Philip Edward Irving MBE, CEng., FIMechE., MSAE. (1903–1992) was an Australian engineer and author, most famous for the Repco-Brabham Formula One and Vincent motorcycle engines. He also worked at Velocette motorcycles, twice, and drew the engine of the 1960 EMC 125cc racer.

Early life
Irving was the son of a medical doctor who had a 600 square-mile practice in Western Victoria which he travelled around using a Swift car and two motorcycles, a belt-drive Triumph and a four-cylinder FN. Due to a lack of local repair facilities, Dr. Irving performed all the maintenance at home.

After three years attendance at Wesley College, Phil Irving obtained a scholarship to Melbourne Technical College studying a diploma course in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering where he designed and partially made his first engine, a small air-cooled two-stroke. He didn't finish the course or the engine, leaving early on the strength of his college studies and accomplishments to take his first job.

Working career

Irving's first engineering job started in 1922 working for the Australian engineer Anthony Michell at the firm of Crankless Engines Ltd in Fitzroy, Victoria. At the firm worked under both Michell and engineer T.L. Sherman. Irving said: "It was the greatest stroke of luck imaginable that I started work under two such eminent men...".

Between 1926 and 1929 Irving jointly owned and operated a motorcycle workshop in the regional town of Ballarat, Australia with Ken Granter. As the economic climate harshened in 1929 business at the shop slumped and it was forced to close. A historic plaque commemorates the former location of the workshop at 28 Doveton Street, Ballarat in Victoria.

In 1930, he left Australia and travelled to Britain as pillion passenger and mechanic to John Gill, a Scottish engineer, on the return-leg of Gill's World motorcycle and sidecar journey from UK to Australia and back, using a 600 cc sidevalve engined Vincent HRD, giving press-exposure to the business.

On arrival in UK Irving obtained employment at Velocette as a design and production engineer working on metallurgy, developing pioneering techniques to form aluminium castings around the cast-iron barrels used for the motorcycle engine cylinders.

Just before the 1931 British motorcycle show - traditionally held late in the year to showcase the manufacturers' next MY (model year) range – Philip Vincent offered Irving work at his business in Stevenage (alongside engineer E.J. Massey from the original HRD company) where they commenced a lifelong friendship.

Irving had two stints working for Vincent; in the early thirties and from 1943 when he worked at Stevenage as Vincent's Chief Engineer.

From 1937 to 1942 he again worked for Velocette at their Hall Green Factory in Birmingham, where he designed and patented a number of features including the famed rear suspension adjustment used on the post war spring-frame Velocettes. It was also used on the LE Velocette, a motorcycle he sketched during his war years at the company. Irving also designed the prototype Model 'O' Velocette, a shaft-drive twin cylinder machine of 600cc capacity and loosely based on the supercharged 500cc racing machine known as 'The Roarer'.

In 1942 he moved to London and worked with Joe Craig at Associated Motor Cycles Ltd at Plumstead.

In July 1943 Philip Vincent wrote to him and invited him to return to the Vincent HRD company at Stevenage to develop the opposed piston two stroke engine to be fitted to the eleven man airborne lifeboat.

Irving remained in UK until 1949 when he returned home to Australia, after the Vincent motorcycle business was put into receivership under Mr C E Baillie.

During the 1930s and 40s, Phil Irving wrote a technical column in Motor Cycling magazine under the pseudonym  'Slide Rule'  some of which were later reprinted in book form as Motorcycle Technicalities. Amongst the other books he authored are Tuning For Speed, Motorcycle Engineering and his autobiography, Phil Irving – An Autobiography.

In 1952 a Vincent Lightning engine was acquired from British racing driver Ken Wharton and fitted by Irving to Reg Hunt's special racing car, which was similar to a Cooper called the 'Flying Bedstead', at Hunt's residence in Elsternwick Victoria with the assistance of Dick Boardman, a draftsman working with Irving, who was at the time Chief Engineer of the Chamberlain Group of companies, which included the Rolloy Piston Co. Port Melbourne.
After a victory in the same year for the car in the Formula 2 event at Woodside, South Australia, the Vincent motor was fitted with a supercharger and tuned for Hill climb events by Irving. With Irving and Boardman as pit assistants, the car's notable successes were fastest time of the day at the Rob Roy Hill climbs in 1952 and 1953. On the second run in 1953, Hunt was awarded the year's Australian Hill Climb Championship.

At the 1960 Isle of Man TT Races, Dr Josef Ehrlich, the owner of Ehrlich Motor Cycles (EMC Motorcycles) commissioned Irving to 'reverse-engineer' an MZ 125cc racing engine supplied by Ehrlich and to produce the working drawings of a water-cooled variant which became the 1961 EMC 125cc water-cooled single cylinder racing engine.

At the end of 1963, Irving was approached by Jack Brabham to design a simple, lightweight and powerful 3-litre V8 engine for the upcoming change in Formula One engine specifications due for 1966. This engine was built around the 3.5-litre Oldsmobile V8 cylinder block design and became known as the RB620. It incorporated some 'off-the-'shelf' technology such as Vincent valve inspection caps and BSA 500cc Gold Star cam profiles. Jack Brabham won the 1966 Formula 1 Driver's Championship and the Manufacturers' Championship using this engine.

In 1949 Irving became Vice-President of the Vincent H.R.D. Owners Club and continued in that role until the death of Phil Vincent in 1979 when he rose to President (an honorary title). Irving held the presidency until his death on 14 January 1992.

Irving was awarded an MBE (Member of the Order of the British Empire) in the Queen's 1976 New Year Honours List for his "services to automotive engineering". His award was announced in the Supplement to The London Gazette dated 31 December 1976.

Later life
In later life, Irving lived permanently in Australia based at Warrandyte, on the outskirts of Melbourne, where he had a small workshop. He never stopped his practical involvement with engines and especially with Vincent motorcycles. Just a few weeks before his death and aged 89 years, he was still working on Harley Davidson motorcycles at Midwest Harley in Ballarat, Australia. Its owner Ken James said: "You can't stop Phil; he just needs to be around engines and make them sing".

Irving's life was devoted to his passion for motorcycles and motor racing. An Australian business KH Equipment Pty. Ltd continues to build and improve on the Vincent concept using the name Irving Vincent in Hallam, Victoria, Australia.

To honour Irving's 'great achievements', the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport named its highest engineering award the Phil Irving Award, conferred on an individual Australian engineer or Australian engineering company demonstrating outstanding skills and achievements when contributing to competitive motor sport. One of the recipients was race car engineer Ron Tauranac in 2003.

There is also a Phil Irving Trophy motorcycle race held at Phillip Island during its annual Island Classic race meeting.

Published books

See also
Brabham
Vincent Motorcycles
Phil Vincent
Vincent Rapide
Velocette

References

Australian mechanical engineers
Australian motorsport people
Fellows of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Formula One designers
Vincent designers
Australian Officers of the Order of the British Empire
1903 births
1992 deaths
People educated at Wesley College (Victoria)

Phil Irving


François Laurent d'Arlandes (; 1742 – 1 May 1809) was a French marquis, soldier and a pioneer of hot air ballooning.  He and Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier made the first manned free balloon flight on 21 November 1783, in a Montgolfier balloon.

D'Arlandes was born in Anneyron in the Dauphiné.  He met Joseph Montgolfier at the Jesuit college of Tournon.  He became an infantry officer in the French royal guard.

The first public demonstration of a balloon by the Montgolfier brothers took place in June 1783, and was followed by an untethered flight of a sheep, a cockerel and a duck from the front courtyard of the Palace of Versailles on 19 September.  The French King Louis XVI decided that the first manned flight would contain two condemned criminals, but de Rozier enlisted the help of the Duchess de Polignac to support his view that the honour of becoming first balloonists should belong to someone of higher status, and d'Arlandes agreed to accompany him.  The King was persuaded to permit d'Arlandes and de Rozier to become the first pilots.

After several tethered tests to gain some experience of controlling the balloon, de Rozier and d'Arlandes made their first untethered flight in a Montgolfier hot air balloon on 21 November 1783, taking off at 1:54 p.m. from the garden of the Château de la Muette in the Bois de Boulogne, in the presence of the King. Also watching was U.S. envoy, Benjamin Franklin.  Their 25-minute flight travelled slowly about 5½ miles (some 9 km) to the southeast, attaining an altitude of 3,000 feet, before returning to the ground at the Butte-aux-Cailles, then on the outskirts of Paris.  After the flight, the pilots drank champagne to celebrate the flight, a tradition carried on by balloonists to this day.

D'Arlandes proposed a flight to cross the English Channel in 1784, but the plan came to nothing.

He was dismissed from the army for cowardice after the French Revolution, and died in his castle of Saleton near Anneyron.  Some sources suggest that he committed suicide.

See also
 List of firsts in aviation

References

External links
www.ballooninghistory.com

1742 births
1809 deaths
French balloonists
Flight altitude record holders
Balloon flight record holders
French aviation record holders

François Laurent d'Arlandes


Die casting is a type of metal casting that forces molten metal into the empty space of the mold. The mold is made by using two hardened tool steel dies which are machined into shape. These work like an injection mold.

Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals (meaning they do not have iron). These metals are  zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter, and tin-based alloys. Depending on what type of metal is being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used.

The casting equipment and the metal dies are expensive. This means it is used only on things that need to be made a large number of times. It is simple to make things using die casting, and it has only four main steps. This helps keep the cost of the items lower. Die casting works well for many small- to medium-sized castings, which is why it is used to make more castings than any other casting process. Die castings have a very good surface finish (compared to other types of casting) and consistent sizes.

References

Metalworking

Die casting


Tityos or Tityus was a giant from Greek mythology.

Tityos was the son of Elara and Zeus. He was hunted by Apollo and Artemis for attempting to rape their mother Leto. His punishment in Tartarus was to be tortured by two vultures who fed on his liver, which grew back every night.

