Perctarit (also Berthari) (died 688) was king of the Lombards from 661 to 662 the first time and later from 671 to 688.

He was the son and successor of Aripert I.  He shared power with his brother Godepert.  He was a Catholic, whereas Godepert was an Arian.  He ruled from Milan, Godepert from Pavia.  Godepert called for the aid of Duke Grimoald I of Benevento in a war with Perctarit, but the Beneventan had him assassinated and took control of the kingdom, forcing Perctarit to flee.

Perctarit first arrived at the court of the Avar khagan Kakar.  Meanwhile, his wife, Rodelinde, and their son Cunincpert were captured by Grimoald and sent to Benevento.  Perctarit returned soon thereafter to conspire against Grimoald, but fled again to Francia.  When Grimoald concluded a treaty with the Franks, Perctarit prepared to flee to Britain, but news of Grimoald's death reached him first.

In 671, Perctarit returned from exile and reclaimed his realm, which was being ruled on behalf of Grimoald's son Garibald.  He made Catholicism the official religion, but did not recognise papal authority.  He made peace with the Byzantines and associated Cunincpert with the throne in 678.  He sought to put down the rebellion of Alagis, duke of Trent. It was to be his only campaign; he captured the duke, then pardoned and released him. Perctarit was assassinated in 688 by a conspiracy.

His daughter Wigilinda married Duke Grimoald II of Benevento, son of Romuald I of Benevento.  Perctarit's reign is not noted for its military accomplishments, but for his religious endowments.  He built the churches of Saint Agatha and the Virgin (outside the walls) at Pavia.  He was succeeded by his more warlike son, who was to fight to no avail against the man his father had caught and let go.  Perctarit and Rodelinde themselves were to live on in opera as the Bertarido and Rodelinda of Handel's Rodelinda, Regina de' Longobardi, though not much of their actual history survived in Nicola Francesco Haym's libretto, drawn more from Pierre Corneille's Pertharite than from Historia Langobardorum. He was buried in the Basilica of Santissimo Salvatore in Pavia.

References

Notes

Sources

688 deaths
7th-century Lombard monarchs
Lombard warriors
Bavarian dynasty
Year of birth unknown

Perctarit


Germain Katanga (; born 28 April 1978), also known as Simba (), is a former leader of the Patriotic Resistance Force in Ituri (FRPI), an armed group in the Ituri Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).  On 17 October 2007, the Congolese authorities surrendered him to the International Criminal Court (ICC) to stand trial on six counts of war crimes and three counts of crimes against humanity.  The charges include murder, sexual slavery, rape, destruction of property, pillaging, willful killing, and directing crimes against civilians.

On 7 March 2014, Katanga was convicted by the ICC on five counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity as an accessory to the February 2003 massacre in the village of Bogoro. The verdict was the second-ever conviction in the 12 years of operation of the ICC, following the 2012 conviction of Thomas Lubanga Dyilo.

Early life and family
Katanga was born on 28 April 1978 in Mambasa, Orientale Province, in the north-east of Zaire (the modern-day DRC).  He is believed to be of Ngiti ethnicity.  He is married to Denise Katanga and has two children.

Patriotic Resistance Force in Ituri

In early 2003, he emerged as the senior commander of the FRPI, a militia group which was involved in the conflict in Ituri.  On 24 February 2003, Katanga allegedly led an attack on the village of Bogoro in which rebels under his command went on an "indiscriminate killing spree", killing at least 200 civilians, imprisoning survivors in a room filled with corpses, and sexually enslaving women and girls.  It has also been alleged that Katanga helped lead other crimes, including the massacre of more than 1,200 civilians in an attack at Nyakunde Hospital in September 2002.

On December 11, 2004, Katanga was one of six former militia leaders appointed as generals in the Congolese armed forces (FARDC) as part of a peace process. He was granted the specific rank of brigadier general. Katanga was succeeded as leader of the FRPI by Cobra Matata.

He was arrested by the Congolese authorities in early March 2005 in connection with the killing of nine United Nations peacekeepers in Ituri on 25 February 2005.  He was held without charge until his transfer to the ICC in October 2007.  On 1 November 2005, a United Nations Security Council committee imposed a travel ban and asset freeze on Katanga for violating an arms embargo.

International Criminal Court proceedings
On 2 July 2007, a Pre-Trial Chamber of the ICC found that there were reasonable grounds to believe that Katanga bore individual criminal responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Bogoro attack, and issued a sealed warrant for his arrest.  He was charged with six counts of war crimes (willful killing; inhuman treatment or cruel treatment; using children under the age of fifteen years to participate actively in hostilities; sexual slavery; intentionally directing attacks against civilians; and pillaging) and three counts of crimes against humanity (murder, inhumane acts and sexual slavery).

On 17 October 2007, the Congolese authorities surrendered him to the ICC and he was flown to the ICC's detention centre in The Hague.  Katanga was the second person surrendered to the ICC since its establishment in 2002.

In February 2008, another suspect, Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, was surrendered to the ICC to face charges in relation to the Bogoro attack; he and Katanga were to be tried jointly.  The hearing to confirm the charges against them began on 27 June 2008. and ended on 11 July 2008. On 26 September 2008, Pre-Trial Chamber I confirmed some of the charges against Katanga and Ngudjolo and committed them for trial before a Trial Chamber of the Court.

The trial began on 24 November 2009.

ICC verdict
On March 7, 2014, by a 2-to-1 decision, the ICC convicted Germain Katanga on five counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, as an accessory in the February 2003 massacre in the village of Bogoro in the DRC. The verdict was only the second time in the 12-year history of the International Criminal Court  that an ICC trial resulted in a conviction.

The Bogoro massacre resulted in approximately 200 villagers being killed, and many women being raped and forced into sexual slavery.
Katanga was originally charged as an "indirect co-perpetrator" for the crimes related to the Bogoro massacre but was only convicted of being an accessory to these crimes. This change in the charge was made by the Court during the trial. Judge Christine van den Wyngaert, in her dissenting opinion, said that it "has rendered this trial unfair by infringing a series of Germain Katanga's rights".
The court acquitted Katanga of directing rapes and the use of child soldiers during the massacre, citing insufficient evidence to connect Katanga to these crimes, while at the same time emphasizing that these crimes did occur. The court cited evidence that Katanga supplied guns to the militia that carried out the Bogoro massacre, thus  "reinforcing the strike capability of the militia" in justifying the convictions of Katanga as an accessory, but indicated that the evidence presented during the trial was insufficient to sustain the original charge that he directed the massacre.

Katanga's co-accused, Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, was acquitted of similar charges in December 2012 because of the lack of evidence for his role in the massacre.
Although Katanga and Chui were originally charged together, the ICC split their trials in November 2012 to allow the prosecutors to collect more evidence regarding Katanga's involvement.

The Katanga trial verdict produced mixed reactions.  Some human rights activists in the DRC expressed satisfaction with the verdict as bringing a measure of closure to the victims and their families, with one activist quoted as saying: "For those who lost their possessions, their mothers, their homes, this judgment provides some relief. Today people here see some satisfaction. In the end, everyone must answer for his actions."  A lawyer for the victims in the case stated: "In their heart, many victims want to believe that, somehow, this judgment will contribute to peace and reconciliation". Some women's groups criticized the ICC for acquitting Katanga of rape and sexual slavery charges, claiming that the court appeared to  demand higher level of proof for the sexual crimes than for other crimes. Phil Clark, a London-based expert on the ICC, criticized the ICC prosecutors for not devoting sufficient resources to the case: "The ICC has been doing its investigations on the cheap. It's been using a really small group of investigators who haven't spent an enormous amount of time in Congo.  The prosecution has cut corners, they've used local Congolese intermediaries to do a lot of their dirty work. And as a result of that these cases haven't been systematically built."

The UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon issued a statement welcoming the verdict. Melbourne Law School Professor Kevin Jon Heller, an expert in international criminal law, has strongly criticised the recharacterisation of the charges Katanga faced, arguing that this violates the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and the rights of the accused.

On 23 May 2014, Katanga was sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment. The time he spent in detention at the ICC – between 2007 and 2014 – was deducted from the sentence. On 19 December 2015, Katanga was transferred to a prison in the DRC, where he is scheduled to serve the balance of his sentence.

See also
 People detained by the International Criminal Court

References and notes

Further reading

External links
 The Prosecutor v Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui — public court records relating to the ICC trial

1978 births
Living people
People from Ituri Province
People convicted by the International Criminal Court
Democratic Republic of the Congo people convicted of crimes against humanity
Democratic Republic of the Congo people convicted of war crimes
Democratic Republic of the Congo people imprisoned abroad
People of the Ituri conflict
People extradited from the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo rebels
Prisoners and detainees of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo politicians convicted of crimes
21st-century Democratic Republic of the Congo people

Germain Katanga


The Center for the Jewish Future is a non-profit center at Yeshiva University.

