Michael Kidd (August 12, 1915 – December 23, 2007) was an American film and stage choreographer, dancer and actor, whose career spanned five decades, and staged some of the leading Broadway and film musicals of the 1940s and 1950s. Kidd, strongly influenced by Charlie Chaplin and Léonide Massine, was an innovator in what came to be known as the "integrated musical", in which dance movements are integral to the plot.

He was probably best known for his athletic dance numbers in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, a 1954 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer musical. Film critic Stephanie Zacharek called the barn-raising sequence in Seven Brides "one of the most rousing dance numbers ever put on screen". He was the first choreographer to win five Tony Awards, and was awarded an honorary Oscar in 1996 for advancing dance in film.

Early life and dance career
Kidd was born Milton Greenwald, in New York City on the Lower East Side, the son of Abraham Greenwald, a barber, and his wife Lillian, who were Jewish refugees from Czarist Russia. He moved to Brooklyn with his family and attended New Utrecht High School. He became interested in dance after attending a modern dance performance, and went on to study under Blanche Evan, a dancer and choreographer.

He studied chemical engineering at the City College of New York in 1936 and 1937, but left after being granted a scholarship to the School of American Ballet. He toured the country as a member of the corps de ballet of Lincoln Kirstein's Ballet Caravan, and performed in roles that included the lead in Billy the Kid, choreographed by Eugene Loring, which featured an orchestral arrangement by Aaron Copland.

He adopted the name Michael Kidd in 1942. At the time he was performing with Ballet Caravan and all the dancers were urged to adopt "American" names. He chose Kidd because it was short, easy to remember, and evocative of the pirate Captain Kidd.

In 1941, Kidd became a soloist and assistant to Loring in his Dance Players. He became a soloist for Ballet Theater, later known as the American Ballet Theatre. His performances there included Fancy Free (1944) choreographed by Jerome Robbins and with music by Leonard Bernstein, in which he played one of the three sailors. While at the ABT, he created his own ballet, On Stage! (1945). Although the play and his performance were well received, and the New York Times observed that Kidd was "hailed as one of the great hopes of postwar American ballet," he left Loring's company for Broadway in 1947 and never again worked in ballet.

Broadway and Hollywood
Kidd's first choreography on Broadway was for E.Y. Harburg's Finian's Rainbow, a lyrical musical that explored racial prejudice. Kidd won his first Tony Award for that play. However, his next Broadway musicals were not successful. They were Hold It, a college musical, and the Kurt Weill/Alan Jay Lerner musical Love Life, directed by Elia Kazan, which both had short runs in 1948. Next came Arms and the Girl (1950), directed by Rouben Mamoulian, with Pearl Bailey and Nanette Fabray, also a flop.

Frank Loesser's Guys and Dolls (1950), his next play, cemented his reputation as a Broadway choreographer. It was based on Damon Runyon short stories, with book by Abe Burrows, and earned Kidd his second Tony Award. The play attracted the attention of movie producers, and he was lured to Hollywood.

His first film was a 1952 film adaptation of Frank Loesser's 1948 Broadway musical Where's Charley?, starring Ray Bolger repeating his Broadway performance in the lead role. His first big film success came the following year with The Band Wagon, starring Fred Astaire and Cyd Charisse.

The Band Wagon, which featured the music and lyrics of Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz, included an extensive dance sequence at the end, the "Girl Hunt Ballet" featuring Astaire and Charisse, which was a spoof of hard-boiled Mickey Spillane novels. Kidd was hired to stage the film's dances at Astaire's request because he was nervous about the ballet. Kidd said that he made Astaire comfortable by pretending that he was just making up the steps spontaneously. The film also featured "Shine on Your Shoes", set in a 42nd Street penny arcade and featuring Astaire and LeRoy Daniels, a real-life shoe-shiner, and "Dancing in the Dark" with Charisse, set in Central Park.

Kidd's work for the 1954 film Seven Brides for Seven Brothers brought him acclaim. The film was directed by Stanley Donen, with music by Saul Chaplin and Gene de Paul and lyrics by Johnny Mercer. It was written directly for the screen and based on the short story "The Sobbin' Women", by Stephen Vincent Benét, which was based in turn on the ancient Roman legend of The Rape of the Sabine Women. He initially turned down the assignment, recalling in 1997: "Here are these slobs living off in the woods. They have no schooling, they are uncouth, there's manure on the floor, the cows come in and out—and they're gonna get up and dance? We'd be laughed out of the house."

The entire cast, even extras, consisted of a melange of dancers, acrobats and stuntmen, including the ballet dancers Jacques D'Amboise of the New York City Ballet and Marc Platt, formerly of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo. Except for Howard Keel and Jane Powell, the roles of the brothers and their brides were all played by professional dancers at Kidd's insistence. Mercer said that the musical numbers were written at Kidd's behest, as an example "of how a songwriter sometimes has to take his cue from his collaborators". For example, Kidd explained to Mercer and dePaul his conception of the "Lonesome Polecat" number, the lament of the brothers for the women, and the two worked out the music and lyrics.

By the mid-1950s, Hollywood's output of movie musicals had begun to wane, and he worked on only two more during the rest of the decade. He made his movie acting debut in It's Always Fair Weather (1955), directed by Gene Kelly and Donen, in which Kelly, Kidd and Dan Dailey played three ex-GIs meeting 10 years after the war, only to discover they had little in common. The film featured an exuberant number in which the three dance with garbage can lids fastened to their feet. The downbeat film was a critical success but was not heavily promoted by the studio, and failed at the box office. The film was originally designed to be a sequel to the 1949 film On the Town, but Frank Sinatra and Jules Munshin were unavailable, and the film lacked chemistry among the three actors. The production was marked by constant strife between Donen and Kelly, with much of it stemming from Donen's striving unsuccessfully to include "Jack and the Space Giants", a 10-minute dance solo by Kidd. Kelly rejected this, which Kidd took as a personal insult, and Donen went further, ending his collaboration with Kelly for the rest of their lives. The "Jack" number appears as a bonus feature on a DVD of the film, and one commentator suggests that Kelly's judgment was not wrong as the number was listless and did not advance the plot.

Kidd was both director and choreographer for the musical comedy film Merry Andrew (1958), starring Danny Kaye. By then, the era of movie musicals was pretty much over, and Kidd turned his attention to Broadway, where he had continued to work while choreographing movies. At the same time that he was choreographing The Band Wagon, he was staging dances for Cole Porter's Broadway musical Can-Can. In this show, he created dance numbers for Gwen Verdon that helped make her a Broadway sensation.

His other Broadway shows during the 1950s included Li'l Abner in 1956, which he directed as well as choreographed. He won another Tony Award for his choreography, which was adapted for the film version in 1959. After Merry Andrew, however, he made no other films until Star!, with Julie Andrews, in 1968. Neither film was successful.

On Broadway, he directed and choreographed Destry Rides Again (1959), with Andy Griffith, Wildcat (1960), which starred Lucille Ball, Subways Are for Sleeping (1961), a musical comedy about homelessness, and Ben Franklin in Paris (1964), starring Robert Preston. He also choreographed the famous Broadway flop Breakfast at Tiffany's (1966), a musical version of the Truman Capote novella with Mary Tyler Moore and Richard Chamberlain that never officially opened.

He choreographed the 1969 film adaptation of the hit Broadway play Hello, Dolly! The film was beset by tension on the unhappy set, with Barbra Streisand clashing with her costar Walter Matthau and director Gene Kelly; Kidd also had conflicts with costume designer Irene Sharaff and Kelly to the point that he and Kelly were no longer on speaking terms. The film was not a success as a musical, with Kelly and Kidd making little use of the widescreen format of the film. Critic Tom Santopietro described their approach as "shoveling more and more bodies on screen with no apparent purpose".

He went on to direct and choreograph the 1970 Broadway musical The Rothschilds, starring Hal Linden, and directed The Goodbye Girl, with Bernadette Peters and Martin Short, a 1993 adaptation of the 1977 Neil Simon film that was his final Broadway play. Although he was nominated for a Tony Award for best director, reviews were mixed. In The New York Times, Frank Rich wrote that "Kidd, who did much to define slam-bang Broadway and Hollywood musical-comedy style in the 1950s, directs The Goodbye Girl in a mechanical reduction of that style: Everything is fast, furious, loud and downstage center. Not that any director could overcome this musical's physical production."

Kidd appeared in supporting roles as a character actor in the 1970s and 1980s, beginning with his performance as the faded, cynical choreographer for a cheesy beauty pageant in the satirical 1975 film Smile. Film critic Roger Ebert called Kidd's portrayal of the pageant choreographer a "finely etched semiautobiographical performance". He acted in and staged the musical sequences in the 1978 film Movie Movie, which was directed by Stanley Donen, with whom he'd worked in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers and It's Always Fair Weather. Kidd directed an episode of the TV comedy Laverne & Shirley (1976) as well as scenes for Janet Jackson in two music videos: "When I Think of You" (1986) and "Alright" (1990). He conceived and choreographed the television special Baryshnikov in Hollywood, starring Mikhail Baryshnikov in 1982, for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award.

Personal life
Kidd died of cancer at the age 92 at his home in Los Angeles, California. His marriage to the dancer Mary Heater in 1940 ended in divorce. At his death, he was survived by his wife Shelah Hackett, whom he married in 1969, two daughters from his first marriage, and a son and daughter from his second.

Kidd was the uncle of filmmaker and political activist Robert Greenwald. His older brother was Harold Greenwald, a prominent psychotherapist and best-selling author of the 1958 book The Call Girl, who was an expert in the study of prostitution.

Choreographic style
Kidd was unusually well-respected, and his judgment was granted deference by the leading dancers of his era. British critic and biographer Michael Freedland said at the time of his death that "when Gene Kelly danced through the street with a dustbin lid tied to his feet in the 1955 film It's Always Fair Weather, the man who usually planned his own routines did it to Kidd's order".

His realistic approach, designing dances that were inspired by the way ordinary people behaved, led one critic to observe that "Kidd is, in a way, the originator of the fantasy that if only your life shaped up and offered you the right moments, you too would be able to dance like a Hollywood star".

Kidd believed that dance needed to derive from life, saying that his "dancing is based on naturalistic movement that is abstracted and enlarged", and that "all my movements relate to some kind of real activity". He always wanted dance to serve the story, and when beginning a new work he would write a scenario, explaining how the plot drove the characters to dance. His biggest influences were Charlie Chaplin, "because he expressed through movement the aspirations of the little man", and the dancer and choreographer Léonide Massine, "because he expressed more than just balletic ability—he was always a character on stage, an exaggerated character, which I do all the time: an exaggeration of ordinary movement".

