The Trionychidae are a taxonomic family of a number of turtle genera, commonly known as softshell turtles. The family was erected by Leopold Fitzinger in 1826. Softshells include some of the world's largest freshwater turtles, though many can adapt to living in highly brackish areas. Members of this family occur in Africa, Asia, and North America, with extinct species known from Australia. Most species have traditionally been included in the genus Trionyx, but the vast majority have since been moved to other genera. Among these are the North American Apalone softshells that were placed in Trionyx until 1987.

Characteristics

They are called "softshell" because their carapaces lack horny scutes (scales), though the spiny softshell, Apalone spinifera, does have some scale-like projections, hence its name. The carapace is leathery and pliable, particularly at the sides. The central part of the carapace has a layer of solid bone beneath it, as in other turtles, but this is absent at the outer edges. Some species also have dermal bones in the plastron, but these are not attached to the bones of the shell. The light and flexible shell of these turtles allows them to move more easily in open water or in muddy lake bottoms. Having a soft shell also allows them to move much faster on land than most turtles. Their feet are webbed and three-clawed, hence the family name "Trionychidae," which means "three-clawed". The carapace color of each type of softshell turtle tends to match the sand or mud color of its geographical region, assisting in their "lie in wait" feeding methodology.

These turtles have many characteristics pertaining to their aquatic lifestyle.  Many must be submerged in order to swallow their food. They have elongated, soft, snorkel-like nostrils.  Their necks are disproportionately long in comparison to their body sizes, enabling them to breathe surface air while their bodies remain submerged in the substrate (mud or sand) a foot or more below the surface.

Females can grow up to several feet in carapace diameter, while males stay much smaller; this is their main form of sexual dimorphism. Pelochelys cantorii, found in southeastern Asia, is the largest softshell turtle.

Most are strict carnivores, with diets consisting mainly of fish, aquatic crustaceans, snails, amphibians, and sometimes birds and small mammals.

Softshells are able to "breathe" underwater with rhythmic movements of their mouth cavity, which contains numerous processes copiously supplied with blood, acting similarly to gill filaments in fish. This enables them to stay underwater for prolonged periods. Moreover, the Chinese softshell turtle has been shown to excrete urea while "breathing" underwater; this is an efficient solution when the animal does not have access to fresh water, e.g., in brackish-water environments.

According to Ditmars (1910): "The mandibles of many species form the outer border of powerful crushing processes—the alveolar surfaces of the jaws", which aids the ingestion of tough prey such as molluscs. These jaws make large turtles dangerous, as they are capable of amputating a person's finger, or possibly their hand.

Unlike the temperature-dependent sex determination of most turtles, Trionychids have ZZ/ZW genetic sex determination; microchromosomes play a role in determining sex.

As food

In East Asia
Softshell turtles are eaten as a delicacy in most parts of their range, particularly in East Asia. A Chinese dish stews them with chicken. According to a 1930 report by Soame Jenyns, Guangdong restaurants had them imported from Guangxi in large numbers; "eaten stewed with almonds, roast with chili sauce or fried with bamboo shoots, they [were] considered a great delicacy."

Worldwide, the most commonly consumed softshell species is the Chinese softshell Pelodiscus sinensis. As a noted Japanese biologist pointed out in 1904, the Japanese variety of this turtle, which at time was classified as Trionyx japonicus, occupied a place in Japanese cuisine as esteemed as the diamondback terrapin in the United States or the green turtle in England. The farming of this "luscious reptile", known in Japan as suppon, was already developed on an industrial scale in that country by the late 19th century.

Due to rising demand and overhunting, the price of Pelodiscus sinensis in China skyrocketed by the mid-1990s; large-scale turtle farming in China and neighboring countries; raising this species by hundreds of millions was the response, with prices soon returning to a more affordable level.
Another species, Palea steindachneri, is farmed in China, as well, but on a much smaller scale (with farm herds measured in hundreds of thousands, rather than hundreds of millions).

In the United States
In the United States, harvesting softshells (e.g. Apalone ferox) was, until recently, legal in Florida. Environmental groups have been advocating the authorities' banning or restricting the practice. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission responded by introducing the daily limit of 20 turtles for licensed harvesters—a level which the turtle advocates consider unsustainable, as there may be between 100 and 500 hunters statewide. While some catch was consumed locally, most was exported; the Commission estimated (2008) around 3,000 pounds of softshell turtles were exported each week via Tampa International Airport.

New rules, in effect as of July 20, 2009, restrict collecting any wild turtles to one turtle per person per day, completely prohibit collection of softshells (Apalone) in May through July, and prohibit trade in turtles caught from the wild. An exemption is provided for licensed turtle farms that need to catch turtles in the wild to serve as their breeding stock.

Some other US states, too, have already adopted strict limitations on wild turtle trade. In 2009, South Carolina passed a law (Bill H.3121) restricting interstate and international export of wild-caught turtles (both soft-shell and some other species) to 10 turtles per person at one time, and 20 turtles per person per year.

Taxonomy

Family Trionychidae
Palaeotrionyx (fossil) Paleotrionyx jimenezfuentesi
Subfamily Plastomeninae (fossil)
Genus Gilmoremys
Genus Hutchemys
Genus Plastomenus
Subfamily Cyclanorbinae
Genus Cyclanorbis
Genus Cycloderma
Genus Lissemys
Subfamily Trionychinae
Genus Amyda, Amyda menneri
Genus Apalone
Genus Chitra, Chitra minor
Genus Dogania
Genus Nilssonia
Genus Palea
Genus Pelochelys
Genus Pelodiscus
Genus Rafetus
Genus Trionyx

Past classification
Genus Aspideretes

Phylogeny
Cladogram after Walter G. Joyce, Ariel Revan, Tyler R. Lyson and Igor G. Danilov (2009).

Gallery

Notes

References

Trionychidae (all species) at The Reptile Database
Parade of the Animal Kingdom. Hegner, Robert. 1935. the Macmillan Company.

Turtle families
Taxa named by Leopold Fitzinger

Trionychidae


James Basevi Ord (15 March 1892 – 30 January 1938) was a United States Army lieutenant colonel killed in an air crash at Camp John Hay, Philippines. At the time, Ord was serving as the Assistant Military Advisor to the Commonwealth of the Philippines, under United States Military Advisor Douglas MacArthur. Ord was a member of the West Point class of 1915, "the class the stars fell on", that also included Omar Bradley and Dwight Eisenhower.

Early life
James Basevi Ord was born in Mexico on 15 March 1892, the son of Captain James Thompson Ord and Rose Basevi. He came from a distinguished military family. He was the grandson of Major General Edward Otho Cresap Ord;  Major Edward Otho Cresap Ord II was his uncle; and Major General James Garesche Ord was his cousin.

Ord received an appointment from California to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, which he entered on  12 June 1911. The class he joined would become famous as the class the stars fell on. Of the 164 graduates that year, 59 would wear the stars of a general officer, the most of any class in the history of the Academy. Classmates included Omar Bradley and Dwight Eisenhower.

World War I
On 12 June 1915, Ord graduated 66th in his class, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 6th Infantry. He was sent to Camp Cotton, in El Paso, Texas, where he joined the 13th Cavalry as an interpreter with the Pancho Villa Expedition. He was wounded in the Battle of Parral on 12 April 1916, and was recommended for the Medal of Honor, but instead received the Distinguished Service Medal. His citation read:

Ord was promoted to first lieutenant with the 5th Cavalry on 1 July 1916. He was attached the headquarters of the Punitive Expedition until it was disbanded on 10 February 1917. He was placed in charge of a refugee camp in Columbus, New Mexico, which subsequently moved to San Antonio, Texas. He was then posted to the 54th Infantry at Chickamauga Park, Georgia, on 24 June 1917. On 16 July 1917, he joined the staff of the Reserve Officer's Training Camp at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. Then, on 15 September 1917, he returned to West Point, initially as an instructor in modern languages, and then, from 20 September 1917, in tactics. From 18 May to 25 November 1918, he was an intelligence officer and Assistant Military Attaché in The Hague. He was awarded the Order of Orange-Nassau.

Between the wars
Promoted to major on 17 June 1918, Ord reverted to the grade of captain on 30 June 1920, only to return to being a major two days later. He attended the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre in Paris. Returning to the United States in July 1924. He reverted to captain again on 4 November 1922, but then was promoted to major again on 20 September 1924. From June 1925 to June 1926 he was a student at the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. After graduation, he was posted to the Philippines, as commander of the 3rd Battalion, 31st Infantry, and then, in May 1928, to the American Embassy in Paris as Assistant Military Attaché. He was technical adviser at the Army General Disarmament Conference, in Geneva, Switzerland, from 2 February to 19 June 1932.

Ord attended the Army War College from 1932 to 1933, and then was an instructor in military intelligence there from 1933 to 1935. That year, the outgoing Chief of Staff of the United States Army, Major General Douglas MacArthur, was appointed Military Advisor to the Commonwealth of the Philippines. MacArthur was permitted to select his own staff, so as his chief of staff, he chose Dwight Eisenhower, who had been his assistant for the previous two and a half years. In turn, Eisenhower was permitted to choose his own assistant, and he chose Ord for his staff skills and his knowledge of Spanish. MacArthur had previously been acquainted with Ord in Paris when MacArthur was Chief of Staff.

Death
Ord was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 July 1936. His main responsibility was to draw up a military budget for the Philippines. A realistic one proved difficult to create, as the United States government would not supply the funding for the equipment that MacArthur and Eisenhower believed that the Philippines would require in order to resist a Japanese invasion. A key part of this was the fledgling Philippine Air Corps. On 30 January 1938, Ord took off on a flight to Baguio with a Filipino student pilot at the controls. As the plane approached its destination, Ord had the pilot flew low over a friend's house so he could drop a note announcing his arrival tied to a rock. The inexperienced pilot stalled the plane and it crashed, killing Ord. President Manuel Quezon awarded Ord the Distinguished Service Star. His citation read:

Upon his death, Ord was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Richard K. Sutherland. Ord was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, not far from his father and other members of his family. He was survived by his wife, Emily Collier Howell, and his two children, James Basevi Ord, Jr., and Letitia Howell Ord. James Jr. subsequently became a colonel in the United States Marine Corps. He married Virginia Cartwright Shepherd, the daughter of General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., a Commandant of the Marine Corps.

