A diamond cut is a style or design guide used when shaping a diamond for polishing such as the brilliant cut. Cut refers to shape (pear, oval), and also the symmetry, proportioning and polish of a diamond. The cut of a diamond greatly affects a diamond's brilliance — a poorly-cut diamond is less luminous.

In order to best use a diamond gemstone's material properties, a number of different diamond cuts have been developed. A diamond cut constitutes a more or less symmetrical arrangement of facets, which together modify the shape and appearance of a diamond crystal. Diamond cutters must consider several factors, such as the shape and size of the crystal, when choosing a cut. The practical history of diamond cuts can be traced back to the Middle Ages, while their theoretical basis was not developed until the turn of the 20th century. Design, creation and innovation continue to the present day: new technology—notably laser cutting and computer-aided design—has enabled the development of cuts whose complexity, optical performance, and waste reduction were hitherto unthinkable.

The most popular of diamond cuts is the modern round brilliant, whose facet arrangements and proportions have been perfected by both mathematical and empirical analysis. Also popular are the fancy cuts, which come in a variety of shapes, many of which were derived from the round brilliant. A diamond's cut is evaluated by trained graders, with higher grades given to stones whose symmetry and proportions most closely match the particular "ideal" used as a benchmark. The strictest standards are applied to the round brilliant; although its facet count is invariable, its proportions are not. Different countries base their cut grading on different ideals: one may speak of the American Standard or the Scandinavian Standard (Scan. D.N.), to give but two examples.

History

Ancient India
The process of diamond cutting has been known in the Indian subcontinent as early as the sixth century AD. A sixth-century treatise Ratnapariksa, or "Appreciation of Gems", states that the best form in which to have the diamond is in its perfect natural octahedral crystal form, and not as a cut stone, indicating that diamond cutting was widespread practice. Al Beruni also describes the process of diamond grinding using lead plate in the 11th century AD Agastimata written before 10th century states:

A 12th- or early 13th-century diamond ring attributed to Muhammad Ghauri contains two diamonds whose crude octahedral natural states are maintained, but they are in limpid condition, exhibiting diamond polishing and shaping predating Europe, where the first diamond processing dates back to the mid-14th century AD.

Europe
The history of diamond cuts in Europe can be traced to the late Middle Ages, before which time diamonds were employed in their natural octahedral state—anhedral (poorly formed) diamonds simply were not used in jewelry. The first "improvements" on nature's design involved a simple polishing of the octahedral crystal faces to create even and unblemished facets, or to fashion the desired octahedral shape out of an otherwise unappealing piece of rough. This was called the point cut and dates from the mid 14th century; by 1375 there was a guild of diamond polishers at Nürnberg. By the mid 15th century, the point cut began to be improved upon: the top of the octahedron would be polished or ground off, creating the table cut. The importance of a culet was also realised, and some table-cut stones may possess one. The addition of four corner facets created the old single cut (or old eight cut). Neither of these early cuts would reveal what diamond is prized for today; its strong dispersion or fire. At the time, diamond was valued chiefly for its adamantine lustre and superlative hardness; a table-cut diamond would appear black to the eye, as they do in paintings of the era. For this reason, colored gemstones such as ruby and sapphire were far more popular in jewelry of the era.

In or around 1476, Lodewyk (Louis) van Berquem, a Flemish polisher of Bruges, introduced the technique of absolute symmetry in the disposition of facets using a device of his own invention, the scaif. He cut stones in the shape known as pendeloque or briolette; these were pear-shaped with triangular facets on both sides. About the middle of the 16th century, the rose or rosette was introduced in Antwerp: it also consisted of triangular facets arranged in a symmetrical radiating pattern, but with the bottom of the stone left flat—essentially a crown without a pavilion. Many large, famous Indian diamonds of old (such as the Orloff and Sancy) also feature a rose-like cut; there is some suggestion that Western cutters were influenced by Indian stones, because some of these diamonds may predate the Western adoption of the rose cut. However, Indian "rose cuts" were far less symmetrical as their cutters had the primary interest of conserving carat weight, due to the divine status of diamond in India. In either event, the rose cut continued to evolve, with its depth, number and arrangements of facets being tweaked.

The first brilliant cuts were introduced in the middle of the 17th century. Known as Mazarins, they had 17 facets on the crown (upper half). They are also called double-cut brilliants as they are seen as a step up from old single cuts. Vincent Peruzzi, a Venetian polisher, later increased the number of crown facets from 17 to 33 (triple-cut or Peruzzi brilliants), thereby significantly increasing the fire and brilliance of the cut gem, properties that in the Mazarin were already incomparably better than in the rose. Yet Peruzzi-cut diamonds, when seen nowadays, seem exceedingly dull compared to modern-cut brilliants. Because the practice of bruting had not yet been developed, these early brilliants were all rounded squares or rectangles in cross-section (rather than circular). Given the general name of cushion—what are known today as old mine cuts—these were common by the early 18th century. Sometime later the old European cut was developed, which had a shallower pavilion, more rounded shape, and different arrangement of facets. The old European cut was the forerunner of modern brilliants and was the most advanced in use during the 19th century.

Around 1900, the development of diamond saws and good jewelry lathes enabled the development of modern diamond cutting and diamond cuts, chief among them the round brilliant cut. In 1919, Marcel Tolkowsky analyzed this cut: his calculations took both brilliance (the amount of white light reflected) and fire into consideration, creating a delicate balance between the two. Tolkowsky's calculations would serve as the basis for all future brilliant cut modifications and standards.

Tolkowsky's model of the "ideal" cut is not perfect. The original model served as a general guideline, and did not explore or account for several aspects of diamond cut:

Because every facet has the potential to change a light ray's plane of travel, every facet must be considered in any complete calculation of light paths.
Just as a two-dimensional slice of a diamond provides incomplete information about the three-dimensional nature of light behavior inside a diamond, this two-dimensional slice also provides incomplete information about light behavior outside the diamond. A diamond's panorama is three-dimensional. Although diamonds are highly symmetrical, light can enter a diamond from many directions and many angles. This factor further highlights the need to reevaluate Tolkowsky's results, and to recalculate the effects of a diamond's proportions on its appearance aspects. ...

Another important point to consider is that Tolkowsky did not follow the path of a ray that was reflected more than twice in the diamond. However, we now know that a diamond's appearance is composed of many light paths that reflect considerably more than two times within that diamond. Once again, we can see that Tolkowsky's predictions are helpful in explaining optimal diamond performance, but they are incomplete by today's technological standards.

Tolkowsky's guidelines, while revolutionary in their day, are not a definitive solution to the problem of finding the optimum proportions of a round brilliant cut diamond.

In the 1970s, Bruce Harding developed another mathematical model for gem design.
Since then, several groups have used computer models and specialized scopes to design diamond cuts.

The world's top diamond cutting and polishing center is India. It processes 11 out of 12 diamonds in jewelry worldwide. The sector employs 1.3 million people and accounts for 14% of India's $80 billion of annual exports. Its share in the world polished diamond market is 92% by pieces and 55% by value.

Theory
In its rough state, a diamond is fairly unremarkable in appearance. Most gem diamonds are recovered from secondary or alluvial deposits, and such diamonds have dull, battered external surfaces often covered by a gummy, opaque skin—a comparison to "lumps of washing soda" is apt. The act of polishing a diamond and creating flat facets in symmetrical arrangement brings out the diamond's hidden beauty in dramatic fashion.

When designing a diamond cut, two primary factors are considered. Foremost is the refractive index (RI) of a diamond, which, at 2.417 (as measured by sodium light, 589.3 nm), is fairly high compared with that of most other gems. Diamond's RI is responsible for its brilliance—the amount of incident light reflected back to the viewer. Also important is a diamond's dispersive power—the ability of the material to split white light into its component spectral colors—which is also relatively high, at 0.044 (as measured from the B-G interval). The flashes of spectral colors—known as fire—are a function of this dispersion, but are, like brilliance, only apparent after cutting.