His distinct style was evident in his early days in ballet. Describing a rare film clip of his performance in On Stage, dance critic Anna Kisselgoff recounted that Kidd in one scene played a handyman consoling ballerina Janet Reed, playing a shy young woman at a ballet audition. "Classical technique was used to expressive purpose as the wonderful Miss Reed grew visibly exuberant and confident as Mr. Kidd, broom in hand, entertained her with his virtuosic performance."

He once said that "in choreography, ordinary movements from real life are taken and extended, so they become dance movements, yet the relation to reality must always be there. It's important for me to know who the characters are and what their function is in the script. I must be able to illustrate either their activities, their emotions, or their changes in mood by the way they dance, all the while keeping the dance movements footed in reality and yet making the movements sort of odd and eccentric." This philosophy was reflected in the early scene from The Band Wagon, when Fred Astaire walks down a railroad platform singing "By Myself." His walk was not quite a dance, and epitomized Kidd's style.

In a 2012 appreciation of his work, Dance Teacher stated that "Kidd drew from the vocabularies of ballet, modern, social dance and acrobatics. But above all, his choreography stemmed from realistic movements and gestures. Following in the tradition of Agnes de Mille and Jerome Robbins, who developed the integrated musical, Kidd created dances that helped to carry the plot and flesh out the characters. He put the story first, communicating it through dance." Kidd once said that "every move, every turn should mean something. Dancing should be completely understandable." In Seven Brides for Seven Brothers he employed leading ballet dancers, but insisted that his dancers avoid ballet dance moves, and instead focus on "work movements like ax wielding".

In choreographing Seven Brides, Kidd once said that he "had to find a way to have these backwoods men dance without looking ridiculous. I had to base it all around activities you would accept from such people—it couldn't look like ballet. And it could only have been done by superbly trained dancers." Yet he was able to integrate into the cast Russ Tamblyn, a non-dancer MGM contract player who was assigned to the film, by using his talents as a gymnast and tumbler in the dance numbers.

Kidd's personal favorite of the films he choreographed, however, was not Seven Brides or Band Wagon but Guys and Dolls, which he felt was "the best, most inventive and best integrated musical I've ever seen".

Although he came from the world of classic ballet, a Los Angeles Times critic noted at his death that he had "a healthy disdain for its pretensions". He staged a comedic ballet sequence for the 1954 Danny Kaye film Knock on Wood, in which Kaye is chased into a theater and hides on stage during a performance by a Russian ballet company. The sequence allowed Kidd to lampoon the stylistic excesses he'd observed as a dancer at the American Ballet Theatre.

As in his choreography for both the Broadway and 1955 film adaptation of Guys and Dolls, and in the "Girl Hunt Ballet", Kidd's choreography in Seven Brides exuded masculinity. One history of the musical theater observes that "Kidd forged dances, and shows, in which men were men, leaping high, stout hearted, and passionate about their dolls". He choreographed "for the little guy, the working guy, the guy defined by his job and the movement that job entailed".

Although Kidd drove his dancers hard, partly because he himself was capable of doing all the dance steps that he required of them, his personal style was gentle. Nanette Fabray, who performed in Love Life, could only make dancing turns to the left side because of a hearing problem. Rather than insisting she turn to the right, as many choreographers would do, Kidd "found that fascinating, and he made all the other dancers turn to the left". Julie Andrews recalled that the "Burlington Bertie From Bow" number in Star! was physically demanding, and she balked when Kidd asked her for a retake, saying she had a bad back. Andrews recalled that "he looked crestfallen. Then he said 'I wasn't trying to be mean. I just knew that when you saw it on film, you wouldn't be pleased.' I always thought that was a nice way to say 'Once more.

Awards
Kidd was the first choreographer to win five Tony Awards, and received nine Tony nominations. He was awarded an Academy Honorary Award in 1997 "in recognition of his services to the art of dance in the art of the screen".

He was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 1981.

Film credits

Where's Charley? (1952) – choreographer
The Band Wagon (1953) – co-choreographer with Fred Astaire
Knock on Wood (1954) – choreographer
Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954) – choreographer
Guys and Dolls (1955) – choreographer
It's Always Fair Weather (1955) – actor
Merry Andrew (1958) – director and choreographer
Li'l Abner (1959) – original choreography
Star! (1968) – choreographer
Hello, Dolly! (1969) – choreographer
Smile (1975) – actor
Actor (1978) (TV movie) – actor
Movie Movie (1978) – actor, musical staging
For the Love of It (TV Movie) (1980) – actor
Skin Deep (1989) – actor

Broadway credits

Filling Station (1939) – ballet – dancer in the role of "The Gangster"
Billy the Kid (1939) – ballet to the music of Aaron Copland – dancer
Pocahontas (1939) – ballet to the music of Elliott Carter – dancer cast as an "Indian Man"
Billy the Kid (1942 revival) – director and dancer
Interplay (1945) – ballet to the music of Morton Gould and choreography of Jerome Robbins – dancer
Fancy Free (1946) – ballet, with music of Leonard Bernstein and choreography of Jerome Robbins – dancer cast as a "Sailor"
Finian's Rainbow (1947) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Hold It! (1948) – musical – choreographer
Love Life (1948) – musical – choreographer
Arms and the Girl (1950) – musical – choreographer
Guys and Dolls (1950) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Can-Can (1953) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Li'l Abner (1956) – musical – director, choreographer, and co-producer – Tony Award for Best Choreography
Destry Rides Again (1959) – musical – director and choreographer – Tony Award for Best Choreography and nominated for Best Direction of a Musical
Wildcat (1960) – musical – director, choreographer, and co-producer
Subways Are For Sleeping (1961) – musical – director and choreographer – Tony Award Nomination for Best Choreography
Here's Love (1963) – musical – choreographer
Ben Franklin in Paris (1964) – musical – director and choreographer
Skyscraper (1965) – musical – choreographer – Tony Award Nomination for Best Choreography
Breakfast at Tiffany's (1966 – never officially opened) – musical – choreographer
The Rothschilds (1970) – musical – director and choreographer – Tony Award Nominations for Best Direction of a Musical and Best Choreography
Cyrano (1973) – musical – director and choreographer
The Music Man (1980 revival) – musical – director and choreographer
The Goodbye Girl (1993) – musical – director – Tony Award Nomination for Best Direction of a Musical

References

External links

1915 births
2007 deaths
American choreographers
Donaldson Award winners
Tony Award winners
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
People from Brooklyn
Deaths from cancer in California
Academy Honorary Award recipients
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract players
School of American Ballet alumni
City College of New York alumni
Jewish American male actors
American male ballet dancers

Michael Kidd


In linguistics, universal grinder is the idea that in some languages, most count nouns can be used as if they were mass nouns, which causes a slight change in their meaning. The term "universal grinder" was first used in print by F. Jeffry Pelletier in 1975, after a personal suggestion by David Lewis.

Related concepts, the universal sorter and universal packager refer to similar processes that allow mass nouns to be used as count nouns.

Universal grinder
The idea of the "universal grinder" is that, while count nouns usually denote whole, distinct objects (such as a steak, two steaks), the equivalent mass noun connotes a non-distinct quantity of whatever constitutes these objects (some steak). The universal grinder suggests that most count nouns can be used as mass nouns, when the distinct thing named by the noun will be thought of as a general quantity.

While the "universal grinder" can be used in many Indo-European languages, most particularly English and Dutch, it does not apply in all languages; there is considerable cross-linguistic variation in the morphology and semantics of the mass/count and singular/plural distinctions. For example, bare count nouns in Mandarin Chinese do not receive mass interpretations: a sentence such as Qiáng-shang dōu shì gǒu (墙上都是狗) can only be interpreted as 'There are dogs all over the wall,' not as 'There is dog all over the wall.'

Universal sorter and packager
The "universal sorter" describes one way in which mass nouns are understood when they are used in the plural. Harry Bunt suggested the universal sorter in his 1981 doctoral dissertation. When an ordinarily uncountable noun such as wine appears with plural form (several wines), it can be understood as referring to various abstract kinds (for example, varieties of wine).

The "universal packager" likewise describes how mass nouns are understood when they are used as countable nouns. In this case, the plural noun may be understood as naming individual servings or "packages" (e.g. two coffees may mean "two cups of coffee"), or as naming abstract kinds (two coffees can also refer to e.g. Colombian coffee and Indonesian coffee). Some scholars use the phrase universal packager to refer to both the concrete and abstract understanding of plural nouns; others use it to refer only to the concrete sense, and use universal sorter for abstract meaning.

References

Grammar
1975 introductions
Semantics
Philosophy of language

Universal grinder


John Gray Bell (21 September 1823 – 21 February 1866) was an English bookseller.

He was the son of Thomas Bell (1785–1860), a house agent and surveyor of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He was born at Newcastle, and married, in 1847, Dorothy Taylor of North Shields. In 1848 he went to London, and began business as a bookseller in Covent Garden. He removed to Manchester in 1854, where he successfully followed his trade for the rest of his life. He died there 21 February 1866, aged 43.

Bell was an earnest student of antiquarian literature, collected topographical books and prints, and issued many interesting trade catalogues. In 1850 he started publishing a valuable series of Tracts on the Topography, History. Dialects, &c., of the Counties of Great Britain, of which about sixteen came out, including original glossaries of Essex, Gloucestershire, Dorset, Cumberland, and Berkshire. In 1851 he published A Descriptive and Critical Catalogue of Works, illustrated by Thomas and John Bell. This was compiled by himself. Another of his works was a genealogy of the Bell and other families, printed for private circulation in 1866, and entitled A Genealogical Account of the Descendants of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.

References

Attribution

English booksellers
1823 births
1866 deaths
People from Newcastle upon Tyne
19th-century English businesspeople

John Gray Bell


Reinhold von Werner (10 May 1825 – 26 February 1909) was a Prussian and later Imperial German naval officer in the 19th century, eventually reaching the rank of vice admiral. He commanded warships during the three wars of German Unification, the Second Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1864, 1866, and 1870–1871, respectively, and during a naval intervention during a revolution in Spain in 1873. His actions off Spain, considered extreme by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, resulted in his court-martial. He was promoted two years after the intervention in Spain, but was forced into retirement after a major feud with Albrecht von Stosch three years later. Werner wrote numerous books during and after his naval career, and also founded a periodical on maritime topics. He was ennobled in 1901 and died in February 1909.

Early life
Reinhold Werner was born on 10 May 1825, in the town of Weferlingen, Prussia in what is now Saxony-Anhalt. He served for several years in the merchant marine in the 1830s and 1840s, during which he made several voyages to the East Indies. While in the merchant marine, he was given the nickname Schweizer (Swiss), as his North German shipmates found his accent to be particularly foreign compared to their native Plattdeutsch.