Notes

References

1892 births
1938 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War I
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
United States Army officers
United States Army War College alumni
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
American people in the American Philippines
Graduates of the United States Military Academy Class of 1915

James Basevi Ord


Cedric Haywood (December 31, 1914 – September 9, 1969) was an American jazz pianist.

Born and raised in Houston, Texas, Haywood played as a teenager in a high school band with Arnett Cobb. His first professional engagement was with Chester Boone's band in 1934, followed by an extended run with Milt Larkin (1935–42); during his tenure in the band the reed section included Illinois Jacquet, Tom Archia, and Eddie "Cleanhead" Vinson in addition to Cobb. Haywood also played with Floyd Ray and Lionel Hampton around the turn of the decade. In 1942 he played with Sidney Bechet. Toward the middle of the 1940s Haywood moved to California, served in the Army during World War II, and following this joined Saunders King in 1948.

In the 1950s Haywood worked with Illinois Jacquet, Cal Tjader, and Kid Ory, touring Europe with Ory in the middle of the decade. Early in the 1960s he played with Brew Moore, then moved back to Houston in 1963. There he played locally as a bandleader and recorded with Lightnin' Hopkins.  In the late 1960s, he contributed arrangements to a big band led by Sonny Franklin; among the participants were Tom Archia and Don Wilkerson.

References
Footnotes

General references
Eugene Chadbourne, [ Cedric Haywood] at Allmusic

1914 births
1969 deaths
American jazz pianists
American male pianists
Musicians from Houston
20th-century American pianists
Jazz musicians from Texas
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians

Cedric Haywood


Effective dose is a dose quantity in the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) system of radiological protection.

It is the tissue-weighted sum of the equivalent doses in all specified tissues and organs of the human body and represents the stochastic health risk to the whole body, which is the probability of cancer induction and genetic effects, of low levels of ionizing radiation. It takes into account the type of radiation and the nature of each organ or tissue being irradiated, and enables summation of organ doses due to varying levels and types of radiation, both internal and external, to produce an overall calculated effective dose.

The SI unit for effective dose is the sievert (Sv) which represents a 5.5% chance of developing cancer. The effective dose is not intended as a measure of deterministic health effects, which is the severity of acute tissue damage that is certain to happen, that is measured by the quantity absorbed dose.

The concept of effective dose was developed by Wolfgang Jacobi and published in 1975, and was so convincing that the ICRP incorporated it into their 1977 general recommendations (publication 26) as "effective dose equivalent". The name "effective dose" replaced the name "effective dose equivalent" in 1991. Since 1977 it has been the central quantity for dose limitation in the ICRP international system of radiological protection.

Uses

According to the ICRP, the main uses of effective dose are the prospective dose assessment for planning and optimisation in radiological protection, and demonstration of compliance with dose limits for regulatory purposes. The effective dose is thus a central dose quantity for regulatory purposes.

The ICRP also says that effective dose has made a significant contribution to radiological protection as it has enabled doses to be summed from whole and partial body exposure from external radiation of various types and from intakes of radionuclides.

Usage for external dose
The calculation of effective dose is required for partial or non-uniform irradiation of the human body because equivalent dose does not consider the tissue irradiated, but only the radiation type. Various body tissues react to ionising radiation in different ways, so the ICRP has assigned sensitivity factors to specified tissues and organs so that the effect of partial irradiation can be calculated if the irradiated regions are known.  A radiation field irradiating only a portion of the body will carry lower risk than if the same field irradiated the whole body. To take this into account, the effective doses to the component parts of the body which have been irradiated are calculated and summed. This becomes the effective dose for the whole body, dose quantity . It is a "protection" dose quantity which can be calculated, but cannot be measured in practice.

An effective dose will carry the same effective risk to the whole body regardless of where it was applied, and it will carry the same effective risk as the same amount of equivalent dose applied uniformly to the whole body.

Usage for internal dose
Effective dose can be calculated for committed dose which is the internal dose resulting from inhaling, ingesting, or injecting radioactive materials.

The dose quantity used is:

Committed effective dose,  is the sum of the products of the committed organ or tissue equivalent doses and the appropriate tissue weighting factors , where  is the integration time in years following the intake. The commitment period is taken to be 50 years for adults, and to age 70 years for children.

Calculation of effective dose

Ionizing radiation deposits energy in the matter being irradiated. The quantity used to express this is the absorbed dose, a physical dose quantity that is dependent on the level of incident radiation and the absorption properties of the irradiated object. Absorbed dose is a physical quantity, and is not a satisfactory indicator of biological effect, so to allow consideration of the stochastic radiological risk, the dose quantities equivalent dose and effective dose were devised by the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) and the ICRP to calculate the biological effect of an absorbed dose.

To obtain an effective dose, the calculated absorbed organ dose  is first corrected for the radiation type using factor  to give a weighted average of the equivalent dose quantity  received in irradiated body tissues, and the result is further corrected for the tissues or organs being irradiated using factor , to produce the effective dose quantity .

The sum of effective doses to all organs and tissues of the body represents the effective dose for the whole body. If only part of the body is irradiated, then only those regions are used to calculate the effective dose. The tissue weighting factors summate to 1.0, so that if an entire body is radiated with uniformly penetrating external radiation, the effective dose for the entire body is equal to the equivalent dose for the entire body.

Use of tissue weighting factor
The ICRP tissue weighting factors are given in the accompanying table, and the equations used to calculate from either absorbed dose or equivalent dose are also given.

Some tissues like bone marrow are particularly sensitive to radiation, so they are given a weighting factor that is disproportionately large relative to the fraction of body mass they represent. Other tissues like the hard bone surface are particularly insensitive to radiation and are assigned a disproportionally low weighting factor.

Calculating from the equivalent dose:

.

Calculating from the absorbed dose:

Where

 is the effective dose to the entire organism
 is the equivalent dose absorbed by tissue
 is the tissue weighting factor defined by regulation
 is the radiation weighting factor defined by regulation
 is the mass-averaged absorbed dose in tissue  by radiation type
 is the absorbed dose from radiation type  as a function of location
 is the density as a function of location
 is volume
 is the tissue or organ of interest

The ICRP tissue weighting factors are chosen to represent the fraction of health risk, or biological effect, which is attributable to the specific tissue named. These weighting factors have been revised twice, as shown in the chart above.

The United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission still uses the ICRP's 1977 tissue weighting factors in their regulations, despite the ICRP's later revised recommendations.

By medical imaging type

Health effects

Ionizing radiation is generally harmful and potentially lethal to living things but can have health benefits in radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer and thyrotoxicosis. Its most common impact is the induction of cancer with a latent period of years or decades after exposure. High doses can cause visually dramatic radiation burns, and/or rapid fatality through acute radiation syndrome. Controlled doses are used for medical imaging and radiotherapy.

Regulatory nomenclature

UK regulations
The UK Ionising Radiations Regulations 1999 defines its usage of the term effective dose; "Any reference to an effective dose means the sum of the effective dose to the whole body from external radiation and the committed effective dose from internal radiation."

US effective dose equivalent
The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission has retained in the US regulation system the older term effective dose equivalent to refer to a similar quantity to the ICRP effective dose. The NRC's total effective dose equivalent (TEDE) is the sum of external effective dose with internal committed dose; in other words all sources of dose.

In the US, cumulative equivalent dose due to external whole-body exposure is normally reported to nuclear energy workers in regular dosimetry reports.

 deep-dose equivalent, (DDE) which is properly a whole-body equivalent dose
 shallow dose equivalent, (SDE) which is actually the effective dose to the skin

History
The concept of effective dose was introduced in 1975 by Wolfgang Jacobi (1928–2015) in his publication "The concept of an effective dose: a proposal for the combination of organ doses". It was quickly included in 1977 as "effective dose equivalent" into Publication 26 by the ICRP. In 1991, ICRP publication 60 shortened the name to "effective dose." This quantity is sometimes incorrectly referred to as the "dose equivalent" because of the earlier name, and that misnomer in turn causes confusion with equivalent dose. The tissue weighting factors were revised in 1990 and 2007 due to new data.

Future use of Effective Dose
At the ICRP 3rd International Symposium on the System of Radiological Protection in October 2015, ICRP Task Group 79 reported on the "Use of Effective Dose as a Risk-related Radiological Protection Quantity".

This included a proposal to discontinue use of equivalent dose as a separate protection quantity. This would avoid confusion between equivalent dose, effective dose and dose equivalent, and to use absorbed dose in Gy as a more appropriate quantity for limiting deterministic effects to the eye lens, skin, hands & feet.

It was also proposed that effective dose could be used as a rough indicator of possible risk from medical examinations. These proposals will need to go through the following stages:

 Discussion within ICRP Committees
 Revision of report by Task Group
 Reconsideration by Committees and Main Commission
 Public Consultation

See also
Radioactivity
Collective dose
Total effective dose equivalent
Deep-dose equivalent
Cumulative dose
Committed dose equivalent
Committed effective dose equivalent

References

External links
 an account of chronological differences between USA and ICRP dosimetry systems

Radiology
Medical physics
Medical imaging
Physical quantities
Radiobiology
Radiation health effects
Radiation protection

pt:Dose efetiva

Effective dose (radiation)


The Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies (FRIAS) is the international research college of the University of Freiburg in Freiburg, Germany. The institute was initially part of the university's proposal for funding in the Excellence Initiative in 2007, an initiative by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the German Research Foundation with the aim of promoting both cutting-edge research and enhancing the international success of German higher education institutions.

After the University of Freiburg had been chosen as one of nine "universities of excellence", FRIAS officially took up operations on 1 April 2008. It aims to promote high-level research, develop interdisciplinary research fields, and assist young researchers in their development. FRIAS is loosely modeled after other similar institutions, such as the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, whose director Prof. Dr. Peter Goddard held the inaugural address at the official presentation of FRIAS in May, 2008 at the University of Freiburg. The University of Freiburg has applied for FRIAS's funding to be continued in the second round of the Excellence Initiative.