Brilliance can be divided into the definitions external brilliance and internal brilliance. The former is the light reflected from the surface of the stone—its luster. Diamond's adamantine ("diamond-like") luster is second only to metallic (i.e., that of metals); while it is directly related to RI, the quality of a finished gem's polish determines how well a diamond's luster is borne out.

Internal brilliance—the percentage of incident light reflected back to the viewer from the rear (pavilion) facets—relies on careful consideration of a cut's interfacial angles as they relate to diamond's RI. The goal is to attain total internal reflection (TIR) by choosing the crown angle and pavilion angle (the angle formed by the pavilion facets and girdle plane) such that the reflected light's angle of incidence (when reaching the pavilion facets) falls outside diamond's critical angle, or minimum angle for TIR, of 24.4°. Two observations can be made: if the pavilion is too shallow, light meets the pavilion facets within the critical angle, and is refracted (i.e., lost) through the pavilion bottom into the air. If the pavilion is too deep, light is initially reflected outside the critical angle on one side of the pavilion, but meets the opposite side within the critical angle and is then refracted out the side of the stone.

The term scintillation brilliance is applied to the number and arrangement of light reflections from the internal facets; that is, the degree of "sparkle" seen when the stone or observer moves. Scintillation is dependent on the size, number, and symmetry of facets, as well as on quality of polish. Tiny stones appear milky if their scintillation is too great (due to the limitations of the human eye), whereas larger stones appear lifeless if their facets are too large or too few.

A diamond's fire is determined by the cut's crown height and crown angle (the crown being the top half of the stone, above the girdle), and the size and number of facets that compose it. The crown acts as a prism: light exiting the stone (after reflection from the pavilion facets) should meet the crown facets at as great an angle of incidence from the normal as possible (without exceeding the critical angle) in order to achieve the greatest fanning out or spread of spectral colors. The crown height is related to the crown angle, the crown facet size, and the table size (the largest central facet of the crown): a happy medium is sought in a table that is not too small (resulting in larger crown facets and greater fire at the expense of brilliance) or too large (resulting in smaller crown facets and little to no fire).

Polish and symmetry
Polish and symmetry are two important aspects of the cut. The polish describes the smoothness of the diamond's facets, and the symmetry refers to alignment of the facets. With poor polish, the surface of a facet may be scratched or dulled, and may cause a blurred or dulled sparkle. While most polish defects are a result of the cutting process, some surface flaws are a result of defects in the natural stone. One example is grain lines (produced when irregular crystallization occurs as a diamond is formed) running across the facet. Severe polish defects may cause the diamond to constantly look like it needs to be cleaned. With poor symmetry, light can be misdirected as it enters and exits the diamond.

Choice of cut

The choice of diamond cut is often decided by the original shape of the rough stone, location of internal flaws or inclusions, the preservation of carat weight, and popularity of certain shapes among consumers. The cutter must consider each of these variables before proceeding.

Most gem-quality diamond crystals are octahedra in their rough state (see material properties of diamond). These crystals are usually cut into round brilliants because it is possible to cut two such stones out of one octahedron with minimal loss of weight. If the crystal is malformed or twinned, or if inclusions are present at inopportune locations, the diamond is more likely to receive a fancy cut (a cut other than a round brilliant). This is especially true in the case of macle, which are flattened twin octahedron crystals. Round brilliants have certain requisite proportions that would result in high weight loss, whereas fancy cuts are typically much more flexible in this regard. Sometimes the cutters compromise and accept lesser proportions and symmetry in order to avoid inclusions or to preserve carat weight, since the per-carat price of diamond is much higher when the stone is over one carat (200 mg).

While the round brilliant cut is considered standard for diamond, with its shape and proportions nearly constant, the choice of fancy cut is influenced heavily by fashion. For example, the step cut baguette—which accentuates a diamond's luster, whiteness, and clarity but downplays its fire—was all the rage during the Art Deco period, whereas the mixed Princess cut—which accentuates a diamond's fire and brilliance rather than its luster—is currently gaining popularity. The princess cut is also popular among diamond cutters because, of all the cuts, it wastes the least of the original crystal. Older diamonds cut before ca. 1900 were cut in "primitive" versions of the modern round brilliant, such as the rose cut and old mine cut (see History section). Although there is a market for antique stones, many are recut into modern brilliants to increase their marketability. There is also increasing demand for diamonds to be cut in older styles for the purpose of repairing or reproducing antique jewelry.

The size of a diamond may also be a factor. Tiny (< 0.02 carats [4 mg]) diamonds—known as melée—are usually given simplified cuts (i.e., with fewer facets). This is because a full-cut brilliant of such small size would appear milky to the human eye, owing to its inability to resolve the stone's dispersive fire. Conversely, large diamonds are usually given fancy cuts with many extra facets. Conventional round brilliant or fancy cuts do not scale up satisfactorily, so the extra facets are needed to ensure there are no "dead spots". Because large diamonds are less likely to be set in jewelry, their cuts are considered for how well they display the diamonds' properties from a wide range of viewing directions; in the case of more moderate-sized diamonds, the cuts are considered primarily for their face-up appeal.

The dominating round brilliant diamonds are not as trendy as they used to be since the market was overcrowded in the last decades of the century. Simultaneously, giving a fancy diamond cut as a precious jewel on specific celebrations became a part of tradition. A Heart cut diamond has romantic symbolism so it is a common gift for Valentine's Day or wedding anniversary. The pear-shaped diamonds look like a drop of water and the shape is suitable for diamond earrings. The most famous shapes are: Princess, Cushion, Heart, Pear, Marquise, Radiant, Asscher cut, Emerald, Oval.

Round brilliant
Developed c. 1900, the round brilliant is the most popular cut given to diamond. It is usually the best choice in terms of saleability, insurability (due to its relatively "safe" shape), and desired optics.

Facet count and names

The modern round brilliant (Figure 1 and 2) consists of 58 facets (or 57 if the culet is excluded); 33 on the crown (the top half above the middle or girdle of the stone) and 25 on the pavilion (the lower half below the girdle). The girdle may be frosted, polished smooth, or faceted. In recent decades, most girdles are faceted; many have 32, 64, 80, or 96 facets; these facets are excluded from the total facet count. Likewise, some diamonds may have small extra facets on the crown or pavilion that were created to remove surface imperfections during the diamond cutting process. Depending on their size and location, they may hurt the symmetry of the cut and are therefore considered during cut grading.

Figure 1 assumes that the "thick part of the girdle" is the same thickness at all 16 "thick parts". It does not consider the effects of indexed upper girdle facets. Figure 2 is adapted from the Tolkowsky book, originally published in 1919. Since 1919, the lower girdle facets have become longer. As a result, the pavilion main facets have become narrower.

Proportions

While the facet count is standard, the actual proportions—crown height and crown angle, pavilion depth and pavilion angle, and table size—are not universally agreed upon. There are at least six "ideal cuts" that have been devised over the years, but only three are in common use as a means of benchmarking. Developed by Marcel Tolkowsky in 1919, the American Standard (also known as the American Ideal and Tolkowsky Brilliant) is the benchmark in North America. It was derived from mathematical calculations that considered both brilliance and fire. The benchmark in Germany and other European countries is the Practical Fine Cut (, also known as the Eppler Cut), introduced in 1939. It was developed in Germany by empirical observations and differs only slightly from the American Standard. Introduced as part of the Scandinavian Diamond Nomenclature (Scan. D. N.) in 1969, the Scandinavian Standard also differs slightly.

Other benchmarks include: the Ideal Brilliant (developed in 1929 by Johnson and Roesch), the Parker Brilliant (1951), and the Eulitz Brilliant (1968) The Ideal and Parker brilliants are disused because their proportions result in (by contemporary standards) an unacceptably low brilliance. The Eulitz cut is the only other mathematically derived benchmark; it is also historically the only benchmark to consider girdle thickness. A more modern benchmark is that set by Accredited Gem Appraisers (AGA). Although their standard generally makes a modern ideal cut it has been criticised for being overly strict. A summary of the different benchmarks is given below:

Crown height, pavilion depth, and table diameter are percentages of the total girdle diameter. Because the pavilion angle (and consequently pavilion depth) is so closely tied to total internal reflection, it varies the least between the different standards.