Overview
Their mission is to shape, enrich, and inspire the contemporary Jewish community by convening the resources of Yeshiva University and:
Infuse the student body with a spirit of leadership and sense of responsibility to the Jewish People and society in general
Build, cultivate, and support communities and their lay and rabbinic leaders
Create a global movement that promotes the values of Yeshiva University

It consists of six divisions:

 The Max Stern Division of Communal Services (at the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary) offers continuing education for rabbis, rebbetzins, and educators under the age of 40, as well as lay leaders.
 The Gertrude and Morris Bienenfeld Department of Rabbinic Services (Max Stern Division of Communal Services/Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary) provides training and placement services for rabbis and educators.
 The Community Initiative Division promotes education programming, outreach, dialogue, and tikkun olam.
 The Association of Modern Orthodox Day Schools provides educational services, advocates for member schools, and interfaces on their behalf with Yeshiva University faculty and students.
 The Leadership Training Division runs a number of programs including Quest (Quality Education Skills Training) that helps undergraduate students become more effective participants and leaders in Jewish Communal organizations. The Eimatai Leadership Development Project coordinates leadership training seminars for high school students across North America to focus on Social Action and Social Justice through a Jewish lens.
 The Research Division focuses on practical solutions to challenges such as infertility and organ donation. The division also includes the Torah U-Madda Project (including the Orthodox Forum, the Torah U-Madda Journal, and Ten Da'at: A Journal of Jewish Education) and hosts several independent organizations, including the Organization for the Resolution of Agunot (helping to prevent agunot or abandoned wives) and the Orthodox Caucus.

Rabbi Yaakov Glasser is dean of the Center for the Jewish Future. He succeeds Rabbi Kenneth Brander who was the inaugural dean of the CJF for nine years.

References

External links
 Yeshiva University
 Yeshiva University Center for the Jewish Future
 Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary
 The Organization for the Resolution of Agunot

Yeshiva University
Jewish organizations
Articles containing video clips


Julius Matthew Emil Moravcsik (26 April 1931 – 3 June 2009) was an American philosopher who specialized in ancient Greek philosophy.

His main professional interests were in Greek philosophy – especially Plato, Aristotle, and the pre-Socratic philosophers. He also made important contributions to the philosophy of language, aesthetics, metaphysics, and ethics. In particular, he was engaged by the notion of friendship.

Life and career
Julius Moravcsik was born April 26, 1931, in Budapest. His father was Gyula Moravcsik, his brother is Michael J. Moravcsik, and his sister is Edith A. Moravcsik. He died June 3, 2009, in Palo Alto, California, US, where he was a professor of philosophy at Stanford University.

Moravcsik left his native Hungary for the US at the age of 17. He earned his BA in philosophy at Harvard University, class of 1953. Subsequently, he spent a year of study at Oxford and then received his PhD from Harvard in 1959.

His first academic position was at Drexel Institute (now Drexel University) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he stayed a year. Next came a nine-year stay at the University of Michigan, where he went from instructor to associate professor. In 1968 he went to Stanford as Professor of Philosophy. He taught at Stanford for 39 years until he retired in 2007. During his career, he lectured at more than 50 colleges and universities in the US, as well as in 26 countries around the world.

During two periods, 1972–75 and 1983–86, Moravcsik served as chair of the Stanford Philosophy Department. He contributed greatly to building the department; his appointments, included Stuart Hampshire and J. O. Urmson from England and the Canadian philosopher Ian Hacking.

While at Stanford, Moravcsik encouraged the development of interdisciplinary initiatives. He helped forge strong connections between philosophy and classics. His advocacy was important in the formation of the Linguistics Department and the development of a History of Science Program. He was the principal investigator on a Sloan Cognitive Science Grant in the 1970s.

Many important relationships developed and common interests were discovered, at the many conferences and colloquia and courses that Moravcsik sponsored. These connections among philosophers, linguists, psychologists, computer scientists and others, not only from Stanford but also from research institutes such as SRI and Xerox-PARC, were important in formation of the Center for the Study of Language and Information and the Symbolic Systems Program.

Honors and awards
Moravcsik won a Humboldt Prize in 2002.

He was elected an external member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 2002.

He was made an honorary citizen of the City of Rhodos.

He received Santayana, Guggenheim and ACLS fellowships and was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences and at the Collegium Budapest.

He served as president of the American Philosophical Association, Pacific Division, 1987–88, and of the Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy 2003–04. He was  a member of the board of trustees of the American Society for Aesthetics, 1988–92, and in 1975 he was cofounder of the West Coast Aristotelian Society.

Professional career
Moravcsik wrote five books:
 1975 Understanding Language: a study of theories of language in linguistics and in philosophy (Mouton, The Hague)
 1990 Thought and Language (Routledge, London)
 1992 Plato and Platonism (Blackwell, Oxford)
 1998 Meaning, Creativity, and the Partial Inscrutability of the Human Mind (CSLI, Stanford)
 2004 The Ties that Bind (CEU Press, Budapest)

He also wrote over 90 articles on a variety of topics and he edited and co-edited a number of volumes.

One of his first articles, "Being and Meaning in the Sophist" (1962), pioneered the use of techniques of analytical philosophy and logic to the interpretation of classical philosophy, and became a staple in seminars on Plato throughout the sixties. It has been reprinted in the Bobbs-Merrill classic philosophy series. Similar attention was given to many of his later works.

A volume of papers by former students and colleagues, presented at a conference honoring him on the occasion of his retirement was published in 2009: Logos and language. Essays in honor of Julius Moravcsik.

References

1931 births
2009 deaths
American scholars of ancient Greek philosophy
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
Stanford University Department of Philosophy faculty
Harvard University alumni
University of Michigan faculty

Julius Moravcsik


Robert Love (11 May 1760 – 17 July 1845) was an American Revolutionary War soldier from Virginia and a political leader in North Carolina.

Love was born near the Tinkling Springs Church in Augusta County, Virginia, the son of Samuel and Dorcas Love. In 1776, he entered military service in the Virginia militia from what is now Wythe County, Virginia, and saw action primarily in the backcountry. In 1776, he served in Colonel William Christian's expedition against the Cherokees. In later expeditions he served under such notable leaders as William Campbell and Andrew Pickens.

After the Revolution and with his parents being dead, he moved to what was then Washington County, North Carolina but is now part of Tennessee. About one year later, in 1782 he married Mary Ann Dillard, the daughter of Col. Thomas Dillard of Virginia. Love represented Washington County in the North Carolina Legislature in 1789. Love moved to Buncombe County, North Carolina, in 1792 and was elected to the North Carolina State Senate.

Famed duellist. Around 1790, he won a horse race against future U.S. President Andrew Jackson by getting Jackson's jockey drunk. When Love and Jackson began a shouting match, Love challenged Jackson to a duel. Jackson declined to duel for the last time in his life.

A wealthy man, in 1809 Love donated land in Haywood County, North Carolina, for a courthouse, jail and town square and formed Mount Prospect which was renamed Waynesville, North Carolina, after General Anthony Wayne. Love helped to establish the final state boundary line between North Carolina and Tennessee in 1821.

Presidential Elector (DR-NC) 1808, 1816, 1820; (People's-NC) 1824, (D-NC) 1828, 1832. He was nominated for Presidential Elector in 1816 in the first political convention held in North Carolina history. Tied for the longest service as Presidential Elector in NC. Elected to serve in 1836 but was unable to attend due to being kicked by a horse; his son James R. Love served in his place.

He died in Waynesville in 1845.

References
Arthur, John Preston. Western North Carolina: A History from 1730–1913 Raleigh, North Carolina: Edwards & Broughton, 1914.
Hinshaw, Seth B. and Linda Gunter. The North Carolina Electoral College: The People and the Process Behind the Vote. Raleigh NC: Office of the Secretary of State, 1988, p. 82.
OurCampaigns political biography of Robert Love

1760 births
1845 deaths
North Carolina state senators
Virginia militiamen in the American Revolution

Robert Love (soldier)


Pennsylvania Route 154 (PA 154) is a  northwest-southeast state highway located in northern Pennsylvania. The southern terminus is at U.S. Route 220 (US 220) in Laporte. The northern terminus of the route is at PA 414 in Canton.

The road is called South Minnequa Avenue for half a mile at its northern terminus in Canton.  It then becomes Lake Hill Road for two miles (3 km), and later Wheelerville Mountain Road for three miles (5 km). It goes through the small villages of Wheelerville, Shunk, Lincoln Falls, and Estella before going down a hill toward Forksville. It serves as a corner of Church Street in Forksville, just south of its brief intersection with PA 87. The road then zig zags (concurring with PA 87), crossing the Little Loyalsock Creek in the process. The remainder of the highway meanders with the Loyalsock Creek going through Worlds End State Park before terminating at US 220 north of the county seat of Laporte.

From 1928 to 1946, PA 154 once continued along a concurrency with US 220 into Laporte, before turning off towards Nordmont and Emmons before ending at PA 115 at Coles Creek.

Route description

PA 154 begins at an intersection with US 220 in Laporte Township, Sullivan County, heading northwest on a two-lane undivided road. The route winds through forested areas, turning to the west and running along the south bank of Loyalsock Creek within the Loyalsock State Forest. The road heads through a small corner of Shrewsbury Township before crossing into Forks Township and winding northwest through more forests next to the creek. PA 154 passes through Worlds End State Park, where it crosses to the other side of the creek, before heading through more of the Loyalsock State Forest. The road enters the borough of Forksville and heads past a few homes as well as the Forksville Covered Bridge over the Loyalsock Creek. PA 154 comes to an intersection with PA 87, turning east to form a brief concurrency with that route, crossing the Little Loyalsock Creek.