Greek legendary creatures

Tityos


Procaine is a analgesic drug. It is used primarily to reduce the pain of getting certain shots, and is also used by dentists. The drug is usually sold under the name Novocaine, or Novacaine.

Procaine was first made in 1905, and was the first man-made pain-killer that could be taken as a shot. It was created by the German scientist Alfred Einhorn (1857-1917) who gave the chemical the name Novacaine, from the Latin word novus (which means new) and caine, as in "cocaine."

Procaine is not often used today because other safer and better working pain-killing drugs now exist. Prior to the discovery of procaine, cocaine was the most commonly used pain-killer. Procaine (like cocaine) has the advantage of reducing bleeding, unlike other pain-killers and without the dangerous qualities of cocaine.

Analgesics
Esters
Organonitrogen compounds

Procaine


The Ladbroke Grove rail crash was a railway accident outside Paddington station, Ladbroke Grove, in London, England, on 5 October 1999, in the early morning. It involved two trains, one run by Thames Trains, the other by First Great Western.

Events
A train run by Thames Trains left London Paddington railway station for Bedwyn in Wiltshire at 08:06am.

It was a "Thames Turbo", painted in Network SouthEast colours and made up of three carriages.

At Ladbroke Grove Junction, trains switched onto the usual route, one track for trains away from London, the other for trains to London.

It should have stopped at a red signal and waited until it could do this safely, but it failed to stop at the signal (called a Signal Passed at Danger or SPAD).

It collided nearly head on with a train run by First Great Western from Cheltenham Spa in Gloucestershire, after the signal that was changed failed to stop the train.

The train was a diesel high speed train, with 8 coaches and two locomotives, one at each end.

The front two coaches of the Thames Turbo were completely destroyed, and the front locomotive of the High Speed Train was badly damaged.

The diesel fuel in the Thames Turbo was scattered as a result and caught fire, which caused separate fires to burn in the wreckage, especially in Coach H of the high speed train which was completely burned by the fire.

The drivers of both trains were killed in the crash. Altogether, 31 people died: 24 people on the Thames Turbo and 6 people on the high speed train were killed by the crash itself, while another person was killed by the fire. 523 people were injured, of which 227 were taken to hospital. The remaining 296 people were treated where the crash happened.

Cause
The immediate cause was the Thames Turbo failing to stop at a red signal at Ladbroke Grove Junction. A signal before it was amber, which should have prepared the driver for the red signal. Because the driver was killed, it was hard to find out why he did not stop at the signal. An inquiry was held in 2000 by Lord Cullen, one year later.

Contributing factors
Lord Cullen took note of the fact that the railway line in London Paddington was prone to trains failing to stop at the same red signal that the Thames Turbo passed.

One reason for the driver not stopping was that it was difficult for him to see the signal. It was very early in the morning and the sun was very low in the sky. This made the amber signal difficult to notice. Overhead power lines had been put up for the Heathrow Express to run, which obscured the signals even more.

The crash also happened shortly after the Thames Turbo driver had qualified, after his 2 weeks of training. The trainer did not tell him about the signal and later claimed that he was "not there to teach the routes" and was "totally there to teach how to drive a Turbo". Thames Trains also had no standardised test system for drivers, and no clear pass or fail criteria. The driver had been in the Navy and had little experience on the railways, and had qualified 13 days earlier than British Rail drivers did (British Rail also did not allow new drivers to drive on difficult routes such as the Great Western Main Line between London and Bristol, on which this accident happened, until they got experience on easier routes).

Another reason was that the Thames Turbo had been fitted with a safety system called ATP (automatic train protection), which would have stopped the train if it failed to stop at a red signal, but it was switched off. The High Speed Train's ATP was also off. Although it was recommended after a rail crash at Clapham Junction many years earlier, it had proved annoying in the past and no company required its trains to have it working and switched on.

After the event
On 5 April 2004, Thames Trains was fined £2 million for breaching Health & Safety laws in connection with the crash.

On 31 October 2006, 7 years and 26 days after the crash, Network Rail pleaded guilty to charges under the Health & Safety at Work act 1974, was fined £4 million and ordered to pay a further £225,000.

Both the front locomotive of the high speed train and the Thames Turbo were written off. The back carriage of the Thames Turbo, however, is now a spare part.

A memorial garden was created next to the Great Western main line near Paddington station, near the car park of a Sainsbury's supermarket.

Sources
 Paddington rail disaster Her last words to me were goodbye Daddy The Daily Telegraph. 28 September 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
 ^ The inquiry report is in 2 volumes, reflecting this division; the narrative and the account of the most likely cause and identified shortcomings are based upon Volume 1 of the enquiry report

1999 disasters
1999 in England
20th century in London
Fires in London
Railway accidents in Europe
October events

Ladbroke Grove rail crash


Ynys Moelfre (or Moelfre Island) is a small island off the coast of Anglesey, Wales. At low tide it has a maximum length of 261 metres and a maximum width of 121 metres with a maximum area of . The nearest settlement to the island is the village of Moelfre, and the two are separated by a shallow channel called Y Swnt (The Strait or The Sound), which is never more than 194 metres wide and can at low tide only be waist-deep all the way across. At extreme low Spring tides, it is possible to walk across to the island on dry ground all the way. Due to its proximity to the mainland there are grasses found on the island and a few wild flowers. Species of birds that can be found on the island include gulls, terns, gannets, fulmars, and Great/Arctic skuas. A colony of seals live there and porpoises are occasionally seen also. There are, however, no man-made structures. It is referred to by some locals as Rat Island.

References

Islands of Anglesey
Moelfre, Anglesey

Ynys Moelfre


Donkey Kong Country (also called DKC) is the first installment of the Donkey Kong Country series and the first game in the original Donkey Kong Country trilogy, overall. This video game was released in 1994 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. This game is a platformer developed by Rare and published by Nintendo. The playable characters in this game are Donkey Kong and Diddy Kong. Donkey Kong Country was followed by two sequels: Donkey Kong Country 2: Diddy's Kong Quest and Donkey Kong Country 3: Dixie Kong's Double Trouble! in 1995 and 1996.

The game was remade for the Game Boy Color in 2000 and was also remade again for the Game Boy Advance in 2003. Donkey Kong Country was ported over to the Wii's Virtual Console in 2006 and 2007. On November 25, 2012, for reasons unknown, Donkey Kong Country and both its sequels were delisted from the Wii's Virtual Console worldwide except in South Korea, but on October 30, 2014, the games were relisted only in Europe and Australia. Around the same time, the games were released on the Wii U's Virtual Console in Europe and Australia, in Japan on November 26, 2014, and in the United States and Canada on February 26, 2015. For handhelds, Donkey Kong Country was ported exclusively over to the New Nintendo 3DS's Virtual Console in March 2016. It is one of the 21 games included on the Super NES Classic Edition and was made available for the Nintendo Switch Online on July 15, 2020.

Story
The story for Donkey Kong Country is about the Kremlings stealing Donkey Kong's bananas and kidnapping Donkey Kong's nephew Diddy and putting him in a barrel. After Donkey Kong saves Diddy Kong from the barrel, both Donkey Kong and his nephew go together to fight the Kremlings and other enemies so they can get back their large collection of stolen bananas.

Worlds
There are six worlds and a final boss battle on Gangplank Galleon sometimes referred to as a world. The worlds are;

Kongo Jungle
Monkey Mines
Vine Valley
Gorilla Glacier
Kremkroc Industries Inc.
Chimp Caverns
Gangplank Galleon (sometimes considered as a world)

Bosses
There are seven bosses in Donkey Kong Country. These bosses include;

Very Gnawty
Master Necky
Queen B.
Really Gnawty
Dumb Drum
Master Necky Snr.
King K. Rool

Changes between the ports
Donkey Kong Country had received two remakes; one for the Game Boy Color and one for the Game Boy Advance. The Game Boy Advance version has a larger amount of changes, while the Game Boy Color version doesn't have as much changes. The changes are listed below;

Game Boy Color
This version contains three different title screens, one chosen out of random.
Even in the North American version, the game can have English, Spanish, French, German, or Italian chosen as the language. This is not present in the Japanese version.
The mode selection screen is made to resemble that of Donkey Kong 64.
Only one Kong can be present at once. When one of them is hit, the other one appears. The other Kong is located at the bottom-left part of the screen with a DK Barrel icon to indicate the that Kong is there.
The victory dance and victory music is taken out of the game.
The world map can be viewed all over by the player pressing SELECT and then uses the left or right buttons on the D-Pad to view the overworld of a world.
The Game Boy Color version added compatibility with the Game Boy Printer as Sticker Pads were also added.
Winky's Walkway has been extended from the original version and even features another Mini-Necky.
A new stage named Necky Nutmare has been added in this version. It appears in Chimp Caverns as the fourth level of the world. This stage is located after Funky's Flights and before Loopy Lights.
Two new minigames called Funky Fishing (this one reappears in the Game Boy Advance version under the title of Funky's Fishing) and Crosshair Cranky.
Candy's Save Point has been renamed to Candy's Challenge. This makes the game autosave after a level is completed.
Some of the music has been reused from Donkey Kong Land. Otherwise, it is an 8-bit remix of the SNES version's music.
The Cast of Characters is no longer featured before the end credits and is replaced with various screenshots which feature levels not seen in normal gameplay.
Donkey or Diddy transforms into Animal Buddies, rather than riding them. If the animal buddy is hit or if SELECT is pressed, the animal transforms back into Donkey or Diddy, depending on the controlled monkey.
Two additional difficulty settings have been added; there is one that removes DK Barrels, and another one that removes Star Barrels. These modes can be used once the game is completed for the first time to gain extra Sticker Pads.
There is no sunset in the level Orang-utan Gang and no rain in Ropey Rampage. Orang-utan Gang takes place during the day and Ropey Rampage is only nighttime.
The fifth world, Kremkroc Industries, Inc. is simply renamed to Kremkroc Industries.
The temple in Temple Tempest is blue instead of yellow.
In Slipslide Ride, the purple ropes are replaced with blue ropes which slide the player downwards, while white ones which replace the blue ones slide the player upwards.
When a stage is completed, the stage's name when the stage is selected turns pink, instead of being marked with a "!" at the end of the stage's name.
Gnawties ride on top of the millstones, instead of inside them. The Gnawties on the millstone are also recolored to a regular red palette in favor of the Game Boy Color's limited color palette.
All of the Zingers in the game are yellow and do not appear in various colors.