Hearts and arrows phenomenon

The term "hearts and arrows" is used to describe the visual effect achieved in a round brilliant cut diamond with perfect symmetry and angles that exhibit a crisp and complete pattern of hearts and arrows. When viewed under a special magnifying viewer, a complete and precise visual pattern of 8 hearts is seen while looking down through the pavilion, and 8 arrows can be seen when viewing the stone in the table up position.

The Passion Cut

Another modification of the round Ideal Cut that maintains the basic proportions of its angles is the Passion Cut. This cut's design can be considered the opposite of the Hearts and Arrows, as it eliminates the arrows in order to capture a different light return from the center of the diamond. The cut splits the eight pavilion mains and increases the specifically-placed total facets from 57 to 81. The cut was designed to enhance brilliance and mask inclusions.

Fancy cuts

Even with modern techniques, the cutting and polishing of a diamond crystal always results in a dramatic loss of weight; rarely is it less than 50%. The round brilliant cut is preferred when the crystal is an octahedron, as often two stones may be cut from one such crystal. Oddly-shaped crystals such as macles are more likely to be cut in a fancy cut (that is, a cut other than the round brilliant), which the particular crystal shape lends itself to. The prevalence and choice of a particular fancy cut is also influenced by fashion; generally speaking, these cuts are not held to the same strict standards as Tolkowsky-derived round brilliants. Most fancy cuts can be grouped into four categories: modified brilliants, step cuts, mixed cuts, and rose cuts.

Modified brilliants

This is the most populous category of fancy cut, because the standard round brilliant can be effectively modified into a wide range of shapes. Because their facet counts and facet arrangements are the same, modified brilliants also look (in terms of brilliance and fire interplay) the most like round brilliants.

Modified brilliants include the marquise (a prolate lemon-shape, also called navette, which is French for "little boat", because it resembles the hull of a sailboat), heart, triangular trillion (also trillian or trilliant), oval, and the pear or drop cuts. These are the most commonly encountered modified brilliants;
Oval-shaped diamonds have been created and introduced by Lazare Kaplan way back in the 1960s. Usually noted to have 56 facets, the weight of such diamonds is estimated by measuring the length and width of the stone. A ratio of 1.33 to 1.66 provides a good traditional range of oval-shaped diamonds.
Pear-shaped diamonds are also known as the teardrop shape owing to their resemblance and is considered as a hybrid between the marquise cut and the round brilliant diamond. The stone has one end rounded while the other end is pointed. Pear shape diamonds can opt between varying length and width ratios for the ideal looking pear-shaped diamond. Length to width ratios between 1.45 and 1.75 are most common.

Modern cutting technology has allowed the development of increasingly complex and hitherto unthinkable shapes, such as stars and butterflies. Their proportions are mostly a matter of personal preference; however, due to their sharp terminations and diamond's relative fragility, these cuts are more vulnerable to accidental breakage and may therefore be more difficult to insure.

There are several older modified brilliant cuts of uncertain age that, while no longer widely used, are notable for history's sake. They are all round in outline and modify the standard round brilliant by adding facets and changing symmetry, either by dividing the standard facets or by placing new ones in different arrangements. These cuts include: the King and Magna cuts, both developed by New York City firms, with the former possessing 86 facets and 12-fold symmetry and the latter with 102 facets and 10-fold symmetry; the High-Light cut, developed by Belgian cutter M. Westreich, with 16 additional facets divided equally between the crown and pavilion; and the Princess 144, introduced in the 1960s, with 144 facets and 8-fold symmetry. Not to be confused with the mixed Princess cut, the Princess 144 cut makes for a lively stone with good scintillation; the extra facets are cut under the girdle rather than subdivided. The extra care required for these sub-girdle facets benefits the finished stone by mitigating girdle irregularity and bearding (hairline fracturing).
Today, with the increased understanding of light dynamics and diamond cutting, many companies have developed new, modified round brilliant cut diamonds. If designed correctly, these extra facets of the modified round brilliant could benefit the overall beauty of a diamond, such as in 91 facet diamonds.

Step cuts

Stones whose outlines are either square or rectangular and whose facets are rectilinear and arranged parallel to the girdle are known as step- or trap-cut stones. These stones often have their corners truncated, creating an emerald cut (after its most common application to emerald gemstones) with an octagonal outline. This is done because sharp corners are points of weakness where a diamond may cleave or fracture. Instead of a culet, step-cut stones have a keel running the length of the pavilion terminus. Like other fancy shaped diamonds, emerald cut diamonds can come in a variety of length to width ratios. The most popular and classic outline of emerald cut diamonds are close a value of 1.5.

The Asscher cut, a square modified emerald cut, is also popular.

Because both the pavilion and crown are comparatively shallow, step cut stones are generally not as bright and never as fiery as brilliant cut stones, but rather accentuate a diamond's clarity (as even the slightest flaw would be highly visible), whiteness, and lustre (and therefore good polish).

Due to the current vogue for brilliant and brilliant-like cuts, step cut diamonds may suffer somewhat in value; stones that are deep enough may be re-cut into more popular shapes. However, the step cut's rectilinear form was popular in the Art Deco period. Antique jewelry of the period features step-cut stones prominently, and there is a market in producing new step-cut stones to repair antique jewelry or to reproduce it. The slender, rectangular baguette (from the French, resembling a loaf of bread) was and is the most common form of the step cut: today, it is most often used as an accent stone to flank a ring's larger central (and usually brilliant-cut) stone.

Square step cuts whose corners are not truncated are known as carré; they are also characteristic of antique jewelry. They may resemble the square-shaped Princess cut in passing, but a carré's lack of fire and simpler facets are distinctive. They may or may not have a culet. In Western jewelry dating to before the advent of brilliant-type cuts, shallow step-cut stones were used as lustrous covers for miniature paintings: these are known in the antique trade as portrait stones. Characteristic of Indian jewelry are lasque diamonds, which may be the earliest form of step cut. They are flat stones with large tables and asymmetric outlines.

Other forms of the step cut include triangle (or Trilliant cut), kite, lozenge, trapeze (or trapezoid), and obus shapes.

Mixed cuts

Mixed cuts share aspects of both (modified) brilliant and step cuts: they are meant to combine the weight preservation and dimensions of step cuts with the optical effects of brilliants. Typically the crown is brilliant cut and the pavilion step-cut. Mixed cuts are all relatively new, with the oldest dating back to the 1960s. They have been extremely successful commercially and continue to gain popularity, loosening the foothold of the de facto standard round brilliant.

Among the first mixed cuts was the Barion cut, introduced in 1971. Invented by South African diamond cutter Basil Watermeyer and named after himself and his wife Marion, the basic Barion cut is an octagonal square or rectangle, with a polished and faceted girdle. The total facet count is 62 (excluding the culet): 25 on the crown; 29 on the pavilion; and 8 on the girdle. This cut can be easily identified by the characteristic central cross pattern (as seen through the table) created by the pavilion facets, as well as by the crescent-shaped facets on the pavilion. A similar cut is the Radiant cut: It differs in having a total of 70 facets. Both it and the Barion cut exist in a large number of modified forms, with slightly different facet arrangements and combinations.

The most successful mixed cut is the Princess cut, first introduced in 1960 by A. Nagy of London. It was originally intended for flat rough (macles), but has since become popular enough that some gemological labs, such as that of the American Gem Society (AGS), have developed Princess cut grading standards with stringency akin to standards applied to round brilliants. Its higher fire and brilliance compared to other mixed cuts is one reason for the Princess cut's popularity, but more importantly is the fact that, of all the diamond cuts, it wastes the least of the original crystal. Another beautiful cut is the Flanders cut, a modified square with cut corners, brilliant facets and is currently being cut by cutters at Russian Star.