After this, PA 154 splits from PA 87 by turning northwest and continues through more forests, crossing into Elkland Township. The road turns north into a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes, turning west at Estella. The route winds northwest through more rural areas, passing through Lincoln Falls. PA 154 briefly enters Fox Township before heading back into Elkland Township. The road crosses into Fox Township again and runs through more agricultural and wooded areas with some residences, turning west before curving back to the northwest at Shunk. The route winds northwest and enters more forested areas, passing through Wheelerville.

PA 154 enters Canton Township in Bradford County and becomes Wheelerville Mountain Road, heading north through dense forests. The route curves northwest, turning north onto Beech Flats Road and running through areas of woods and fields. PA 154 turns west onto Lake Hill Road at Beech Flats and passes through more farmland and woodland with some homes. The road curves to the north and passes through more rural areas before heading into the borough of Canton. The route becomes South Minnequa Avenue and heads into residential areas, crossing the Towanda Creek. PA 154 continues to its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 414 in the commercial center of town.

Major intersections

See also

References

External links

Pennsylvania Highways: PA 154

154
Transportation in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania
Transportation in Bradford County, Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania Route 154


Robert Emmett (or Emmet) Rodes (March 29, 1829 – September 19, 1864) was a Confederate general in the American Civil War, and the first of Robert E. Lee's divisional commanders not trained at West Point. His division led Stonewall Jackson's devastating surprise attack at the Battle of Chancellorsville; Jackson, on his deathbed, recommended that Rodes be promoted to major general. Rodes then served in the corps of Richard S. Ewell at the Battle of Gettysburg and in the Overland Campaign, before that corps was sent to the Shenandoah Valley under Jubal Early, where Rodes was killed at the Third Battle of Winchester.

Education, antebellum career
Rodes was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, and graduated from Virginia Military Institute in 1848. He taught at VMI as an assistant professor until 1851; he left when a promotion he wanted to full professor was given instead to Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, who was years later to become one of his commanders during the Civil War.

Rodes used his civil engineering skills to become chief engineer for the Alabama and Chattanooga Railroad in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. He was chief engineer of the Alabama and Chattanooga Railroad until the start of the war. Although born a Virginian, he chose to serve his adopted state of Alabama in the armed forces of the Confederate States of America (CSA).

Civil War
Rodes started his Confederate service as a colonel in command of the 5th Alabama Infantry regiment. Rodes went to First Bull Run as part of Brigader General Richard Ewell's brigade, but did not see any action. In October 1861, he was promoted to brigadier general and assigned as part of Major General D.H. Hill's division.

Rodes's first combat experience happened at the Battle of Seven Pines, where he was badly wounded. A few weeks later, he returned to brigade command just prior to the start of the Seven Days Battles. He led his brigade at Gaines Mill, but two days later had to step down due to fever and the lingering effects of his wound and was subsequently assigned to light duty in the defenses of Richmond, Virginia while he recuperated. He recovered in time for General Robert E. Lee's first invasion of the Union, in September 1862, fighting at South Mountain and Antietam. At Antietam, he commanded one of two brigades that held out so long against the Union assault on the sunken road, or "Bloody Lane", at the center of the Confederate line, suffering heavy casualties. Rodes was lightly wounded by shell fragments.

In the Battle of Chancellorsville, Rodes was a division commander in Stonewall Jackson's corps. He was the first division-level commander in Lee's army who had not graduated from West Point. Rodes led Jackson's devastating flank attack against the Union XI Corps on May 2, 1863. He was temporarily placed in command of the corps that night when Jackson was mortally wounded and Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill was also wounded. Hill immediately summoned the more senior officer Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart, and minutes later Rodes graciously ceded his battlefield command to him. Jackson on his deathbed recommended that Rodes be promoted to major general and this promotion be back-dated to be effective May 2.

When Lee reorganized the Army of Northern Virginia to compensate for the loss of Jackson, Rodes joined the Second Corps under Richard Ewell. In the Battle of Gettysburg, on July 1, 1863, Rodes led the assault from Oak Hill against the right flank of the Union I Corps. Although his initial attacks were poorly coordinated and casualties high, he eventually routed the division of Maj. Gen. John C. Robinson and drove it back through the town. His division sat idle for the remaining two days of the battle.

Rodes continued to fight with Ewell's corps through the 1864 Overland Campaign of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Ewell was replaced by Lt. Gen. Jubal Early, and the corps was sent by Lee to the Shenandoah Valley to draw Union forces away from Petersburg, in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Early conducted a long and successful raid down the Valley, into Maryland, and reached the outskirts of Washington, D.C., before turning back. Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan was sent by Grant to drive Early from the Valley once and for all.

On September 19, 1864, Sheridan attacked the Confederates at the Battle of Opequon, also known as the Third Battle of Winchester. Several wives of Confederate officers were chased from town during the attack and Rodes managed to save Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon's wife from capture. Rodes and Gordon prepared to attack Sheridan's forces when Rodes was struck in the back of his head by a Union shell fragment. He died on the field outside Winchester.

Rodes was mourned by the Confederacy as a promising, brave, and aggressive officer killed before he could achieve greatness. Robert E. Lee and other high-ranking officers wrote sympathetic statements. Rodes is buried beside his brother, Virginius Hudson Rodes, who had been his adjutant throughout the War, in Presbyterian Cemetery, Lynchburg, Virginia.  He and his wife, Virginia Hortense Woodruff (1833–1907), had two children, Robert Emmet Rodes, Jr. (1863–1925) and Bell Yancey Rodes (1865–1931).

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Confederate)

Notes

References
 Collins, Darrell. Major General Robert E. Rodes of the Army of Northern Virginia. New York: Savas Beatie, 2008. .
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Krick, Robert K. "Robert Emmett Rodes." In The Confederate General, vol. 5, edited by  William C. Davis and Julie Hoffman. Harrisburg, PA: National Historical Society, 1991. .
 Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts On File, 1988. .
 Tagg, Larry. The Generals of Gettysburg. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. .
 Virginia Military Institute Archives page for Robert E. Rodes, Class of 1848.
 Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959. .

Further reading
 Smith, Derek. The Gallant Dead: Union & Confederate Generals Killed in the Civil War. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2005. .

External links

 Retrieved on June 9, 2008

1829 births
1864 deaths
People from Lynchburg, Virginia
Confederate States Army major generals
People of Virginia in the American Civil War
Virginia Military Institute alumni
Confederate States of America military personnel killed in the American Civil War

Robert E. Rodes


Scott Englebright (born July 17, 1971) is an American jazz trumpet player.  He is best known for playing lead trumpet for Maynard Ferguson, and for being co-leader of the duo "Tasteebros".

Englebright grew up in Kingsburg, California and began playing piano at age 7, and started trumpet at age 11.  He attended Kingsburg Elementary Schools and Kingsburg High School before attending University of Nevada, Reno and University of North Texas.  While at UNT, he was featured in performance and on recordings with the One O'Clock Lab Band playing two very difficult, high-note feature tunes, "Danny Boy" (in 1994), using an arrangement written for Maynard Ferguson by Don Sebesky, and "Maynard Ferguson" (in 1995), a song originally written for Maynard Ferguson by Shorty Rogers.  One of his friends sent his recording of "Maynard Ferguson" to Ferguson himself, who offered Englebright the lead trumpet spot in Ferguson's big band.  He toured with the band for a year and a half, and recorded one album with them (One More Trip to Birdland).  After leaving Ferguson's band, Scott played and/or recorded with many artists in Los Angeles, including Mike Barone, Steve Huffstetter, Bill Holman, Tom Kubis, Mark Masters, Bobby Caldwell, Buddy Childers, Jack Sheldon, Chris Walden, Jim Widner, Joe McBride, and Carl Saunders.  He also spent two years playing in Paul Anka's big band.

During the mid-1990s, Englebright formed the duo Tasteebros with fellow trumpet player Donny Dyess.  They have released 9 CDs (and one "Best of" collection), and have co-authored 5 trumpet instruction books.

External links
 Scott Englebright at MaynardFerguson.com
 Scott Englebright at RoddyTrumpet
Scott Englebright video and equipment at TrumpetGig.com

American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
1971 births
Living people
21st-century trumpeters
21st-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians

Scott Englebright


David Donald Dillard (January 8, 1937 – January 8, 2022) was an American professional baseball player. The outfielder appeared in six Major League seasons and 272 total games played for the Cleveland Indians (1959–62) and Milwaukee Braves (1963; 1965). He batted left-handed, threw right-handed, stood  tall and weighed .

Biography
Dillard's pro career lasted 13 seasons, beginning in 1955 in the Cleveland farm system. He made the Indians' 1959 roster coming out of spring training, but had only six at bats as a pinch hitter during the season's early weeks  before returning to the minor leagues, where he batted .283 in the Pacific Coast League. He added four more pinch hitting appearances that September, and ended his first big-league campaign as a .400 batter, with four singles and an RBI in ten at bats.  The 1960 season was much the same; he had eight plate appearances and seven at bats with the Indians, and played the bulk of the year for the Triple-A Toronto Maple Leafs, batting .294.