Objectives

A new institution in the German higher education and research landscape, FRIAS invites renowned researchers from German and international institutions to conduct their research in Freiburg, while aiming to give its researchers extensive freedoms to pursue projects of their choice with minimal bureaucracy. As a haven and center for academic research, FRIAS wishes to promote new synergies among its fellows and give new impulses to the University of Freiburg. FRIAS pursues the following objectives:
 to support top-level researchers
 to promote young academics
 to facilitate interdisciplinary contact and collaboration
 to reinforce the university's international networking and visibility

Structure

The Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies consisted 2008-2013 of four schools (School of History, School of Language and Literature, School of Life Sciences - LIFENET, School of Soft Matter Research), which mirror important research areas at the University of Freiburg. Since 2013 they are replaced with an open structure for all academic disciplines. With the beginning of the academic year 2014/2015, FRIAS will also concentrate on yearly two research foci.

Fellows' academic activities

Three groups of fellows work at FRIAS:

 Internal Senior Fellows: academics from the University of Freiburg
 External Senior Fellows: academics from all over the world
 Junior Fellows: outstanding young academics

FRIAS organises academic colloquia, workshops and international conferences in its research areas. Research results are published in specialist journals, monographs and FRIAS's own journal series.

Soon after its conception, the Hermann Staudinger Lectures were introduced, named after the famous University of Freiburg chemist who won the Nobel Prize in 1953. Renowned scientists from all over the world, so far including Douglas Osheroff, Jean-Marie Lehn, Richard R. Ernst, and Werner Arber, are invited to hold this lecture.

Since its foundation in 2008, more than 250 researchers have worked at FRIAS. The fellows are released from their teaching and administrative duties, and substitutes are engaged to fulfil their teaching commitments. The substitute professorships financed by FRIAS are, in many cases, used to promote young academics that have recently qualified as professors.

Promotion of early-stage researchers

As Junior Fellows, promising young academics have the opportunity to organise their own conferences at FRIAS and invite celebrated international guests to attend, as well as the chance to teach and obtain their professorial qualification (Habilitation) at the university.

Doctoral candidates and postdoctoral researchers at the University of Freiburg are able to take part in Young Researchers' Contests and apply for research prizes with their doctoral and habilitation theses.

Interdisciplinary Activities

The major FRIAS interdisciplinary symposia each focus on a topic from the different perspectives of the humanities, social sciences and natural sciences (2009: Evolution, 2011: Catastrophes). Smaller, inter-school event formats such as monthly Dinner Speeches and After Hours Conversations provide opportunities for interdisciplinary exchange.

International Collaboration

A multitude of permanent research networks and projects have developed from collaborations between internal and external fellows. In the upper Rhine area, close relationships exist with the Institut d'Études Avancées de Strasbourg and the University of Basel.

In October 2010, FRIAS organised a conference on the topic of "University-Based Institutes for Advanced Study (UBIAS) in a Global Perspective: Promises, Challenges, New Frontiers", in which a total of 32 Institutes for Advanced Study from 19 countries participated. An independent UBIAS network, with member institutes from around the globe, was established as a result of this.

See also
 University of Freiburg
 University of Freiburg Faculty of Biology
 Freiburg im Breisgau

References

External links
 Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies
 Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg
 http://www.ubias.net

Research institutes in Germany
Education in Freiburg im Breisgau
University of Freiburg

Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies


Totaling , this area is the largest, highest quality estuarine system remaining in Washington or Oregon.  It includes diverse habitats, ranging from tideflats and sloughs, saltmarsh and freshwater wetlands, to forested uplands.

Identified as critically important waterfowl and shorebird habitat, it also includes a nesting site for bald eagle and significant habitat for elk, bear, beaver, river otter and other mammals.  One population of a Washington state monitor plant species, Henderson's checker- mallow, occurs within the tidal portion of the estuary system.

External links
 Elk River Natural Resources Conservation Area - Washington State Dept. of Natural Resources
 Elk River Estuary - National Audubon Society

Protected areas of Grays Harbor County, Washington
Estuaries of Washington (state)
Washington Natural Areas Program
Bodies of water of Grays Harbor County, Washington


The Tennessee state flag is crimson with a blue circle in the middle containing three white stars. The three stars represent the divisions of Tennessee into middle, east and west. The blue circle is symbolic of the eternal unity of the three sections of the state. A navy blue bar is included to give the flag distinction when hanging limp.

Tennessee
Tennessee

Flag of Tennessee


The Planck epoch is the earliest period of time in the history of the universe, before the time passed was equal to the Planck time (tₚ) ; that is from zero to approximately 10⁻⁴³ seconds. The Planck scale is the physical scale beyond which current physical theories may not apply and cannot be used to calculate what happened. At this time scale, all physical quantities like temperatures, energies etc were in the range of Planck units values. During the Planck epoch, the temperature and average energies within the universe were so high that even subatomic particles could not form and even the four fundamental forces that shape our universe were combined and formed one unified fundamental force.

Traditional Big Bang cosmology predicts a gravitational singularity before this time, but this theory relies on the theory of general relativity, which is thought to break down for this epoch due to quantum effects. Due to the extraordinarily small scale of the universe at that time, the quantum effects of gravity were the strongest and it is believed that cosmology and physics are assumed to have been dominated by the quantum effects of gravity. At this scale, the unified force is assumed to be unified with gravitation. Immeasurably hot and dense state of the Planck epoch is succeeded by the grand unification epoch, where gravitation force is separated from the unified fundamental force.

Related pages
Big Bang
ME

Cosmology

Planck epoch


Harold Edward Patterson (October 4, 1932November 21, 2011), nicknamed Prince Hal, was a star American college basketball player at the University of Kansas, and a professional Canadian football player with the Canadian Football League Montreal Alouettes and Hamilton Tiger-Cats.  Patterson is a member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame, and in 2006, was voted one of the CFL's Top 50 players (#13) of the league's modern era by Canadian sports network TSN.

Early life and college career
Born in Garden City, Kansas in 1932, Patterson was a football, baseball and basketball star at the University of Kansas. He was the second-leading rebounder for Kansas' 1953 national runner-up team that lost the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship game by a single point to Indiana University. An end with the Jayhawks football team, he also lettered in baseball.

Canadian football career
Drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League in the 1954 NFL Draft, Hal Patterson opted to sign with the Montreal Alouettes of the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union in 1954. (The IRFU became part of the CFL in 1958.)

1956 season
Known as "Prince" Hal, in 1956, he won the Jeff Russel Memorial Trophy then the Schenley Award as the Canadian Rugby Union's Outstanding Player as a tight end. That same year, Patterson set a record that has yet to be matched, when he caught passes for 338 yards in a single game and set the record of 88 catches that stood up for 11 years before Terry Evanshen broke it in 1967.  He also set records with 1914 receiving yards, 2039 scrimmage yards (he was the first player to reach 2000 scrimmage yards) and 2858 all purpose yards.  His receiving yards record stood until 1983 when Terry Greer beat his record with 2003 yards. His all purpose yards record stood until 1984 when Rufus Crawford beat his record with 2896 yards.

Patterson was a member of the Alouettes until being part of a controversial trade in 1960 that sent him to the last-place Hamilton Tiger-Cats with fellow Montreal star quarterback Sam Etcheverry. Patterson's impact was immediate, as he helped to lead the Tiger-Cats to the 1961 Grey Cup, where the Ti-Cats lost in overtime to the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.

Hal Patterson still holds the record of 580 yards for most pass-receiving yards in Grey Cup history. Patterson scored 54 touchdowns in his 14-year Canadian pro career and had 34 games with at least 100 yards in pass receptions. He was inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1971. In November 2006, Patterson was voted one of the CFL's top 50 players (#13) in a poll conducted by Canadian sports network TSN.

On November 21, 2008, the Montreal Alouettes retired Patterson's number 75. He died on November 21, 2011.

Early in his career, he was a triple threat, running back kickoffs, several for touchdowns, and played defensive back.

References

1932 births
2011 deaths
American football wide receivers
American players of Canadian football
Basketball players from Kansas
American men's basketball players
Canadian Football Hall of Fame inductees
Canadian Football League Most Outstanding Player Award winners
Canadian football wide receivers
Hamilton Tiger-Cats players
Junior college men's basketball players in the United States
Kansas Jayhawks football players
Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball players
Montreal Alouettes players
People from Garden City, Kansas
Players of American football from Kansas
People from Larned, Kansas

Hal Patterson


Roger Schmidt ( – April 30, 2018) was an American academic who studied religion. He was the acting president of University of the West, a private, non profit, Buddhist-affiliated campus in Rosemead, California. He was replaced by Dr. Allen Huang in 2007.

Schmidt graduated from San Bernardino Valley College (1955), the University of Redlands (1957), and the Claremont Graduate University (1963) with degrees in philosophy, religion, and history. He taught philosophy and religious studies at San Bernardino Valley College from 1963-1993, including four years at Crafton Hills College (1987-1991), and chaired the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies and the Social Science Division. He was a professor of religion, department chair, and Dean of Academic Affairs at the University of the West from 1991 to 2001 and was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University in 1998.

Schmidt is the author of Exploring Religion (1980, 1988), co-author of Patterns of Religion (1999, 2004), co-author of San Bernardino Valley College Sports, 1926-1996, co-author with his wife, Ann Schmidt, of an instructor's manual for Exploring Religion, and has published numerous articles, booklets, and book reviews. His academic posts have afforded him an opportunity to teach in London for a semester with the Southern California Foothills Colleges Consortium and the American Institute for Foreign Studies and to travel to Beijing to work on behalf of the University of the West.

Schmidt was a recipient of a National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship to research "Images of Christ through Art," and co-produced with Ann Schmidt, "The Life of Christ through Art" and "Images of Christ in Art and Music." He was a member of a National Endowment for the Humanities panel in the "Exemplary Projects in Undergraduate and Graduate Education" program to evaluate grant proposals and was a member of the Project on the Study of Religion in Two-Year Colleges funded by the Charles E. Merrill Trust and administered by the American Academy of Religion and a contributor to its publication, The Study of Religion in Two-Year Colleges (1975).

Prior to his elevation as acting president, Schmidt was the UWest Dean of Academic Affairs. He died on April 30, 2018, at the age of 87.

References

Heads of universities and colleges in the United States
2018 deaths
University of Redlands alumni
Claremont Graduate University alumni
Crafton Hills College people
Year of birth uncertain

Roger Schmidt (academic)


Richard Julius Ernst Frommel (16 July 1854 – 6 April 1912) was a German obstetrician and gynecologist who was a native of Augsburg.