Rose and mogul cuts

Various forms of the rose cut have been in use since the mid-16th century. Like the step cuts, they were derived from older types of cuts. The basic rose cut has a flat base—that is, it lacks a pavilion—and has a crown composed of triangular facets (usually 12 or 24) rising to form a point (there is no table facet) in an arrangement with sixfold rotational symmetry. The so-called double rose cut is a variation that adds six kite facets at the margin of the base. The classic rose cut is circular in outline; non-circular variations on the rose cut include the briolette (oval), Antwerp rose (hexagonal), and double Dutch rose (resembling two rose cuts united back-to-back). Rose-cut diamonds are seldom seen nowadays, except in antique jewelry. Like the older style brilliants and step cuts, there is a growing demand for the purpose of repairing or reproducing antique pieces.

Related to the rose cut, and of similar antiquity, is the mogul cut, named after the Great Mogul diamond that was the most famous example of its type. Like the classic rose cut, the mogul cut also lacks a pavilion and a table facet, and its crown is also composed of triangular facets rising to form a point. But in mogul-cut diamonds the rotational symmetry is normally fourfold or eightfold, and the eight apical facets are girded by two or more additional rings of facets. The modern mogul cut evolved from earlier faceting techniques originally used to disguise internal flaws in large stones; in the modern day this cut has also become rare, but still finds occasional use where it is less important to showcase a stone's internal clarity, as with the black and internally opaque Spirit of de Grisogono Diamond.

Cut grading
The "Cut" of the "4 Cs" is the most difficult part for a consumer to judge when selecting a good diamond. This is because some certificates do not show the important measurements influencing cut (such as the pavilion angle and crown angle) and do not provide a subjective ranking of how good the cut was. The other three Cs can be ranked simply by the rating in each category. It requires a trained eye to judge the quality of a diamond cut, and the task is complicated by the fact that different standards are used in different countries (see proportions of the round brilliant).

The relationship between the crown angle and the pavilion angle has the greatest effect on the look of the diamond. A slightly steep pavilion angle can be complemented by a shallower crown angle, and vice versa. This trade-off has been quantified by independent authors, using various approaches.

Other proportions also affect the look of the diamond:
The table ratio is significant.
The length of the lower girdle facets affects whether Hearts and arrows can be seen in the stone, under certain viewers.
Most round brilliant diamonds have roughly the same girdle thickness at all 16 "thick parts".
So-called "cheated" girdles have thicker girdles where the main facets touch the girdle than where adjacent upper girdle facets touch the girdle. These stones weigh more (for a given diameter, average girdle thickness, crown angle, pavilion angle, and table ratio), and have worse optical performance (their upper girdle facets appear dark in some lighting conditions).
So-called "painted" girdles have thinner girdles where the main facets touch the girdle than where adjacent upper girdle facets touch the girdle. These stones have less light leakage at the edge of the stone (for a given crown angle, pavilion angle, and table ratio).

Several groups have developed diamond cut grading standards. They all disagree somewhat on which proportions make the best cut. There are certain proportions that are considered best by two or more groups however.
The AGA standards may be the strictest at the upper range of quality. David Atlas developed the AGA standards in the 1990s for all standard diamond shapes.
The HCA changed several times between 2001 and 2004. As of 2004, an HCA score below two represented an excellent cut. The HCA distinguishes between brilliant, Tolkowsky, and fiery cuts.
The AGS standards changed in 2005 to better match Tolkowsky's model and Octonus' ray tracing results. The 2005 AGS standards penalize stones with "cheated" girdles. They grade from 0 to 10, with ranges corresponding to single descriptive words: Ideal (0), Excellent (1), Very Good (2), Good (3-4), Fair (5-7), Poor (8-10).
The GIA began grading cut on every grading report for round brilliant beginning in 2006 based on their comprehensive study of 20,000 proportions with 70,000 observations of 2,000 diamonds. The single descriptive words are as follows: Excellent, Very Good, Good, Fair, and Poor.
The distance from the viewer's eye to the diamond is important. The 2005 AGS cut standards are based on a distance of 25 centimeters (about 10 inches). The 2004 HCA cut standards are based on a distance of .
Various labs around the world are using ImaGem's VeriGem device to measure light behavior. DGLA in the US and Mumbai, India, PGGL in the US and EGL-USA are both offering versions of this grading in 2008. DGLA has graded thousands of diamonds with this promising direct assessment technology.
"Brilliancescope" by Gemex is another assessment light behavior technology in use by many US and now foreign retailers and diamond cutters.

Effect of cut on other diamond characteristics
During the diamond cutting process, the diamond cutter wants to get the heaviest diamond out of a rough stone. However, this can come at the cost of lowering cut grade. If a diamond is too deep, the carat weight increases with a loss of brilliance due to light leakage. Diamond cutters have to contend with working a stone to its best finished form with the least amount of waste. This strategy depends on the quality of the stone and its final proportions. If two diamonds of equal weight are inspected there can be a noticeable difference in size when viewed from above; arguably the most important view. A well cut 0.90ct diamond for example could have the same width as a poorly cut 1.00ct diamond. This phenomenon is known as spread.

Cut also affects the color of a diamond. This is especially important when considering fancy colored diamonds, where the slightest shift in color could vastly affect the price of the diamond. Most fancy colored diamonds are not cut in to round brilliants, because whereas the round brilliant is prized for its ability to reflect white light, the most important characteristic in a fancy colored diamond is its color, not its ability to reflect white light.

See also
List of gemstone cuts
Brilliant (diamond cut)
Cut (gems)
Diamond clarity
Diamond color
Diamond cutting
Diamond enhancement
Diamond simulant
Famous diamonds
Material properties of diamond
Princess cut
Synthetic diamond

References

Further reading
Antique Jewelry University – A History of Diamond Cutting
Bruton, Eric. (1979). Diamonds, 2nd ed. Chilton Book Co.
Cipriani, Curzio, Borelli, Alessandro, and Lyman, Kennie (US ed.) (1986). Simon & Schuster's Guide to Gems and Precious Stones, pp. 58–68. Simon & Schuster, Inc.; New York, New York.
Malecka, Anna (2017). Naming of the Koh-i-Noor and the Origin of Mughal-Cut Diamonds, The Journal of Gemmology, no. 4. 38(8).
Pagel-Theisen, Verena. (2001). Diamond grading ABC: The manual (9th ed.), pp. 176–268. Rubin & Son n.v.; Antwerp, Belgium.
OctoNus Software has posted several diamond cut studies, by various authors. OctoNus, Moscow State University, Bruce Harding, and others have posted work there.
Holloway, Garry (2000-2004). HCA: defining ideal cut diamonds is a detailed explanation of the "Holloway Cut Adviser". A web service that uses this software is available.
Blodgett, Troy; et al. (GIA) (2006) "Painting and Digging Out", GIA article 2006.
 Ware, J. W. (1936). New Diamond Cuts Break More Easily, pp.  4. Gemological Institute of America, USA, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Winter 1936)

Diamond cut


A pannier market is a form of indoor market especially popular in Devon in the West Country of the United Kingdom where they can be found in various cities and towns. They take their name from the panniers once used to carry goods to market on the back of pack animals.

The word "pannier" derives from the French meaning 'basket', so "pannier market" literally meant "basket market"; in Devon it has become a term for a fruit and vegetable market. Today they are a form of market hall that will have market stalls from which goods are sold. Examples can be found in Plymouth, Truro, Bideford, Great Torrington, Barnstaple, Tavistock, Tiverton, Newton Abbot, Holsworthy and Sherborne, among others.

Pannier markets

Pannier Market, Bideford
Pannier Market, Barnstaple
Pannier Market, Torrington
Pannier Market, South Molton

References

Retail markets
Pannier markets

Pannier market


Fold mountains are mountains formed mainly by the effects of folding on layers in the upper part of the Earth's crust. The term is rather out of date, though still fairly common in physical geography literature.