Naval career
In 1849, Werner became an officer in the German Reichsflotte (Imperial Fleet), which had been organised the year before. In 1852, he transferred to the Preussische Marine (Prussian Navy), at the age of 22. The Preussische Marine accepted only ten applicants to the officer corps that year. Werner was the only officer in the first group who was directly commissioned as a lieutenant; the other nine became officer cadets. He was promoted to the rank of kapitänleutnant (captain lieutenant) in 1856. While commanding the warship Elbe, he participated in a naval expedition to the Far East in 1859–1862.

Wars of German Unification
During the Second Schleswig War of 1864, Werner commanded a corvette against Danish naval forces. He fought with distinction at the Battle of Jasmund, under the command of Eduard von Jachmann;  Werner's ship, , was badly damaged during the engagement and her crew suffered 13 casualties. The Danes successfully blocked the Prussian attempt to break through the Danish blockade, however, and forced them to return to Swinemünde. Werner and the rest of the fleet stationed there remained in port for the rest of the war.

At the outbreak of the Austro-Prussian War, in the summer of 1866, He was given command of a small squadron in the North Sea consisting of the ironclad warship  and a flotilla of small steam gunboats. He used the force to launch several troop landings against the Kingdom of Hanover, an ally of Austria. He led most of the landings himself; his activities forced the surrender of several Hanoverian coastal batteries and several cities, including Emden and Stade. On 15 June, he and his squadron assisted 13,500 men commanded by General Edwin von Manteuffel in their crossing of the Elbe River and assault of the city of Hanover.

After the Austro-Prussian War, Werner was given command of the dock facilities in Danzig, a position he held until 1873. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War broke out, during which he was given command of the new ironclad . The two other broadside ironclads,  and , suffered from chronic engine problems which prevented Admiral Jachmann from using the force offensively. Nevertheless, Werner sortied from Wilhelmshaven several times to trade shots with the blockading French fleet. Directly after the war with France, Werner pledged his support to General Albrecht von Stosch, who had been proposed as the new commander of the German fleet. In the fall of 1872, Werner commanded a training cruise to South America; his squadron consisted of Friedrich Carl, , , and . While on the cruise, Werner received orders to return most of the squadron to Europe to participate in an international intervention in Spain. Only Albatross remained in the Americas.

Intervention in Spain
In early 1873, the First Spanish Republic was beset with the Cantonal Revolution. Werner commanded the ironclad Friedrich Carl (his flagship), Elisabeth, and the gunboat  on a naval intervention mission. The ships joined a British squadron that had been patrolling the southern Spanish coast.  Admiral Werner, the senior commander in the group, was given command of the Anglo-German force. A rebel faction of the Spanish Navy had seized four of the country's seven ironclads. Werner's squadron blockaded two rebel ironclads in the port of Cartagena after they had bombarded a coastal town. While steaming off Alicante, Friedrich Carl encountered the rebel armed steamer Vigilante, seized the vessel, and returned it to the Spanish national government.

Werner ordered Friedrich Carl and the British ironclad  to attack two of the rebel ships—Vitoria and Almansa—without authorization from London or Berlin. The rebel vessels had attempted to extort the port of Almería. In the brief engagement, the Anglo-German force overwhelmed the rebels and seized both ships, which were subsequently turned over to the Spanish government. A captured rebel leader was briefly held on board Friedrich Carl. The rebels considered declaring war on Germany over the affair, but eventually decided against it. Admiral Werner's blockade eventually forced the rebels to surrender, after which Friedrich Carl returned to Germany. Upon being informed of Werner's actions, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck relieved him of command. Bismarck ordered a court-martial for Werner on the charge of exceeding his orders. Bismarck also prohibited the Imperial Navy from conducting "gunboat diplomacy" in the future. Werner's career as a sea-going captain was effectively ended despite support from Kaiser Wilhelm I and his grandson, the future Wilhelm II; he held only shore commands for the remainder of his career. He commanded the imperial dockyard in Wilhelmshaven for a year before being transferred to Kiel as the commander of the Baltic station. Werner partly blamed Stosch, who had agreed with Bismarck in his assessment of Werner's activities, for his disgrace. This marked the beginning of a long and public feud between the two officers.

Forced retirement
In 1875, Werner was promoted to konteradmiral (rear admiral). In the aftermath of the accidental collision between the ironclads König Wilhelm and , which resulted in the loss of the latter, Werner and Stosch argued, a disagreement that ultimately resulted in Werner's forced retirement. Werner, then the chief of the Baltic station, presided over a commission that investigated the handling of the incident by Konteradmiral Batsch, a protégé of Stosch. The investigation heavily criticized Batsch as well as Stosch's policies. Many naval officers—including Batsch—felt Stosch's policies were more appropriate for the army than the navy. Alfred von Tirpitz, later the architect of the German High Seas Fleet, characterized Stosch's policies as more befitting an infantry regiment than an armoured warship, which was a "complicated microcosm of technology." Stosch fought back against his critics, and targeted Werner in particular, who Stosch felt was primarily responsible for allowing the investigation to become a forum for officers opposed to himself. In addition to revenge for the handling of the investigation, Stosch sought to force Werner from the navy to remove one of only two officers senior in rank to Batsch, his protégé. Despite his popularity, particularly with Kaiser Wilhelm I and his son, Werner was unable to resist Stosch's efforts to force his ouster. On 15 October 1878, he requested retirement. In 1898, the navy nominated him to be promoted to vizeadmiral (vice admiral).

Later life
After leaving the navy, Werner became an author and ardent supporter of German naval expansion. He continued his feud with Stosch, going so far as to ally himself with Otto von Bismarck, who had sought Werner's imprisonment five years earlier for his conduct off Spain. He also joined the rightist Free Union for Naval Lectures, founded on 16 November 1899; the union conducted a series of public lectures on the importance of the navy throughout Germany. Werner had begun writing in the 1860s, while still in the navy. He wrote a series of books, including accounts of the German expedition to the Far East from 1859 to 1862 and the development and expansion of the German fleet. In 1864, he founded the periodical Hansa in Hamburg, which was concerned with topics relating to seamanship and coast guard activities. He was elevated to the nobility in 1901 and granted the right to use "von" in his name, and died on 26 February 1909.

Footnotes

References

External links

1825 births
1909 deaths
Prussian naval officers
German military writers
Vice admirals of the Imperial German Navy
German untitled nobility
German military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War
German male non-fiction writers
People from Börde (district)
Military personnel from Saxony-Anhalt

Reinhold von Werner


Theodor Haecker (4 June 1879 – 9 April 1945) was a German writer, translator and cultural critic.

Life
Haecker was a translator into German of Kierkegaard and Cardinal Newman. He wrote an essay, Kierkegaard and the Philosophy of Inwardness in 1913 at a time when few had heard of Haecker and even fewer had heard of Kierkegaard. After that he translated Newman's Grammar of Assent and became a Roman Catholic convert in April 1921.

Haecker is known for his consistent opposition to the Nazi regime and his connections with the German resistance, such as the White Rose.
From 1935 he was not allowed to speak in public and from 1938 he was forbidden to publish books.
It was during this time that he wrote his most important work, the journal titled collectively as Journal in the Night. They are the documents of an intellectual's inner resistance against National Socialism. Haecker's achievement can be considered an important foundation of Christian resistance to National Socialism. Haecker had links with the circle around the Scholl siblings, where he read excerpts from his Journal in the Night.

In early 1944, Haecker's house was completely destroyed during the bombing of Munich. With his sight failing due to worsening diabetes, he left Munich to live the last months of his life in the small village of Ustersbach near Augsburg. His daughter visited him but his son, Reinhard had been sent to the Russian front in early 1945, and was shortly after reported missing. Theodor Haecker died on 9 April 1945 and is buried in Ustersbach. There is a bust by sculptor  atop a fountain dedicated to Haecker in Laupheim near Ulm, paid for by the local citizens.

Work
Among his papers was a manuscript possibly written in 1943 and published in English in 1950 as Kierkegaard The Cripple. Haecker questions the claim by Rikard Magnussen, in his two books Søren Kierkegaard seen from the Outside and The Special Cross, that Kierkegaard was a hunchback. Haecker asks: 'What significance can be attached to an exterior, physical examination of someone whose work and achievements lie solely in the intellectual and spiritual realms of memory and of historical tradition and experience, as in the case of Kierkegaard? (...) Is there any point in trying to explain the connection between Kierkegaard's physical appearance and his inner self, the purely materially visible and spiritually non-sensual and invisible? Would not this make the inner man, the outer, and the outer man, the inner, which is precisely what Kierkegaard so passionately protested?" Yet, Haecker goes on "to examine the thesis that Kierkegaard's psychological structure was influenced by his deformity."  He tried to relate Kierkegaard's inner life to his outer appearance.

The translator, Alexander Dru, says about Haecker's Journal in the Night, "This book, reminiscent in form of Pascal's Pensées, is his last testimony to the truth and a confession of faith that is a spontaneous rejoinder to a particular moment in history. It is written by a man intent, by nature, on the search for truth, and driven, by circumstance, to seek for it in anguish, in solitude, with an urgency that grips the reader." In the opening to Dru's translation, Jacques Maritain (misspelled "Jacques Maratain") is quoted as saying, "Theodor Haecker was a man of deep insight and rare intellectual integrity — a Knight of Faith to use Kierkegaard's expression. The testimony of this great Christian has an outstanding value."

References

Publications in English
 Virgil, Father of the West; translated by Arthur Wesley Wheen (Sheed & Ward: London, 1934)
 Søren Kierkegaard, by Theodore Haecker, translated, and With a Biographical Note, by Alexander Dru (Oxford University Press, 1937). (The first part was given in the form of a lecture in Zurich in 1924 and the second part the epilogue to his translation of Kierkegaard's Discourses at Communion Service on Friday, 1851.)
 Journal in the Night; translated by Alexander Dru; With a biographical and critical introduction by the translator (Pantheon Books, 1950)
 Kierkegaard The Cripple, by Theodor Haecker, translated by C. Vasn O. Bruyn, With an Introduction by A. Dru, Published 1950 by the Philosophical Library Inc.

Further reading
 Eugen Blessing: Theodor Haecker. Gestalt und Werk. Glock & Lutz, Nürnberg 1959
 Karin Masser: Theodor Haecker. Literatur in theologischer Fragestellung. Peter Lang, Frankfurt 1986
 Michael Langer: Theodor Haecker 1879–1945. in: Emerich Coreth u. a. (Hgg.): Christliche Philosophie im katholischen Denken des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts. Bd. 3, Graz 1990, S. 216–225
 Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz: Theodor Haecker. In: Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL). Band 2, Bautz, Hamm 1990, , Sp. 433–434.