Then followed three full seasons in the Majors as a reserve outfielder. In 1961, appearing in 74 games for Cleveland, he reached MLB highs in home runs (seven), RBI (17), and batting average (.272).  The following year, 1962, saw an increase in playing time, with 94 games played, including 50 in the outfield with 29 starting assignments, and 27 more at bats. But his average (.230) declined, as did his on-base percentage and slugging percentage, and during the inter-league trading period following the season, he was packaged in a multi-player trade with the Braves in which the Indians received veteran first baseman Joe Adcock.

His 1963 season with the Braves saw Dillard make 67 appearances as a pinch hitter and left fielder, playing behind regular Lee Maye, with a batting average of .235 with one home run.

In 1964, he returned to the minor leagues and, apart from another 20-game trial with Milwaukee in 1965, he spent much of the rest of his career at the Triple-A level, retiring in 1967.

As a major leaguer, Dillard collected 116 total hits, with 16 doubles and five triples accompanying his 14 home runs.  He finished his big league tenure with 47 runs batted in.

He died on January 8, 2022, his 85th birthday.

References

External links

1937 births
2022 deaths
American expatriate baseball players in Colombia
Atlanta Crackers players
Baseball players from South Carolina
Cleveland Indians players
Jacksonville Suns players
Major League Baseball outfielders
Milwaukee Braves players
Mobile Bears players
Montgomery Rebels players
Reading Indians players
San Diego Padres (minor league) players
Sportspeople from Greenville, South Carolina
Syracuse Chiefs players
Toledo Mud Hens players
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players
Vidalia Indians players

Don Dillard


Linen is a material made from the fibers of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum).  It is mainly used to make cloth, especially for light clothing and table coverings.

History
The flax plant is one of the plants humans have grown and used. Linen cloth was already made at least 6,000 years ago in Egypt and Mesopotamia. This makes linen one of the oldest fibers and cloths used by humans, besides wool and hemp. Linen and hemp were the most important fiber plants in Europe for a long time. Linen was for example also used to wrap Egyptian mummies.

In recent centuries linen has largely been replaced by cotton and synthetic materials, which are cheaper.

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Fibers
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English grammar is the grammar of the English language. Grammar is the rules about how to speak and write in a language. English grammar started with Old English, having a grammar similar to other West Germanic languages of the time. After Normandy conquered England in 1066, parts of the Latin language were brought to the English language by the Norman French.

Dialect grammar

Dialects of English vary not only in pronunciation but in grammar too.  For example, people who use what is called General American English or Received Pronunciation might say, "I didn't do anything," while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English might say, "I didn't do nothing," and a working class Londoner who speaks Cockney English might say, "I ain't done nuffink." The dialect a person speaks with is usually decided by where they live and their socioeconomic background.

Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English.  When people talk about using "proper English", they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works.  The models for spoken English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English.

Word endings

English makes few changes to its word endings. These are called ('suffixes'): plurals and possessives (John's) are the most common. English verbs drop most endings except one: I love, you love, they love, but she loves. That final 's' is a remnant of Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walked, walking.

Word order

Word order is the other big difference.  In English, adjectives usually come before the noun. Most Romance languages normally put their adjectives after the nouns. For example, in English, a person may say I like fast cars, but in Spanish, it is Me gustan los coches rápidos [coches = cars; rápidos = fast]. The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, main verbs often come near the end of sentences, but in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: the cat sat on the mat.

Parts of speech
Grammar studies the different parts of language. The parts of language are called "parts of speech." The parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

Nouns
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. They can be a single thing such as an apple. They can also be plural such as a box of apples. There is a special kind of noun called a proper noun, which is a name. For instance, Johnny Appleseed.

Pronouns
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. We often use them to avoid repeating the nouns that they refer to. An example is the word "it."  In the sentence "I like the ball; it is blue," you have to look at what comes before "it" to know that "it" is talking about the ball.  The noun before a pronoun that the pronoun really means is called the antecedent.

There are different types of pronouns in English language. The most important ones are:

 Personal pronouns
 Demonstrative pronouns
 Relative pronouns
 Interrogative pronouns
 Indefinite pronouns
 Dummy pronouns

Verbs
The basic verb form is called the infinitive. The infinitive for existence is "to be". A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: to be or not to be?
Variations of the infinitive create verb tenses.

 Past tense = was

Present tense = is

Adjectives
Words that tell you about nouns are called adjectives. When an adjective is used, you learn more about the noun.  An example would be the words "red" and "juicy" in the phrase "the red apple is juicy."  They do not have any endings. Even if the noun they talk about is plural, they stay the same.  You can see this in the sentence "the red apples are juicy."

Determiners
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. The difference is each noun can only have one determiner and the determiner always comes before all the other parts of the noun phrase. The most common determiners in English are "the" and "a/an".

Adverbs
Adverbs are words that tell you about words that are not nouns.  An adverb can describe a verb, like the word "quickly" in the sentence "He ran quickly."  They can also describe an adjective.  The adverb "very" describes the adjective "sick" in the sentence "The boy is very sick." Adverbs can even describe other adverbs, as in the sentence "He ran very quickly."

Prepositions
A preposition is a word that describes how one noun (or pronoun) relates to another in the sentence as a whole. The preposition usually comes before the noun that it adds to the sentence, which is called the object of the preposition. An example is the word "over" in the sentence "he walked over the bridge."

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that connects other parts of a sentence. It can connect two words that both do the same thing in a sentence. "And" in the sentence "the boy and the girl run" connects the boy to the girl because they both run.  Conjunctions can even connect two clauses that would normally be different sentences together. The word "but" in the sentence "I like cats, but he likes dogs" is a conjunction doing this.

Interjections
Interjections are words that do not fit normal grammar rules.  Interjections can and often do take the place of an entire sentence, as they can give they meaning of a whole sentence in a single word.  These can be used to show emotions, such as the word "Hooray," which means that the speaker is happy or likes something.  They are also used to shorten common phrases that would otherwise need a full sentence to talk about. For example, saying the word "yes" is much simpler than saying "what you say is true," so it is usually used instead.  Interjections like these can be helpful for saving time and making complex sentences very simple.  Often, though, interjections may have no meaning at all, such as the word "um."

Syntax

Grammar also studies how the parts of language work together.  This is called "syntax."  Some common ways in which the words fit together are phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs.

References

Other websites

 Modern English Grammar by Daniel Kies
 Linguapress online English grammar
 Lingolía English Grammar

Grammars of specific languages
English language

English grammar


Central European Time (CET) is a standard time of Central, and parts of Western Europe, which is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
The time offset from UTC can be written as UTC+01:00.
It is used in most parts of Europe and in a few North African countries.
CET is also known as Middle European Time (MET, German: MEZ) and by colloquial names such as Amsterdam Time, Berlin Time, Brussels Time, Budapest Time, Madrid Time, Paris Time, Rome Time, Prague time, Warsaw Time or Romance Standard Time (RST).

The 15th meridian east is the central axis per UTC+01:00 in the world system of time zones.

As of 2023, all member states of the European Union observe summer time (daylight saving time), from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October.
States within the CET area switch to Central European Summer Time (CEST, UTC+02:00) for the summer.

In Africa, UTC+01:00 is called West Africa Time (WAT), where it is used by several countries, year round.
Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia also refer to it as Central European Time.

Usage

Usage in Europe

Current usage
As of 2017, Central European Time is currently used in Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Kosovo (partially recognised as an independent country), Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain (except Canary Islands), Sweden, Switzerland and Vatican City.

History
 1884
 Serbia starts using CET.
 1 October 1891
 Austro-Hungarian Empire adopts CET. At first railways and post offices, cities such as Prague and Budapest, but not Vienna. (present-day Austria, Czech Republic, Croatia, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and some other regions)
 1 April 1893
 The German Empire unified its time zones to use CET (MEZ).
 Malta uses CET.
 Vienna (then part of Austro-Hungarian Empire) starts using CET.
 1 November 1893
 Italy starts using CET.
 1894
 Switzerland switches from UTC+00:30 to CET
 Liechtenstein introduces CET.
 Denmark adopts CET.
 1895
 Norway adopts CET.
 1900
 Sweden adopts CET.
 1904
 Luxembourg introduces CET, but leaves 1918.
 1914
 Albania adopts CET.
 1914–1918
 During World War I CET was implemented in all German-occupied territories.
 1920
 Lithuania adopts CET (but subsequently rescinded in 1940) and 1998−1999 again.
 1922
 Poland adopts CET.
 1940
 Under German occupation:
 The Netherlands was switched from UTC+00:20 to CET.
 Belgium was switched from UTC+00:00.
 Luxembourg was switched from UTC+00:00.
 France, which had adopted Paris time on 14 March 1891 and Greenwich Mean Time on 9 March 1911, was switched to CET.
 Spain switched to CET.
After World War II Monaco, Andorra and Gibraltar implemented CET.

Portugal used CET in the years 1966–1976 and 1992–1996.