In the time before plate tectonics became well understood, the term was used for  mountain belts, such as the Himalayas. These mountain ranges are not caused by the folding of the earth's crust. The main mechanism causing a thickening of the crust at these sites of continent-continent collision along boundary is thrust faulting.

Fold mountains are formed when two tectonic plates move together (a convergent plate boundary). Fold mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks which accumulated along the margins of continents. When plates and the continents riding on them collide, the accumulated layers of rock may crumple and fold like a tablecloth that is pushed across a table, particularly if there is a mechanically weak basal layer such as salt.

Examples
 The Jura mountains  a series of sub-parallel mountainous ridges formed by folding over a Triassic salt bed due to thrust movements as the Alps pushed into Europe.
The 'Simply Folded Belt' of the Zagros mountains in Iran – here both thrusts and folds are occurring. This mountain range, about 1,500 kilometres long, formed only in the past five million years. Oil reserves and huge salt deposits are rising up from the subsurface. They emerge as salt "glaciers". This, and their regular folding, makes these mountains unique in the world.
The Akwapim-Togo ranges in Ghana
part of the Appalachians in the Eastern United States, known as the "Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians".

Related pages
Fold (geology)

References

Mountains
Plate tectonics

Fold mountain


Carcroft is a rural village in the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster, South Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the village is roughly six miles north-north west of Doncaster. At the time of the 2011 Census the village fell within the ward of Adwick in the Doncaster MBC.

Geography
It borders woodland to the north which separates it from the neighbouring village of Owston. To the west the village merges with Skellow having subsumed the areas previously known as Hobcroft and Bullcroft. A string of small industrial estates connect it with Adwick le Street to the south. East of the village lies mixed farmland and woodland.

Like its neighbour to the west much of Carcroft is made up of former council housing estates (most of which had been colliery company housing). The old centre of the village remains with High Street supporting a variety of small independent shops. The furniture retailer DFS also began here as Northern Upholstery and a large outlet for the firm still stands on a small trading estate just off High Street opposite an Asda superstore. DFS Head office, factory and distribution centre is based a mile away at Adwick le Street. The village had a library until it was closed down in 2012 during the cutbacks imposed by the government.

History

A small portion of Carcroft is redeveloped land that had been occupied by the Bullcroft Colliery  which operated from 1912 until 1970 when it was merged underground with nearby Brodsworth Colliery. The viability of reopening this coal face has been under investigation  however as yet no moves to restore mining in the area have been made.

The village has two churches - the Church of England St Michael & all the Angels church, and the Catholic St George & the English Martyrs.

See also
Listed buildings in Adwick le Street and Carcroft

References

External links

 Health statistics for Carcroft
 Primary school
 Carcroft Motorcycle Park

Villages in Doncaster
Adwick le Street

Carcroft


Douglas William Freshfield (27 April 1845 – 9 February 1934) was a British lawyer, mountaineer and author, who edited the Alpine Journal from 1872 to 1880. He was an active member of the Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club and served as President of both organizations. He was also the first president of the Geographical Association, being one of the people at the first meeting where the Association was founded. He served from 1897 to 1911, the longest serving president in the history of the Association.

Early life and education

Born in London, Freshfield was the only son of Henry Ray Freshfield and his wife Jane Quinton Crawford. His father was a notable lawyer and member of the family firm of Freshfields. His mother was the daughter of William Crawford, MP for the City of London (1833–1841), who had made a fortune in the East India Company. She was an author and her publications included "Alpine Byways" and "A Tour of the Grisons" (the Swiss Alps now known as Graubünden).

In an interview with Adolfo Hess, Freshfield recalls that his family loved to take long holidays in the summer of up to five weeks. He recalls that when he was six, they visited Lodore Falls in the Lake District, where he was disappointed that the waterfall was slowed due to a sandbank. The following year they travelled to Scotland. In 1854, they travelled to the Swiss Alps, going from Basel to Chamonix. His father attached great importance to preserving open spaces for public enjoyment and was active in campaigns to save Hampstead Heath and Ashdown Forest.

Freshfield was educated at Eton College, and University College, Oxford, where he obtained a degree in civil law and history. He was called to the bar in 1870.

Mountaineering

Freshfield was a keen traveller and mountaineer. From his childhood acquired a deep love of the mountains and was particularly fond of the Alps. In July 1867 he made the first ascent of the Tour Ronde and the col on its eastern side now bears the name 'Col Freshfield'.

By his twenties, Freshfield was already venturing further afield. In 1868 he made an attempt on Elbrus with his Balkarian guide Akhia Sottaev, and although they failed to reach the higher Western summit, Freshfield was the first foreigner to reach the Eastern Summit.

Freshfield led an exploration of the Caucasus and was the first man, officially, to conquer Kazbek with guides from the village Gergeti. He described the denuded territories of Abkhazia in a moving chapter on 'The Solitude of Abkhazia', in The Exploration of the Caucasus published in 1896.

In 1899 Douglas Freshfield travelled to Green Lakes accompanied by the Italian photographer Vittorio Sella. He conducted expeditions around Kangchenjunga (Khangchendzonga) and set out with his party to trek in a circle around Kangchenjunga from the North. When he arrived safely in at Dzongri, he lit a big bonfire, which could be seen from Darjeeling and the Governor of Bengal ordered a Gun Salute to be fired in his honour. He also became the first mountaineer to examine the western face of Kangchenjunga, which rises from the Kanchenjunga Glacier. Freshfield described Siniolchu as "The Most Superb Triumph of Mountain Architecture and The Most Beautiful Snow Mountain in the World".

In 1905 he attempted to climb Rwenzori Abruzzi in Uganda but failed due to bad weather. However the Freshfield Pass on the mountain was named after him.

Alpine Club and RGS

Freshfield wrote extensively about travel and the Alps, editing the Alpine Journal from 1872 to 1880. He was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and became its joint secretary in 1881. At that time he was living at Stanhope Gardens, and by 1891 at Camden Hill, Hampstead. He was president of the Alpine Club from 1893 to 1895, chairman of the Society of Authors from 1908 to 1909, and president of the Association of Geographical Teachers from 1897 to 1910.

In 1904, he was president of the Geographical Section of the British Association. He was awarded the Founder's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society in 1903, became a vice-president of the society in 1906 and its president from 1914 until 1917. He became a trustee of the RGS in 1924. University College, Oxford made him an honorary fellow, and he was awarded honorary degrees of Doctor of Civil Laws at the University of Oxford and the University of Geneva

Personal

Freshfield married Augusta Charlotte Ritchie (1847–1911) on 27 November 1869. She was the daughter of William Ritchie and the sister of Sir Richmond Ritchie. They had four daughters and a son, Henry Douglas Freshfield, who died aged fourteen in 1891. The family loss was the occasion of a memorial gift for the people of Forest Row in the form of a building to be used as a parochial hall and institute.

The first Freshfield Hall was very short-lived, for it was burnt down on 14 February 1895. Douglas Freshfield and his wife wasted no time in having it rebuilt and it reopened on 17 November 1895. At the reopening Freshfield expressed the wishes of his wife and himself when he hoped the hall would be used by all classes of parishioners, and that it would keep alive the memory of its original founder.

Freshfield became a friend of Violet Needham, a near neighbour at Forest Row. Cultivated and cultured as well as adventurous, Freshfield and Charles Needham have been seen in many Violet Needham heroes.

Freshfield died at Wych Cross Place, Forest Row, Sussex. He is buried at Brookwood Cemetery in front of the memorial to his son Henry Douglas Freshfield (1877–1891), which was carved by Edward Onslow Ford. This memorial consists of a pediment displaying a relief of Apollo in his chariot below which is a bas-relief group of two naked putti with inverted torches, emblems of death, above which is a profile portrait of the young Henry Freshfield wearing an Eton collar. The monument has been Grade II listed since 2004.

