The Chevrolet Bolt EV (marketed in Europe as Opel Ampera-e) is a battery electric subcompact hatchback produced by General Motors under the Chevrolet marque. The first generation was produced from 2016 to late 2023. In 2023, GM officials said they would cancel the car, then three months later announced plans but no date for a next-generation model.

The first generation was developed and manufactured with LG Corporation. Sales of the 2017 Bolt began in California in December 2016, it was released nationwide and international markets release in 2017. A rebadged European variant was marketed as the Opel Ampera-e in mainland Europe.

In 2017, the Bolt was the second-best-selling plug-in car in the United States. It was named the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year, the 2017 North American Car of the Year, an Automobile magazine 2017 All Star, and was listed in Time magazine's Best 25 Inventions of 2016. The Ampera-e was discontinued after 2018. By the end of 2020, GM had sold 112,000 Bolt and Ampera-e cars worldwide.

The first-generation Bolt has been subject to at least three recalls. At least 16 Bolts have caught fire, leading to a recall to fix or replace battery components and GM's August 2021 advisory to park in open areas, at least  away from other vehicles.

History

Development
GM Korea began developing the Bolt in 2012 with a team of 180 people with the project code G2KCZ (G2 for Gamma 2nd-generation platform, K for hatchback, C for Chevrolet, and Z for electric car). Its initial concept debuted at the 2015 North American International Auto Show.

, General Motors had tested more than 50 hand-built Bolt prototypes at the General Motors Proving Grounds in Milford, Michigan. The cars were tested at Proving Grounds and overseas for ride and handling dynamics, cabin comfort, quietness, charging capability, and energy efficiency.

Alan Batey, head of General Motors North America, announced in February 2015 that the Bolt EV was headed for production, and would be available in all 50 states. GM also has plans to sell the Bolt in select global markets.

In January 2016, at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, the production version of the Chevrolet Bolt was unveiled. During GM CEO Mary Barra's keynote at the show, Chevrolet confirmed an estimated range of  or more, an approximate  price tag (after government incentives), and stated it would be available in late 2016. Barra projected in February 2016 that the European version, marketed as the Opel Ampera-e (or Vauxhall Ampera-e in the United Kingdom), would enter production in 2017.

In March 2016, GM released photos and a short pre-production video of the Bolt at the company's Orion Assembly plant outside Detroit, testing manufacturing and tooling.
The car's user interface was developed in Israel.

Profitability
An unnamed source cited by Bloomberg News estimated that General Motors is expected to take a loss of  to  per Bolt sold. A GM spokesman declined to comment about expected profitability. Opel refuted that in December 2016 and stated that GM has battery cell costs of $130/kWh, and industry is not yet optimized for mass production. A UBS tear-down in 2017 suggested slightly smaller losses per vehicle, of $7418 on a base spec, or $5520 on a higher spec vehicle. They estimate that by 2025 the Bolt will make a profit of about $6000 per vehicle.

Production
Final assembly takes place at GM's Orion Assembly plant in Orion Township, Michigan, which received a  upgrade for Bolt production. Manufacture of the battery, motor, and drive unit started in August 2016 at LG, Incheon, South Korea.

The car is designed for flexible production by having some of the battery in the same position as the fuel tank in internal combustion engine-powered cars, and is made on the same assembly line as the Chevrolet Sonic at a combined rate of 90,000 per year. Although the car is assembled near Detroit, it has only 20% domestic-parts content.

Analysts expected Bolt production at 22,000 per year, and Ampera-e at a few thousand. Production may increase to 30,000 to 50,000 per year according to demand. Regular production was expected to begin in October 2016 at 25,000-30,000 the first year. Initial regular production had begun by early November 2016 at a rate of 9 per hour, gradually increasing to 30 per hour. Retail deliveries began in California in December 2016.

Bolt production was halted on August 23, 2021, while battery production was redirected to replacements under a recall affecting the 140,000 Bolt EVs that had been produced up to that time. Production was not restarted until April 4, 2022.

Recalls
In November 2020, 50,932 Chevrolet Bolt vehicles of model year 2017–2019 were recalled due to potential fire risk. According to GM, these vehicles contained high voltage batteries produced at LG Chem's Ochang plant that may pose a risk of fire "when charged to full, or very close to full, capacity".

As a precautionary measure, Chevrolet issued software updates that allow dealers to install a battery charge limit of 90% to their existing inventory while urging current 2017–2019 Chevy Bolt owners to enable the "Hill Top Reserve" option (2017-2018MY) or to set vehicle "Target Charge Level" (2019-2022MY) to 90%. A final software update was expected to remedy the charging capacity to 100% sometime in April 2021. , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has confirmed five known fires with two injuries and recommends parking recalled vehicles outside, away from homes, until they have been repaired.

On August 20, 2021, Chevrolet extended the recall to include all Bolt models (both EV and EUV) and model years (2017-2022) totaling the number of recalled Chevy Bolt cars to nearly 142,000. GM will replace the recalled vehicles' batteries, citing manufacturing defects by its partner LG, which could be responsible for the shorting of deficient battery cells. Amid further investigation, GM says it will ramp up production of replacement battery cells with LG Chem, while seeking reimbursement for the recall from the manufacturer, as GM expects the expense to be $1.8 billion. LG Chem had to pay $1.9 billion to GM. Some of the recalled battery packs were repurposed in grid batteries.