In 1877 he received his medical doctorate at the University of Würzburg, and for the next ten years worked in Vienna, Berlin and Munich. At Berlin he was an assistant to gynecologist Karl Ludwig Ernst Schroeder (1838–1887). From 1887 until 1901 he was director of the department of obstetrics and gynaecology at the University of Erlangen. Despite a successful career in gynecology, Frommel abruptly retired from medicine in 1901 at the age of 46.

Frommel is known for his pioneer work in treatment of ruptured ectopic pregnancy. A surgical technique known as the "Frommel operation" is used as treatment for retroversion of the uterus. This surgery involves shortening the uterosacral ligaments via the abdominal route.

With Johann Baptist Chiari (1817–1854), the eponymous "Chiari-Frommel Syndrome" is named. This condition is a rare endocrine disorder that affects women who have recently given birth. It is also known as postpartum galactorrhea-amenorrhea syndrome.

References
 This article incorporates translated text from an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia.
 Chiari-Frommel Syndrome

1854 births
1912 deaths
German gynaecologists
German obstetricians
Physicians from Augsburg
Physicians from the Kingdom of Bavaria
University of Würzburg alumni

Richard Frommel


The Northern Territory Certificate of Education and Training (NTCET) is the credential awarded to High School students who successfully complete senior high school level studies (years 11 and 12 or equivalent) in the Northern Territory, Australia.

The NTCET Structure
NTCET is normally taught in years 11 and 12 of senior high school in the Northern Territory. There are two levels: Stage 1, generally taught in Year 11, and Stage 2, taught in Year 12. At least 22 approved units must be studied.

Each NTCE subject is organised into units, there is a list of subjects available to senior secondary students through Territory schools. Students can select up to 9 free choice units from Stage 1 and/or Stage 2 subject offerings. Each territory school can provide a list of senior subjects it offers.

Secondary students work towards the Northern Territory Certificate of Education. The Northern Territory Board of Studies issues the certificate to students who meet the requirements of achievement during their studies.

Calculation of the Tertiary Entrance Rank
The ATAR is calculated by the South Australian Tertiary Admissions Centre (SATAC) for students who successfully complete the Northern Territory Certificate of Education and Training (NTCET) and fulfill certain other criteria to qualify for a ATAR.

Results for the NTCET are forwarded to SATAC by the Northern Territory Board of Studies.

See also
Education in Australia
Tertiary Entrance Rank

References

External links

School qualifications
Australian Certificate of Education
Education in the Northern Territory


Douglas Richard Alan Saunders (born 1967) is a British and Canadian journalist and author, and columnist for The Globe and Mail, a newspaper based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He is the newspaper's international-affairs columnist, and a long-serving foreign correspondent formerly based in London and Los Angeles, and is the author of three books focused on cities, migration and population. He is currently a Berlin-based resident fellow with the Robert Bosch Academy.

Biography
Saunders, a citizen of the United Kingdom and Canada, was born in the city of Hamilton, Ontario, educated in Toronto at York University. In his early twenties he was the Ottawa-based national bureau chief and writer for the Canadian University Press wire service.

In the early 1990s he built a career in what was then the new field of online research and computer-assisted reporting for various Canadian journalists. He briefly worked as an editor for the left-leaning This Magazine. In 1995 he joined the Globe and Mail as an editorial writer and feature writer. In 1999, he became the paper's correspondent in Los Angeles. He moved to London to become the paper's European Bureau Chief in 2004. He has spent extensive time writing from Europe, Turkey, Iran, the Indian subcontinent, Asia and North Africa, including substantial reporting from Libya, Egypt and Tunisia during the Arab revolutions of 2011, and in Ukraine during its 2013-14 upheavals. He is married to the writer Elizabeth Renzetti and lived in Toronto until 2019, when he moved to Berlin to become a Richard von Weizsäcker Fellow with the Robert Bosch Academy.

His column, Reckoning, appears on Saturdays in the newspaper's Focus section. From 2012 to 2015, he also served as the newspaper's online opinion editor, a position he used to create the Globe Debate online opinion-and-debate portal (now known as Globe Opinion).

Saunders has won the National Newspaper Award on five occasions: in 1998, 1999, and 2000 for critical writing; and in 2006 and 2013 for column writing. In 2008, he was shortlisted for the award in international reporting, for a series of investigative articles on the state of the middle class around the world. He has also been shortlisted for the Canadian National Magazine Awards, in Public Issues.

His works have been influential in the fields of urban planning and architecture. In 2016 he was awarded the Schelling Prize for Architectural Theory. He was also a co-designer of the Germany pavilion in the 2016 Venice Architecture Biennale; the pavilion was designed as a building-sized illustration of Saunders' book Arrival City.

Books
Saunders first book was Arrival City (2011), in which he visited 20 locations on five continents to study the effects of the final wave of rural-urban migration on the cities of the world. It was the winner of the $35,000 Donner Prize, one of the five finalists for the 2011 Lionel Gelber Prize, and for the Shaughnessy Cohen Prize for Political Writing. In 2015, Arrival City was on the 15-book longlist for the CBC's Canada Reads competition.

The book was published in autumn of 2010 by Heinemann Publishers in Britain, Knopf in Canada, De Bezige Bij in the Netherlands (under the title De Trek Naar De Stad), and Allen & Unwin in Australia and New Zealand, in 2011 by Pantheon Books in USA, Karl Blessing Verlag in Germany, and Rye Field Publishing in Chinese (complex) and by DVS Editora of Brazil in Portuguese. In 2012 it was published in China by Hangzhou MatrixBook, the country's first non-government-owned publisher (it was their first title); in autumn of 2012 it was published in French-language countries by Éditions du Seuil in France and Éditions du Boréal in Québec; it was published in Spanish by Debate/Mondadori in February 2014.

In 2012, his The Myth of the Muslim Tide was published in Canada by Knopf, in the United States by Vintage and in Germany by Blessing Verlag, and in 2013 in Sweden. The book is presented as a counterargument to works by such figures as Thilo Sarrazin, Mark Steyn, Bruce Bawer, and to political movements the like of Geert Wilders, which argue that Muslim immigrants cannot be assimilated, have high population-growth rates and are poised to conquer or dominate Western civilization. Sanders claims in his introduction that the book is not a defence of Islam, which he says he does not admire or endorse, but an "impartial" look at the beliefs and activities of immigrant groups. Saunders goes on to compare the experience of Muslim immigrants—both in their integration patterns and the political reception they receive—to earlier waves of religious-minority immigrants, notably European Roman Catholics and Eastern European Ashkenazic Jews.

His third book, published in 2017, was Maximum Canada: Why 35 Million Canadians Are Not Enough.   It is a proposal to grow Canada's population to 100 million.

External links
 Article – Restructuring the Zwischenstadt Institut der Stadtbaukunst, Bremen University of Applied Sciences, Germany

References

Canadian columnists
1967 births
Living people
Writers from Hamilton, Ontario
The Globe and Mail columnists

Doug Saunders


The Egypt River is a stream in Ipswich, Massachusetts, United States.

The river is formed by the confluence of Bull and Dow brooks below their reservoirs, and in turn joins the Muddy River and then the Rowley River, which empties into the Plum Island Sound. The Rowley River runs through salt marshes, in which it forms a narrow and winding inlet about  in total length.

The name Egypt River is recorded as early as 1635. In early colonial times, it was also termed the North River. It was then a source of herring and smelt, but few have been observed since the 1970s.

References
 US Environmental Protection Agency

Rivers of Essex County, Massachusetts
Rivers of Massachusetts

Egypt River


Les Subsistances is a cultural centre of diffuse artistic production and located in the 1st arrondissement of Lyon. Since 2007, it has housed a creative laboratory (theater, dance and contemporary circus) and the École nationale des beaux-arts de Lyon. The site has 22,500 square metres of buildings (including 8,300 square meters of renovated surface) and 16,000 square meters of land, and is partly classified as monument historique. The director of Les Subsistances is Guy Walter, and the vice director is Cathy Bouvard.

History

In 1640, the Sisters of the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary acquired the current site of the quay of the Saône, and built a small monastery and a church. The assembly then formed the convent of Sainte-Marie des Chaînes, so named because the customs had chains across the Saône to thwart smugglers who wanted to enter in Lyon by river. To address the lack of space and the influx of younger sisters, the decision was made to build a larger monastery. The newly constructed building collapsed before being rebuilt, which aggravated the financial situation of the convent. In 1789, it was declared national property, and the nuns were expelled in 1791 during the French Revolution.

In 1807, the army seized the site, which was transformed into a storage center and military camp. In 1840, the army built the large square, then called Manutention Sainte-Marie des Chaînes. Flour and bread were manufactured there; coffee, tobacco and wine were stored there until 1991. In 1870, a metal canopy was built over the central courtyard. Three flour mills were built, in 1853, 1870, and 1890, and a bakery. In 1941, the site was occupied by the army, and until 1995 it was called Military Subsistances.

In 1995, the site was given to the city of Lyon. The building has been renovated several times since 1997. It now houses a laboratory for creation and, since March 2007, the École Nationale des Beaux-Arts de Lyon (about 9,000 square metres). From May 1998 to December 1999, the place welcomed about fifty companies, and 309 performances.

In November 1999, the site was closed for a year for a renovation by Denis Eyraud, and was inaugurated on 26 January 2001. The buildings formerly used as mills now serve as administration spaces, and the old bakery was transformed into a 120-seat theater. A hangar was built with removable bleachers with a capacity of between 260 and 800 spectators. The most beautiful space, La Verrière, can host up to 2000 spectators. The other buildings are composed of seventeen rooms and residence studios, eight workshops, and the restaurant Quai des Arts.

Administration
Paul Grémeret was appointed director in May 1998, succeeded by Klaus Hersche in September 2000. In 2003 Guy Walter and Cathy Bouvard became directors of Les Subsistances.

See also
 List of theatres and entertainment venues in Lyon

References

External links

Arts centres in France
1st arrondissement of Lyon
Entertainment venues in Lyon
Culture in Lyon
Monuments historiques of Lyon

Les Subsistances


Roger John Reginald Greenaway,  (born 23 August 1938) is an English singer, songwriter and record producer, best known for his collaborations with Roger Cook and Tony Burrows. His compositions have included "You've Got Your Troubles" and the transatlantic million selling songs "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing (in Perfect Harmony)" and "Long Cool Woman in a Black Dress". They were the first UK songwriting partnership to be granted an Ivor Novello Award as 'Songwriters of the Year' in two successive years.