Game Boy Advance
The world maps are redone to zoom in more. Some layout changes have also been done.
Starting from Vine Valley and onwards, some of the stages have been rearranged such as Croctopus Chase and Ice Age Alley.
Funky Fishing is renamed to Funky's Fishing. An all new minigame named Candy's Dance Studio also appears which replaces Candy's Challenge and Candy's Save Point from the previous two versions.
A new time attack mode called DK Attack has been added as a mode on the main menu.
There is a Hero Mode where players can play the game as a yellow Diddy Kong. Donkey Kong is excluded though.
Rock Kroc can be defeated by the use of Donkey Kong's hand slap while it is dormant. This also happens in the Japanese version of the original Donkey Kong Country.
Some enemies have changed colors. An example is a standard Kritter is originally green and is changed to purple or purple Klaptraps being changed to red.
A scrapbook feature has been added. This causes hidden cameras to hide all over Donkey Kong Island.
Several bosses have new strategies. This includes;
Queen B. - Uses smaller Zingers as a shield when she is attacked.
Really Gnawty - Causes stalagmites to fall with a giant pounce.
Dumb Drum - Can only be defeated by the use of a TNT Barrel rather than all the enemies having to be defeated.
Master Necky Snr. - During the first round, Master Necky aids Master Necky Snr. in battle. After one is defeated, the other one becomes more ferocious.
The game can be saved at anytime on the world map by pressing START.
Funky can be summoned on the world map when needed. This only happens after Funky is visited first.
Smaller animals appear as background elements such as spiders and rats.
The game saves the number of extra lives the player has collected. This feature was criticized by many as it removed the challenge from the game.

1994 video games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy Advance games
Virtual Console games
Platform games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games

Donkey Kong Country


Celenza Valfortore (Pugliese: ) is a town and comune in the province of Foggia in the Apulia region of southeast Italy.

Main sights
Church of Santa Croce
Porta Nova
 Gambacorta Castle (15th and 16th centuries)

Demographics

The population has been constantly shrinking in recent years. A massive emigration occurred during and after the Second World War. Numerous inhabitants moved to countries such as Argentina, the United States, and Australia.

Economy

Agriculture used to employ the major part of the labour force. Cattle and farming were the main activities, although in the last years this has been changing, with the tertiary sector employing 41 percent of the working force.

Climate

Winters are cold, influenced by the Apennines, with occasional snowfalls taking place between the months of November and March.

Summers are extremely dry and hot. Almost no rainfall occurs between June and August.

References

External links
 Our Celenza Heritage A site dedicated to the descendants of Celenza Valfortore and their immigrant ancestors
 Celenza Valfortore and San Marco la Catola Online  An Italian language site dedicated to these two neighboring villages, includes pictures, traditions, news, and links

Cities and towns in Apulia

Celenza Valfortore


Whyteleafe is a small village on the edge of Surrey. It is between Purley and Caterham. It has good transport links with London and the south of England.

Whyteleafe is very close to Riddlesdown. It is also close to the secondary school Riddlesdown Collegiate, that the famous model Kate Moss attended.

Villages in Surrey

Whyteleafe


Edward Pearce Casey (1864–1940) was an American designer and architect, noted for his work in Washington, D.C. and New York City.

Early life and education
Edward Pearce Casey was born June 18, 1864, in Portland, Maine, where his father, Brigadier-General Thomas Lincoln Casey, served during the Civil War. Edward was educated at the Emerson Institute of Washington, D.C. and graduated from the School of Mines of Columbia University. He received the degree of C.E. in 1886 and that of architect in 1888. He studied also at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, France.

Prior to completion of his schooling, Casey served in the 7th Regiment of the New York National Guard, where the portrait photo accompanying this article was taken, c. 1885.

Career and later life
In 1892, Casey replaced Paul J. Pelz as architect of the Library of Congress, whose construction his father directed until his death in 1896. In 1893, he was one of the six equal prize winners in the New York City Hall competition; and in 1900 won the first prize for a design for Taft Bridge over Rock Creek in Washington, D.C., In 1901, he won another design competition, for a design for the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.

Soon after completion of the Grant Memorial, Casey moved to New York City, where he continued his architectural practice. In 1905 and 1906, Casey designed a new façade for a rebuild of the rectory at the Episcopal Church of the Incarnation in Manhattan. Casey died on January 2, 1940, and is buried in the family plot at the Casey Farm in Rhode Island.

References

External links
 Edward Pearce Casey Archival card catalog. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.

1864 births
1940 deaths
Columbia School of Mines alumni
New York National Guard personnel
19th-century American architects
Architects from Portland, Maine
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Architects from New York City
20th-century American architects

Edward Pearce Casey


Andrée Christine van Es (born 26 January 1953 in The Hague) is a Dutch politician. She is currently chairwoman of the Dutch national UNESCO committee. She was previously wethouder (alderman) in the executive of the city of Amsterdam for GreenLeft until 2014. She was member of the House of Representatives for the Pacifist Socialist Party and GreenLeft.

Biography
Van Es became assistant to the PSP parliamentary party in 1975. During the 1981 election she was elected to parliament. From 1985 she was chair of the parliamentary party, which after the 1986 election was represented only by her. In the 1989 election, the PSP combined forces with the Communist Party of the Netherlands and the progressive Christian Political Party of Radicals and the Evangelical People's Party under the name GreenLeft.  In November 1990, just before GreenLeft was formed as a separate political party, Van Es left politics in order to "make room for new GreenLeft faces" and because she had difficulty combining motherhood and her place in parliament. She was a consciously single mother from 1988. She was replaced as an MP by party member Leoni Sipkes.

After her political career, Van Es worked for the broadcasters VPRO and NOS.  In 1996 she married MP Maarten van Traa, with whom she had had a relationship since 1990. In October 1997, Van Traa died during a car crash. After her journalist work, Van Es led the political-cultural centre De Balie in Amsterdam and chaired the GGZ-Netherlands, a health organization, between 2002 and 2007. In 2001 she was asked by the cabinet to help Máxima Zorreguieta, then the future wife of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, integrate in the Dutch society.  Between 2002 and 2004 she was a member of the Dijkstal committee, which studied the salaries for politicians and high ranking civil servants.  She worked from  November 2007 as director-general of Government and Kingdom Relations, one of the highest-ranking civil servants within the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations.

Since April 2010 she has been a member of the executive of the city of Amsterdam responsible for, amongst others, work & income and diversity & integration.

References
  Parlement.com biography

1953 births
Living people
Aldermen of Amsterdam
Dutch civil servants
Dutch women civil servants
Dutch women in politics
Dutch political party founders
GroenLinks politicians
Leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands)
Pacifist Socialist Party politicians
Politicians from The Hague

Andrée van Es


The English Civil War happened in the middle 17th century. The term civil war is a war where the sides involved in the fighting are from the same country.

At the centre, there was a struggle between King Charles I and the Parliament of England over how England should be ruled. The King wanted to rule without Parliament telling him what to do. At first Parliament wanted to reduce the King's power, but later it decided that the country did not need a king. King Charles's supporters were known as the Royalists, and were nicknamed "Cavaliers". Parliament's supporters were known as the Parliamentarians, and were nicknamed "Roundheads".

From 1639 to 1653, there was fighting in England, Scotland and Ireland, three separate countries that were ruled by the same king. The fighting that took place in each of these countries broke out at different times and for different reasons. In England, it lasted from 1642 to 1651. Some people think of this as one big war, while others think of it as three separate wars: the First English Civil War (1642-46), the Second English Civil War (1648) and the Third English Civil War (1649-51). The wars are also sometimes known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, including the Bishops' Wars in Scotland in 1639 to 1640 and the Irish Rebellion from 1641 to 1653.

The Parliamentarians won the war. Charles I was captured, put on trial and in 1649 he was executed. His son Charles II then tried to take over the country, but lost and escaped abroad. As a result, the three kingdoms spent 11 years without a king. For most of this time, they were run by Oliver Cromwell, a former Parliamentarian general. After Cromwell's death, the monarchy was restored under Charles II. However, kings were never as powerful as they had been before the war.

Causes

The reasons for the fighting were mostly to do with power, money and religion.

Power and money
In the 17th century, the king had a lot of power over England with one exception: he could only raise taxes if the English Parliament agreed to it. This was because Parliament represented the gentry (middle class), and no king could raise taxes without the help of the gentry. Scotland and Ireland also had parliaments, but with not nearly as much power. When King James VI of Scotland inherited the throne (becoming James I of England), he disliked having to work with parliament. He was more used to ruling in Scotland, where the king was far more powerful. James I also spent more money than previous kings and queens.

Both James I and his son Charles I believed in the "divine right of kings", meaning that they believed that God gave kings the right to do anything they wanted over their lands. But there was a difference between the two: James I accepted that he could not get what he wanted all the time, whereas Charles I always wanted to get his own way.

After becoming king in 1625, Charles I quickly got into arguments with members of Parliament. From 1629 to 1640, he shut Parliament down and ruled without it. This was legal, as long as he did not raise taxes. He used some legal tricks to raise money without bringing back Parliament. For example, he used "ship money", a tax that had been paid by coastal towns in times of war. Charles I started charging it to all towns when there was no war. This was unpopular, but judges decided that it was legal. The period from 1629 to 1640 was known as the "Eleven Years' Tyranny" by the king's enemies.