External links
 "Theodor Haecker" on archive.org

1879 births
1945 deaths
People from Eberbach (Baden)
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
German non-fiction writers
Converts to Roman Catholicism
German Roman Catholics
Roman Catholics in the German Resistance
German anti-fascists
White Rose members
20th-century German translators
20th-century German male writers
German male non-fiction writers
Translators of Virgil

Theodor Haecker


Magnes (Greek: Μάγνης) was an Athenian comic poet of the 5th century BC. Magnes and his contemporary Chionides are the earliest comic poets for whom victories are recorded in the literary competition of the Dionysia festival.

Titles of his comedies:

Βαρβίτιδες (Barbitides), Guitarists of Barbiton
Βάτραχοι (Batrachoi), Frogs
Γαλεομυομαχία (Galeomyomachia), Battle of Cats and Mice
Διόνυσος (Dionysos), Dionysus
Λυδοί (Lydoi), Lydians
Ὄρνιθες (Ornithes), Birds
Πιτακίς ή Πυτακίδης (Pitakis or Pytakidis, related to Pita, Pytia or Pittakion, Wax tablet)
Ποάστρια (Poastria), Female Farm-Worker (derived from Poa)
Ψῆνες (Psenes), Fig wasps

References
Magnes Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
Magnes Theatrehistory.com
Aristotle, Poetics, III

5th-century BC Athenians
Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights
5th-century BC poets
Old Comic poets

Magnes (comic poet)


Gut flora consists of microorganisms that live in the digestive system of animals. It is the largest reservoir of microbes in the human microbiome.

The human body, consisting of about 100 trillion cells, carries about ten times as many microorganisms in the intestines. The metabolic activities performed by these bacteria resemble those of an organ, leading some to call gut flora a 'forgotten organ'. It is estimated that these gut flora have around 100 times as many genes in aggregate as there are in the human genome.

Bacteria make up most of the flora in the colon and up to 60% of the dry mass of faeces. Somewhere between 300 and 1000 different species live in the gut, with most estimates at about 500. However, it is probable that 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species.  Fungi and protozoa also make up a part of the gut flora, but little is known about their activities.

Research suggests that the relationship between gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather a symbiotic relationship.  Though people can survive without gut flora, the microorganisms perform a host of useful functions, such as fermenting unused energy substrates, training the immune system, preventing growth of harmful, pathogenic bacteria, regulating the development of the gut, producing vitamins for the host (such as biotin and vitamin K), and producing hormones to direct the host to store fats.  However, in some conditions, some species can cause disease by producing an infection or increasing cancer risk for the host.

Such food compounds as polyphenols, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides may be useful for good bacteria and help reduce pathogenic species of human gut flora.

Over 99% of the bacteria in the gut are anaerobic, but in the cecum, aerobic bacteria reach high densities.

The traditional view is that no metazoan phylum can break down cellulose by producing the enzyme cellulase. Instead, herbivores contain, in their gut, microorganisms which produce cellulase. This is important because cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33% of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90% and that of wood is 40–50%). Recently, evidence has emerged that some animals do produce their own cellulase. The question is not yet quite settled.

Related pages
Human microbiome

References

Microbiology
Physiology

Gut flora


Castellammare del Golfo (;  [kaˌstɛɖɖamˈmaːɾɪ];  or ) is a town and municipality in the Trapani Province of Sicily. The name can be translated as "Sea Fortress on the Gulf", stemming from the medieval fortress in the harbor. The nearby body of water conversely takes its name from the town, and is known as Gulf of Castellammare.

Heading upwards from its marina/harbour called "Cala Marina", with many restaurants and bars, the urban plan is made of steps and winding streets that lead to Piazza Petrolo in one direction or towards the main central gardens, where the town center lies with many shops, cafes and restaurants. The main street is called Corso Garibaldi.

History
According to the opinion of historians and geographers such as Ptolemy,  Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, Castellammare del Golfo was born as Emporium Segestanorum, port of Segesta, a nearby city which shared the same ordeals until its fall. The Arabs Invaded Castellammare del Golfo from 827 AD, and called it "Al Madarig", which means "The Steps", probably due to an uphill steep street leading from the harbour to the area of the fortified bastion. It was the Arabs who first built the castle fortress, later enlarged by the Normans. The building rose on a rocky outcrop near the sea, linked to the mainland by a wooden drawbridge.

Fishing has been important in Castellammare del Golfo since ancient times. Today the town's economy continues to be based on fishing with the addition of tourism.

The small town is also noted for having been the birthplace of many Sicilian-American Mafia figures, including Sebastiano DiGaetano, Salvatore Maranzano, Stefano Magaddino, Vito Bonventre, John Tartamella, and Joseph Bonanno. This is the origin of the Castellamarese war, fought by the Masseria clan against the Maranzano clan for control of the Underworld in New York City.

During the height of Italian immigration to the United States, many residents from Castellammare del Golfo immigrated to New York City, and settled on Elizabeth Street in Little Italy,  Italian Harlem, and Bushwick, Carroll Gardens and East New York neighborhoods of Brooklyn, New York. After World War II, many residents from Castellammare del Golfo continued to immigrate to New York City, this time, settling in the Gravesend, Bensonhurst and Dyker Heights neighborhoods of Brooklyn, New York as well as the Ridgewood and Middle Village neighborhoods of Queens, New York, the Morris Park section of the Bronx, New York and all throughout the borough of Staten Island.

In the past decades Castellammare del Golfo has become an important tourist location as it is conveniently situated between Palermo and Trapani.

Nearby places

Nearby places include Segesta, with its Doric temple and an amphitheater where performances are still held.

 Trapani about 35 km to the west;
 Palermo about 30 km to the east;
 Scopello with its tonnara (traditional tuna fishing ground) to the west;
 San Vito Lo Capo to the west;
 Riserva naturale dello Zingaro also to the west, with its bay beaches only accessible on foot or boat;
 Erice, a historic village, located  above sea level.

From Castellammare del Golfo you can take a boat trip departing from Cala Marina to the Egadi Islands situated in front of Trapani.

To the east, the gulf of Castellammare has a stretch of  of white sandy beaches.

Films

Castellammare del Golfo has also been a location for various films, including:
 For the Love of Mariastella (1946)
 Ocean's Twelve
 Avenging Angelo
 My name is Tanino
 Cefalonia (TV series)
 Inspector Montalbano, episode "The Sense of Touch"
 Largo Winch
 Leaves of the Tree

People
Joseph Bonanno, crime boss, historical leader of the Bonanno crime family
Giovanni Bonventre, underboss of the Bonanno crime family
Stefano Magaddino, crime boss of the Buffalo crime family
Salvatore Maranzano, mobster, founder of the Bonanno crime family

See also
Castello Normanno Lighthouse

References

External links

 Castellammare's Official Website

Municipalities of the Province of Trapani
Populated coastal places in Italy

Castellammare del Golfo


Philip Thomas Bezanson (January 6, 1916 – March 11, 1975) was an American composer and educator.

Life
Born in Athol, Massachusetts, he graduated from Yale University School of Music in 1940 and after war services enrolled in the graduate program of composition at the State University of Iowa where he joined its faculty eight years later. In 1951 he received his Ph.D. and later became head of composition. He was made a professor in 1961. He was given a Distinguished Alumnus award by Yale.

A prolific and productive composer, Bezanson won several prestigious awards and received commissions from, among others, Dimitri Mitropoulos, who commissioned a piano concerto in 1952. His most famous work is perhaps the opera Golden Child, written in 1960 to a libretto by Paul Engle. The work was commissioned by the NBC Opera Theatre and first performed on television on the Hallmark Hall of Fame program. Several of his vocal and choral works use texts by Engle as well.

His notable students included Olly Wilson, M. William Karlins, Karen Tarlow, and James Yannatos.

He was a National Patron of Delta Omicron, an international professional music fraternity.

List of works

Stage works

 Golden Child, opera in 3 acts (1960)
 Stranger in Eden, opera in 3 acts (1963)

Orchestral works

 Symphony no 1 in b
 Symphony no 2
 Cyrano de Bergerac, overture
 Dance scherzo
 Fantasy, fugue and finale for strings (1951)
 Concerto for piano and orchestra (1952)
 Rondo-prelude for orchestra (1954)
 Anniversary Overture (1956)
 Capriccio Concertante (1967)
 Sinfonia Concertante (1971)

Chamber works

 Children's suite, piano (1946)
 Sextet for woodwinds and piano (1956)
 Divertimento for eight wind instruments
 Duo for cello and piano (1965)
 Brass sextet (1974)

References

1916 births
1975 deaths
20th-century classical composers
People from Athol, Massachusetts
Yale School of Music alumni
University of Iowa alumni
University of Iowa faculty
American male classical composers
American classical composers
20th-century American composers
Classical musicians from Massachusetts
20th-century American male musicians

Philip Bezanson


Howardena Pindell (born April 14, 1943) is an American artist, curator and educator. She is known as a painter and mixed media artist, her work explores texture, color, structures, and the process of making art; it is often political, addressing the intersecting issues of racism, feminism, violence, slavery, and exploitation. She is known for the wide variety of techniques and materials used in her artwork; she has created abstract paintings, collages, "video drawings," and "process art."

Early life and education
Howardena Pindell was born on April 14, 1943, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was raised in the neighborhood of Germantown. Her parents were Mildred (née Lewis) and Howard Douglas Pindell, she was an only child. She graduated from the Philadelphia High School for Girls. From a young age, she demonstrated promise in figurative art classes at the Philadelphia College of Art, the Fleisher Art Memorial, and the Tyler School of Art.

She received her BFA degree in 1965 from Boston University, and her MFA degree in 1967 from Yale University. Pindell had studied color theory under Sewell Sillman.

Career
In 1967, Pindell began working in the Arts Education Department at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City, later moving on to a curatorial position in the Department of Prints and Illustrated Books. She would continue to work at MoMA for the next 12 years (until 1979) in a variety of capacities, including exhibit assistant, curatorial assistant, and associate curator.

In 1972, Pindell co-founded the A.I.R. Gallery, which was the first artist-directed gallery for women artists in the United States. There were twenty artist cofounders, including Nancy Spero, Agnes Denes, Barbara Zucker, Dotty Attie, Judith Bernstein, Harmony Hammond, Maude Boltz, Louise Kramer, and others.  At the first meeting, held on March 17, 1972, Pindell suggested naming the gallery the "Eyre Gallery" after the novel Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë. The artists decided to name the gallery "A.I.R. Gallery" instead, which stands for "Artists in Residence." The gallery allowed women artists to curate their own exhibitions, allowing them the freedom to take risks with their work in ways that commercial galleries would not.