In 2009, Greenaway was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.

Early life
Roger Greenaway was born in Fishponds, Bristol, England.

Early career
Greenaway is best known for his works with Roger Cook. Both Greenaway and Cook were members of the close harmony group the Kestrels. While on tour they decided to begin writing songs together. Their first was "You've Got Your Troubles", a No. 2 UK hit single for the Fortunes (1965), which also made No. 7 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It was the first of several successes they enjoyed during the next few years. Later that year, they began recording together as David and Jonathan. Their first single "Laughing Fit To Cry" did not chart, but they scored hits in 1966 with their cover version of the Beatles' "Michelle" and their own "Lovers of the World Unite".  Their penultimate single, "Softly Whispering I Love You", in 1967, was not a success at the time, but became a No. 4 UK hit in 1971 for a subsequent Cook-Greenaway collaboration, the Congregation.  In 1968 Cook and Greenaway announced that they would no longer be recording as a duo but would continue as songwriters.

Songwriting
Their hits as writers for other acts, sometimes with other collaborators, include: "Home Lovin' Man" (Andy Williams); "Blame it on the Pony Express" (Johnny Johnson and the Bandwagon); "Hallejuah" (Deep Purple); "Doctor's Orders" (Sunny (UK) and Carol Douglas (US)); "It Makes No Difference" (Joe Dolan); "Something Tells Me (Something's Gonna Happen Tonight)" (Cilla Black (UK) and Bobbi Martin (US)); "I've Got You On My Mind", "When You Are a King", "My Baby Loves Lovin'" (White Plains); "Long Cool Woman in a Black Dress", "Gasoline Alley Bred", (The Hollies); "You've Got Your Troubles", "Freedom Come, Freedom Go" (The Fortunes); "Banner Man", "Melting Pot", "Good Morning Freedom" (Blue Mink); "Green Grass" (Gary Lewis & the Playboys); "New Orleans" (Harley Quinne); "A Way of Life" (The Family Dogg) and "Something's Gotten Hold of My Heart" (Gene Pitney).

They also wrote "High 'N' Dry" (Cliff Richard), which was the B-side of "Congratulations"," the runner-up song for the UK Eurovision Song Contest in 1968.

The New Seekers' "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing (in Perfect Harmony)" began life as a Cook–Greenaway collaboration called "True Love and Apple Pie", recorded by Susan Shirley. The song was then rewritten by Cook, Greenaway, Coca-Cola advertising executive Bill Backer, and Billy Davis, and recorded as a Coca-Cola radio commercial, with the lyric "I'd like to buy the world a Coke and keep it company." First aired on American radio in 1970, it was also used as a TV commercial a year later, sparking public demand for its release as a single. Reworked, again, to remove the references to the brand name, the single climbed to No. 1 in the UK and No. 7 in the US in 1972. The song has sold over a million copies in the UK.

Blue Mink, Pipkins, and Brotherhood of Man
When Blue Mink were formed in 1969, Greenaway was asked to be lead vocalist alongside Madeline Bell; he declined the offer and recommended Cook, who accepted.  The following year Greenaway teamed up for a while with singer Tony Burrows to form the Pipkins, a duo who had a Top 10 novelty hit in 1970 with "Gimme Dat Ding". The same year, he was briefly a member of Brotherhood of Man, who scored a UK and US top 20 hit with "United We Stand".

Later works
After Cook moved to the US in 1975, Greenaway worked with other partners, notably Geoff Stephens, both being jointly responsible for Dana's 1975 UK No. 4 song, "It's Gonna be a Cold Cold Christmas", and Crystal Gayle's 1980 US No. 1 country song, "It's Like We Never Said Goodbye". With Barry Mason he penned "Say You'll Stay Until Tomorrow" for Tom Jones, which spent ten weeks within the Top 40 of the Billboard Hot Country Singles (now Hot Country Songs) chart, and went to No. 1 for one week on 26 February 1977.

Greenaway took an increasing role in business administration, becoming Chairman of the Performing Right Society in 1983 and, in 1995, taking charge of the European ASCAP office.  He also wrote advertising jingles for Allied Carpets, Asda and British Gas.

Personal life
Greenaway's son is Gavin Greenaway, a composer and conductor.

Awards and honours
In 1998, he was awarded the Order of the British Empire for services to the music industry. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in New York in 2009.

Discography

See also
 Gavin Greenaway

References

External links

 Song catalogue listing @ Songwriters Hall of Fame

1938 births
Living people
Musicians from Bristol
English record producers
English male songwriters
English male singers
English pop singers
Blue Mink members
Ivor Novello Award winners
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
The Congregation (band) members
Brotherhood of Man members
The Kestrels members
The Pipkins members

Roger Greenaway


Darien is a town in Walworth County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 1,651 at the 2020 census. The Village of Darien is located within the town. The unincorporated community of Bardwell is located in the town. The unincorporated communities of Allen's Grove and Fairfield are also located partially in the town.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 34.1 square miles (88.3 km2), of which, 34.0 square miles (88.2 km2) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2) of it (0.12%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,747 people, 615 households, and 485 families residing in the town. The population density was 51.3 people per square mile (19.8/km2). There were 650 housing units at an average density of 19.1 per square mile (7.4/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 95.25% White, 0.40% Black or African American, 0.11% Native American, 0.17% Asian, 2.98% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. 8.36% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 615 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 67.8% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.1% were non-families. 16.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.04.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 112.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $50,700, and the median income for a family was $52,443. Males had a median income of $35,842 versus $26,964 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,580. About 4.2% of families and 9.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.4% of those under age 18 and 10.9% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
Town of Darien, Wisconsin

Towns in Walworth County, Wisconsin
Towns in Wisconsin

Darien (town), Wisconsin


The Proclamation to the People of South Carolina was written by Edward Livingston and issued by Andrew Jackson on December 10, 1832. Written at the height of the Nullification Crisis, the proclamation directly responds to the Ordinance of Nullification passed by the South Carolina legislature in November 1832. Its purpose was to subdue the Nullification Crisis created by South Carolina's ordinance and to denounce the doctrine of nullification.

The proclamation outlines the actions taken by the South Carolina legislature and rejects the insistence on state sovereignty, focusing on the preservation of the Union as the primary issue. It declares nullification to be "incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which It was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." The proclamation also appeals to citizens to resist the violation of the constitution.

Background
Jackson's Proclamation to the People of South Carolina was written in response to the growing opposition to the Tariff of 1828, which was perceived to affect heavily in the economy of the antebellum South, and the Tariff of 1832, which cut overall revenues of the previous tariff by half but was still regarded as unconstitutional by South Carolina. The South Carolina legislature declared these tariffs to be null and void within their Ordinance of Nullification. Besides nullifying the tariffs, it also forbade the appeal of the ordinance to the Supreme Court and prohibited the federal government from collecting duties in South Carolina after February 1, 1833.

The immediate response to the Ordinance of Nullification was to substantially reduce the tariffs imposed on South Carolina and other states in the South. Jackson proposed this approach in his annual message to Congress on December 4, 1832, shortly before the creation of the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina.

Aftermath
After issuing the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina,  Jackson received reports in January 1833 that the legislature had not only persisted in the nullification of the Tariff of 1828 and 1832, but also rescinded all other tariff laws passed by the federal government for revenue purposes. This action continued South Carolina's efforts to assert state sovereignty, as the state refused to financially contribute to any part of the federal financial burden.  Following this, Henry Clay proposed the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which was later signed into law alongside the Force Bill by Jackson on March 2, 1833. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 called for a series of reductions at two-year intervals, culminating in the same rates as the Tariff of 1816, and was supported primarily by the South and West. The Force Bill, however, authorized the US president to employ military forces to uphold federal law. Although South Carolina nullified the Force Bill, it did rescind its earlier ordinance regarding nullification. The combination of the two bills allowed the federal government to assert its authority, while also permitting South Carolina to accept the reduced tariffs without diminishing its own stance.

See also
 Antebellum South Carolina

Notes

References
Adams, James Truslow. America's Tragedy. C. Scribner's Sons, 1934.
Finkelman, Paul and Melvin I. Urofsky. A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States, 2nd ed., vol. 1. Oxford University Press, 2002.
Jennings, Walter W. A History of Economic Progress in the United States. Thomas Y. Crowell, 1926.
Lowery, Charles D. James Barbour, a Jeffersonian Republican. University of Alabama, 1984.
Northrup, Cynthia Clark and Elaine C. Prange Turney, eds. Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History, vol. 2. Greenwood Press, 2003.
Richardson, J. D. ''A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, vol. II." 1900.

External links
 Nullification proclamation and related documents from the Library of Congress

History of South Carolina
Politics of South Carolina
Separatism in the United States
1832 in South Carolina
Proclamations
1832 documents
December 1832 events


The Naked Sun is a science fiction mystery novel written by Isaac Asimov.  It is about a human detective named Elijah Baley who goes to another planet called Solaria and has to try and solve a murder with the help of a robot named Daneel Olivaw.  The people on Solaria hate having to be in the same room as other humans are in and have robots to do everything for them.  The robots can't do anything to hurt anyone because of the Three Laws of Robotics.  The only person who was ever in the same room as the victim was his wife but Baley doesn't believe she did it.  Baley has to try and prove that robots were tricked into killing her without realising that that is what they were doing by a scientist who hated and was afraid of people and to figure out why he did it.

American science fiction books
Isaac Asimov
1957 books

The Naked Sun


The Second Viennese School is a group of composers.  It was made of Arnold Schoenberg and his pupils and close associates in early 20th century Vienna.  Schoenberg lived and taught there between 1903 and 1925. Their music was first like late-Romantic.  Later it was a totally chromatic expressionism without firm tonal centre. Later still was Schoenberg's serial twelve-tone technique.

The main members of the school, besides Schoenberg, were Alban Berg and Anton Webern.

Austrian composers
20th century in Austria

Second Viennese School


A tapadero, sometimes referred to as a "hooded stirrup," is a leather cover over the front of a stirrup on a saddle that closes each stirrup from the front.  A tapadero prevents the rider's boot from slipping through and also prevents brush encountered while working cattle on the open range from poking through the stirrup, injuring or impeding the horse or rider.  Some designs can also provide protection in cold weather.  They are also frequently used with young riders, as many parents and riding instructors feel they are a safety precaution.   Most commonly seen today on a western saddle, particularly certain types of children's saddles and parade horse saddles, the tapadero is not common in modern times and is not allowed in most show competition other than Parade Horse competition and children's leadline.