Religion
In the previous century, the Protestant Reformation and England's break with the Catholic Church had encouraged new ideas and struggles. In England, there was movement called the Puritans, because they wanted a "pure" religion. They believed that the Church of England was too much like the Roman Catholic Church it had broken away from. In particular, they did not want the church to have bishops. There was a similar movement in Scotland. The Church of Scotland also had bishops, but it had many differences with the Church of England.

On the other hand, Charles I and Archbishop William Laud tried to change the Church of England. They brought back incense, bells and decorations to churches. These were things that were found in Catholic churches. This worried the people who hated Catholicism, especially the Puritans. Charles I also married a French princess, Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic.

Build-up
In 1637, Charles I tried to introduce a new prayer book in Scotland that was very similar to the English Book of Common Prayer, without asking Scotland's Parliament or church. Many Scots hated the prayer book, seeing it as an attempt to change the religion of their country. Riots broke out in Edinburgh, and unrest spread throughout Scotland. A rebellion movement began in Scotland, which became known as the Covenanters.

In 1639, the rebellion led to the Bishops' Wars in Scotland. The war cost so much money that the King called a new Parliament in England to raise taxes. But the members of Parliament did not want to work with Charles, and instead they complained about the king's actions (such as ship money) during the "Eleven Years' Tyranny". He shut Parliament down again, but the King struggled to stop the Covenanters without new taxes. Another problem was that many English people agreed with the Covenanters and did not want to help fight them. The Covenanter army invaded England and marched into Northumberland and County Durham. They refused to leave unless they were paid money.

To raise that money, the King had no choice but to call another Parliament. This became known as the "Long Parliament". Over two-thirds of the elected members of the Long Parliament were opposed to the king. While the opponents had no proper leader, John Pym was their most important member. The Long Parliament passed laws to stop the king from shutting it down and removed many of the king's allies. They even had his friend Earl of Strafford executed.

In 1641, a rebellion broke out in Ireland. The rebellion was caused by Irish Catholics who were fearful of the Protestants in the Long Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters. The King now needed money to fight this rebellion, which strengthened Parliament. Parliament would also take control of the army in 1642.

In January 1642, Charles I marched into Parliament with guards, to arrest five members of Parliament (including Pym and Hampden) who disagreed with him. The five men found out he was coming and escaped. No king had ever entered the main chamber of Parliament before, and many members were shocked he would do this. It was disaster for Charles. He failed to catch his enemies, and many members of Parliament who had not been enemies of the king became afraid of him. They decided that the only way to protect themselves was a raise an army against the King.

The wars

First English Civil War (1642-46)

In mid-1642, both sides started travelling around the country to gather supporters and weapons. On 22 August, King Charles raised the royal flag in Nottingham. By doing this, he was announcing that he was at war with Parliament.

The King found more support in the countryside, poorer parts of the country and northern and western England. Parliament found more support in most cities, ports, richer parts of the country and southern and eastern England. People who were secretly Catholic mostly supported the King. The Royal Navy and most Puritans supported Parliament. Some areas supported Parliament because of local problems, such as the land drainage works in The Fens.

The Royalist armies were led by Prince Rupert, the King's nephew. The Parliamentarian armies were at first led by the Earl of Essex. The Royalists decided they would try to fight the Parliamentarians quickly, and so went to meet them in Warwickshire. The first major battle was the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642. The battle ended in a draw. The King tried to return to London but was blocked by the Parliamentarian army. He moved with his armies to Oxford, where he had more loyal followers.

The first year of the war went fairly well for the Royalists. They strengthened their control over the north and west. Their progress was slower in the Midlands, though they did capture Lichfield. After mid-1643, the Parliamentarians started to do better. They won battles in Lincolnshire, in the east and at Newbury to the west of London.

King Charles made a deal with the Irish rebels to stop the fighting in Ireland, freeing up soldiers that could fight for him. Parliament made a deal with the Scottish Covenantors, who would help them. Parliament were also helped by a talented army leader called Oliver Cromwell. He led a cavalry (horse riders) unit called the "Ironsides". The Ironsides were better organised than most cavalry units, which made them far better at fighting.

Helped by the Scots and the Ironsides, Parliament won a major victory the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644. They took control of northern England. The Royalists were weakened but not yet defeated. They won the Battle of Lostwithiel in Cornwall, defeating Essex's soldiers. They also managed to fight to a draw at a second Battle of Newbury in October.

In 1645, Parliament organised its soldiers into the New Model Army. The Earl of Essex was replaced by Sir Thomas Fairfax. Oliver Cromwell became Fairfax's deputy. The New Model Army was better organised than any army that had come before it. They defeated the King's largest army at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645. Most of the Royalist soldiers at Naseby were taken prisoner. King Charles escaped Naseby but left behind his baggage, which had letters inside them. The Parliamentarians opened them and found out that the King was trying to get help from the Irish Catholics and from Catholic countries. The King lost support because of this.

The other main Royalist army was defeated at the Battle of Langport in Somerset, one month later. The Parliamentarians took control of South West England, where they had been weak. King Charles tried to gather his remaining supporters in the Midlands. Many fortress towns in the area from Oxford to Newark-on-Trent were still loyal to him. In May 1646, Charles met a Scottish army in Nottinghamshire. The Scots took him prisoner.

Second English Civil War (1648)
Although the Parliamentarians had won, they were divided on how to run the country. One big argument was over religion. Most members of Parliament wanted a Presbyterian national church. The New Model Army favoured allowing local churches to run themselves without there being a national church. The defeated Royalists supported the existing Church of England, though some were secretly Catholic. Parliament and the Army both tried to win support of the King and the Scottish Presbyterians. King Charles was in prison and was passed between the groups. He refused to make a deal with any of them, because he believed that only he had the right to rule over England. He pretended he was interested in making a deal while he planned to take back control of the country. The divisions became worse when Parliament tried to disband the New Model Army.

A second war broke out when some Scottish Presbyterians (called the Engagers) and some English Presbyterians allied with the King. They agreed to support him in return for making the English and Scottish churches into Presbyterian churches. The Scots invaded England, while Royalist rebellions broke out in various parts of England. Some of the rebellions were defeated very easily. The rebellions in Wales, Kent, Essex and Cumberland were stronger but were put down by the New Model Army. The Royalists and Scots were defeated at the Battle of Preston in August 1648.

Execution of King Charles I

The New Model Army was in control. In an event called "Pride's Purge", army Colonel Thomas Pride removed all members of Parliament who had not supported the Army. Only 75 members were left. The Army put them in charge of the country, and this Parliament was called the Rump Parliament.

The Rump Parliament decided they would not work with King Charles any more. They put him on trial. On 27 January 1649, the trial found him guilty of treason and called him a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy". He was beheaded three days later.

Many historians say that the execution of King Charles was an important moment in English history, and even in the history of the Western World. No European monarch had ever been put on trial by their own people before. Other countries in Europe said the execution was wrong, but they did not do much else. Not all Parliamentarians supported the execution. Fairfax thought it was wrong. He resigned as leader of the New Model Army, and was replaced by Oliver Cromwell.

The next king would have been Charles' son Prince Charles, the future King Charles II. Parliament announced instead that England would become a republic, called the Commonwealth of England. However, Prince Charles could still become King of Scotland.

Third English Civil War (1649-51)
The third English Civil War was actually more of a fight between Scottish and English armies, and much of it was fought in Scotland.

In 1649, the Marquess of Montrose started a rebellion in Scotland in support of King Charles II. Rather than support Montrose, Charles decided to ally with the Scottish Covenantors. They feared the Commonwealth of England would stop Scotland from having a Presbyterian church. Montrose was defeated by Scottish armies in April 1650. In June, Charles landed in Scotland and signed an agreement with the Scottish Covenantors.

Cromwell travelled to Scotland and arrived the following month. Over the next year, he took control of the main parts of Scotland. When Charles fled to England, Cromwell followed him, leaving George Monck to finish winning the war in Scotland. When this was done, Scotland became part of the Commonwealth of England.

Charles' army marched across England to the western regions where the Royalists had the most support. However, they could not find as many supporters as they wanted. Cromwell found them and defeated them at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. Charles fled to The Netherlands. He would not return until 1660.

Irish rebellion

The Irish rebellion that started in 1641 would continue until 1652. It was mainly fought by Irish Catholics against armies of the English Parliamentarians, Scottish Covenantors and Protestant settlers in Ireland. At first the rebels fought English Royalist armies as well, but this mostly stopped after September 1843. Seven months after the rebellion began, the rebels created their own government in Kilkenny. This was known as the Irish Catholic Confederation.

In 1649, Oliver Cromwell went to Ireland and put down their rebellion. Cromwell was remembered in Ireland as a brutal invader, particularly because of the large numbers of people killed at the Siege of Drogheda. Some fighting continued in Ireland until 1653.

Afterwards

The next nine years
The wars left England, Scotland and Ireland all as part of the Commonwealth of England, one of the few countries in Europe without a monarch. After the wars ended, Cromwell disbanded the Rump Parliament and took over the country. He chose to be "Lord Protector" rather than King, because he did not think the country needed another king.  His government was called "the Protectorate" or "the Commonwealth".  The period from 1649 to 1660 is also called the English Interregnum (meaning gap between kings).

Oliver Cromwell ruled the country until he died in 1658. Cromwell's son, Richard, took over as Lord Protector. However, the Army did not think he was a good ruler. After seven months, the Army removed Richard, and in May 1659 it re-installed the Rump Parliament. However, the Army did not get on with the Rump Parliament either and disbanded it a second time. There were fears that England would not have a proper government.

George Monck, a key leader in the Army, arranged for a new Parliament to be elected. On 8 May 1660, the new Parliament decided to restore the monarchy with Charles II as the king. He returned to England later that month. This event is known as the English Restoration. Scotland and Ireland went back to being separate countries and the pre-war churches returned.