United Kingdom
The time around the world is based on Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) which is roughly synonymous with Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). From late March to late October, clocks in the United Kingdom are put forward by one hour for British Summer Time (BST). Since 1997, most of the European Union aligned with the British standards for BST.

In 1968 there was a three-year experiment called British Standard Time, when the UK and Ireland experimentally employed British Summer Time (GMT+1) all year round; clocks were put forward in March 1968 and not put back until October 1971.

Central European Time is sometimes referred to as continental time in the UK.

Other countries
Several African countries use UTC+01:00 all year long, where it is known as West Africa Time (WAT), although Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia use the term Central European Time despite being located in North Africa.

Between 2005 and 2008, Tunisia observed daylight saving time. Libya also used CET during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997 and 2012–2013.

For other countries see UTC+01:00 and West Africa Time.

Discrepancies between official CET and geographical CET

The criteria for drawing time zones is based on many factors including: legal, political, economic, and physical or geographic. Consequently, time zones rarely adhere to meridian lines. The CET time zone, were it drawn by purely geographical terms, would consist of exactly the area between meridians 7°30′ E and 22°30′ E. As a result, there are European locales that despite lying in an area with a "physical" or "nominal" UTC+01:00 time, actually use another time zone (UTC+02:00 in particular – there are no "physical" UTC+01:00 areas that employ UTC+00:00). Conversely, there are European areas that have gone for UTC+01:00, even though their "physical" time zone is UTC (typically), UTC−01:00 (westernmost Spain), or UTC+02:00 (e.g. the very easternmost parts of Norway, Sweden, Poland and Serbia). On the other hand, people in Spain still have all work and meal hours one hour later than France and Germany despite sharing the same time zone. Historically Gibraltar maintained UTC+01:00 all year until the opening of the land border with Spain in 1982, when it followed its neighbour and introduced CEST. The following is a list of such "incongruences":

Areas located within UTC+01:00 longitudes using other time zones
These areas are located between 7°30′ E and 22°30′ E ("physical" UTC+1)

Areas using UTC+02:00
 The westernmost part of Greece, including the cities of Patras, Ioannina and the island of Corfu
 The westernmost parts of the Bulgarian provinces of Vidin and Kyustendil
 The westernmost part of Romania, including most of the area of the counties of Caraș-Severin, Timiș (capital Timișoara), Arad, and Bihor, as well as the westernmost tips of the counties of Mehedinți and Satu Mare
 The westernmost tip of Ukraine, near the border with Hungary and Slovakia, at the Ukrainian Transcarpathian Oblast (Zakarpattia Oblast), essentially comprising the city of Uzhhorod and its environs. (Although CET is used as local, non-official time in Transcarpathia).
 Western Lithuania, including the cities of Klaipėda, Tauragė, and Telšiai
 Western Latvia, including the cities of Liepāja and Ventspils
 The westernmost parts of the Estonian islands of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa, including the capital of the Saare County, Kuressaare
 The southwestern coast of Finland, including the city of Turku; also the Åland islands (of Finnish jurisdiction) – the Åland islands are the westernmost locale applying EET in the whole of Europe
 The northwesternmost part of Finland, including Kilpisjärvi and Kaaresuvanto.
 The Russian exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast, excluding however its easternmost slice (the city of Nesterov is east of 22°30′ E, but that of Krasnoznamensk is not)

Areas located outside UTC+01:00 longitudes using UTC+01:00 time
These areas are located either west of 7°30′ E or east of 22°30′ E (outside nominal UTC+01:00)

Areas between 22°30′ W and 7°30′ W (nominal UTC−01:00)
 The westernmost part of mainland Spain (Galicia, e.g. the city of A Coruña); Cape Finisterre and nearby points in Galicia, at 9°18′ W, are the westernmost places of CET in Spain.
 The Norwegian island of Jan Mayen lies entirely within this area and extends nearly as far west as Cape Finisterre, with its western tip at 9°5′ W and its eastern tip at 7°56′ W.
Western Morocco including the city of Casablanca, at 7°35′ W. CET usage in Morocco extends as west as 13°10′ W.
The entirety of Western Sahara with its western tip at 17°6′ W and its eastern tip at 8°40′ W.

Areas between 7°30′ W and 7°30′ E (nominal UTC+00:00)
 Andorra
 Belgium
 France, with the small exception of two separate easternmost parts of the mainland, one along eastern Alsace, incl. Strasbourg and the other in parts of the Alpes-Maritimes department, as well as the island of Corsica. Overseas departments of France use local times.
 The very westernmost part of Germany, incl. the cities of Saarbrücken, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Aachen, and Trier
 The absolutely westernmost part of Italy, incl. the cities of Aosta in Aosta Valley and Cuneo in Piedmont
 Luxembourg
 Monaco
 Netherlands
 The westernmost part of Norway, incl. the cities of Bergen and Stavanger
 Spain, except for the westernmost part of the mainland (see above) and the Canary Islands (which are further than 7°30′ W and use UTC+00:00).
 Gibraltar
 The part of Switzerland west of Bern (inclusive), also incl. cities such as Basel, Geneva, Lausanne, and Fribourg
Most of Algeria including its capital Algiers.

Areas between 22°30′ E and 37°30′ E (nominal UTC+02:00)

 The easternmost part of North Macedonia, including the city of Strumica
 The easternmost part of Serbia, in the Pirot District, including the city of Pirot, and small easternmost parts of Bor District.
 The easternmost tips of Hungary and Slovakia, bordering to the north and south respectively the Ukrainian Transcarpathian Oblast (Zakarpattia Oblast), a bit to the east of Vásárosnamény, Hungary – Uzhhorod, Ukraine (both at 22°18′ E) line
 The easternmost part of Poland, including the cities of Lublin and Białystok
 The northeast of Sweden, in the Norrbotten province, including the cities of Kalix and Haparanda
 The northeast of Norway, lying north of Finland, roughly coinciding with the county of Finnmark. The easternmost town in Norway, Vardø, lies at 30°51′ E, which is so far east, so as to be east even of the central meridian of EET (UTC+02:00), i.e. east of Istanbul and Alexandria. The sun reaches its highest point at 10:56 (when not DST), although the sun does not vary so much in height at the latitude 70°N. The Norwegian–Russian and the Polish-Belarusian border are the only places where CET (UTC+1/+2) borders Moscow time (UTC+03:00), resulting in a two hours time change (or one hour in summer) for the travellers crossing that border.
 There is a "tri-zone" point (where UTC+01:00, UTC+02:00, and UTC+03:00 meet, winter times) at the Norway–Finland–Russia tripoint near Muotkavaara. During the summer Finland and Russia both have UTC+03:00.

See also
 Summer time in Europe
 Other countries and territories in UTC+1 time zone

References

External links
German Time Act
Dutch Time Act
List of countries using CET (Central European Time)

Time zones
Time in Europe
Geography of Europe

Central European Time


The Lomé Convention is a trade and aid agreement between the European Economic Community (EEC) and 71 African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries, first signed in February 1975 in Lomé, Togo.

History
The first Lomé Convention (Lomé I), which came into force in April 1976, was designed to provide a new framework of cooperation between the then European Economic Community (EEC) and developing ACP countries, in particular former British, Dutch, Belgian and French colonies. It had two main aspects: It provided for most ACP agricultural and mineral exports to enter the EEC free of duty. Preferential access based on a quota system was agreed for products, such as sugar and beef, in competition with EEC agriculture. Secondly, the EEC committed European Unit of Account (EUA) 3 billion for aid and investment in the ACP countries.

The convention was renegotiated and renewed three times. Lomé II (January 1981 to February 1985) increased aid and investment expenditure to EUA 5.5 billion. Lomé III came into force in March 1985 (trade provisions) and May 1986 (aid), and expired in 1990; it increased commitments to EUA 8.5 billion. Lomé IV was signed in December 1989. Its trade provisions cover the ten years, 1990 to 1999. Aid and investment commitments for the first five years amounted to EUA 12 billion. In all, some 70 ACP countries are party to Lomé IV, compared with 46 signatories of Lomé I.

Lomé development aid was dispersed primarily through the European Development Fund; investment assistance was mainly channelled through the European Investment Bank. Two other important mechanisms were the Stabex and Sysmin schemes, which provided compensatory finance to ACP states for adverse fluctuations in the world prices of, respectively, key agricultural and mineral exports.

The emergence of the single European market at the end of 1992 affected ACP preferential access to EU markets. The Caribbean's many smallholder banana farmers argued for the continuation of their preferential access to traditional markets, notably the United Kingdom. They feared that otherwise the EU would be flooded with cheap bananas from the Central American plantations, with devastating effects on several Caribbean economies. Negotiations led in 1993 to the EU agreeing to maintain the Caribbean producers' preferential access until the end of Lomé IV, pending possible negotiation on an extension.

In 1995, the United States government petitioned to the World Trade Organization to investigate whether the Lomé IV convention had violated WTO rules. Then later in 1996, the WTO Dispute Settlement Body ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, effectively ending the cross-subsidies that had benefited ACP countries for many years. But the US remained unsatisfied and insisted that all preferential trade agreements between the EU and ACP should cease. The WTO Dispute Settlement Body established another panel to discuss the issue and concluded that agreements between the EU and ACP were indeed not compatible with WTO regulations. Finally, the EU negotiated with the US through WTO to reach an agreement.