External links
 Hooded Stirrups (Tapaderos), CowboyWay.com accessed July 26, 2011

Saddles
Stirrups

Tapadero


Brother Cadfael's Penance is a medieval mystery novel set in the autumn of 1145 by Ellis Peters. It is the last novel in the Cadfael Chronicles, first published in 1994.

When a rebellion arises in the south, Cadfael leaves the Shrewsbury Abbey cloister to save two who are dear to him. One is the son he has not yet acknowledged, held prisoner by a disillusioned knight.

The novel received strongly positive reviews when it was published, and some noted the increasing sales of books in the series. It was "moving and suspenseful", "one of Cadfael's most moving adventures".

Introduction to plot
After eight years, The Anarchy moves into stalemate, as fighting continues in the Thames valley. In the Holy Land, Edessa has fallen, giving rise to a strong desire among bishops in England to end the civil war and redirect fighting men towards another Crusade to keep Jerusalem safe. In the late summer of 1145, the younger son of Robert of Gloucester, Philip FitzRobert, switches sides, yielding his castle at Cricklade to King Stephen. Philip's castellan at Faringdon, Brien de Soulis, quickly follows his example, surrendering his castle to Stephen's besieging forces. Not all the garrison of Faringdon agree to change sides, and thirty men are taken hostage. Robert, Earl of Leicester is given a list of the thirty men and their captors, but one man among Faringdon's garrison is unaccounted for: Olivier de Bretagne.

Plot summary
In November 1145, Robert sends a copy of the list to Hugh Beringar, Sheriff of Shrewsbury, along with news that the two factions will meet for a peace conference at Coventry. Earl Robert asks Hugh to attend.  Not seeing Olivier's name among the men being offered for ransom, Hugh tells Cadfael, who tells Abbot Radulfus that he feels it is his duty to rescue his son Olivier, at the risk of breaking his vows. Radulfus allows him to accompany Hugh to Coventry. Beyond that, Cadfael is on his own.

In Lichfield's chapel, Cadfael recognises Yves Hugonin, Olivier's brother-in-law. Riding to Coventry, barely have they entered the town when Yves draws his sword and flies in rage at Brien de Soulis, the turncoat castellan of Faringdon. Order is restored by Bishop Roger de Clinton. Yves is called to a private audience with the Empress Maud. She officially rebukes him for disturbing the peace, yet hints that she would be delighted if de Soulis were killed. The peace talks come to nothing. Before the talks end, Yves asks about Olivier's whereabouts. De Soulis claims to know nothing. In the winter darkness, as the two sides exit the chapel after Compline, Yves trips over the dead body of de Soulis on the chapel steps. Philip FitzRobert accuses Yves of murder. Defying a promise of safe conduct to all who came with the Empress, twelve men seize Yves near Gloucester, which is duly reported to the Bishop.

The Bishop, Cadfael and Hugh examine de Soulis's body and belongings, discovering that de Soulis was stabbed from the front with a dagger. His killer was someone he knew and trusted, and allowed to approach him. In de Soulis's bag, Cadfael finds a seal ring that does not belong to him, which no one in Coventry can identify. Cadfael must decide whether to continue searching for Olivier and Yves and break his monastic vows, or return with Hugh to Shrewsbury. He chooses his son.

At Deerhurst Abbey, Cadfael meets a mason's assistant who identifies the seal as belonging to a captain of the garrison, Geoffrey FitzClare, loyal to the Empress. De Soulis showed the men a document with this seal along with that of the other five captains, agreeing to surrender to the King. This was a ruse, as de Soulis murdered FitzClare, reporting it as an accidental death. Knowing this, Cadfael finds Philip FitzRobert at his castle of La Musarderie in Greenhamsted. He convinces him that Yves is innocent: de Soulis allowed his killer to approach close enough to stab him with a knife, but de Soulis and Yves were open enemies. Repulsed by de Soulis's treachery, Philip releases Yves.

Philip holds Olivier in the castle. Cadfael pleads for his release, offering himself in exchange and revealing that he is Olivier's father. Philip refuses. He and Olivier were the closest of comrades, but Olivier refused to follow his friend in defecting to Stephen. Philip changed sides in the hope of breaking the stalemate between the two sides, which Olivier saw as simple treason. Philip visits Olivier in his cell, telling him of Cadfael's offer. Olivier is dumbfounded, not understanding why Cadfael would do this for him. Philip shares that Cadfael is Olivier's father. Olivier is stunned, then enraged, feeling that Cadfael has cheated him.

In Gloucester, Yves begs the Empress to lay siege to La Musarderie to rescue Olivier. She agrees only after Yves tells her that Philip is there, her nephew but now her enemy. She alarms her advisers when she announces her intention to hang Philip. This brutality would drive a wedge between her and her brother Robert, absent from Gloucester for this discussion, and increase the fighting in this war-torn country. The Empress orders her entire army to Philip's castle. The night before the attack, Yves enters the castle to warn Philip of her intention via Cadfael, and succeeds in this undercover quest. Philip's garrison puts up a tough defence. Philip suffers serious wounds from a crate of metal pieces thrown by a siege engine into the courtyard. Cadfael ministers to him, while Philip gives his final orders before falling unconscious. His deputy shall surrender the castle and trade Philip to the Empress for the best terms he can get; he gives Cadfael the keys to Olivier's cell. As Cadfael releases Olivier, they face each other as father and son. They arrange a plan to get Philip out of the castle to save him from the Empress. Olivier bears no grudge for his imprisonment, living in the moment as his father does. He uses his uniform to get through the besieging forces, seeking a local man who can claim the unconscious Philip as the corpse of his nephew. The plan works, and Philip recovers in the Augustinian Cirencester Abbey. Brought by Olivier, Robert of Gloucester arrives at the abbey to reconcile with his son.

Before leaving La Musarderie, Cadfael learns the killer of de Soulis. Lady Jovetta, lady-in-waiting to the Empress, was Geoffrey FitzClare's mother; she wears as a ring the same design as Geoffrey's seal. Brien de Soulis made what he thought to be an assignation with her niece. He allowed Jovetta to approach him in the mistaken belief that she was the niece. Cadfael keeps her secret.

Olivier and Cadfael ride to Gloucester, where they part. Cadfael asks for word when his grandson is born. Cadfael rides alone through rough winter weather to Shrewsbury, feeling fully the importance of his life in the monastery. Arriving at Shrewsbury Abbey after Matins and Lauds, Cadfael lies prostrate on the floor of the chapel as a penitent. Entering before the rest of the monks, Abbot Radulfus informs him that news came before him. The rift between Philip and his father Robert of Gloucester is mended. Philip in his sick bed has taken the Cross. He will join the next Crusade, having despaired of princes in England. Radulfus declares "it is enough!" and invites Cadfael to take his place among his brothers at Prime.

Characters
Brother Cadfael:  Herbalist monk of the Abbey of Saint Peter and Saint Paul at Shrewsbury, come to the monk's life as an adult. Now 65, he walks away from it in hopes of finding his son, begotten in his days as soldier and sailor in the East. He met his son twice, full-grown, but never told him he had found his father.
Hugh Beringar: Sheriff of Shropshire, close friend of Cadfael. He seeks for Olivier while at Coventry, though on the other side in this competition for the crown of England. Now 30 years old. Introduced in One Corpse Too Many.
Abbot Radulfus:  Head of the Shrewsbury Abbey. Allows Cadfael to leave the cloister, on his own, breaking his vow of stability. Radulfus met Olivier in The Pilgrim of Hate four years earlier, but only now learns he is Cadfael's son. Based on real Abbot of that year.
Olivier de Bretagne: Young knight in the service of Laurence d'Angers on the side of the Empress, husband of Ermina, who is sister to Yves Hugonin; son of Cadfael and Mariam, half Welsh and half Syrian. He left Antioch when his mother died, when he was 14, knowing his father only from her stories of him, and choosing his father's faith. He is 30 years old. He is a handsome man, disciplined, sane, in control of his feelings, and accomplished in battle. First seen by Cadfael and introduced in The Virgin in the Ice.
Prior Robert Pennant: Father prior at Shrewsbury Abbey; man of aristocratic tendencies; disapproving of Cadfael's venture, a departure from the strict rule. Based on the real prior of that year.
Brother Jerome: In penance for his violence earlier in the year (told in The Holy Thief), he is no longer confessor of the novices. He is a chastened man, surprisingly humble, compared to his usual righteous self, failing to complain about Cadfael's request for leave.
Brother Edmund: Infirmarer, monk who will miss Cadfael as his apothecary.
Brother Winfrid:  Assistant to Cadfael in the herbarium; takes on all the work while Cadfael is away. Introduced in The Hermit of Eyton Forest.
Brian de Soulis: Castellan of Faringdon under Philip FitzRobert. He turned over the castle to the King in the midst of the siege; led in the King's men by night. He attended the meeting at Coventry. About 32 years old. Real historical person.
Philip FitzRobert: Castellan of Cricklade and of Faringdon for the Empress; Faringdon was quickly under siege by King Stephen, but no aid was sent by his father, Robert of Gloucester. He was in full agreement with Brien, and fought for the King now. He also holds La Musarderie at Greenhamsted. He is a man of intense feelings, orderly, neat, thorough, with wide range of skills, from reading to war. About 30, the same age as Olivier. Real historical person.
Yves Hugonin: Man at arms, intelligent and brave, nephew of Laurence d'Angers, serving with his brother-in-law Olivier de Bretagne until recently parted for an errand for the Empress, in which time Faringdon castle fell. He is 19 years old, six years after his first appearance in Cadfael's life when he was introduced in The Virgin in the Ice.
Roger de Clinton: Bishop of Lichfield, with cathedral also at Coventry, head of the monastery at Lichfield, whose see includes the Shrewsbury Abbey. He offered Coventry for a meeting between King Stephen and Empress Maud and their supporters. Real historical person.
King Stephen:  Attends the meeting convened by Bishop Roger de Clinton, speaks his right to be the king by his coronation and anointing years ago. Brother Cadfael recognises him from once meeting him in Shrewsbury when it was taken (told in One Corpse Too Many); now grey in the King's blond hair. Real historical person.
Henry, Bishop of Winchester: Younger brother of King Stephen, powerful bishop in England, who often takes over leading the discussion in the meeting at Coventry, an effort he has tried more than once in this long period of contention. Real historical person.
Empress Maud:  Attends the meeting convened by Bishop Roger de Clinton, speaks her right to be the ruler of England, as her father King Henry wished after her only legitimate brother was killed, and as the Earls had sworn when her father was yet alive. Just over 40 years old. Real historical person.
Robert of Gloucester: Half-brother to the Empress, her most loyal and useful supporter.  First-born son to King Henry, but illegitimate, so not a contender for King. His third son Philip, turned his coat abruptly, when his father sent him no aid. Present at the meeting called by the bishops. About 50 years old. Real historical person.
King David of Scotland: Maternal uncle to Empress Maud, and the King of Scotland. He advises her as part of her close council. Real historical person.
Robert of Leicester: Earl, son of Robert and twin brother to Waleran, Count of Meulan. Supporter of King Stephen, recent friend to Hugh Beringar. Real historical person.
Forthred of Todenham: Workman at Deerhurst Abbey, formerly man-at-arms under Brien de Soulis at Faringdon when it was turned over to King Stephen. He is Brother Cadfael's informant as to the owner of the seal found in the saddlebags of Brien de Soulis.
Geoffrey FitzClare: One of six captains of the common soldiers at Faringdon. His seal was put to the document of agreement changing sides from the Empress to the King; the next day he was brought back dead to the castle. Brother of the Earl of Hereford, illegitimate son (by blow) of the late Earl Richard, in his thirties.
Lady Jovetta de Montors: Lady's maid to the Empress, a gentlewoman, near 60 years old, widow of Aubrey, who early in their marriage left to fight under Warenne for King Henry in France for two years. She was left with the FitzClare household.
Isabeau: Attractive and self-possessed niece to Jovetta, about 19 years old, and in the service of the Empress, part of her court of women.
Guy Camville: Second in command to Philip FitzRobert at La Musarderie castle; negotiates the surrender at Philip's instruction, after Philip is wounded.
John FitzGilbert: Close advisor to and Marshal for Empress Maud, who speaks for her in the attack on La Musarderie, opening the attack, and accepting the terms from Guy Camville. Real historical person.