In the mid-1970s, she began traveling abroad as a guest speaker and lecturer. Her seminars included "Current American and Black American Art: A Historical Survey" at the Madras College of Arts and Crafts in India, 1975, and "Black Artists, U.S.A." at the Academy of Art in Oslo, Norway, 1976.

By 1977, she was associate curator of MoMA's department of Prints and Illustrated Books.  She continued to spend her nights creating her own pieces, drawing inspiration from many of the exhibits hosted by MoMA, especially the museum's collection of Akan batakari tunics in the exhibit African Textiles and Decorative Arts. While working at MoMA, Pindell created a statistical report spanning 7 years where she surveyed art institutions and galleries in New York state that were featuring representation by Black, Asian, Hispanic, and Native American artists and designers. Her statistical findings were published in March 1989 issue of ARTnews, and found that 54 out of 64 of the surveyed art institutions and galleries (in New York state) represented 90% or greater white artists.

Currently, Pindell is a professor of art at Stony Brook University, where she has taught since 1979. She was a visiting professor in the art department at Yale University from 1995–1999.

She was interviewed for the film !Women Art Revolution (2010).

Artistic style

Following her graduation from the MFA program specializing in painting at Yale University in 1967, Pindell moved to New York City. It was in New York City where she began to work with abstraction and collaging, finding inspiration in the work of fellow grad school student Nancy Silvia Murata. By the 1970s, she began developing a unique style, rooted in the use of dots and reminiscent of minimalism and pointillism. From working with dots, Pindell began making use of the scrap circles of oaktag paper that resulted from the production of her pointillist works. David Bourdon writes, "By 1974, Pindell developed a more three-dimensional and more personal form of pointillism, wielding a paper punch to cut out multitudes of confetti-like disks, which she dispersed with varying degrees of premeditation and randomness over the surfaces of her pictures." One example of this is a 17 x 90 inch, untitled drawing-collage from 1973; Pindell used over 20 thousand hand-numbered paper dots to form vertical and horizontal rows with rhythmic peacefulness, uniting order and chaos .

In 1969, Pindell gained recognition for her participation in the exhibition American Drawing Biennial XXIII at the Norfolk Museum of Arts and Sciences, and by 1972, had her first major exhibition at Spelman College in Atlanta.

In 1973, her work with circles received acclaim at a show in the A.I.R. (Artists-In-Residence) Gallery in SoHo where her style had solidified into expression through "large-scale, untitled, nonrepresentational, abstract paintings". Also in 1973,  Pindell began work on her "Video Drawings" series. At the advice of her doctor, Pindell bought a television for her studio to encourage her from working long hours on her dot works. She became interested in the artificial light from her television monitor, and began to write out small numerals on acetate, which she stuck to the TV screen. She then photographed her drawings placed over the monitor. These experiments lead to a long series of works that feature her drawings over sporting events and news broadcastings, including televised elections.

The spray paintings of the early 1970s, which made use of the scrap pieces of paper from which holes had been punched, were dark and smoldering, yet there was also a shimmering light. This appearance of light would carry on as Pindell began building up the punched out dots on the canvas, sometimes even sprinkling glitter across the surface, too. These canvases were rich visual feasts of color and light.

In these years, Pindell also describes feeling great influence in her work from the Black Power and feminist movements, as well as from exposure to new art forms during her day job at MoMA and her travels abroad (particularly to Africa). She became fascinated by African sculpture exhibited at MoMA and in the Brooklyn Museum of Art, and began to mirror the practice of encoding and accumulation in her own work. The material of these pieces also informed Pindell's work: while African art embraces the use of objects in sculpture such as beads, horns, shells, hair, and claws, so Pindell's collages began to incorporate additional elements including paper, glitter, acrylic, and dye.

By the 1980s, Pindell was also working on unstretched canvas. A few large scale works have a similar effect of looking totally white from a distance but actually being made up of tiny dots of colored paper, sequins, and paint. Pindell likened this experience of viewing her paintings to whitewashing her own identity to make it more palatable for the art world. However, she also was met with criticism because this work was not overtly political in appearance. At this time, she also began combining the ideas of the video drawings and the hole punched works; she started adding numbers to each individual hole punch and arranging them in extremely neat rows.

In 1979, Pindell was in a traumatic car accident, from which she suffered severe memory loss.  It was at this point that her work became much more autobiographical, in part as an effort to help herself heal. Her painting Autobiography, which was part of an eight-painting series on her recovery, used Pindell's own body as the focal point. For this piece, she cut and sewed a traced outline of herself onto a large piece of canvas as part of a complex collage. She also started collaging postcards from friends and from her own travels into her work. She'd often cut the postcards into angular strips and paste them an inch or so apart, leaving room to paint between the strips. The repetition of forms created a vibrating, fractured feel. Her reason for using postcards was to spark her memory that had been affected in the car accident.

In 1980, she made a video called Free, White, and 21, in which she appears in a blonde wig, dark glasses, and with a pale stocking over her head as a caricature of a white woman, discussing instances of racism that she has experienced throughout her life. "You really must be paranoid," Pindell says performing the white woman, "I have never had experiences like that. But, of course, I am free, white and 21." Soon she began expending a particular focus on racism in the art world, a subject on which she has published multiple writings. In 1980, she openly addressed the persistent presence of racism even within the feminist movement, organizing a show at A.I.R. Gallery titled The Dialectics of Isolation: An Exhibition of Third World Women Artists of the US. She became increasingly aware that she had often been selected for exhibition as a token black among a group of other artists, she and Carolyn Martin cofounded a cross-generational black women's artist collective called "Entitled: Black Women Artists," that has since grown to international membership, likely thanks to Pindell's consistent travel and lecturing. Over the years, she has visited five continents and lived in Japan, Sweden, and India for periods of time, all the while producing new work, and lecturing/writing on racism and the art community.

Throughout the 1980s, she continued to work with expressions of identity through her painting, particularly on her own negotiation of multiple identities, as her heritage includes African, European, Seminole, Central American, and Afro-Caribbean roots, along with her position as ethnically Jewish, raised Christian.  During this time, her pieces also became increasingly political, addressing women's issues, racism, child abuse, slavery, and AIDS. According to Pindell, among critics of this new work, "There was a nostalgia for my non-issue related work of the 1970s."

In the 1990s, Pindell displayed a series of memorial works and a sequence of "word" paintings, in which her body in silhouette is overlaid with words such as "slave trade." This later series is reminiscent of an earlier work about South Africa that features a slashed canvas roughly stitched back together and the word "INTERROGATION" laid on top.

In the late 1940s, early 1950s, Howardena gained inspiration for her more circular artworks from a root beer bottle she saw while with her parents in Ohio. The bottom of the mug had a big red circle on it, a mark once placed on dishes and silverware used to serve people of color in the south.

Exhibitions

Since her first major show at Spelman in 1971, Pindell has exhibited in a number of solo and group exhibitions.

Solo exhibitions

1971
Paintings and Drawings by Howardena Pindell, Rockefeller Memorial Galleries, Spelman College, Atlanta, November 7–23

1973
Howardena Pindell, A.I.R. Gallery, New York
Howardena Pindell, Douglass College Art Gallery, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey

1974
Howardena Pindell: Paintings and Drawings, Michael C. Rockefeller Arts Center, State University of New York, Fredonia

1976–1977
Howardena Pindell: Video Drawings, Henie-Onstad Kunstsenter, Høvikodden, Norway; Kunstforeningen, Copenhagen; Fyns Stiftsmuseum, Odense, Denmark; Vassar College Art Gallery, Poughkeepsie, New York; Student Union Gallery, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

1977
Howardena Pindell, Just Above Midtown, Inc., New York

1978
Howardena Pindell, Art Academy of Cincinnati

1979
Howardena Pindell: Works on Paper, Canvas and Video Drawings, State University of New York at Stony Brook

1980
Howardena Pindell: New Works on Paper and Canvas, Lerner-Heller Gallery, New York, April 5–30

1981
Howardena Pindell: Recent Works on Canvas, Lerner-Heller Gallery, New York, April 4–29
Howardena Pindell: Recent Works on Paper, Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York, April 4–May 2

1983
Howardena Pindell, Memory Series: Japan, A.I.R. Gallery, New York, February 1–19

1985
Howardena Pindell: Traveler's Memories, Japan, Birmingham Museum of Art, Alabama, January 20–March 17
Howardena Pindell: Traveler's Memories, India, David Heath Gallery, Atlanta, February 5–March 2

1986
Howardena Pindell: Odyssey, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, February 12–June 12
Howardena Pindell, Harris-Brown Gallery, Boston
Howardena Pindell: Recent Work, Grand Rapids Art Museum, Michigan

1987
Howardena Pindell, G. R. N'Namdi Gallery, Detroit, September 25–November 7

1989
Howardena Pindell, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, March 25–June 18
Howardena Pindell: Autobiography, Cyrus Gallery, New York, October 5–November 18

1990
Howardena Pindell, Grove Gallery, State University of New York, Albany, October 11–November 30

1992
Howardena Pindell, David Heath Gallery, Atlanta
Howardena Pindell, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Birmingham, Michigan
Howardena Pindell: A Retrospective 1972–1992, Bevier Gallery, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, Nov 13 to Dec 9

1993
Howardena Pindell: A Retrospective 1972–1992, Art Gallery, Georgia State University, Atlanta, July 14–August 13

1995
Howardena Pindell, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Birmingham, Michigan

1996
Howardena Pindell: Mixed Media on Canvas, Johnson Gallery, Bethel University, St. Paul, Minnesota, January 2–February 29
Howardena Pindell, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Chicago

1999
Witness to Our Time: A Decade of Work by Howardena Pindell, Heckscher Museum of Art, Huntington, New York

2000
Howardena Pindell: Collages, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Birmingham, Michigan
Howardena Pindell: Recent Work, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Chicago

2001
Howardena Pindell: An Intimate Retrospective, Harriet Tubman Museum, Macon, Georgia, March 7–April 7

2002
Howardena Pindell, Diggs Gallery, Winston-Salem State University, North Carolina

2003
Howardena Pindell, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, Detroit

2004
Howardena Pindell: Works on Paper, 1968–2004, Sragow Gallery, New York, April 3–June 5
Howardena Pindell: Visual Affinities, Heckscher Museum of Art, Huntington, NY, May 15–June 27