See also
 ACP countries
 ACP-EU Development Cooperation
 Cotonou Agreement
 Stabex
 The Courier (ACP-EU)

References

Further reading
 Jonathan Fryer, "The New Lomé Convention: Marriage on the Rocks but No Separation," International Development Review 1 (1980): 53–54.
 Isebill V. Gruhn, "The Lomé Convention: Inching Toward Interdependence," International Organization 30 (Spring 1976): 240–262.
 John Ravenhill, "What Is to Be Done for the Third World Commodity Exporters? An Evaluation of the STABEX Scheme," International Organization 38 (Summer 1984): 537–574.
 Carol C. Twitchett, "Lomé II Signed," Atlantic Community Quarterly 18 (Spring 1980): 85–89.

External links
 The Lomé Convention Background
 Mouradian, Anne-Marie, The Lomé Convention under threat
The full text of the Lome Convention

Foreign trade of the European Union
Trade blocs
History of the Commonwealth of Nations
ACP–European Union relations
Treaties entered into by the European Union
Lomé
1975 in Togo
Treaties concluded in 1975
Treaties entered into force in 1976
European Union foreign aid
Euro

Lomé Convention


Gastrointestinal cancer refers to malignant conditions of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and accessory organs of digestion, including the esophagus, stomach, biliary system, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus.

The symptoms relate to the organ affected and can include obstruction (leading to difficulty swallowing or defecating), abnormal bleeding or other associated problems. The diagnosis often requires endoscopy, followed by biopsy of suspicious tissue.

The treatment depends on the location of the tumor, as well as the type of cancer cell and whether it has invaded other tissues or spread elsewhere. These factors also determine the prognosis.

Cancer

Gastrointestinal cancer


The simulation hypothesis proposes that what humans experience as the world is actually a simulated reality, such as a computer simulation in which humans themselves are constructs. There has been much debate over this topic, ranging from philosophical discourse to practical applications in computing.

The simulation hypothesis, as formulated by Nick Bostrom, is part of a long tradition of skeptical scenarios. It was presented by Bostrom as not merely a philosophical speculation but an empirical claim with quantifiable probabilities. The hypothesis has received criticism from some physicists, such as Sabine Hossenfelder who has called it pseudoscience and cosmologist George F. R. Ellis, who stated that "[the hypothesis] is totally impracticable from a technical viewpoint" and that "Late-night pub discussion is not a viable theory." Versions of the hypothesis have also been featured in science fiction, appearing as a central plot device in many stories and films, such as The Matrix.

Origins
Human history is full of thinkers who observed the difference between how things seem and how they might actually be, with dreams, illusions and hallucinations providing poetic and philosophical metaphors. For example, the "Butterfly Dream" of Zhuangzi from ancient China, or the Indian philosophy of Maya, or in Ancient Greek philosophy Anaxarchus and Monimus likened existing things to a scene-painting and supposed them to resemble the impressions experienced in sleep or madness.

In the Western philosophical tradition, Plato's Allegory of the Cave stands out as an influential example.

Aztec philosophical texts theorized that the world was a painting or book written by the Teotl.

René Descartes' Evil Demon philosophically formalized these epistemic doubts, to be followed by a large literature with subsequent variations like Brain in a Vat.

Simulation Argument

Nick Bostrom's premise:

Nick Bostrom's conclusion:

Expanded Argument
Bostrom attempted to assess the probability of our reality being a simulation. His argument states that at least one of the following statements is very likely to be true:

 Human civilization or a comparable civilization is unlikely to reach a level of technological maturity capable of producing simulated realities, or such simulations are physically impossible to construct.
 A comparable civilization reaching aforementioned technological status will likely not produce a significant number of simulated realities (one that might push the probable existence of digital entities beyond the probable number of "real" entities in a Universe) for any of a number of reasons, such as diversion of computational processing power for other tasks, ethical considerations of holding entities captive in simulated realities, etc.
 Any entities with our general set of experiences are almost certainly living in a simulation.
 Humans are living in a reality in which post-humans have not developed yet, and current humans are actually living in reality.
 Humans will have no way of knowing that they live in a simulation because they will never reach the technological capacity to realize the marks of a simulated reality.

Bostrom's argument rests on the premises that given sufficiently advanced technology, it is possible to represent the populated surface of the Earth without recourse to digital physics; that the qualia experienced by a simulated consciousness are comparable or equivalent to those of a naturally occurring human consciousness, and that one or more levels of simulation within simulations would be feasible given only a modest expenditure of computational resources in the real world.

First, if one assumes that humans will not be destroyed nor destroy themselves before developing such a technology, and that human descendants will have no overriding legal restrictions or moral compunctions against simulating biospheres or their own historical biosphere, then, Bostrom argues it would be unreasonable to count ourselves among the small minority of genuine organisms who, sooner or later, will be vastly outnumbered by artificial simulations.

Epistemologically, it is not impossible for humans to tell whether they are living in a simulation. For example, Bostrom suggests that a window could pop up saying: "You are living in a simulation. Click here for more information." However, imperfections in a simulated environment might be difficult for the native inhabitants to identify and for purposes of authenticity, even the simulated memory of a blatant revelation might be purged programmatically. Nonetheless, should any evidence come to light, either for or against the skeptical hypothesis, it would radically alter the aforementioned probability.

In 2003, philosopher Nick Bostrom proposed a trilemma that he called "the simulation argument". Despite the name, Bostrom's "simulation argument" does not directly argue that humans live in a simulation; instead, Bostrom's trilemma argues that one of three unlikely-seeming propositions is almost certainly true:

 "The fraction of human-level civilizations that reach a posthuman stage (that is, one capable of running high-fidelity ancestor simulations) is very close to zero", or
 "The fraction of posthuman civilizations that are interested in running simulations of their evolutionary history, or variations thereof, is very close to zero", or
 "The fraction of all people with our kind of experiences that are living in a simulation is very close to one."

The trilemma points out that a technologically mature "posthuman" civilization would have enormous computing power; if even a tiny percentage of them were to run "ancestor simulations" (that is, "high-fidelity" simulations of ancestral life that would be indistinguishable from reality to the simulated ancestor), the total number of simulated ancestors, or "Sims", in the universe (or multiverse, if it exists) would greatly exceed the total number of actual ancestors.

Bostrom goes on to use a type of anthropic reasoning to claim that, if the third proposition is the one of those three that is true, and almost all people live in simulations, then humans are almost certainly living in a simulation.

Bostrom claims his argument goes beyond the classical ancient "skeptical hypothesis", claiming that "... we have interesting empirical reasons to believe that a certain disjunctive claim about the world is true", the third of the three disjunctive propositions being that humans are almost certainly living in a simulation. Thus, Bostrom, and writers in agreement with Bostrom such as David Chalmers, argue there might be empirical reasons for the "simulation hypothesis", and that therefore the simulation hypothesis is not a skeptical hypothesis but rather a "metaphysical hypothesis". Bostrom states he personally sees no strong argument as to which of the three trilemma propositions is the true one: "If (1) is true, then we will almost certainly go extinct before reaching posthumanity. If (2) is true, then there must be a strong convergence among the courses of advanced civilizations so that virtually none contains any individuals who desire to run ancestor-simulations and are free to do so. If (3) is true, then we almost certainly live in a simulation. In the dark forest of our current ignorance, it seems sensible to apportion one's credence roughly evenly between (1), (2), and (3)... I note that people who hear about the simulation argument often react by saying, 'Yes, I accept the argument, and it is obvious that it is possibility #n that obtains.' But different people pick a different n. Some think it obvious that (1) is true, others that (2) is true, yet others that (3) is true."

As a corollary to the trilemma, Bostrom states that "Unless we are now living in a simulation, our descendants will almost certainly never run an ancestor-simulation."

Criticism of Bostrom's anthropic reasoning

Bostrom argues that if "the fraction of all people with our kind of experiences that are living in a simulation is very close to one", then it follows that humans probably live in a simulation. Some philosophers disagree, proposing that perhaps "Sims" do not have conscious experiences the same way that unsimulated humans do, or that it can otherwise be self-evident to a human that they are a human rather than a Sim. Philosopher Barry Dainton modifies Bostrom's trilemma by substituting "neural ancestor simulations" (ranging from literal brains in a vat, to far-future humans with induced high-fidelity hallucinations that they are their own distant ancestors) for Bostrom's "ancestor simulations", on the grounds that every philosophical school of thought can agree that sufficiently high-tech neural ancestor simulation experiences would be indistinguishable from non-simulated experiences. Even if high-fidelity computer Sims are never conscious, Dainton's reasoning leads to the following conclusion: either the fraction of human-level civilizations that reach a posthuman stage and are able and willing to run large numbers of neural ancestor simulations is close to zero, or some kind of (possibly neural) ancestor simulation exists.

Some scholars categorically reject—or are uninterested in—anthropic reasoning, dismissing it as "merely philosophical", unfalsifiable, or inherently unscientific.

Some critics propose that the simulation could be in the first generation, and all the simulated people that will one day be created do not yet exist, in accordance with philosophical presentism.