Long term
Although the monarchy returned, the Civil War had long-lasting effects. The war made it clear that an English monarch could not rule without the support of Parliament. The law was not changed to limit the monarch's power (this was done after the 1688 Glorious Revolution). Historians consider the Civil War to be a stage in England and Scotland's long journeys from rule by one king to becoming a democracy.

In Ireland, the defeat of the rebellion strengthened the power of the Protestants. This was one of the reasons why Ireland would be ruled by Protestants from the late 17th century until the 20th century, even though most Irish people were Catholic.

Tactics
The English Civil War was fought with "pike and shot" tactics. These were used in most wars from the late 15th century to the late 17th century. Armies were divided into three main groups:
 Musketeers: They fired a type of gun called a musket. Muskets were not as powerful or easy to use as modern guns.
 Pikemen: They carried a very long spear, called a pike. Their main job was to stop the enemy's cavalry.
 Cavalry: They were horse riders who would charge at the enemy's musketeers. A very skilled cavalry could charge at the enemy's pikemen.

At first, the Royalists had a better cavalry. Their riders were faster and more skilled. Prince Rupert had fought in the Eighty Years War in The Netherlands and used the lessons learned there to improve his cavalry. However, sometimes the Royalist cavalry failed to work as a team. At the Battle of Edgehill, many of them decided to chase fleeing soldiers or steal from the Parliamentarian baggage wagons. The Royalists might have won this battle if their cavalry had stayed together.

Cromwell's "Ironside" cavalry were slower but worked better as a team. They helped the Parliamentarians win some key battles. The Parliamentarians sometimes had a problem that pikemen would run away when cavalry charged at them. Cromwell and Fairfax trained them to stay in place.

Notes

References

Other websites
 English Civil War -Citizendium

Wars involving England
Civil wars involving Europe
Rebellions in Europe
17th-century rebellions
17th century in England
17th century in Scotland
History of Ireland
1640s in Europe
1650s in Europe

English Civil War


Gehry Tower is a nine-story building constructed by architect Frank Gehry; it is located at the Steintor, Goethestraße 13a, in Hanover, Germany. The building was commissioned by the city-owned Hanover Transport Services (üstra), for whom Gehry also designed a bus stop in the city.

Constructed of stainless steel, the tower is memorable for the noticeable twist in its outer façade on a ferroconcrete core, making optimal use of the relatively small piece of ground on which it is located. Like many of Gehry's buildings, the tower was created with the most modern technology available at the time. Gehry's office first created a 1:100 model, which was then scanned and imported into CAD software to be able to compute the dimensions for the individual parts, all of which vary in size and shape.

Construction began in 1999, cost 8.5 million Deutsche Mark, and the building officially opened 28 June 2001.

See also
 List of works by Frank Gehry

External links

References

Frank Gehry buildings
Buildings and structures completed in 2001
Buildings and structures in Hanover
Twisted buildings and structures
2001 establishments in Germany

Gehry Tower


The Riemann hypothesis is a mathematical question (conjecture). Finding a proof of the hypothesis is one of the hardest and most important unsolved problems of pure mathematics. Pure mathematics is a type of mathematics that is about thinking about mathematics. This is different from trying to put mathematics into the real world. The answer to the Riemann hypothesis is "yes" or "no".

The conjecture is named after a man called Bernhard Riemann. He lived in the 1800s. The Riemann hypothesis asks a question about a special thing called the Riemann zeta function.

If the answer to the question is "yes", this would mean mathematicians can know more about prime numbers. Specifically, it would help them know how to find prime numbers. The Riemann hypothesis is so important, and so difficult to prove, that the Clay Mathematics Institute has offered $1,000,000 to the first person to prove it.

What is the Riemann hypothesis?

What is the Riemann zeta function???

The Riemann zeta function is a kind of function. Functions are things in mathematics like equations. Functions take in numbers and give you other numbers back. This is like how you get an answer back when you ask a question. The number you put in is called an "input". The number you get back is called a "value". Every input you put into the Riemann zeta function gives you a special value back. You mostly get a different value for each input. But each input gives you the same value every time you use it. Both the input you give, and the value you get, from the Riemann zeta function are special numbers called complex numbers. A complex number is a number with two parts, a real part and an imaginary part. The imaginary part is called imaginary because you would have to "imagine" such a number as  that when multiplied by itself is equal to . Because based on the rules of arithmetic  and  no such number could exist, it would have to be imagined. Imaginary numbers have vast use in mathematics; without them a lot of technologies would not be possible. As a tangible example, in order to use quadratic formula to solve some equations, the answer sometimes has to be an imaginary number, and historically this was the reason why imaginary numbers were invented in the first place.

What is a non-trivial root?
Sometimes when you put an input into the Riemann zeta function, you get the number zero back. When this happens, you call that input a root of the Riemann zeta function. You call the input a "root" when it gives you zero. Lots of roots have been found. But some roots are easier to find than others. We call the roots "trivial" or "non-trivial". We call a root "trivial" if it is easy to find. But we call a root "non-trivial" if its hard to find. The trivial roots are numbers called "negative even integers". The reason we think they are easy is because they are easy to find. There are neat rules that say what the trivial roots are. We know what the trivial roots are because of the equation that Bernhard Riemann gave. That equation was called "Riemann's functional equation".

How do we find non-trivial roots?
The non-trivial roots are harder to find. They don't have the same neat rules that say what they are. Even though they are hard to find, lots of non-trivial roots have been found. Remember that the value of the Riemann zeta function was a kind of number called a complex number. And remember that complex numbers have two parts. One of these parts is called the "real part". We noticed an interesting thing about the real part of the non-trivial roots. All the non-trivial roots we found have a real part that is the same number. This number is 1/2, which is a fraction. This takes us to Riemann's big question, which is about how big the real parts are. The question is "do all the non-trivial roots have real part 1/2?", and the hypothesis says the answer is yes. We are still trying to find out if the answer is "yes" or "no".

What do we know so far?
We do not know the answer to the question yet. But we do know some good facts. These facts might help us. There is a way we can find facts about the real parts of the non-trivial roots. This is with Riemann's special equation (Riemann's functional equation). Riemann's functional equation tells us about the size of the real parts. It says that all the non-trivial zeros have a real part close to 1/2. It says how small the real parts can be, and how big they can be. But it doesn't say exactly what they are. Specifically, it says the real parts have to be bigger than 0. But they have to be less than 1. But we still don't know if there might be a non-trivial root with a real part very close to 1/2. Maybe there is, but we just have not found it yet. The group of complex numbers that have a real part bigger than 0 but smaller than 1 is called the "critical strip".

The Riemann hypothesis in a picture
The picture in the top-right corner of this page shows the Riemann zeta function. The non-trivial roots are shown with the white dots. They look like they're all in a line down the very middle of the picture. They're not too far to the left and not too far to the right. The real part is how far left-to-right you are. Being in the middle of the picture means they have a real part of 1/2. So all the non-trivial roots in the picture have a real part of 1/2. But our picture doesn't show everything because the Riemann zeta function is too big to show. So what about the non-trivial roots above and below the picture? Would they be in the middle too? What if they break the pattern of being in the middle? They could be slightly to the left or right. The Riemann hypothesis asks if every non-trivial root (white dot) would be on the line down the middle. If the answer is no, we say the "hypothesis is false". This would mean that there are white dots which are not on the line given.

References

Number theory
Conjectures

Riemann hypothesis


The Zion Christian Church (ZCC)  is one of the largest African-initiated churches operating across Southern Africa, and is part of the African Zionism movement. The church's headquarters are at Zion City Moria in Limpopo Province (old Northern Transvaal), South Africa.

According to the 1996 South African Census, the church numbered 3.87 million members. By the 2001 South African Census, its membership had increased to 4.97 million members.

History
After being educated at two Anglican missions, Engenas Lekganyane joined the Apostolic Faith Mission in Boksburg. He then joined the Zion Apostolic Church schism and eventually became a preacher of a congregation in his home village during late World War I. After falling out with the ZAC leadership, Lekganyane went to Basutoland to join Edward Lion's Zion Apostolic Faith Mission

Engenas Lekganyane founded the ZCC after a revelation which Engenas Lekganyane is said to have received from God on the top of Mt Thabakgone in 1910. After splitting from Lion, Engenas Lekganyane used his home village of Thabakgone, near Polokwane (Pietersburg), as the headquarters, with about twenty initial congregations in the Northern Transvaal, the Witwatersrand, and Rhodesia. In 1930 Lekganyane began building a stone church there. After clashes with his chief, Engenas Lekganyane was expelled with his church still unfinished. Determined to obtain land, he eventually purchased three farms in the Polokwane area. Maclean Farm near Thabakgone would eventually be renamed "Moria," the ZCC's headquarters. The ZCC was officially registered in 1962 after the government's reluctance to recognize one of the continent's largest and most influential churches. The early church was strongly influenced by the doctrines of the Christian Catholic Church of John Alexander Dowie, based in Zion, Illinois, in the United States of America, and by the teachings of the Pentecostal missionary John G. Lake, who began work in Johannesburg in 1908.

Due to Engenas Lekganyane's attempts to appeal to migrant workers, the ZCC developed an international membership very early on, which went on to set up many congregations in neighboring countries like Zimbabwe. In the late 1930s, migrant workers from Botswana also started ZCC chapters, although they faced considerable opposition from the authorities.