Writing

Freshfield's mother was a mountaineer and author as well, and considered it important to educate her son in the appreciation of nature and the arts. From an early age his parents took him on journeys which included the English Lake District and Scotland. When he was eight his father started taking the family on holiday in Switzerland, particularly the Alps. The ten years of summer holidays in the Swiss and Italian Alps greatly impressed the child. He said, sixty years later, in an interview with Adolf Hess:
I think that, without any interruption, for the following ten years, I went each August to the Alps with my parents, and I experienced not only the easy trips, but also many less usual destinations. We toured the Monte Bianco, the Monte Rosa and the Bernina Range; we went to Arolla, to Evolene, to Cogne, in Val Formazza, in the Glarus Alps, to Davos, to Livigno and in the Vorderrhein. Some maps I drew still show our yearly itineraries. We climbed Mount Titlis, the Jazzi Peak, the Mittelhorn, and some other peaks of moderate height. But as those didn't satisfy my ambition, in 1863 I decided to try alone the Gran Paradiso, where the unforgiving weather stopped me. I was able, anyway, to pass through the Dent du Géant, and to climb the Monte Bianco.The following year I was ready to begin my excursions with two of my schoolmates, and I made the march recorded in Across Country from Thonon to Trent (printed privately)

Mrs Freshfield was an author herself and her publications included "Alpine Byways" and "A Tour of the Grisons". Valeria Azzolini wrote about her in I resoconti di viaggio di Freshfield ("Freshfield's Travel Journals"):

Lover of the mountain in the youngest and truest sense, hurry was unknown to her because it wasn't really reaching the top which insterested her, but the captivation of the landscapes she encountered on the path, and thus the hours she spent in that enjoyment.Apart from the members of the family, there was another protagonist in Mrs Freshfield's narrations: the guide, Michel Alphonse Couttet. And it was surely in those years that the young Freshfield understood the importance, in every mountain action, of the presence of a good guide.

Freshfield believed in good companionship more than the physical exercise when climbing. When he had almost reached the end of his career, he stated:

My highest ambition has never been to spend my days in strenuous exercises to develop my muscles. No other mountaineering moment was instead more appreciated by me than that in which I could enjoy the landscape, while the others had to open a path.

In his first work, The Italian Alps (1875), he abandoned himself to enjoying the mountains, writing with an elegant descriptive ability. He repeatedly refined his drafts about his excursions and mountaineering, like an ante litteram correspondent. This made him one of the best prepared and finest 19th century linguists in the UK to write about exploring Italy. As an instinctive and inspired narrator, he reported ecstatically on all the mysterious wonders of the Alps. He wanted to hare these with the rest of Europe and described the characteristics of the Alps with unrivalled sharpness. His descriptions were from all angles – poetic, ethnographic, and scientific. Letting the reader into the atmosphere of the Giudicarie Alps he noted:

The low elevation of the valleys, their sunny exposure, and the gentle slope of their hillsides, give the scenery an air of richness rarely found at the base of great snow-mountains. The frequent and gay-looking villages, the woods of chestnuts, the knots of walnut-trees, the great fields of yellow-podded maize, the luxuriant vines and orchards, have the charm which the spontaneous bounty and colour of southern nature always exercise on the native of the more reserved and sober North. No contrast could be at once more sudden and more welcome than that offered by these softer landscapes to the eye fresh from the rugged granite of the Adamello chain.

Nobody who had entered the Giudicarie valleys previously had revealed so much in spite of the humble dolomitic reality. He dedicated further pages to the familiar Val Rendena.

The road, winding at first high on a woody hillside, commands a charming view of the upper valley as far as Pinzolo. Orchards and cornfields separate the rapidly succeeding hamlets, each of which resmbles its neighbour. The method of construction in this country is peculiar. The lower stories only, containing the living-rooms, are built of stone; from the top of their walls rise large upright beams supporting an immensely broad roof. The spaces between the beams are not filled up, and the whole edifice has the air of having been begun on too large a scale, and temporarily completed, and roofed in.The great upstairs barn is used as for the storage of wood, hay, corn, and all sorts of inflammable dry goods. The roof being also of wood, the lightning finds it easy enough to set the whole mass in a blaze, and fires arising from this cause are of common occurrence.

These lines recollect a Rendena which no longer exists, but they can still teach those who are passionate about mountains to discover and preserve whatever remains that is still untouched by time or the hand of man.

Below us lay the smooth level of the Val d'Algone; on one side rose the bare, torn and fretted face of a great dolomite, surrounded by lower ridges scarcely less precipitous, but clothed in green wherever trees or herbage could take root. Towards the south the distant hills beyond the Sarca waved in gradations of purple and blue through the shimmer of the Italian sunshine. A short zigzag through thick copses took us down to the meadows. The large solitary building in their midst is a glass manufactory. At this point a good car-road begins, which branching lower down leads either to Tione or Stenico.
The loftier dolomites were soon lost to view behind a bend in the valley, and the road plunged down a deep and narrow glen between banks of nodding cyclamens, bold crags, and the greenest of green hillsides.

After his expeditions around Kangchenjunga Freshfield wrote of Dzongri:

Suddenly you are in the presence of the Snow mountain unless they are indeed as they seem, in the first awestruck moment of beholding, embodied spirits of overwhelming power and malignity. Below you is the Prague Chu Valley; before you on the other side, long line of mountains-a succession of terrible granite spires, running down, one and all so steep and jagged that it seems as if no snow could ever cling to their sides. They have been fearfully searched by winds that mark the course in sweep of the wrinkled drifts and all the scars and lines run downwards giving the mountains an infinitely cheerless and depreciating expression like a sad, worn face.

Works
 Travels in the Central Caucasus and Bashan including Visits to Ararat and Tabreez and Ascents of Kazbek and Elbruz, London, Longmans, Green and Co., 1869
 Italian Alps: Sketches in the Mountains of Ticino, Lombardy, the Trentino, and Venetia, 1875, new ed. 1937
 The Exploration of the Caucasus, London, Edward Arnold, 1896
 Round Kangchinjinga (Kangchenjunga)', Alpine Journal, Vol. XX, no. 149, August 1900
 Round Kangchenjunga: A Narrative of Mountain Travel and Exploration, London, Edward Arnold, 1903.  Dedicated to Joseph Dalton Hooker
 Hannibal Once More (1914)
 The Life of Horace Benedict de Saussure (with the collaboration of F. Montagnier), London, Edward Arnold, 1920
 Below the Snow Line, London, Constable and Co., 1923
 Books by Douglas W. Freshfield in Internet Archive

ReferencesObituary: Mr Douglas Freshfield  in The Geographical Journal, Vol. 83, No. 3, March 1934, pp. 255–6FRESHFIELD, Douglas William'', in Who's Who 1934

External links
Tour Ronde and Col Freshfield on French IGN mapping portal

1845 births
1934 deaths
Sportspeople from London
English mountain climbers
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of University College, Oxford
Presidents of the Alpine Club (UK)
Presidents of the Royal Geographical Society
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
People from Forest Row
English barristers

Douglas Freshfield


Mary Sandra Lovelace Nicholas  (born April 15, 1948) is a former Canadian senator representing New Brunswick. Sitting with the Progressive Senate Group, she was the first Indigenous woman appointed to the Senate. As an activist on behalf of First Nations women and children, she received international recognition in 1979 for bringing her case to the United Nations Human Rights Committee.  In 1985 she succeeded in having Parliament revoke a discriminatory section of the Indian Act, which had caused women marrying non-Aboriginals to lose status and also deprived their children of status but did not treat men the same who married non-Aboriginal women.

Early life and education
Mary Sandra Nicholas was born a Maliseet in the Tobique First Nation. She studied at St. Thomas University and also obtained a degree in residential construction from the Northern Technical College in Maine, while living in the United States. As a young woman, she became an activist for aboriginal rights and has also worked as a carpenter.

Career
The Native women's groups, Indian Rights for Indian Women and National Native Women's Association, had been involved in trying to right the inequity of provisions under the Indian Act that deprived First Nations women and their children from status by marriage to a non-Aboriginal. Men who married non-status women did not suffer the same loss of status. In 1974, the Supreme Court of Canada upheld the law. Changes to the law were opposed by some male-dominated First Nations.