The cosmologist Sean M. Carroll argues that the simulation hypothesis leads to a contradiction: if humans are typical, as it is assumed, and not capable of performing simulations, this contradicts the arguer's assumption that it is easy for us to foresee that other civilizations can most likely perform simulations.

Physicist Frank Wilczek raises an empirical objection, saying that the laws of the universe have hidden complexity which is "not used for anything" and the laws are constrained by time and location – all of this being unnecessary and extraneous in a simulation. He further argues that the simulation argument amounts to "begging the question," due to the "embarrassing question" of the nature of the underlying reality in which this universe is simulated. "Okay if this is a simulated world, what is the thing in which it is simulated made out of? What are the laws for that?"

It has been argued that humans cannot be the ones being simulated, since the simulation argument uses its descendants as the ones running the simulations. In other words, it has been argued that the probability that humans live in a simulated universe is not independent of the prior probability that is assigned to the existence of other universes.

Arguments, within the trilemma, against the simulation hypothesis

Some scholars accept the trilemma, and argue that the first or second of the propositions are true, and that the third proposition (the proposition that humans live in a simulation) is false. Physicist Paul Davies uses Bostrom's trilemma as part of one possible argument against a near-infinite multiverse. This argument runs as follows: if there were a near-infinite multiverse, there would be posthuman civilizations running ancestor simulations, which would lead to the untenable and scientifically self-defeating conclusion that humans live in a simulation; therefore, by reductio ad absurdum, existing multiverse theories are likely false. (Unlike Bostrom and Chalmers, Davies (among others) considers the simulation hypothesis to be self-defeating.)

Some point out that there is currently no proof of technology that would facilitate the existence of sufficiently high-fidelity ancestor simulation. Additionally, there is no proof that it is physically possible or feasible for a posthuman civilization to create such a simulation, and therefore for the present, the first proposition must be taken to be true. Additionally there are limits of computation.

Physicist Marcelo Gleiser objects to the notion that posthumans would have a reason to run simulated universes:  "...being so advanced they would have collected enough knowledge about their past to have little interest in this kind of simulation. ...They may have virtual-reality museums, where they could go and experience the lives and tribulations of their ancestors. But a full-fledged, resource-consuming simulation of an entire universe? Sounds like a colossal waste of time." Gleiser also points out that there is no plausible reason to stop at one level of simulation, so that the simulated ancestors might also be simulating their ancestors, and so on, creating an infinite regress akin to the "problem of the First Cause."

In 2019, philosopher Preston Greene suggested that it may be best not to find out if we're living in a simulation since, if it were found to be true, such knowing might end the simulation.

Greene's suggestion is similar to Douglas Adams' humorous idea presented in his 1979 novel The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: that if anyone in the Universe should actually work out 'The Meaning of Life, the Universe and Everything', it would instantly disappear and be immediately replaced with something "even more complex and inexplicable".

Economist Robin Hanson argues that a self-interested occupant of a high-fidelity simulation should strive to be entertaining and praiseworthy in order to avoid being turned off or being shunted into a non-conscious low-fidelity part of the simulation. Hanson additionally speculates that someone who is aware that he might be in a simulation might care less about others and live more for today: "your motivation to save for retirement, or to help the poor in Ethiopia, might be muted by realizing that in your simulation, you will never retire and there is no Ethiopia."

Besides attempting to assess whether the simulation hypothesis is true or false, philosophers have also used it to illustrate other philosophical problems, especially in metaphysics and epistemology. David Chalmers has argued that simulated beings might wonder whether their mental lives are governed by the physics of their environment, when in fact these mental lives are simulated separately (and are thus, in fact, not governed by the simulated physics). Chalmers claims that they might eventually find that their thoughts fail to be physically caused, and argues that this means that Cartesian dualism is not necessarily as problematic of a philosophical view as is commonly supposed, though he does not endorse it. Similar arguments have been made for philosophical views about personal identity that say that an individual could have been another human being in the past, as well as views about qualia that say that colors could have appeared differently than they do (the inverted spectrum scenario). In both cases, the claim is that all this would require is hooking up the mental lives to the simulated physics in a different way.

Computationalism

Computationalism is a philosophy of mind theory stating that cognition is a form of computation. It is relevant to the simulation hypothesis in that it illustrates how a simulation could contain conscious subjects, as required by a "virtual people" simulation. For example, it is well known that physical systems can be simulated to some degree of accuracy. If computationalism is correct and if there is no problem in generating artificial consciousness or cognition, it would establish the theoretical possibility of a simulated reality. Nevertheless, the relationship between cognition and phenomenal qualia of consciousness is disputed. It is possible that consciousness requires a vital substrate that a computer cannot provide and that simulated people, while behaving appropriately, would be philosophical zombies. This would undermine Nick Bostrom's simulation argument; humans cannot be a simulated consciousness, if consciousness, as humans understand it, cannot be simulated. The skeptical hypothesis remains intact, however, and humans could still be vatted brains, existing as conscious beings within a simulated environment, even if consciousness cannot be simulated. It has been suggested that whereas virtual reality would enable a participant to experience only three senses (sight, sound and optionally smell), simulated reality would enable all five (including taste and touch).

Some theorists have argued that if the "consciousness-is-computation" version of computationalism and mathematical realism (or radical mathematical Platonism) are true then consciousness is computation, which in principle is platform independent and thus admits of simulation. This argument states that a "Platonic realm" or ultimate ensemble would contain every algorithm, including those that implement consciousness. Hans Moravec has explored the simulation hypothesis and has argued for a kind of mathematical Platonism according to which every object (including, for example, a stone) can be regarded as implementing every possible computation.

In physics
In physics, the view of the universe and its workings as the ebb and flow of information was first observed by Wheeler. Consequently, two views of the world emerged: the first one proposes that the universe is a quantum computer, while the other one proposes that the system performing the simulation is distinct from its simulation (the universe). Of the former view, quantum-computing specialist Dave Bacon wrote,

In many respects this point of view may be nothing more than a result of the fact that the notion of computation is the disease of our age—everywhere we look today we see examples of computers, computation, and information theory and thus we extrapolate this to our laws of physics. Indeed, thinking about computing as arising from faulty components, it seems as if the abstraction that uses perfectly operating computers is unlikely to exist as anything but a platonic ideal. Another critique of such a point of view is that there is no evidence for the kind of digitization that characterizes computers nor are there any predictions made by those who advocate such a view that have been experimentally confirmed.

Testing the hypothesis physically
A method to test one type of simulation hypothesis was proposed in 2012 in a joint paper by physicists Silas R. Beane from the University of Bonn (now at the University of Washington, Seattle), and Zohreh Davoudi and Martin J. Savage from the University of Washington, Seattle. Under the assumption of finite computational resources, the simulation of the universe would be performed by dividing the continuum space-time into a discrete set of points, which may result in observable effects. In analogy with the mini-simulations that lattice-gauge theorists run today to build up nuclei from the underlying theory of strong interactions (known as quantum chromodynamics), several observational consequences of a grid-like space-time have been studied in their work. Among proposed signatures is an anisotropy in the distribution of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays that, if observed, would be consistent with the simulation hypothesis according to these physicists. In 2017, Campbell et al. proposed several experiments aimed at testing the simulation hypothesis in their paper "On Testing the Simulation Theory".

Mistakes due to conversion entropy
If many layers of reality exist, each layer contributes some noise = mistakes impossible to be explained exclusively by the physics or the program of the particular examined world.

In the infinite series of simulations hypothesis, the first layer is physical and noise builds up to infinity. Weird deviations in the physics and in the program of each world can expose a deeper layer of reality, but it doesn't necessarily reveal if the some layer is physical or a computational simulation. Theoretically physical simulations have constant deviations due to conversion entropy, and computational simulations have more erratic glitches (computers have more erratic glitches than a hypothesized ideal but not supernatural computer) or total failures (even an ideal computer, sometimes totally fails).

No error correction is perfect, and at some point of complexity, error correction algorithms cause more mistakes because they have problem to manage needlessly huge chunks of data.

The physicality of the first layer
In the simulation hypothesis (very similar to the alien abiogenesis hypothesis) the first layer of reality (first world) has physical foundations, even in the infinite series of simulations hypothesis.

The ontoaxiomatic loop of worlds, is physical worlds with causally linked physical foundations. That example isn't a simulation hypothesis, but it originated from the evolution of its philosophy.

Existence of simulated reality unprovable in any concrete sense
Known as the idea of Nested Simulations: the existence of simulated reality is seen to be unprovable (and also unfalsifiable) in any concrete sense as there is an infinite regress problem with the argument: any evidence that is directly observed could be another simulation itself.

Even if humans are in a simulated reality, there is no way to be sure the beings running the simulation are not themselves a simulation and the operators of that simulation are not a simulation.

" involves a simulation or an entity in the simulation, creating another instance of the same simulation, running it and using its results" (Pooch and Sullivan 2000).

Advocates
Elon Musk, the CEO of Tesla and SpaceX, firmly believes in the simulation hypothesis. In a podcast with Joe Rogan, Musk said "If you assume any rate of improvement at all, games will eventually be indistinguishable from reality" before concluding "that it's most likely we're in a simulation." Musk has also speculated that the odds of us living in a simulated reality or computer made by others is about a 99.9% chance at various other press conferences and events, and stated in a 2016 interview that he believes "there's a one in billion chance we're in base reality."