Following Engenas Lekganyane's death in 1948, a major split in the church occurred. The church's large section of male migrant workers generally backed Engenas Lekganyane's oldest surviving son, the charismatic Edward Lekganyane, to succeed his father as the ZCC Bishop. The church's rural base, meanwhile, backed a younger son, Joseph, to assume church leadership. Although events are highly disputed, Engenas Lekganyane himself appears to have favoured Joseph even though Edward was the chosen one— who served as his father's adviser and chauffeur during the 1940s. According to some traditions, during Engenas Lekganyane's mourning period, Edward's supporters mobilized on the Witwatersrand and hired buses to take them to Moria. After arrival, this large, armed group was able to eject the pro-Joseph faction and take over the church's headquarters and infrastructure. Contemporary records relating to the event show that Edward was installed peacefully in Easter 1949 in a large ceremony by his uncle, Reuben. Other written reports from the following year indicate that strong opposition to his leadership had arisen among "most of the preachers" in the ZCC who were "shocked" by Edward: "they denied the son of the great Lekganyane, saying he was not leader of the church." Initially, the two factions remained together, but Edward soon insisted that all members declare their loyalty in public, and this led to a permanent split. The ZCC continued under Edward's leadership, while Joseph seceded and formed the St. Engenas Zion Christian Church in 1949.

The ZCC changed fairly dramatically following his son Edward Lekganyane's assumption of control of the church in April 1949. Edward was a highly educated, flamboyant figure who eventually obtained a degree at an Afrikaans divinity school. Under his leadership, the all-male Mokhukhu organisation developed out of his core group of supporters. This group initially formed as a church choir. Wearing military-style khakis, police-style hats, and the Star badge, the Mokhukhu in each congregation engaged in dancing, singing, and praying three times a week according to a preset schedule. An additional feature of Edward's control of the ZCC was the rapid growth of Zion City Moria as a pilgrimage site. Using the Boyne farm that his father had purchased in the 1940s, Edward instituted annual pilgrimages that have gone on to become massive southern African-wide events. Each year during Easter Holidays, up to a million Church members bus en masse to Moria, Polokwane (Pietersburg), to meet the Bishop and to pray for blessings.

Characteristics

The church fuses African traditions and values with Protestant Christian faith. As opposed to the mainstream European churches, the church has sought independence and autonomy in terms of theological and dogmatic approach. According to the ZCC, scholars such as EK Lukhaimane, Hanekom, Kruger, Sundkler and Daneel did not understand the ZCC's approach to Christianity. Due to the apartheid education system in which Africans and their beliefs were rejected and mocked, they saw ZCC as a sect. This situation was exacerbated by the church's policy on secrecy, which limited its ability to publicise its activities. As a result, the ZCC maintains that much writing about it is inaccurate.
The church still believes in prophecy, the power of healing and spiritual counselling, which did not resonate with the scientific perspectives of these academics. Instead of attempting to understand any therapeutic value these practices might hold, they dismissed them as mere superstitious rituals. The use of different mechanisms for faith-healing include the laying-on of hands, the use of holy water, drinking of blessed tea and coffee to the point of vomiting in the belief that it cleanses the drinkers from the bad spirits that reside in their stomachs and the wearing of blessed cords or cloth.
The colours of the church are green and yellow. Church uniforms differ according to the state and gender of members and occasions. Men wear khakis for dancing and green suits for church services. Young women wear blue for church services and khaki for choir practices. Elder women wear green and yellow regalia for church services.
As part of their everyday clothing, many ZCC members wear a badge or lapel pin, consisting of a swatch of green cloth and a metallic badge indicating the branch of the church to which they belong.
Because the church preaches the message of peace, they start their greetings with the words "kgotsong" or "kgotso a e be le lena/kgotso e be le lena" meaning "peace be unto you." ZCC is about peace and respect and the love of God.
Women do not take part in Sunday service preaching. They, especially in ZCC Star, are allowed to preach during the women's services held every Wednesday.

Members of the ZCC generally believe that:

 A person is saved through baptism in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (Christian Bible, Matt 28:19), by dipping him/her in water 3 times.
 ZCC members pray to God in the name of Jesus Christ. Lekganyane is the leader.
 Redemption is obtained through confession, repentance and prayer.
 The bishop and ministers of the ZCC preach the Gospel of Jesus Christ as laid out in the bible.
 The ZCC Church members have a strong belief in Prophets and Prophecies.

See also
 List of the largest Protestant bodies

Notes
 Anderson, A., 1999. "The Lekganyanes and Prophecy in the Zion Christian Church", Journal of Religion in Africa, xxix – 3
 Hanekom, C., 1975. Krisis en Kultus: Geloofsopvattinge en seremonies binne 'n Swart Kerk, Academica: Kaapstad en Pretoria.
Motshwaraganyi Tlhako "The two largest churches in Southern Africa", 2010 'Maltipular Senior Publishers'

References

African initiated churches
Christian new religious movements
Pentecostal denominations
Christian organizations established in 1924
Churches in South Africa
1924 establishments in South Africa

Zion Christian Church


Outsider art is art made by self-taught or supposedly naïve artists with typically little or no contact with the conventions of the art worlds. In many cases, their work is discovered only after their deaths. Often, outsider art illustrates extreme mental states, unconventional ideas, or elaborate fantasy worlds.

The term outsider art was coined in 1972 as the title of a book by art critic Roger Cardinal. It is an English equivalent for art brut (, "raw art" or "rough art"), a label created in the 1940s by French artist Jean Dubuffet to describe art created outside the boundaries of official culture. Dubuffet focused particularly on art by those on the outside of the established art scene, using as examples psychiatric hospital patients, hermits, and spiritualists.

Outsider art has emerged as a successful art marketing category; an annual Outsider Art Fair has taken place in New York since 1993, and there are at least two regularly published journals dedicated to the subject. The term is sometimes misapplied as a catch-all marketing label for art created by people who are outside the mainstream "art world" or "art gallery system", regardless of their circumstances or the content of their work. A more specific term, "outsider music", was later adapted for musicians.

Art of the mentally ill

Interest in the art of the mentally ill, along with that of children and the makers of "peasant art", was first demonstrated by "Der Blaue Reiter" group: Wassily Kandinsky, August Macke, Franz Marc, Alexej von Jawlensky, and others. What the artists perceived in the work of these groups was an expressive power born of their perceived lack of sophistication. Examples of this were reproduced in 1912 in the first and only issue of their publication, Der Blaue Reiter Almanac. During World War I, Macke was killed at Champagne in 1914 and Marc was killed at Verdun in 1916; the gap left by these deaths was to some extent filled by Paul Klee, who continued to draw inspiration from these 'primitives'.

Interest in the art of insane asylum inmates continued to grow in the 1920s. In 1921, Dr. Walter Morgenthaler published his book Ein Geisteskranker als Künstler (A Psychiatric Patient as Artist) about Adolf Wölfli, a psychotic mental patient in his care. Wölfli had spontaneously taken up drawing, and this activity seemed to calm him. His most outstanding work was an illustrated epic of 45 volumes in which he narrated his own imaginary life story. With 25,000 pages, 1,600 illustrations, and 1,500 collages, it is a monumental work. Wölfli also produced a large number of smaller works, some of which were sold or given as gifts. His work is on display at the Adolf Wölfli Foundation in the Museum of Fine Art, Bern.

A defining moment was the publication of Bildnerei der Geisteskranken (Artistry of the Mentally Ill) in 1922, by Hans Prinzhorn. This was the first formal study of psychiatric works, based upon a compilation of thousands of examples from European institutions. The book and the art collection gained much attention from avant-garde artists of the time, including Paul Klee, Max Ernst, and Jean Dubuffet.

People with some formal artistic training as well as well-established artists are not immune from mental illness, and may also be institutionalized. For example, William Kurelek, later awarded the Order of Canada for his artistic life work, as a young man was admitted to the Maudsley Psychiatric Hospital where he was treated for schizophrenia. In the hospital he painted, producing The Maze, a dark depiction of his tortured youth. He was transferred from the Maudsley to Netherne Hospital from November 1953 to January 1955, to work with Edward Adamson (1911–1996), a pioneer of art therapy, and creator of the Adamson Collection.

Jean Dubuffet and art brut

French artist Jean Dubuffet was particularly struck by Bildnerei der Geisteskranken and began his own collection of such art, which he called art brut or raw art. In 1948 he formed the Compagnie de l'Art Brut along with other artists, including André Breton and Claude Lévi-Strauss. The collection he established became known as the Collection de l'art brut and the curator was Slavko Kopač for almost three decades. It contains thousands of works and is now permanently housed in Lausanne, Switzerland.

Dubuffet characterized art brut as:

Those works created from solitude and from pure and authentic creative impulses – where the worries of competition, acclaim and social promotion do not interfere – are, because of these very facts, more precious than the productions of professionals. After a certain familiarity with these flourishings of an exalted feverishness, lived so fully and so intensely by their authors, we cannot avoid the feeling that in relation to these works, cultural art in its entirety appears to be the game of a futile society, a fallacious parade.
— Jean Dubuffet, "Place à l'incivisme" (December 1987 – February 1988).  Dubuffet's writing on art brut was the subject of a noted program at the Art Club of Chicago in the early 1950s.

Dubuffet argued that 'culture', that is mainstream culture, managed to assimilate every new development in art, and by doing so took away whatever power it might have had. The result was to asphyxiate genuine expression. Art brut was his solution to this problem – only art brut was immune to the influences of culture, immune to being absorbed and assimilated, because the artists themselves were not willing or able to be assimilated.

Dubuffet's championing of Art Brut would not last long. Scholars argue Dubuffet's distaste for the mainstream art world helped ensure that art brut and the Compagnie de l'Art Brut would not survive on a commercial basis. Dubuffet would kill art brut as he defined it in his quest for its authenticity. Three years after the Compagnie de l'Art Brut was formed, Dubuffet dissolved it, caving in to form the more conventional Collection de l'art brut afterward.

Cultural context
The interest in "outsider" practices among twentieth-century artists and critics can be seen as part of a larger emphasis on the rejection of established values within the modernist art milieu. The early part of the 20th century gave rise to Cubism and the Dada, Constructivist and Futurist movements in art, all of which involved a dramatic movement away from cultural forms of the past. Dadaist Marcel Duchamp, for example, abandoned "painterly" technique to allow chance operations a role in determining the form of his works, or simply to recontextualize existing "ready-made" objects as art. Mid-century artists, including Pablo Picasso, looked outside the traditions of high culture for inspiration, drawing from the artifacts of "primitive" societies, the unschooled art made by children, and vulgar advertising graphics. Dubuffet's championing of the art brut – of the insane and others at the margins of society – is yet another example of avant-garde art challenging established cultural values. As with analysis of these other art movements, current discourse indicates art brut is innately tied to primitivism due to its similarity in its borrowing of personal "de-patriation" and exoticization of familiar yet alien forms.