Reviews
These reviews were written at the time of publication, before it was known to be the end of the series.

Kirkus Reviews finds this book to be one of the most moving adventures in this series:

 The ruinous civil war between King Stephen and the Empress Maud for 12th-century England brings added heartache to Brother Cadfael (The Holy Thief, 1993, etc.) when he learns that his unacknowledged son, Olivier de Bretagne, has become a casualty. . . . Cadfael will have little trouble proving Yves's innocence, or eliciting a confession from the real assassin, but the abiding interest here is in the increasingly revelatory series of meetings he has with the ruthlessly political yet deeply human turncoat Philip FitzRobert over the fates of Yves, Olivier, and FitzRobert himself. Persevere past the drumbeat of canned history in the opening chapter and you'll find the pace quickening to unfold one of Cadfael's most moving adventures, one that touches his own generous heart most closely.

Publishers Weekly has high praise for the plot and depiction of strong emotions between friends:

In Brother Cadfael's 20th chronicle, Peters deftly binds the medieval monk's new adventure with family ties, moving from issues intensely public to problems determinedly private. Olivier de Bretagne, who (unknown to himself) is Brother Cadfael's son, has been taken prisoner during England's dynastic war between two grandchildren of William the Conqueror. Cadfael is determined to find Olivier, although to do so he must leave the monastery without his abbot's leave or... blessing. The search begins badly when, at an unsuccessful peace conference, Yves Hugonin, Olivier's hot-headed brother-in-law, picks a fight with Brien de Soulis, a commander who may know where Olivier is held-but won't say. When Brien is found murdered, Yves is abducted by one who holds him responsible for the killing, and then Cadfael has two men to find. In the process, he delicately explores puzzles related to Brien's death and to shadowy deeds in the larger political scene. While Cadfael does his usual excellent sleuthing, Peters succeeds at an equally subtle game, demonstrating how personal devotion can turn to enmity-and how such enmity can be forestalled by justice and mercy. Mystery Guild selection.

Library Journal sees the increasing popularity of the series of novels:

Peters's last Brother Cadfael mystery, The Holy Thief (Mysterious Pr., 1993), sold nearly a third more than its predecessor, so Peters is clearly on a roll. In his 20th outing, Brother Cadfael decides to break his monastic vows to save his long-lost son.

Booklist from the American Library Association finds the story suspenseful and Cadfael valiant:

Peters' twentieth tale in her popular Brother Cadfael series has the gentle monk leaving his cloister on a journey that will prove both dangerous and wrenching. In twelfth-century Britain, a rebellion has arisen, with factional fighting between the knights supporting Empress Maud and those swearing allegiance to her cousin Stephen. Philip FitzRobert, a traitor to the empress, has taken 30 hostages, among them a young man named Olivier de Bretagne, who is Cadfael's son from a chance encounter years earlier. Although Cadfael has lost track of the boy's mother, he's never forgotten his son, and once he finds out that Olivier has been spirited away and imprisoned, nothing—not even his vow of obedience to God and the abbot—can keep him from setting out to find the young man who has never known his true father. The quest becomes fraught with peril when Yves, Olivier's brother-in-law, is falsely accused of murder, and only Brother Cadfael can save him. Peters' graceful writing perfectly captures the spirit and ambience of early Britain. Intelligently written, the story is moving and suspenseful, with the intrepid and valiant Cadfael at his wise and gentle best. (Reviewed December 1, 1994) Emily Melton

Continuity
This final story is complete on its own, as to plot and setting in history. That is, it is not necessary to read all the prior novels to fully grasp this one.

It does include many characters introduced in earlier novels, and includes all the major historical persons in speaking roles at the meeting in Coventry, speaking their own views.  Brother Cadfael has the same assistant in the herbarium, Brother Winfrid, for three years (The Hermit of Eyton Forest).  Hugh Beringar is still his close friend, and Sheriff of Shropshire, selected by King Stephen, making friends with major barons (Robert of Leicester, character in The Holy Thief) who appear again in this story. Many of the brothers introduced throughout the series appear and react to Cadfael's trip out of their cloister, including Prior Robert, his shadow Jerome, the precentor Anselm, among others.

The sister and brother rescued in The Virgin in the Ice, Ermina and Yves Hugonin, have grown in the past six years. Ermina married Olivier de Bretagne, a squire in service to their uncle Laurence d'Angers. When Yves was old enough to serve as squire, he stayed with his brother-in-law, Olivier for his training, until just before the incident at Faringdon in the summer. Brother Cadfael realised that Olivier was his unknown son from his last time with Mariam in Antioch, some 30 years ago when he left the Holy Land after the First Crusade, first seen at the Brompton Priory as he rescued the brother and sister and told his own story. Cadfael thought a real father was no benefit to his son; he had the father described to him by his mother. At their second meeting (The Pilgrim of Hate), Cadfael shares the knowledge with his friend Hugh, who has come to like this knight in service to the other side.

Cadfael risked his settled life as a cloistered monk to save his son, a freighted choice, because he was a father before he was a brother, though he did not know it when he committed to the monastery.

Abbot Radulfus, head of the Abbey since 1138 (the end of Monk's Hood), met Olivier in The Pilgrim of Hate, learning in this story that Cadfael is his father. Radulfus sees the sin in Cadfael's earlier time with Mariam, which Cadfael sees otherwise.
Radulfus holds the power of forgiveness, to decide the time of penance for this transgression of vows, to say "it is enough".

King Stephen and his cousin Empress Maud and their supporters meet under the auspices of three major bishops at Coventry (Roger de Clinton, character in The Heretic's Apprentice, Henry of Winchester brother to the King and character in The Pilgrim of Hate, and Nigel of Ely), in another unsuccessful effort to move toward resolution and acceptance that just one can hold the crown of England at a time.

Cadfael, as observer to this chaos among the aristocracy of his adopted home of England, thinks how differently sons are viewed in his birthplace in Wales. In both places, there are children born outside marriage: in England, those sons in particular can be educated, supported, have lands and power, but not succeed as king; in Wales, if acknowledged by the father, they have full rights. Cadfael speculates on the possibly different path for England if the first son of old King Henry, the illegitimate Robert of Gloucester, had been recognised and accepted. This difference between Wales and England in the 12th century figures in many of the twenty novels.

The threads of Cadfael's life are brought to a place of satisfaction and of hope, as Ermina is expected to give birth soon – a grandchild in addition to his son, and his godson Giles, son of Hugh and Aline Beringar (One Corpse Too Many).

Setting in history
The novel takes place in November – December 1145 as the Anarchy is in a phase of stalemate. Neither side can gain enough ground to stop the other from fighting.

On the one hand, Geoffrey of Anjou, husband of the Empress Maud brought his military forces to bear on Normandy being recognised by King Louis VII of France as Duke of Normandy in 1144, where many of Stephen's barons hold land. On the other, King Stephen has recently gained valuable allies in England. After much waffling between the two sides, the powerful Earl of Chester has joined Stephen in a meeting at Stamford. In the Thames Valley, two of the Empress's castellans have defected to Stephen, bringing their castles and garrisons in Faringdon and Cricklade with them, most notably the younger son of Robert of Gloucester, Philip FitzRobert. Philip's story has an interesting parallel with that of William de Dovre.

At the meeting called by Bishop Roger de Clinton, most of the people active on each side of this dispute have speaking lines at the table, or later when advising Empress Maud in Gloucester. Many of the characters in the novel are real historical people, as the backdrop for the personal journey of Brother Cadfael.

This story includes a medieval siege of a castle, lasting over two days, with the largest military force Empress Maud could muster, initially gathered to discuss the implications of the failed peace talks. Such sieges of castles were the common form of warfare in the Anarchy, "war dominated by sieges" per Sarah Speight. Weapons of the time were few, brutal and less precise compared to those of modern times. Man to man combat included swords and daggers. For both attack and defence, siege warfare employed siege engines to project rocks or incendiaries, while defending archers aimed from the crenels or behind arrowslits. Both attacking and defending archers used longbows, self bows or crossbows. Siege warfare in this era favoured the defenders, unless the besiegers were of huge force or could endure long enough to starve the defenders to submission with no other forces coming to the aid of the defenders. Siege engines were used by the defenders of a well-armed castle, as well.