2006
Howardena Pindell: In My Lifetime, G.R. N'Namdi Gallery, New York, June 3–August 31

2007
Howardena Pindell: Hidden Histories, Louisiana Art and Science Museum, Baton Rouge, January 10–April 5

2009
Howardena Pindell: Autobiography: Strips, Dots, and Video, 1974–2009, Sandler Hudson Gallery, Atlanta, October 23–November 28

2013
Howardena Pindell: Video Drawings, 1973–2007, Howard Yezerski Gallery, Boston, March 15–April 16

2014
Howardena Pindell: Paintings, 1974–1980, Garth Greenan Gallery, New York, April 10–May 17

2015
Howardena Pindell, Honor Fraser, Los Angeles, September 11–October 29, 2015
Howardena Pindell, Spelman College Museum of Fine Art, Atlanta, August 25–December 5

2017
Howardena Pindell: Recent Paintings, Garth Greenan Gallery, New York, October 26–December 16

2018
Howardena Pindell: What Remains to Be Seen, Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, February 24–May 20, and Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, August 25, 2018 – November 25, 2018

2019
Howardena Pindell: What Remains to Be Seen, Rose Art Museum, Brandeis University, February 1–May 19, 2019
2020
 Howardena Pindell: Rope/Fire/Water, The Shed, New York, NY, October 16, 2020 – March 28, 2021
2022
 Howardena Pindell: A New Language, Kettle's Yard, Cambridge, UK, July 2, 2022 – October 30, 2022 (first solo institutional exhibition in the UK)

Group exhibitions
1969
XXIII American Drawing Biennial, Norfolk Museum of Arts and Sciences, Virginia, February 2–March 9

1971
Contemporary Black Artists in America, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, April 6–May 16
26 Contemporary Women Artists, Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Ridgefield, Connecticut, April 18–June 13

1972
1972 Annual Exhibition: Contemporary American Painting, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, January 25–March 19
A New Vitality in Art: The Black Woman, John and Norah Warbeke Gallery, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts, April 6–30
American Women Artists, Kunsthaus Hamburg, April 14–May 14
Unlikely Photography, Institute of Contemporary Arts, London, August 5–September 26

1973
Harmony Hammond and Howardena Pindell, A.I.R. Gallery, New York, January 13–31
Yngre Amerikansk Kunst: Tegninger og Grafik, Gentofte Rådhus, Copenhagen, January 24–February 11; Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark, February 18–March 4; Henie-Onstad Kunstsenter, Høvikodden, Norway, March 18–April 15; Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, April 28–June 11; Moderna Museum, Stockholm, September 15–October 21
New American Graphic Art, Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, September 12–October 28
Blacks: USA: 1973, New York Cultural Center, New York, September 26–November 15

1974
Painting and Sculpture Today, Indianapolis Museum of Art, May 22–July 14; Contemporary Art Center and Taft Museum, Cincinnati, September 12–October 26
Five American Women in Paris, Galerie Gerald Piltzer, Paris, February
Paperworks, Rosa Esman Gallery, New York

1975
Artists Make Toys, Clocktower Gallery, New York, January 1–15
Color, Image, Light, Women's Interart Center, New York, November 13–30
Art on Paper, Weatherspoon Art Gallery, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, November 16–December 14

1975–1976
Painting, Drawing, and Sculpture of the '60s and '70s from the Dorothy and Herbert Vogel Collection, Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, October 7–November 18, 1975; Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, December 17, 1975 – February 15, 1976

1976
Rooms: P.S.1, Institute for Art and Urban Resources, Queens, New York, June 9–26
Project Rebuild, Grey Art Gallery & Study Center, New York University, New York, August 11–27
American Artists '76: A Celebration, Marion Koogler McNay Art Institute, San Antonio
Photonotations, Rosa Esman Gallery, New York
Works on Paper, Monique Knowlton Gallery, New York

1976–1977
The Handmade Paper Object, Santa Barbara Museum of Art, October 29–November 28, 1976; Oakland Museum of California, December 21, 1976–February 6, 1977; Institute of Contemporary Arts, Boston, May 10–June 14, 1977

1976–1979
Herbert Distel: The Museum of Drawers, Museum der Stadt Solothurn, Switzerland, October 29–November 28, 1976; International Curatorial Centrum, Antwerp, December 18, 1976–January 9, 1977; Museum Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany, January 23–February 20, 1977; Cooper-Hewitt Museum, New York, March 21–May 7, 1978; New Orleans Museum of Art, August 25–October 15, 1978; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, November–December, 1978; Kunstmuseum Bern, Switzerland, May 2–June 10, 1979

1977
The Material Dominant: Some Current Artists and Their Media, Pennsylvania State University Museum of Art, University Park, January 29–March 27
Drawing and Collage: Selections from the New York University Collection, Grey Art Gallery & Study Center, New York University, New York, June 1–July 1
Patterning and Decoration, Museum of the American Foundation for the Arts, Miami, October 7–November 30

1977–1978
Works from the Collection of Dorothy and Herbert Vogel, University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor, November 11, 1977–January 1, 1978
New Ways with Paper, National Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonian Institution, December 2, 1977–February 20, 1978

1978
Overview, 1972–1977: An Exhibition in Two Parts, A.I.R. Gallery, New York, March 5–April 9
Thick Paint, Renaissance Society at the University of Chicago, October 1–November 8

1979
Visual Poetry and Language Art, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, March 26–April 13
As We See Ourselves: Artists' Self-Portraits, Heckscher Museum of Art, Huntington, New York, June 22–August 5
Another Generation, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York

1980
Howardena Pindell and Jack Whitten, Holman Hall Gallery, Trenton State College, February 14–29
Fire and Water: Paper as Art, Rockland Center for the Arts, West Nyack, New York, March 30–May 4

1980–1984
Afro-American Abstraction: An Exhibition of Painting and Sculpture by Nineteen Black American Artists, Institute for Art and Urban Resources, P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, Queens, New York, February 17–April 6, 1980; Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, New York, February 6–March 29, 1981; Los Angeles Municipal Art Gallery, July 1–August 30, 1982; Oakland Museum of California, November 13, 1982 – January 2, 1983; Brooks Memorial Art Gallery, Memphis, February 2–March 20, 1983; The Art Center, South Bend, Indiana, September 4–October 16, 1983; Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio, January 22–February 26, 1984; Bellevue Art Museum, Washington, March 25–May 6, 1984; Laguna Gloria Art Museum, Austin, June 1–July 15, 1984; Mississippi Museum of Art, Jackson, September 14–November 4, 1984

1981
Stay Tuned, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, July 25–September 10
Five on Fabric, Laguna Gloria Art Museum, Austin, August 28–October 11

1982
Nancy Reagan Fashion Show, Printed Matter, New York, April 1–30

1982–1983
On Trial: Yale School of Art, 22 Wooster Gallery, New York, December 29, 1982 – January 8, 1983

1983
All that Glitters, Tweed Gallery, Plainfield, New Jersey, May 11–June 18
Keeping Culture Alive: Artists' Housing in New York, Urban Center Galleries, Municipal Art Society, New York, August 22–September 17
Language, Drama, Source, and Vision, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, October 8–November 27
The Television Show: Video Photographs, Robert Freidus Gallery, New York

1984
A Celebration of American Women Artists: Part II, the Recent Generation, Sidney Janis Gallery, New York, February 11–March 3
ID: An Exhibition of Third World Woman Photographers, Institute for Art and Urban Resources, P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, Queens, New York, October 14–December 9
Labor Intensive Abstraction, The Clocktower, New York, November 8–December 8

1985–1986
Adornments, Bernice Steinbaum Gallery, New York, December 10, 1985 – January 4, 1986

1985–1987
Tradition and Conflict: Images of a Turbulent Decade, 1963–1973, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, January 27–June 30, 1985; Lang Gallery, Scripps College, Claremont, California, January 19–February 20, 1986; Heckscher Museum of Art, Huntington, New York, March 22–April 17, 1986; Museum of the Center for Afro-American Artists, Boston, May 18–June 22, 1986; Peninsula Fine Arts Center, Newport News, Virginia, August 11–September 26, 1986; Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Missouri, Columbia, November 15, 1986 – January 4, 1987; David and Alfred Smart Gallery, University of Chicago, May 15–June 30, 1987; Arkansas Arts Center, Little Rock, August 7–September 20, 1987; Tower Fine Arts Gallery, State University of New York, Brockport, October 9–November 15, 1987

1986
Transitions: The Afro-American Artist, Bergen Museum of Art and Science, Paramus, New Jersey, February 1–26
In Homage to Ana Mendieta, Zeus-Trabia Gallery, New York, February 6–25
Progressions: A Cultural Legacy, The Clocktower, New York, February 13–March 15
Television's Impact on Contemporary Art, Queens Museum, New York, September 13–October 26
Masters of Color, Harris-Brown Gallery, Boston, October 15–November 15

1987
Race and Representation, Art Gallery, Hunter College, City University of New York, January 26–March 6
The Afro-American Artist in the Age of Cultural Pluralism, Montclair Art Museum, New Jersey, February 1–March 8
9 Uptown, Harlem School of the Arts, New York, April 11–May 9
Home, Goddard-Riverside Community Center, New York, May 8–31

1987–1988
Outrageous Women, Ceres Gallery, New York, December 2, 1987 – January 1, 1988

1988
1938–1988: The Work of Five Black Women Artists, Art Gallery, Atlanta College of Art, July 8–August 7

1988–1989
The Turning Point: Art and Politics in 1968, Cleveland Center for Contemporary Art, September 9–October 16, 1988; Art Gallery, Lehman College, City University of New York, Bronx, November 10, 1988 – January 14, 1989
Art as a Verb: The Evolving Continuum, Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore, November 21, 1988 – January 8, 1989; Metropolitan Life Gallery, New York, March 6–April 8, 1989; The *Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, March 12–June 18, 1989
Alice and Look Who Else, Through the Looking Glass, Bernice Steinbaum Gallery, New York, December 10, 1988 – January 7, 1989

1989
Bridges and Boundaries, Newhouse Center for Contemporary Art, Staten Island, New York, January 7–February 19
Making Their Mark: Women Artists Move into the Mainstream, 1970–1985, Cincinnati Art Museum, February 22–April 2; New Orleans Museum of Art, May 6–June 8; Denver Art Museum, July 22–September 10; Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, October 20–December 31
On the Cutting Edge: 10 Curators Choose 30 Artists, Fine Arts Museum of Long Island, Hempstead, New York, April 16–June 25

