
 McKenzie Arena
 List of NCAA Division I FCS football stadiums

References

External links
 Finley Stadium page

College football venues
Chattanooga Mocs football
Sports venues in Chattanooga, Tennessee
American football venues in Tennessee
Soccer venues in Tennessee
1997 establishments in Tennessee
National Premier Soccer League stadiums
National Independent Soccer Association stadiums

Finley Stadium