The Fall of Edessa in the Holy Land the previous December in 1144, an event which led to the declaration of the Second Crusade, is much in the air, as bishops across Europe fear for the safety of Jerusalem. Men of England feel this pull to the East, seeking a worthier cause than this tiresome fight in their own nation.

The war over the English crown comes to an effective close three years later, in 1148, when Maud retreats to Normandy after Robert of Gloucester's death. The war is not considered officially over, however, until 1154, when King Stephen dies and Maud's son, Henry, ascends the throne according to the treaty made between Stephen and Henry the year before. Stephen's eldest son Eustace died in 1153 a month after the encounter at Wallingford, and his son William was settled in Normandy, not considered for succession after his father.

The places of the novel are real, including Coventry, Lichfield, Cricklade, Faringdon Castle, La Musarderie near Greenhamsted (now Miserden), the village of Winstone, Bagendon, Cowley, and the Deerhurst Abbey, the Augustinian Cirencester Abbey, Evesham Abbey, Leominster Priory and the home of Brother Cadfael, the Shrewsbury Abbey.

Publication history
Four hardback editions in English were published, from May 1994 to May 1995. The first edition in May 1994 was published by Headline Book Publishing ( / 9781551440590, UK edition), followed by The Mysterious Press in December 1994 ( / 978-0-89296-599-1, USA edition).

Fourteen paperback editions were listed, first published in 1994 ( / 9781551440781, USA edition, published by Warner Futura), March 1995 ( / 978-0-7472-4698-5, UK edition, published by Headline Book Publishing), and the latest in January 2000 from Warner.

Seven audio book editions are listed. The first listed is  / 978-0-7540-5364-4, UK edition, published by Chivers Audio Books. The most recent edition was published in December 2006 on CD, with Sir Derek Jacobi as the narrator ( / 9781844561063, UK edition, published by Hodder & Stoughton) and originally issued on audio cassette in September 1996. Stephen Thorne narrated the US edition in October 2002 ( / 9781572702820, USA edition, published by The Audio Partners).

There is now a Kindle edition, ISBN B00DYV2NN4.

Editions in other languages have been published.

Italian: La penitenza di fratello Cadfael, Published 1 January 2006 by Tea Paperback, 220 pages
French: Frère Cadfael fait pénitence (Frère Cadfael, #20), Published 2002 by 10/18 Mass Market Paperback, 310 pages
German: Bruder Cadfaels Buße, Published 1 December 1999 by Heyne Paperback (Heyne-Bücher Allgemeine Reihe), 349 pages

References

1994 British novels
British mystery novels
Novels by Edith Pargeter
Fiction set in the 1140s
Novels set in the 12th century
Stephen, King of England
Cultural depictions of Empress Matilda
Headline Publishing Group books

Brother Cadfael's Penance


The Russian financial crisis (also called "Ruble crisis" or the "Russian Flu") hit Russia on 17 August 1998. It made the Russian government devaluing the ruble and defaulting on its debt.

Crisis and effects
On 17 August 1998, the Russian government devalued the ruble. They also defaulted on domestic debt and declared a
moratorium on payments to foreign creditors.
 the ruble/dollar trading band would expand from 5.3–7.1 RUR/USD to 6.0–9.5 RUR/USD;
 Russia's ruble-denominated debt would be restructured in a manner to be announced at a later date; and, to prevent mass Russian bank default,
 a temporary 90-day moratorium would be imposed on the payments of some bank obligations, including certain debts and forward currency contracts.

On 17 August 1998 the government declared in the Joint Statement of the Government of the Russian Federation and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation that the state securities (GKOs and OFZs), with due dates through 31 December 1999, would be changed into new securities. The terms of the GKO/OFZ restructuring were also determined in the following acts:

 Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation №1007 of 25 August 1998
 Decree of the President of the Russian Federation №888 of 25 August 1998
 Decree №1787-р of 12 December 1998 on novation of state securities
 Federal Law on Top-Priority Measures in the Field of Budget and Tax Policy

Effects on other countries
The financial crisis spread panic throughout the world financial system.

Baltic states
The Russian crisis affected Baltic countries more than expected. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania sank into recession. Figures for 1999 showed a heavy decline in exports from these countries to Russia, in addition to a big decline in growth rates of these economies. Foods and beverages have suffered the most.

Belarus
Overall, economic activity slowed down due to the Russian crisis. Output growth has fallen from about 8.5 percent in 1998 to 3.4 percent in 1999. Both exports and imports contracted substantially, resulting in a drop in the current account deficit from a 6.1 percent GDP in 1998 to 2.2 percent in 1999.

Externally, exports to Russia, which was more than 60 percent of total exports, fell during the second half of 1998 by 10 percent. Demand for Belarusian products was weak through 1999, showing signs of recovery only during the final quarter, with the revival of economic activity in Russia. Also, in the first quarter of 1999, compared to 1998, except for investments, all budget expenditures were smaller. The biggest cuts were made in national security (a 1.9 GDP, compared to 2.5 percent in the first quarter of 1998) and social policy (1.5 and 2.4 percent of GDP, respectively) where expenditures were lowered almost by one third.

Kazakhstan
The Russian crisis was a hard blow to the Kazakh economy. Kazakhstan lost its pricing competitiveness and its exports were in shambles. On the other hand, cheap Russian goods were coming into here. This killed domestic industries. There was huge pressure on the tenge, the Kazakh currency, and Kazakhstan's balance of payments worsened. However, the NBK continued to keep the value of the tenge. In fact, they had spent close to a billion dollars to keep the level of tenge. Their foreign exchange reserves halved.

Moldova
Moldova got an IMF special mission advising the government. This was about how to cope with the effects of the Russian crisis. At that time Russia bought 85% of Moldova's wine and brandy, as well as most of its canned goods and tobacco. After the ruble crashed, most Russian importers put deals with Moldova on hold. Moldovan president Petru Lucinschi was quoted as saying that the Russian crisis had cost Moldova as much as five per cent of its GDP. The country's parliament was discussing a program to reduce imports and find new markets outside Russia.

Ukraine
The crisis cost the Ukraine a lot as well: the Hryvnia devaluated by 60%, domestic prices increased by 20%. The National Bank of Ukraine lost 40% of its gross reserves.

United States
The U.S. stock market began to slip in early August 1998. The Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 984 points, or 11.5%, in 3 days at the end of August, to a level 19% below its July peak. This more than erased the year's market gains. The U.S. stock market remained depressed until October, when a series of interest rate reductions by the Federal Reserve propelled it back upward.

Uzbekistan
The government banned free unlicensed sales of food. Most of them are imported from Russia. The ban aimed to stop prices rising.

References

Economy of Russia
1998 in Europe
1990s in Russia

1998 Russian financial crisis


Client state is a word used to describe a state that has to follow a more powerful state in international politics.  The word is not specific compared with the other words which have similar meanings: satellite state, associated state, puppet state, neo-colony, protectorate, vassal state and tributary state.  The greater state may be said to exercise hegemony over the lesser one.

International politics

Client state


Eleoncio Mercedes (September 12, 1957 – December 22, 1985) was a Dominican boxer, who was world champion in the Flyweight division.

Amateur career
As an amateur he competed for his native country at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.  He was stopped in the first round of his opening round bout to Aleksandr Tkachenko of the Soviet Union.

Pro career
Born in La Romana, Mercedes campaigned most of his career in the western United States and in Mexico. He debuted as a professional boxer on July 2 of 1978 with a win over Darryl Jones in Stockton. He suffered his first defeat when he lost by a decision in Las Vegas to future world champion Joey Olivo, in Mercedes' third bout as a paid fighter.

Mercedes' first of 11 fights in a row in Mexico came in 1979, when he lost by a knockout in seven rounds to Juan Díaz. During that span of 11 fights in Mexico, he went 6-3-2, fighting in such places as Mexico City, Monterrey and Reynosa. He lost to Candido Tellez but also beat former world champion Guty Espadas, by a knockout in nine during that span.

His first fight in the Dominican Republic was a 1982 rematch with Diaz, held in Santo Domingo. He won the fight by a decision in twelve rounds, to avenge his defeat at the hands of Diaz. Up until that moment, Mercedes' record was of 10 wins, 6 losses and 2 draws, reason why it was a little surprising to his fans when the WBC announced it would give Mercedes a chance at becoming a world champion, against two time world champion Freddie Castillo, who was in his second reign. The two boxers met on November 6 of 1982, at Los Angeles. Mercedes caused another surprise among many boxing fans by defeating Castillo by a decision in 15 rounds and becoming WBC and Lineal Flyweight champion.

In his first defense, Mercedes put the titles on the line against the British boxer Charlie Magri. In round seven, the fight had to be stopped because of a cut suffered by Mercedes, which had been determined to be from a punch by Magri. Mercedes then lost his world Flyweight championships by a technical knockout in that round.

After that, Mercedes kept on boxing, but had mixed fortunes. He managed to beat future world title challenger Alonzo Gonzalez by a decision, but lost to future world champion, Mexican German Torres by a knockout in the ninth round. Mercedes also lost a twelve-round decision to future world champion Raul Jibaro Perez, as well as being knocked out in the sixth round by former world Bantamweight champion Alberto Davila.

Death

A few days before Christmas in 1985, Mercedes was shot and killed by a policeman in his native La Romana, aged 28, after allegedly pulling a gun on the policeman. Mercedes had been drinking in a bar when he was shot to death. Confusion exists as to how this incident took place as some sources state the altercation happened after a car accident.

Professional boxing record

See also
List of world flyweight boxing champions

References

External links

Eleoncio Mercedes - CBZ Profile

1957 births
1985 deaths
Dominican Republic male boxers
Sportspeople from La Romana, Dominican Republic
Flyweight boxers
Boxers at the 1975 Pan American Games
Pan American Games medalists in boxing
Medalists at the 1975 Pan American Games
Pan American Games silver medalists for the Dominican Republic
Olympic boxers for the Dominican Republic
Boxers at the 1976 Summer Olympics
World flyweight boxing champions
World Boxing Council champions
The Ring (magazine) champions
Deaths by firearm in the Dominican Republic
People shot dead by law enforcement officers

Eleoncio Mercedes