1990
The Decade Show: Frameworks of Identity in the 1980s, New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, May 12–August 19; Museum of Contemporary Hispanic Art, New York, May 16–August 18; The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, May 19–August 18
Figuring the Body, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, July 28–October 28

1991
Center Margins, Howard Yezerski Gallery, January–February 6
Aspects of Collage, Guild Hall Museum, New York, May 5–June 9

1995
Chess and Checkers, Exit Art, New York, September 23–October 25

1996
Sexual Politics: Judy Chicago's Dinner Party in Feminist Art History, Armand Hammer Museum of Art and Cultural Center, University of California, Los Angeles, April 24–August 18
Thinking Print: Books to Billboards, 1980–95, Museum of Modern Art, New York, June 20–September 10

1996–1998
Sniper's Nest: Art that Has Lived with Lucy R. Lippard, Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, October 28–December 22, 1996; Scales Fine Arts Center, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, January 15–April 10, 1997; Blanton Museum of Art, University of Texas, Austin, June 6–July 20, 1997; Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas, Lawrence, November 2–December 21, 1997; New Mexico Museum of Art, Santa Fe, April 24–September 28, 1998

1996–1999
Bearing Witness: Contemporary Works by African American Women Artists, Museum of Fine Art, Spelman College, Atlanta, July 16–December 31, 1996; Fort Wayne Museum of Art, Indiana, February 1–March 30, 1997; Polk Museum of Art, Lakeland, Florida, November 4, 1997 – January 7, 1998; The Columbus Museum, Columbus, Georgia, January 25–March 16, 1998; African-American Museum, Dallas, April 6–May 19, 1998; Minnesota Museum of American Art, St. Paul, June 9–August 11, 1998; Kennedy Museum of American Art, Ohio University, Athens, September 1–October 14, 1998; Gibbes Museum of Art, Charleston, November 4, 1998 – January 7, 1999; Ulrich Museum of Art, Wichita, January 28–March 16, 1999; Portland Museum of Art, Portland, Maine, April 6–May 30, 1999; Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, June 19–August 15, 1999; African-American Historical and Cultural Museum of the San Joaquin Valley, Fresno, California, September 4–October 8, 1999

1998
Women Artists in the Vogel Collection, Brenau University, Gainesville, Georgia, February 5–April 5
Not for Sale: Feminism and Art in the USA during the 1970s, Apex Art, New York, February 12–March 14

2000
An Exuberant Bounty: Prints and Drawings by African Americans, Philadelphia Museum of Art, February 5–April 16
Hidden Histories: African American Slavery and the Philippine Struggle for Independence after the War of 1898, Pro Arts, Oakland, California, March 8–April 15

2002
Outer and Inner Space: A Video Exhibition in Three Parts, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, January 18–August 18
Math-Art/Art-Math, Selby Gallery, Ringling College of Art and Design, Sarasota, Florida, February 22–March 30

2002–2004
In the Spirit of Martin: The Living Legacy of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, Detroit, January 12–August 4, 2002; Bass Museum of Art, Miami Beach, September 7–December 1, 2002; Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum, Minneapolis, January 4–April 6, 2003; International Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, May 15–July 27, 2003; Memphis Brooks Museum of Art, Memphis, August 30–November 9, 2003; Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts, Alabama, December 20, 2003 – March 28, 2004

2003
Layers of Meaning: Collage and Abstraction in the Late 20th Century, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, February 8–April 27
Wish You Were Here, Too, A.I.R. Gallery, New York, June 24–July 19

2003–2004
Strange Days, Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, September 20, 2003 – July 4, 2004

2004
Something to Look Forward to, Phillips Museum of Art, Franklin & Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, March 26–June 27

2004–2005
Creating Their Own Image, Arnold and Sheila Aronson Galleries, Sheila C. Johnson Design Center, The New School, New York, November 26, 2004 – January 30, 2005

2005
Double Consciousness: Black Conceptual Art since 1970, Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston, January 22–April 17
Bodies of Evidence: Contemporary Perspectives, Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, July 1–September 25

2006
An Atlas of Drawings: Transforming Chronologies, Museum of Modern Art, New York, January 26–October 2
Driven to Abstraction: Contemporary Work by American Artists, New York State Museum, Albany, January 28–March 26
Energy/Experimentation: Black Artists and Abstraction, 1964–1980, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, April 5–July 2
High Times, Hard Times: New York Painting, 1967–1975, Weatherspoon Art Museum, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, August 6–October 15, 2006; American University Museum at the Katzen Arts Center, American University, Washington, DC, November 21, 2006 – January 21, 2007; National Academy Museum, New York, February 13–April 22, 2007

2007
For the Love of the Game: Race and Sport in African-American Art, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, June 1–November 30
WACK! Art and the Feminist Revolution, Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, March 4–July 16, 2007; National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC, September 21–December 16, 2007; P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center, Queens, New York, February 17–May 12, 2008; Vancouver Art Gallery, October 4, 2008 – January 18, 2009
Lines, Grids, Stains, Words, Museum of Modern Art, New York, June 13–October 22, 2007; Museu de Arte Contemporânea de Serralves, Porto, Portugal, May 9–June 22, 2008; Museum Wiesbaden, Germany, September 28, 2008 – January 1, 2009
Cinema Remixed and Reloaded: Black Women Artists and the Moving Image since 1970, Museum of Fine Art, Spelman College, Atlanta, September 14, 2007 – May 28, 2008; Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston, October 18, 2008 – January 4, 2009

2008
Strength in Numbers: Artists Respond to Conflict, Sragow Gallery, New York, June 3–July 31

2009
Paper: Pressed, Stained, Slashed, Folded, Museum of Modern Art, New York, March 11–June 22
Hidden Gems: Works on Paper, June Kelly Gallery, New York, July 9–31

2010
The Chemistry of Color: African-American Artists in Philadelphia, 1970–1990, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, January 11–April 10
Collected: Reflections on the Permanent Collection, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, April 1–June 27
Pictures by Women: A History of Modern Photography, Museum of Modern Art, New York, May 7, 2010 – April 18, 2011
Embodied: Black Identities in American Art from the Yale University Art Gallery, David C. Driskell Center, University of Maryland, College Park, September 16–October 29, 2010; Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut, September 16, 2010 – June 26, 2011

2011
Currents in Contemporary Art, Orlando Museum of Art, Orlando, Florida, January 1–June 30
VideoStudio: Playback, The Studio Museum in Harlem, March 31–June 26

2012
Full Spectrum: Prints from the Brandywine Workshop, Philadelphia Museum of Art, September 7–November 25

2013
Black in the Abstract, Part I: Epistrophy, Contemporary Arts Museum, Houston, October 31, 2013 – January 19, 2014

2014
Art Expanded, 1958–1978, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 14, 2014 – March 8, 2015
Variation: Conversations in and around Abstract Painting, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, August 24, 2014 – March 22, 2015
Go Stand Next to The Mountain, Hales Gallery, London, November 28, 2014 – January 24, 2015

2015
Represent: 200 Years of African American Art, Philadelphia Museum of Art, January 10–April 5
New Acquisitions, Rose Art Museum, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts, February 11–June 7
Piece Work, 32 Edgewood Gallery, Yale University School of Art, New Haven, Connecticut,  April 6–May 24
America Is Hard to See,  Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, May 1–September 27
H
Greater New York, MoMA P.S. 1, Queens, New York, October 11, 2015 – March 7, 2016
Marks Made, Museum of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, Florida, October 17, 2015 – January 24, 2016
Painting 2.0: Expression in the Information Age, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, November 13, 2015 – April 15, 2016; Museum Moderner Kunst, Vienna, June 2–September 25, 2016
You Go Girl! Celebrating Women Artists, Heckscher Museum of Art, Huntington, New York, December 5, 2015 – April 3, 2016

2016
Blue and Black: African Rainbow, University of Delaware, Newark, February 10–May 15
Surface Area: Selections from the Permanent Collection, The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, March 24–June 26
Hey You! Who Me?, 32 Edgewood Gallery, Yale University School of Art, New Haven, Connecticut, April 6–June 5
FORTY, MoMA P.S. 1, Queens, New York, June 19–August 29
Skins: Body as Matter and Process, Garth Greenan Gallery, New York, June 23–July 29
Haptic, Alexander Gray Associates, New York, July 7–August 12
The African American Narrative, Maitland Art Center, Florida, July 15–September 4
Her Wherever, Halsey McKay Gallery, East Hampton, October 8 – November 13
Real / Radical / Psychological: The Collection on Display, Mildred Kemper Art Museum, St. Louis, September 9, 2016 – January 15, 2017
Reading the Image: Text in American Art Since 1969, Lyman Allyn Art Museum, New London, CT, October 8, 2016 – January 22, 2017
Art AIDS America, Alphawood Gallery, December 1, 2016 – April 2, 2017

2017
Expanding Tradition: Selections from the Larry D. and Brenda A. Thompson Collection, Georgia Museum of Art, University of Georgia, Athens, January 28–May 7
Picturing Math: Selections from the Department of Drawings and Prints, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, January 31–May 1
Masterclass: A Survey of Work from the Twentieth Century, Pavel Zoubok Gallery, New York, February 28–April 8
A Birthday Present as a Watch: Ketuta Alexi-Meskhishvili, Talia Chetrit, Ann Craven, Howardena Pindell, Thea Djordjadze and Hannah Weinberger, Galerie Frank Elbaz, Paris, March 18–June 17
Power, Sprüth Magers, Los Angeles, March 29–June 10
Painting on the Edge: A Historical Survey, Stephen Friedman Gallery, London, June 8–July 29
20/20: The Studio Museum in Harlem and Carnegie Museum of Art, Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh, July 22–December 31
Time as Landscape: Inquiries of Art and Science, Cornell Fine Arts Museum, Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida, September 28–December 31
We Wanted a Revolution: Black Radical Women, 1965–85, Brooklyn Museum, New York, April 21–September 17, 2017; California African American Museum, Los Angeles, October 13, 2017 – January 14, 2018; Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, February 17–May 27, 2018; Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, June 26–September 30, 2018
Magnetic Fields: Expanding American Abstraction, 1960s to Today, Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art, Kansas City, Missouri, June 8–September 17, 2017; National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C., October 13, 2017 – January 21, 2018; Museum of Fine Arts, St. Petersburg, Florida, May 5–August 5, 2018
An Incomplete History of Protest: Selections from the Whitney's Collection, 1940–2017, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, August 18, 2017–April 2018
Delirious: Art at the Limits of Reason, 1950-1980, Metropolitan Museum of Art, September 13, 2017 – January 21, 2018
Soul of a Nation: Art in the Age of Black Power, Tate Modern, London, July 12–October 22, 2017; Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas, February 2–April 23, 2018; Brooklyn Museum, New York, September 7, 2018 – February 3, 2019

2018
Histórias Afro-Atlânticas, Museu de Arte de São Paulo Assis Chateaubriand, Brazil, June 28–October 21
Outliers and American Vanguard Art, National Gallery, Washington D.C., January 28–May 13, 2018; High Museum of Art, Atlanta, June 24–September 30, 2018; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, November 18, 2018 – March 18, 2019

Collections
Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, New York
Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Everson Museum of Art, Syracuse, New York
Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University.
Heckscher Museum of Art, Huntington, New York
Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Høvikodden, Norway
High Museum of Art, Atlanta, Georgia
Institute of Contemporary Art Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
Kemper Art Museum, Washington University in St. Louis.
Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Copenhagen, Denmark
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, New York
Mint Museum of Art, Charlotte, North Carolina
Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Illinois
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas
Museum of Modern Art, New York City, New York
National Academy Museum, New York
National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Newark Museum, New Jersey
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Neuberger Museum of Art, Purchase College, State University of New York
Smithsonian Museum of American Art, Washington, D.C.
The Studio Museum in Harlem, New York City, New York
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia
Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York City, New York
Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut
Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick.