After being divorced from a non-Aboriginal man and returning to the Tobique reserve, Lovelace Nicholas found she and her children had lost their status as First Nations people, depriving them of rights to housing, education, and healthcare for a decade. In July 1977 she joined with other women on a 100-mile walk to Ottawa to bring attention to the issue.

Lovelace Nicholas became known internationally as an activist when, in 1979, she petitioned the United Nations over the treatment of aboriginal women and children in Canada by the government, in the case known as Sandra Lovelace v. Canada (1977–1981). Among the policies she criticized was revoking the status of a First Nations woman if she married a non-aboriginal man, and denying status to their children. As noted, this had numerous effect, including denying such women equal access to reserve land. It imposed a patriarchal model of identity, depriving married women of their independent rights and status.  In addition, as many of the First Nations had matrilineal systems, in which children belonged to the mother's people, the law deprived the children of such marriages of their traditional First Nations identity.

In 1985, Lovelace Nicholas was finally successful in her campaign to have the law changed.  Parliament passed an amendment to have a 116-year-old section of the Indian Act removed that revoked an aboriginal woman's Indian status if she married a non-Aboriginal man. This protected the status of First Nations women and their children, and was important in preserving the culture of descendants who identified as Aboriginal.

In 2005 Lovelace Nicholas was the first Aboriginal woman appointed to the Senate, where she sat as a Liberal.

On January 29, 2014, Liberal Party leader Justin Trudeau announced all Liberal Senators, including Lovelace Nicholas, were removed from the Liberal caucus, and would continue sitting as Independents. The Senators refer to themselves as the Senate Liberal Caucus even though they are no longer members of the parliamentary Liberal caucus.

In April 2018 the Feminist Alliance for International Action recognized Sandra as a member of the Indigenous Famous Six. Other members are Jeannette Corbiere-Lavell, Yvonne Bedard, Sharon McIvor, Lynn Gehl, and Senator Lillian Eva Dyck.

With the Senate Liberal Caucus facing losing official parliamentary caucus status in 2020 with a third of its caucus facing mandatory retirements on their turning age 75, Senator Joseph Day announced that the Senate Liberal Caucus had been dissolved and a new Progressive Senate Group formed in its wake, with the entire membership joining the new group, including this senator.

On January 31, 2023, Lovelace Nicholas retired from the Senate.

Marriage and family
In 1970 Lovelace married Bennie Lovelace, a non-Aboriginal, and had one child with him.  After they divorced, she moved back to her reserve but found that she and her children were deprived of status rights because of her marriage. This affected her family's housing, health, and education for her children. It took her nearly a decade to reclaim her First Nations status, leading to her work as an activist on this and related issues for women and children's rights.

Legacy and honors
1990, Lovelace Nicholas was made a Member of the Order of Canada.
1992, she received one of the annual five Governor General's Awards in Commemoration of the Persons Case, recognizing women's achievements.
2005, she was appointed a senator from New Brunswick by Prime Minister Paul Martin.
2008, she was awarded an honorary degree by St. Francis Xavier University.

References

External links
 Senate of Canada—Profile
 CTV.ca "New Brunswick aboriginal woman named to Senate" , CTV

1948 births
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Senate Liberal Caucus
Progressive Senate Group
Canadian senators from New Brunswick
First Nations women in politics
Members of the Order of Canada
Women members of the Senate of Canada
Women in New Brunswick politics
Maliseet people
Living people
St. Thomas University (New Brunswick) alumni
21st-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian women politicians
Indigenous Canadian senators
Governor General's Award in Commemoration of the Persons Case winners

Sandra Lovelace Nicholas


Himeros (Ancient Greek: Ἱμερος "uncontrollable desire") is the god of sexual desire or unrequited love. He is one of the Erotes.

Himeros is shown to carry a bow and arrow. He created desire and passion in mortals. He is often depicted as a young man or child.

His parents are Ares and Aphrodite and he's brothers with Eros, his twin brother. His other siblings include Pothos, Anteros, Hermaphroditus, Hedylogos, Phobos, Deimos and Harmonia.

Sources
"Himeros." Greek Mythology Wiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 June 2016.

Greek gods and goddesses

Himeros


Marcel Gagnon (born April 19, 1936) is a former Canadian politician. A businessman, he served as a legislator for both the National Assembly of Quebec and the House of Commons.

Provincial politics

Gagnon ran as a Parti Québécois candidate in 1976 in the provincial riding of Champlain.  He was elected with 41% of the vote.  He was re-elected in 1981 with 54% of the vote, but was defeated in 1985 with 44% of the vote and finished third in 1989 as an Independent candidate with 19% of the vote.

Federal politics

He entered federal politics when he was elected as a Member of the Bloc Québécois in 2000 in the riding of Champlain, with 45.3% of the vote against Liberal Julie Boulet (45.2%).  He was re-elected in 2004 in the riding of Saint-Maurice—Champlain with 55% of the vote.

During his tenure, he served as the Bloc critic to Seniors and proposed that eligible recipients be signed up to the Guaranteed Income Supplement Program (GIS) without having to make a request.

At one point, Gagnon was critic to the Library of Parliament, the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food.  He did not run for re-election in 2006, retiring from office at the dissolution of parliament.

External links

1936 births
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Bloc Québécois MPs
Parti Québécois MNAs
21st-century Canadian politicians

Marcel Gagnon


The Old Louisiana State Armory, commonly referred to as the Arsenal, faces St. Peter Street in the French Quarter only a few yards from historic Jackson Square in New Orleans, Louisiana. Since 1914 it has served as a Louisiana State Museum site; it is open to the public via the adjacent Cabildo museum.

History
Built in 1839, the Arsenal stands adjacent to the Cabildo on the site of the old Spanish Arsenal built in 1762. Designed by James H. Dakin, the building is an example of Greek Revival style. It housed the Orleans Artillery up until the American Civil War, when it was used by Confederate troops to store supplies. After occupation by Union forces, the Arsenal came under Federal control and was used as a military prison.

During Reconstruction, the building was turned over to the state and was used to house the New Orleans Metropolitan Police, giving it an important role in the Battle of Liberty Place in 1874. Violence between the pro-integration Metropolitan Police and the white supremacist Crescent City White League erupted over a contentious gubernatorial election. The White League prevailed at first, occupying the Cabildo and Arsenal for three days — until President Ulysses S. Grant sent in Federal troops to restore order.

In 1914, the Arsenal was transferred to the Louisiana State Museum to exhibit military objects.

Museum
Although the Arsenal faces St. Peter Street, it is only accessible via the adjacent Cabildo museum.

Even though the structure once served as an arsenal or armory, there is generally nothing on display inside which is related to this history. The second floor houses changing exhibits that are open to the public.

The first floor serves as an education classroom for visiting school groups, while the third floor serves as meeting space.

See also
The Cabildo
Louisiana State Museum

External links
 The Arsenal - Louisiana State Museum

Buildings and structures in New Orleans
Museums in New Orleans
History museums in Louisiana

The Arsenal (New Orleans)


"Sundown" is the sixth television episode of the American Broadcasting Company's sixth season of the serial drama television series Lost and 109th episode overall. The episode aired on March 2, 2010, on ABC in the United States. The episode was written by co-executive producer Paul Zbyszewski and story editor Graham Roland (making his writing debut for the series) and directed by Bobby Roth. Sayid Jarrah is the character the episode is centered on.

In 2007, Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) delivers a message from The Man in Black (Terry O'Quinn). Due to this, Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews) is tasked by Dogen (Hiroyuki Sanada) to kill the Man in Black, who gives Sayid a difficult decision. In the "flash-sideways", Sayid is drawn into a family crisis.