Another high-profile proponent of the hypothesis is astrophysicist Neil Degrasse Tyson, who said in an NBC News interview that the hypothesis is correct, giving "better than 50-50 odds" and adding, "I wish I could summon a strong argument against it, but I can find none." However, in a subsequent interview with Chuck Nice on a YouTube episode of StarTalk, Tyson shares that his friend J. Richard Gott, a professor of astrophysical sciences at Princeton University, made him aware of a strong objection to the simulation hypothesis. The objection claims that the common trait that all hypothetical high-fidelity simulated universes possess is the ability to produce high-fidelity simulated universes. And since our current world does not possess this ability, it would mean that either humans are in the real universe, and therefore simulated universes have not yet been created, or humans are the last in a very long chain of simulated universes, an observation that makes the simulation hypothesis seem less probable. Regarding this objection, Tyson remarked "that changes my life".

Other uses in philosophy

Dream argument

There is a long philosophical and scientific history to the underlying thesis that reality is an illusion. This skeptical hypothesis can be traced back to antiquity; for example, to the "Butterfly Dream" of Zhuangzi, or the Indian philosophy of Maya, or in Ancient Greek philosophy Anaxarchus and Monimus likened existing things to a scene-painting and supposed them to resemble the impressions experienced in sleep or madness.

A dream could be considered a type of simulation capable of fooling someone who is asleep. As a result, Bertrand Russell has argued that the "dream hypothesis" is not a logical impossibility, but that common sense as well as considerations of simplicity and inference to the best explanation rule against it.  One of the first philosophers to question the distinction between reality and dreams was Zhuangzi, a Chinese philosopher of the 4th century BC.  He phrased the problem as the well-known "Butterfly Dream," which went as follows:
Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didn't know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi. Between Zhuangzi and a butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things. (2, tr. Burton Watson 1968:49)

The philosophical underpinnings of this argument are also brought up by Descartes, who was one of the first Western philosophers to do so. In Meditations on First Philosophy, he states "... there are no certain indications by which we may clearly distinguish wakefulness from sleep", and goes on to conclude that "It is possible that I am dreaming right now and that all of my perceptions are false".

Chalmers (2003) discusses the dream hypothesis and notes that this comes in two distinct forms:
 that he is currently dreaming, in which case many of his beliefs about the world are incorrect;
 that he has always been dreaming, in which case the objects he perceives actually exist, albeit in his imagination.

Both the dream argument and the simulation hypothesis can be regarded as skeptical hypotheses. Another state of mind in which some argue an individual's perceptions have no physical basis in the real world is psychosis, though psychosis may have a physical basis in the real world and explanations vary.

In On Certainty, the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein has argued that such skeptical hypothesis are unsinnig (i.e. non-sensical), as they doubt knowledge that is required in order to make sense of the hypotheses themselves.

The dream hypothesis is also used to develop other philosophical concepts, such as Valberg's personal horizon: what this world would be internal to if this were all a dream.

Lucid dreaming is characterized as an idea where the elements of dreaming and waking are combined to a point where the user knows they are dreaming, or waking perhaps.

Modern philosophy
A version of the simulation hypothesis was theorized as a part of a philosophical argument on the part of René Descartes, by George Berkeley (1685–1753) with his "immaterialism" (later referred to as subjective idealism by others), and later by Hans Moravec.

 René Descartes (1596–1650) and his Evil Demon, sometimes also called his 'Evil Genius'

Aztec philosophical texts theorized that the world was a painting or book written by the Teotl.

Nietzsche, in Beyond Good and Evil chastised philosophers for seeking to find the true world behind the deceptive world of appearances.
It is nothing more than a moral prejudice that truth is worth more than semblance; it is, in fact, the worst proved supposition in the world.... Why might not the world which concerns us—be a fiction?

Relation to Solipsism
Skeptical arguments have historically played a role in the evolution of philosophical discussion, particularly in the fields of ontology, metaphysics, the theory of knowledge and the philosophy of science. The fallibility of perception, knowledge and thought have been explored employing several arguments. Solipsist scenarios, a common ground of debate in these fields, are extreme cases prompting these dilemmas for further discussion.

The brain in a vat is another related philosophical thought experiment, which also explores epistemological questions about what knowledge humans can obtain about the world that they observe.

In popular culture
Science fiction has highlighted themes such as virtual reality, artificial intelligence and computer gaming for more than fifty years.

Jokester (1956) by Isaac Asimov explores the idea that humor is actually a psychological study tool imposed from without by extraterrestrials studying mankind, similarly to how humans study mice. Simulacron-3 (1964) by Daniel F. Galouye (alternative title: Counterfeit World) tells the story of a virtual city developed as a computer simulation for market research purposes, in which the simulated inhabitants possess consciousness; all but one of the inhabitants are unaware of the true nature of their world. The book was made into a German made-for-TV film called World on a Wire (1973) directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder. The film The Thirteenth Floor (1999) was also loosely based on this book. "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" is a short story by American writer Philip K. Dick, first published in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction in April 1966, and was the basis for the 1990 film Total Recall and its 2012 remake. In Overdrawn at the Memory Bank, a 1983 television film, the main character pays to have his mind connected to a simulation.

The same theme was repeated in the 1999 film The Matrix, which depicted a world in which artificially intelligent robots enslaved humanity within a simulation set in the contemporary world. The 2012 play World of Wires was partially inspired by the Bostrom essay on the simulation hypothesis.

The 2014 episode of the animated sitcom Rick and Morty , "M. Night Shaym-Aliens!", demonstrates a low-quality simulation that attempts to trap the two titular protagonists, but because the operation is less "realistic" than typically operated "reality", it becomes obvious.

A 2017 episode of the long-running British sci-fi series Doctor Who titled Extremis features a simulated version of The 12th Doctor and his companions.  A secret Vatican document describes the truth about the simulated reality by inviting its reader to choose any series of numbers at random.  The document lists the same numbers on the next page since the simulated program cannot produce a truly random event.  The simulation is finally revealed to be a practice world for aliens intent on real-world domination.

The 2022 Netflix epic period mystery-science fiction 1899 created by Jantje Friese and Baran bo Odar tells the unfinished story of a simulation scenario in which multiple persons find themselves in a circumstance of multiplicities and simultaneities. The storyline involves an amnesia, seemingly to protect the integrity of the simulation, as suggested would be necessary by the philosopher Preston Green.

The 2022 visual novel Anonymous;Code explores the idea of the world being a simulation, with an infinite or near-infinite number of "world layers" of simulations running inside other simulations. The main problem with this system is that in some of these "world layers", both above and below the one the characters find themselves living in, the Year 2038 Problem has not been solved, dooming the world to end on January 19, 2038 at 3:14:07 am UTC. So the characters have to hack all the way into the highest world layer, the real world that the player lives in, to synchronize all the world layers and solve the Year 2038 Problem in all of them.

See also

 Advaita Vedanta
 Avatamsaka Sutra
 Artificial life
 Artificial philosophy
 Artificial society
 Boltzmann brain
 Brain in a vat
 Calculating Space
 Computational sociology
 Consensus reality
 Demiurge
 Depersonalization-derealization disorder
 Digital physics
 Experience machine
 Fine tuned universe
 Holographic principle
 Hyperreality
 Interface theory
 Margolus–Levitin theorem
 the Matrix defense
 Mathematical universe hypothesis
 Maya (religion)
 Metaphysics
 Mind uploading
 Monte Carlo method
 OpenWorm, project to simulate the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans
 Perennial philosophy
 Philosophy of information
 Quantum immortality
 Social simulation
 Simulation video game
 Theory of knowledge
 Tipler's "Omega point"
 Virtual reality
 Zhuangzi

Notes

References

Further reading
 "Are We Living in a Simulation?" BBC Focus magazine, March 2013, pages 43–45. Interview with physicist Silas Beane of the University of Bonn discussing a proposed test for simulated reality evidence. Three pages, three photos, including one of Beane and a computer-generated scene from the film The Matrix. Publisher: Immediate Media Company, Bristol, UK.
 Conitzer, Vincent. "A Puzzle About Further Facts". Open access version of article in Erkenntnis.
 Campbell, Tom; Houman Owhadi, Joe Sauvageau, David Watkinson: "On testing the simulation theory". .
 Lev, Gid'on. Life in the Matrix. Haaretz Magazine, April 25, 2019, page 6.
 Merali, Zeeya. "Do We Live in the Matrix?" Discover, December 2013, pages 24–25. Subtitle: "Physicists have proposed tests to reveal whether we are part of a giant computer simulation."

External links
 Are We Living in a Computer Simulation?—Nick Bostrom's Simulation Argument webpage
 Techniques for programming a Simulation Universe at the Planck level

Arguments in philosophy of mind
Concepts in epistemology
Concepts in metaphysics
Internalism and externalism
Thought experiments in philosophy
Philosophical debates
Hypotheses
Limits of computation
Nick Bostrom
Virtual reality
Mixed reality
Hyperreality
Science fiction themes

Simulation hypothesis


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