Awards
Pindell has received a Guggenheim Fellowship in painting in 1987, the Most Distinguished Body of Work or Performance Award, granted by the College Art Association in 1990, the Studio Museum of Harlem Artist Award, the Distinguished Contribution to the Profession Award from the Women's Caucus for Art in 1996, two National Endowment for the Arts Fellowships and a United States Artists fellowship in 2020.

She also holds honorary doctorates from the Massachusetts College of Art and Design and Parsons The New School for Design.

References

External links
 Howardena Pindell, Free, White and 21 on MoMA Learning
 Howardena Pindell on artnet
 Howardena Pindell on The History Makers
 [* A Piece of Work podcast, WNYC Studios/MoMA, Abbi Jacobson and Thomas Lax discuss Free White and 21

1943 births
Living people
African-American women artists
20th-century American painters
21st-century American painters
Philadelphia High School for Girls alumni
Yale School of Art alumni
Boston University College of Fine Arts alumni
Painters from Philadelphia
Stony Brook University faculty
20th-century American women artists
21st-century American women artists
American women painters
American women academics
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American painters
21st-century African-American women
American women curators
American curators

Howardena Pindell


In ecology, species homogeneity is a lack of biodiversity. Species richness is the fundamental unit in which to assess the homogeneity of an environment. Therefore, any reduction in species richness, especially endemic species, could be argued as advocating the production of a homogeneous environment.

Monocultures

Homogeneity in agriculture and forestry; in particular, industrial agriculture and forestry use a limited number of species. About 7,000 plants (2.6% of all plant species) have been collected or cultivated for human consumption. Of these, a mere 200 have been domesticated and only a dozen contribute about 75% of the global intake of plant-derived calories.

95% of world consumption of protein derives from a few domesticated species, i.e. poultry, cattle and pigs. There are about 1,000 commercial fish species, but in aquaculture fewer than 10 species dominate global production. Human food production therefore rests on the tips of pyramids of biodiversity, leaving the majority of species not utilised and not domesticated.

Species migration

Species naturally migrate and expand their ranges, utilising new habitats and resources, e.g. the cattle egret. These natural invasions, an incursion in the absence of anthropogenic influences, occur "when an intervening barrier is removed, or through the development of biotic or abiotic transportation mechanisms, able to overcome the barrier in question". Introductions, or human-mediated invasions, have in the last century become more frequent. It is estimated that on an average day more than 3,000 species alone are in transit aboard ocean-going vessels.

Using species richness as the unit for which to assess global homogeneity, it appears that anthropogenic assistance in alien species establishment has done much to reduce the number of endemic species, especially on remote islands. Some 'species-poor' habitats may, however, benefit in diversity if an invader can occupy an empty niche. Arguably, that environment becomes more diverse, equally it has also "become more similar to the rest of the world", though ecological interactions between the invaders and the natives are likely to be unique. Indeed, many species are so well naturalised that they are considered native, yet they were originally introduced; with the best examples probably being the Roman and Norman introduction of the hare and the rabbit respectively to Britain.

Introduction of non-endemic species and subsequent eradication of species can happen remarkably fast; evolutionary tempo is, however, slow and "succession of rapid change [will] result in a great impoverishment". That impoverishment will indeed equate in a world that is more similar, as there will simply be less species to formulate difference.

See also
Degeneracy
Habitat destruction
Habitat fragmentation
Introduced species
Over-exploitation
Species gradients

References

Ecology

Species homogeneity


Harold Morrow Sherman (1898–1987) was an American writer, lecturer and psychical researcher.

Biography
Sherman was born on July 13, 1898, in Traverse City, Michigan. He studied at the University of Michigan for a brief time, then relocated to Detroit to work for the Ford Motor Company.

During 1921, Sherman worked as a reporter for the Marion Chronicle in Indiana. He relocated to New York City during 1924 to write several popular boys' sports and adventure books (notably the Tahara series) and to produce two plays on Broadway. During 1941 Sherman wrote a play titled Mark Twain, after being granted exclusive dramatic rights by the Twain Estate. He was then hired by Hollywood producer Jesse L. Lasky to write a treatment of the play for Lasky's upcoming movie The Adventures of Mark Twain, which was released during 1944.

Sherman married Martha Bain on September 26, 1920; they had two daughters. Sherman and his family spent the 1950s and early 1960s living in Hollywood, writing for television and lecturing on his most recent work. Eventually, Sherman and his family relocated to Arkansas, where he lived until his death. He died on August 19, 1987.

Telepathy experiment

Sherman with the explorer Hubert Wilkins performed their own experiment in telepathy for five and a half months starting October 1937. This occurred when Sherman was in New York City and Wilkins was in the Arctic. The experiment consisted of Sherman and Wilkins at the end of each day relaxing and visualizing a mental image or "thought impression" of the events or thoughts they had experienced during the day and then recording those images and thoughts in a diary. The results at the end when comparing Sherman's diary to Wilkins' were claimed to be more than 60 percent agreement.

The full results of the experiments were published during 1942 in a book by Sherman and Wilkins titled Thoughts Through Space. In the book both Sherman and Wilkins had written they believed they had demonstrated that it was possible to send and receive thought impressions from the mind of one person to another. The magician John Booth wrote the experiment was not an example of telepathy as a high percentage of misses had occurred. Booth wrote it was more likely that the "hits" were the result of "coincidence, law of averages, subconscious expectancy, logical inference or a plain lucky guess."

A review of their book in the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry cast doubt on their experiment noting that the fact that "the study was published five years after it was conducted, arouses suspicion on the validity of the conclusions.

Selected bibliography
Sherman's personal papers are archived at the University of Central Arkansas in Conway: http://uca.edu/archives/m87-08-harold-m-sherman-collection/

Non-fiction
Your Key to Happiness (1935)
Thoughts Through Space (with Sir Hubert Wilkins) (1942)
Your Key to Married Happiness (1944)
Your Key to Youth Problems (1945)
Your Key to Romance (1948)
You Live After Death (1949)
You Can Stop Drinking (1950)
Know Your Own Mind (1953)
Adventures In Thinking (1956)
TNT, the Power Within You (with Claude Bristol; 1957)
How To Turn Failure into Success (1958)
How to Use the Power of Prayer (1958)
How To Make ESP Work For You (1964)
How to Solve Mysteries of Your Mind and Soul (1965)
Wonder Healers of the Philippines (1967)
Your Mysterious Powers Of ESP (1969)
How to Foresee and Control Your Future (1970)
How to Take Yourself Apart and Put Yourself Back Together Again (1971)
The Harold Sherman ESP Manual (with Ambrose and Olga Worrall; 1972)
Your Power To Heal (1972)
You Can Communicate with the Unseen World (1974)
How to Know What to Believe (1976)
How to Picture What You Want (1978)
The Dead Are Alive! (1981)

Adventure fiction
 Cameron McBain, Backwoodsman (1927)
 Ding Palmer, Air Detective (1930)
 The Land of Monsters (1931)
 Let Freedom Ring! (1932)
 Tahara Among the African Tribes (1933)
 Tahara: Boy King of the Desert (1933)
 Tahara: Boy Mystic of India (1933)
 Tahara in the Land of the Yucatán (1933)
 Call of the Land (1948)

Sports fiction
 Fight 'Em Big Three (1926)
 Safe! (1928)
 Block That Kick! (1928)
 Hit By Pitcher (1928)
 Over The Line (1929)
 Hit And Run (1929)
 Hold That Line (1930)
 It's A Pass! (1931)
 Strike Him Out (1931)
 Interference (1932)
 Under the Basket (1932)
 Down The Ice (1932)
 Double Play (1932)
 The Tennis Terror (1932)
 Captain of the Eleven (1933)
 One Minute to Play (1926)

Fantasy
 The Green Man (1946)
 All Aboard for the Moon (1947)
 The Green Man Returns (1947)
 This Way To Heaven (1948)

References

External links

1898 births
1987 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American humanitarians
American male novelists
American parapsychologists
University of Michigan alumni
People from Traverse City, Michigan
People from Mountain View, Arkansas
Telepaths
20th-century American male writers

Harold Sherman


Language death is a when language is no longer being used as a first language (also called mother language or native language) or a second language and so it becomes an extinct language. It should not be confused with a dead language, such as Latin, which still is still spoken as a second language.

Language revival, a dead language becoming a living language again. The only widely-known example of a language being revived is Hebrew.

Related pages

Language attrition
Sacred language

Language

Language death


Narvi ( ) or Saturn XXXI is a moon of Saturn. It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, and given the designation S/2003 S 1.

Description
Narvi is about 7 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Saturn at an average distance of 19,371,000 km in 1006.541 days, at an inclination of 137° to the ecliptic (109° to Saturn's equator), with an eccentricity of 0.320.

Naming
It was named in January 2005 after Narvi from Norse mythology, also known as Narfi or Nari, a son of Loki by Sigyn who was killed to punish Loki for his crimes. The gods turned his brother Váli into a slavering wolf who tore his throat out. His entrails were used to bind Loki to a stone slab for all eternity, or at least until Ragnarok. The name was approved by the IAU Working Group on Planetary System Nomenclature on January 21, 2005.

Other websites
 IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature
 IAUC 8116: Satellites of Jupiter and Saturn 2003 April 11 (discovery)
 MPEC 2003-G39: S/2003 S 1 2003 April 8 (discovery and ephemeris)
 IAUC 8471: Satellites of Saturn 2005 January 21 (naming the moon)

Saturn's moons

Narvi (moon)