Plot

2004 (flash-sideways timeline)
Following the events of the season premiere, "LA X", Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews) arrives at the home of his brother, Omer (Cas Anvar), and Omer's wife, Nadia (Andrea Gabriel). Late one night, Omer tells Sayid that he recently borrowed a substantial amount of money from a loan shark but had paid it back. Nevertheless, the loan shark has told Omer that he will owe interest forever. Omer asks Sayid to help with his problem. Sayid refuses because he no longer wishes to be a violent person. The next day, Omer is severely beaten and Nadia begs Sayid not to get involved. Nadia and Sayid discuss their feelings for each other, leading Sayid to tell Nadia that he doesn't deserve her. Later on, Sayid is taken to see the loan shark, Martin Keamy (Kevin Durand); after a short conversation, Sayid kills him and his men, including Keamy's henchman Omar (Anthony Azizi). While leaving the scene, he stumbles across Jin-Soo Kwon (Daniel Dae Kim), who is tied up in a freezer.

2007 (original timeline)
Following the events of the previous episode, "Lighthouse", Sayid confronts Dogen (Hiroyuki Sanada) about the poison pill. Dogen claims that Sayid is evil. They get into a struggle, but Dogen refuses to kill him, instead banishing Sayid from the temple. At the same time, the Man in Black (Terry O'Quinn) sends Claire Littleton (Emilie de Ravin) into the temple to ask Dogen to come out. He refuses to leave the temple and imprisons Claire. He then gives Sayid a dagger and instructs him to kill the Man in Black, in order to prove that he is still a good person. Sayid does as instructed, but the dagger has no effect. The Man in Black explains that Dogen never expected Sayid to succeed, only to get himself killed in the attempt. He then says that if Sayid cooperates, he can have anything he wants, including a dead loved one. Sayid is sent back to the temple with a message for the Others.

Sayid delivers the Man in Black's ultimatum to the Others: any who do not leave the Temple before sundown will be killed. This causes a panic among the Others, most of whom, including Cindy (Kimberley Joseph), decide to leave. Amidst the chaos, Kate Austen (Evangeline Lilly) returns to the temple in her search for Claire. She confronts Lennon (John Hawkes), who takes Kate to Claire. Kate explains that she has been raising Claire's son, Aaron, for the past three years but is unable to continue speaking with her. Meanwhile, Sayid confronts Dogen, who reveals how he came to the island: several years ago, he was a businessman in Japan who became drunk one night and caused a car accident that killed his 12-year-old son. Jacob (Mark Pellegrino) visited them in the hospital and offered to heal Dogen's son in exchange for Dogen coming to the island and never returning. After Dogen finishes his story, Sayid tackles him into the spring and drowns him. Afterward, he kills Lennon by slitting his throat. Dogen's death allows the Man in Black to enter the temple and attack the Others as the Smoke Monster.

Ilana (Zuleikha Robinson), Sun-Hwa Kwon (Yunjin Kim), Frank Lapidus (Jeff Fahey) and Ben Linus (Michael Emerson) arrive at the temple shortly after the attack begins, searching for the other candidates. While there, Sun finds out that Jin is alive. Ben goes looking for Sayid, but flees when he sees that Sayid has killed Dogen and Lennon. Kate is separated from the group and goes after Claire. Ilana, Sun, Frank and Miles Straume (Ken Leung) flee through a secret passage. After the attack, which leaves almost everyone dead, Sayid, Claire and Kate join the Others with the Man in Black outside the temple.

Production
This episode is the first to be co-written by Graham Roland.

Reception
The episode received positive reviews. Metacritic awarded a score of 82 out of 100. This was up on the previous week's episode, which scored a 71 out of 100. Cynthia Littleton of Variety described it as "one of the creepiest and craziest episodes of 'Lost' ever."

References

External links

"Sundown" at ABC

Lost (season 6) episodes
2010 American television episodes
Television episodes directed by Bobby Roth

Sundown (Lost)


First Person Plural: My Life As A Multiple is a psychology-related autobiography written by Cameron West, who developed dissociative identity disorder (DID) as a result of childhood sexual abuse. In it, West describes his diagnosis, treatment, and personal experiences.

Summary
West recovers memories of early childhood sexual abuse and is diagnosed with DID as an adult. The book chronicles the first few years of his struggle to accept and heal from his disorder.

West describes a system of 24 different personalities that emerge one by one. The presence of personalities is tied to flashbacks West experiences in which he is molested by his mother and grandmother as well as one or more unidentified male perpetrators. Alters emerge who either hold memories of West's abuse, carry the pain of the experience, or protect West's psyche in one way or another. One personality, named Switch, physically injures West's body in an effort to release pain. Unlike the classic "Sybil" (Shirley Ardell Mason), West experiences co-consciousness and doesn't have fugue states.

Throughout his long journey to acceptance, West undergoes intensive therapy, and through hospitalizations in DID-centered programs, meets many people who share his condition. His wife Rikki's constant support as well as his love for her and his son motivate West to accept his abuse and begin to heal from the damage it did to his psyche. One chapter, written entirely from Rikki's point of view, depicts her attempts to understand.

In the final pages, West allows himself to be videotaped as his alters emerge and speak. After viewing this tape, West begins to fully realize and accept the exact nature of his condition and his denial begins to abate. West pursues the study of psychology and is awarded a Ph.D.

Analysis
West writes First Person Plural using a first-person omniscient style, in which he is typically the narrator, but the reader can still see scenes that don't involve the narrator.

West struggles with denial of his condition for several years, beginning with the first "takeovers" of his body, until at last he begins to accept that his condition developed to protect him from the psychological experience of repeated childhood sexual abuse. West writes that he authored the book to present the public and treatment professionals with a first-hand account of DID so that others could more fully understand this often misdiagnosed condition. Furthermore, West states he wished to reach out to others like himself to show them that "they aren't alone, that there is hope."

Reception
A review in Time called the book "awkwardly written", but the book reached The New York Times bestseller list for two weeks in March 1999. Sales of the book were boosted by the author's appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show.

Screen rights for a potential film were purchased by Disney for $1.15 million and Robin Williams was cast to play West. However the film was never completed.

References

External links

1999 books
Psychology-related autobiographies
Popular psychology

First Person Plural


Sunglasses are dark tinted eyeglasses. They are often worn to protect the eyes from sunlight or as a fashion accessory. Some of the most popular brands include:
Ray-ban
Oakley
Prada
Polaroid
Gucci
Emporio Armani Eyewear
DKNY
Emblem Eyewear
Arnette Eyewear
Panto Glasses

Eyeglasses

Common frame styles include
 Aviators - Frames with a double bar nose bridge and often teardrop shaped lenses.
Wayfarers - Thicker plastic frames with metal dots at the top corner of the glasses.
Wraparound glasses - Where the lenses are curved around the face, offering greater protection and a wider field of vision.
Clip-on sunglasses - Frames akin to Pince-nez made to clip onto the front of a pair of prescription eyeglasses.
Fit over glasses - Designed to be donned over prescription glasses.

Common lens tints include
grey - A neutral color
brown - A color that gives better contrast and a "warmer" hue
green - Ideal for golf and certain other sports
yellow - good for overcast conditions, computers or night driving.
Blue- In terms of fashion.

Tint intensities. The darkness of a lens tint is usually categorized in percentage or a category of four system.

Category one tints are the lightest and mainly for fashion usage. Category one tints are usually 10 or 20% tinted.

Category two tints are great for photosensitivity caused by indoor florescent lighting and correspond with 30% to 50% darkness

Category three tints are standard sunglass level 60% to 80% tint.

Category four tints are for the brightest of sunny days. These tints are usually 75% to 90%.

Gradient lenses have a darker tint at the top and goes lighter further down the lenses.

Other words for sunglasses include:

Sunnies - most common in British and Australian English.

dark glasses.

Smoked spectacles - Used especially for the nearly opaque glasses of the blind.

Solar shields - Sunglasses with overly large lenses.

Cooling glasses - In Indian English.

Glares - In Indian English.

Shades

Stunna shades - Sunglasses with large lenses. Used in hip-hop circles.

Glecks - A term for both eyeglasses and sunglasses in Scottish English.

Sun cheaters - In American English.

Sunglasses