Terminology

A number of terms are used to describe art that is loosely understood as "outside" of official culture.  Definitions of these terms vary and overlap.  The editors of Raw Vision, a leading journal in the field, suggest that "Whatever views we have about the value of controversy itself, it is important to sustain creative discussion by way of an agreed vocabulary". Consequently, they lament the use of "outsider artist" to refer to almost any untrained artist. "It is not enough to be untrained, clumsy or naïve. Outsider Art is virtually synonymous with Art Brut in both spirit and meaning, to that rarity of art produced by those who do not know its name."

Art Brut: Coined by Jean Dubuffet, the term translated literally from French means "raw art".  'Raw' is analogous in that it has not been through the academic 'cooking' process: i.e. the world of art schools, galleries, and museums. Dubuffet's original definition pertains strictly to the 'raw art' created by the autodidactic and shunned fringes of society.
Folk art: Folk art originally suggested crafts and decorative skills associated with peasant communities in Europe – though presumably it could equally apply to any indigenous culture. It has broadened to include any product of practical craftsmanship and decorative skill – everything from chain-saw animals to hub-cap buildings. A key distinction between folk and outsider art is that folk art typically embodies traditional forms and social values, where outsider art stands in some marginal relationship to society's mainstream.
Intuitive art/Visionary art: Raw Vision Magazines preferred general terms for outsider art. It describes them as deliberate umbrella terms. However, visionary art, unlike other definitions here can often refer to the subject matter of the works, which includes images of a spiritual or religious nature. Intuitive art is probably the most general term available. Intuit: The Center for Intuitive and Outsider Art based in Chicago operates a museum dedicated to the study and exhibition of intuitive and outsider art.  The American Visionary Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland is dedicated to the collection and display of visionary art.
Marginal art/Art singulier: Essentially the same as Neuve Invention; refers to artists on the margins of the art world.
Naïve art: Another term commonly applied to untrained artists who aspire to "normal" artistic status, i.e. they have a much more conscious interaction with the mainstream art world than do outsider artists.
Neuve invention: Used to describe artists who, although marginal, have some interaction with mainstream culture. They may be doing art part-time for instance. The expression was coined by Dubuffet too; strictly speaking, it refers only to a special part of the Collection de l'art brut.
Visionary environments: Buildings and sculpture parks built by visionary artists – ranging from decorated houses to large areas incorporating a large number of individual sculptures with a tightly associated theme. Examples include Watts Towers by Simon Rodia, Buddha Park and Sala Keoku by Bunleua Sulilat, and The Palais idéal by Ferdinand Cheval.

Notable outsider artists

See also

:Category: Outsider artists

References

Further reading

Bandyopadhyay, S. and I. Jackson, The Collection, the Ruin and the Theatre: architecture, sculpture and landscape in Nek Chand's Rock Garden, Chandigarh Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 2007.
Greg Bottoms, I Colori dell'Apocalisse – Viaggi nell'outsider art, Odoya, Bologna 2009
Greg Bottoms, The Colorful Apocalypse: Journeys in Outsider Art, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007
Roger Cardinal, Art Brut. In: Dictionary of Art, Vol. 2, London, 1996, p. 515–516.
Marion Scherr, The Invention of 'Outsider Art' – Experiencing Practices of Othering in Contemporary Art Worlds in the UK, Transcript Verlag, 2022.
Marc Decimo, Les Jardins de l'art brut, Les presses du réel, Dijon (France), 2007.
 Turhan Demirel, "Outsider Bilderwelten", Bettina Peters Verlag, 2006,
Jean Dubuffet: L'Art brut préféré aux arts culturels [1949](=engl in: Art brut. Madness and Marginalia, special issue of Art & Text, No. 27, 1987, p. 31–33).
Hal Foster, Blinded Insight: On the Modernist Reception of the Art of The Mentally Ill. In: October, No. 97, Summer 2001, pp. 3–30.
Michael D. Hall and Eugene W. Metcalf, eds., The Artist Outsider: Creativity and the Boundaries of Culture Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 1993.
Deborah Klochko and John Turner, eds., Create and Be Recognized: Photography on the Edge, San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2004.
John M. MacGregor, The Discovery of the Art of the Insane. Princeton, Oxford, 1989.
David Maclagan, Outsider Art: From the margins to the marketplace, London: Reaktion books, 2009.
John Maizels, Raw Creation art and beyond, Phaidon Press Limited, London, 1996.
John Maizels (ed.), Outsider Art Sourcebook. Raw Vision, Watford, 2009.
Lucienne Peiry, Art brut: The Origins of Outsider Art, Paris: Flammarion, 2001.
 Lucienne Peiry (ed.), "Collection de l'Art Brut, Lausanne", Skira Flammarion, 2012.
Lyle Rexer, How to Look at Outsider Art, New York:Abrams, 2005.
Colin Rhodes, Outsider Art: Spontaneous Alternatives, London: Thames and Hudson, 2000.
Rubin, Susan Goldman.  (March 9, 2004).  Art Against the Odds: From Slave Quilts to Prison Paintings.  Publisher: Crown Books for Young Readers.
Michel Thévoz, Art brut, New York, 1975.
Maurice Tuchman and Carol Eliel, eds. Parallel Visions. Modern Artists and Outsider Art. Exhb. cat. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, 1992.
 Bianca Tosatti, Arte e psichiatria. Uno sguardo sottile, (in collaboration with Giorgio Bedoni), Mazzotta, Milano, 2000.
Bianca Tosatti, Les Fascicules de l'Art brut', un saggio sull'artista Antonio dalla Valle,2007.
Allen S. Weiss, Shattered Forms, Art Brut, Phantasms, Modernism, State University of New York, Albany, 1992.
Self Taught Artists of the 20th Century: An American Anthology San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1998
 Daniel Wojcik, Outsider Art: Visionary Worlds and Trauma. University Press of Mississippi, 2016.

External links

Jeanine Taylor Folk Art – Purveyor of Outsider Art
Raw Vision Magazine – International art magazine devoted to outsider art
 Gricha-rosov.com – Rich database and presentation of international outsider artists (in French language, but has extensive illustrations)
 Outsider Artists in the Collection of Museum of Naive and Marginal Art (MNMA) Jagodina Serbia
 Russian outsider art from the Bogemskaja-Turchin collection
Outsider Art news, wire, and announcements
Collection: "Folk, Self-Taught, Amateur, and Visionary Art" at the University of Michigan Museum of Art

Visual arts genres
Art Informel and Tachisme
1970s neologisms

Outsider art


Engine knocking is the sound produced in an internal combustion engine when the fuel does not ignite properly. The mixture of petrol and air is meant to be ignited only by the spark plug at the right moment in the stroke of the piston in the engine. If there is a problem with the engine, this fuel and air mixture can be ignited at the wrong time by pressure and heat. The explosion of the mixture makes a destructive knocking sound. This uncontrolled explosion can damage the engine and may even destroy it.

Motors
Engineering

Engine knocking


A blood cell is any cell of any type found in blood. There are three main types of blood cells in mammals:
Red blood cell-carries oxygen
White blood cell-kills bacteria and cleans up debris
Platelet-helps heal wounds. Platelets are really thrombocytes. These are small fragments (pieces) of a cell called a megakaryocyte. The platelets take part in blood clots when injury occurs.

Discovery
Jan Swammerdam a scientist from the Netherlands was the first person to observe red blood cells under a microscope. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, another scientist from the Netherlands, was the first to draw an illustration of "Red Blood Cells".

Cell biology

Blood cell


Iron(II,III) oxide is a chemical compound. It can be used as an iron ore (source of a material) called magnetite.  It is black and brittle.  It can oxidize to red iron(III) oxide after some time.  It is attracted to magnets.  It is a compound that contains iron in two different oxidation states; some of the iron atoms are in a +2 oxidation state and some are in a +3 oxidation state.

Related pages
 Iron(II) oxide
 Iron(III) oxide, rust
 Iron oxide
 Rust
 Iron(II) hydroxide

Minerals
Iron compounds
Oxides

Iron(II,III) oxide


Provisional order is a method of procedure followed by several government departments in England, authorizing action on the part of local authorities under various acts of Parliament.

Procedure by provisional order is a substitute for the more expensive course of private bill legislation; it is usually employed for such purposes as alteration of areas, compulsory purchase of land and building of light railways. A preliminary local inquiry is first held in public by an inspector of the department to whom application has been made to issue it. Upon the report of the inspector and other information, the department decides whether or not to issue the order. The order when issued has no force until it is confirmed by Parliament. For this purpose it is included with other orders in a confirming bill, introduced by the minister at the head of the department concerned.

In both houses of Parliament all provisional order bills are referred to examiners for compliance with standing orders. In the House of Lords, if a provisional order bill is opposed, it is referred to a select committee and then to a committee of the whole house; if not opposed, it goes, after second reading, to a committee of the whole house, and in both cases then proceeds as a public bill. In the House of Commons, the bill goes after second reading to the committee of selection or to the general committee on railway and canal bills; if unopposed it is treated as an unopposed private bill; if opposed it goes to a private bill committee, which hears evidence for and against.

These are now rare, having been all but superseded by the Statutory Orders (Special Procedure) Act 1945, but were common from 1860 to 1945.

A provisional order bill cannot be passed without the consent of the House of Lords under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949.

References

Statutory law
English law

Provisional order


Timothy David Benjamin (born 2 May 1982) is a former professional athlete from Wales. He specialised in the 400 metres, and in his teens was coached by Jock Anderson, in the same training group as Christian Malcolm. He then moved to live in Slough to be coached by Tony Lester; Marlon Devonish amongst others was one of his training partners.

As a youngster, he ran over 200 metres, and won several junior titles, including the World Youth Championship in 1999. Soon after, he began to concentrate on the 400 m, and was selected for the relay squad at the World Championships in Athletics in Edmonton in 2001.

By 2002 he had established himself as one of Britain's best athletes, winning the British AAA title, and running in the successful Team GB squad at the European Cup. In the Commonwealth Games that year, he helped guide Wales to a silver medal in the controversial 4 × 400 metres relay, which was won by England, and disputed by many, including the athletes themselves. It was during that year also that he earned a silver in the European Athletics U23 Championships in Poland.

Following a number of injuries, he announced his retirement from athletics in 2009.

Senior career
He reached the semi-finals of the 2004 Olympics, and won the 400 m race at the 2004 European Cup. Further achievements in the 400 m came in 2005: he came fifth at the World Championships and took silver at the World Athletics Final.

At the 2006 European Athletics Championships in Gothenburg, he won the silver medal in the 4x400 m relay with the British team, as the finishing sprinter, along with Robert Tobin, Rhys Williams and Graham Hedman, in a time of 3:01.63. He finished sixth in the final of the individual event.

In late 2006, he announced that he was moving back to his hometown of Cardiff to be coached by former 100 metres hurdles world record holder Colin Jackson, whilst fellow Welsh relay member Rhys Williams would also be moving back from Loughborough.

Benjamin competed at the 2007 World Championships in Osaka, but failed to make the final, recording 46.17 s in the semis.

Benjamin suffered a number of injuries and decided to bring an end to his athletics career in mid-2009. Citing his disappointment in missing the 2008 Beijing Olympics, he said that "taking an individual or relay spot in the Berlin World Championships from an aspiring 2012 Olympian would be disingenuous and unfair".

Personal life
Benjamin is married to a sweetheart from his schooldays, Natalie Lewis, an accomplished Welsh middle distance specialist in her own right. They married in November 2007. His father is a highly regarded professor of Biosciences at Cardiff University.

Personal bests
Last updated 6 April 2009

 All information taken from IAAF profile.

References

External links

Living people
1982 births
Welsh male sprinters
Athletes (track and field) at the 2002 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Wales
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
Olympic athletes for Great Britain
People educated at Radyr Comprehensive School
European Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics Indoor Championships medalists
AAA Championships winners
Medallists at the 2002 Commonwealth Games

Tim Benjamin (sprinter)


Belfast Waterfront is a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre, in Belfast, Northern Ireland, designed by local architects' firm Robinson McIlwaine. The hall is located in Lanyon Place, the flagship development of the Laganside Corporation. The development is named after the architect Charles Lanyon.

Construction
Planning for the building began 1989, with the hall being completed in 1997 for the sum of £32 million. Practice partner Peter McGuckin was the project architect. The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is based on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall designed by Hans Scharoun. However the flexible design of the Auditorium allows the stalls seating to be moved to create a larger arena. The smaller adjoining Studio seats 380. The dome of the building is coated in copper. This is so the exterior will eventually turn green and reflect the dome of Belfast City Hall and other Victorian buildings in the city centre. The building also contains bars and a restaurant.

Notable events

Many plays take place every year, in the 350 seated capacity studio, including operas, pantomimes, and musicals.

The hall is a key venue for the Belfast Festival at Queen's and for concerts given by the Ulster Orchestra.

During their 2002 tour, in promotion of their album Right Now, famous pop trio Atomic Kitten recorded their Right Here, Right Now DVD at the auditorium.

Planxty performed there on 19, 20 and 21 January 2005 as part of their series of reunion concerts.

In 2011 the Waterfront hosted the Sinn Féin Ardfheis, the first time for it to be held in Belfast.

On March 15, 2013, American country music singer Carrie Underwood played a concert as part of her Blown Away Tour.

On January 18, 2014 Britain's Got Talent auditions were in here. The auditions were for the Series 8 of the show. The auditions were shown on April 14, 2014.

The annual Christmas show, 'The Music Box', starring Peter Corry was hosted by the Waterfront Hall in December 2013.

Westlife lead vocalist Shane Filan played at the hall as a solo artist in 2017.

The 2018 BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards are due to take place at the Hall on 4 April. It will be the first time the awards have taken place in Belfast.

The annual snooker tournament, The Northern Ireland Open has been held at the venue since its second year in 2017.

See also
 List of concert halls

References

External links

Official website
Belfast City Council -About Waterfront Hall
Robinson McIlwaine architects

Buildings and structures in Belfast
Concert halls in Northern Ireland
Exhibition and conference centres in Northern Ireland
Music venues in Belfast
Tourist attractions in Belfast
Buildings and structures completed in 1997
20th-century architecture in Northern Ireland

Waterfront Hall


In traditional logic, obversion is a "type of immediate inference in which from a given proposition another proposition is inferred whose subject is the same as the original subject, whose predicate is the contradictory of the original predicate, and whose quality is affirmative if the original proposition's quality was negative and vice versa". The quality of the inferred categorical proposition is changed but the truth value is the same to the original proposition. The immediately inferred proposition is termed the "obverse" of the original proposition, and is a valid form of inference for all types (A, E, I, O) of categorical propositions.

In a universal affirmative and a universal negative proposition the subject term and the predicate term are both replaced by their negated counterparts:

The universal affirmative ("A" proposition) is obverted to a universal negative ("E" proposition).

"All S are P" and "No S are non-P"

"All cats are animals" and "No cats are non-animals"

The universal negative ("E" proposition) is obverted to a universal affirmative ("A" proposition).

"No S are P" and "All S are non-P"

"No cats are friendly" and "All cats are non-friendly"

In the particular affirmative the quantity of the subject term remains unchanged, but the predicate term of the inferred proposition negates the complement of the predicate term of the original proposition. The particular affirmative ("I" proposition) is obverted to a particular negative ("O" proposition).

"Some S are P" and "Some S are not non-P"

"Some animals are friendly creatures" and "Some animals are not unfriendly creatures."

In the obversion of a particular negative to a particular affirmative the quantity of the subject also remains unchanged, and the predicate term is changed from simple negation to a term of the complementary class. The particular negative ("O") proposition is obverted to a particular affirmative ("I" proposition).

"Some S are not P" and "Some S are non-P"

"Some animals are not friendly creatures" and "Some animals are unfriendly creatures."

Note that the truth-value of an original statement is preserved in its resulting obverse form. Because of this, obversion can be used to determine the immediate inferences of all categorical propositions, regardless of quality or quantity.

In addition, obversion allows us to navigate through the traditional square of logical opposition by providing a means to proceed from "A" Propositions to "E" Propositions, as well as from "I" Propositions to "O" Propositions, and vice versa. However, although the resulting propositions from obversion are logically equivalent to the original statements in terms of truth-value, they are not semantically equivalent to their original statements in their standard form.

See also
Aristotle

Contraposition
Conversion (logic)
Inference
Syllogism
Term logic
Transposition (logic)

Footnotes

Bibliography
Brody, Bobuch A. "Glossary of Logical Terms". Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Vol. 5–6. Macmillan, 1973.
Copi, Irving. Introduction to Logic.  MacMillan, 1953.
Copi, Irving. Symbolic Logic.  MacMillan, 1979, fifth edition.
Stebbing, Susan. A Modern Introduction to Logic. Cromwell Company, 1931.

Immediate inference

Obversion


San Giacomo is a Gothic-style, Roman Catholic church located at the Piazza San Giacomo, Foligno, Italy.

History
The site on which the church was built in 1402 was originally the site of an old hospice, dedicated to St. James, as attested in a document of Pope Innocent III in 1210. The hospice and its chapel were passed on the Servite Order by bishop Paperone de' Paperoni in 1273. They transformed the main hall of the hospice into a church. The present church was built in 1402 under Prior Filippo di Massiolo da Foligno, incorporating the older church at its crossing. This was probably largely financed by Ugolino III Trinci, the lord of Foligno. The church was modified in the 17th and 18th centuries. The earthquake of 1997 badly damaged the church; restoration of the church was finished in 2000.

The Servite Order remained with a small presence in Foligno until 1994 but their convent had been closed in 1860.

The Gothic façade with its white and red bands and large window has remained unfinished. One enters the church through a beautiful ogival portal. Two inscriptions flank the portal, one records the enlargement of the church in 1402, while the other shows the arms of the Servites.

The lower part of the campanile was built at the same time, but the upper part was rebuilt in the 17th century.

The three-naved interior was redecorated in Baroque style during the period 1721-1729. The presbytery was rebuilt by the bishop Luca Cibo. He also probably added the cupola around 1490. The main altar stands before a construction with five winged angels on top of the gilded columns. The three statues behind the altar represent the Grieving Madonna flanked by the apostles James the Great and James the Less and were sculpted by Antonio Calcioni in 1702.

There are several works of art over the side altars. The first side altar on the left is dedicated to St. Roche and was constructed in the period 1480-1485 to thank the saint for protecting the city during the plague that affected the city in 1476-81. The processional banner over the altar, attributed to Pierantonio Mezzastris, depicts St. Roch commending the people of Foligno to the Redeemer. It was first used in procession in 1481.

Adjoining the church is a cloister with two arcades on top of each other. The lower arcade dates from 1442-1454, while the upper arcade is an addition from the 17th century. The lunettes of the lower arcade show the damaged frescoes by Giovan Battista Michelini, Il Folignate depicting scenes from the life of San Filippo Benizi (1611), a canonized general superior of the Servites. The Chapter Room retains the original windows of the ancient hospice. The sacristy of the church stands on the same spot as the chapel of the old hospice.

References
Key to Umbria: The Church of San Giacomo
 (in Italian)
 (In Italian)

Roman Catholic churches in Foligno
Gothic architecture in Foligno
15th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1402

San Giacomo, Foligno