Cars which have had the battery-replacement recall done have the  range of the 2020-up Bolt, and the new batteries are warrantied for 8 years from the date of installation.

Discontinuation and planned revival
In January 2022, GM announced that the Orion Township factory would be retooled at a cost of $4 billion to produce Chevrolet Silverado EV and GMC Sierra EV pickup trucks, starting in 2024. The factory will continue to make Bolts until retooling is complete in 2024, when it will shift to making the trucks.

The affordable segment targeted by the Bolt was expected to be filled by the Chevrolet Equinox EV as GM shifts its EVs to Ultium third-generation battery technology. On April 25, 2023, GM CEO Mary Barra confirmed that the Bolt and Bolt EUV would be discontinued at the end of 2023 to make room for GM's "new generation of electric vehicles."

But on July 25, 2023, Barra said that there were plans for a second-generation Bolt using Ultium hardware and Ultifi software.

Design

The Bolt was designed from 2012 by a team of 180 people in GM's Korea studio (formerly Daewoo Korea), as B-segment size on its own platform, the GM BEV2. It does not share elements with the GM Gamma platform cars like the Chevrolet Sonic/Spark.

The EPA classifies the Bolt as "small station wagon", with less than 130 cu ft of interior volume. GM refers to the Bolt as a crossover and puts it under the category of SUV on its website. The passenger volume is , and cargo space is  (381 liter).

The Bolt's doors, tailgate, and hood are aluminum. The driver can adjust the level of regenerative braking as the accelerator pedal is lifted. The front seats are asymmetrical to maximize cabin volume while accommodating airbags.

GM planned for over-the-air software updates during 2017 but the feature was finally released to the Bolt in April 2018.

Pre-production name confusion

In 2015, Chevrolet acknowledged confusion between two vehicles with similar-sounding names; Bolt and Volt. Chevrolet's marketing chief, Tim Mahoney, subsequently announced GM would keep the Bolt name.

Autoblog projected similar confusion among European customers where the Opel Ampera-e (the Bolt variant) is just one letter off from the Opel Ampera, the previous-generation Chevrolet Volt sold in Europe – suggesting the names could confuse customers who think the new all-electric hatchback is closely related to the old plug-in hybrid hatchback.

Tata Motors has had a car named the Bolt on the market since 2014, and has registered the trademark in India and other countries.

Cruise AV (autonomous vehicle)

The Cruise AV is a Bolt EV-based autonomous vehicle developed and tested by Cruise Automation, whose majority owner is General Motors; GM acquired Cruise in March 2016.

Pre-production versions of the Bolt EV were built at Orion Assembly in March 2016 and sent to Cruise, which modified the cars by adding sensors in San Francisco. The modified pre-production vehicles were photographed in San Francisco in May. Fifty of these first-generation (G1) Bolt EV-based Cruise AVs were tested from June 2016 in the San Francisco Bay Area and Scottsdale, Arizona.

After its acquisition by GM in March 2016, Cruise began working with GM engineers to develop the 2nd-generation (G2) Cruise AV, which would be assembled alongside regular production Bolt EVs at Orion Assembly. The G1 Cruise AV has two roof-mounted LIDAR sensors, four small round headlights, and the Chevrolet "bowtie" logo on the front grille, while the G2 has five LIDARs and  the same styling as the regular production Bolt. A fleet of 130 G2 Cruise AVs were completed by June 2017, with an expanded, better-integrated sensor suite. The G2 (and G3) Cruise AVs are equipped with five roof-mounted LIDARs, 16 cameras, and 21 radars (both long- and short-range as well as articulating). The first G1 Cruise AV was retired and sent to the Henry Ford Museum in March 2019.

A prototype 3rd-generation (G3) Cruise AV was shown in September 2017; Cruise CEO Kyle Vogt said the G3 AV was designed to incorporate redundant systems and was ready to be scaled up for mass production at the Orion Township factory. In addition, the G3 AV uses fault-tolerant electrical, communication, and actuation systems unique to the automated vehicle and not shared with the Bolt EV. With the completion of 50 G3 Cruise AVs in fall 2017, GM now considers the vehicle a separate model from the Bolt. Externally, the G3 Cruise AV may be distinguished from the G2 by the color of the rooftop sensor package (black on the G2, white on the G3) and the two articulating radars: on the G2, these are black and replace the side rear-view mirrors on the G2; on the G3, these are white and are mounted just above the front wheels.

Members of the press were invited to ride in a G2 Cruise AV in November 2017; they reported the choices made by the car's programming were conservative, but the self-driving system had minimal disengagements over the short  trips. In January 2018, Cruise showed renderings and a prototype of its planned 4th-generation (G4) AV, which removed the traditional driver's controls such as the steering wheel and pedals and largely retained the external features of the G2, but further development of the G4 Cruise AV was canceled to concentrate on their next generation autonomous vehicle, the Origin, which was unveiled in January 2020 and lacks driver controls entirely. The Origin is scheduled to be introduced in January 2023. Cruise received approval to test cars without safety drivers on public roads in October 2020; the first SAE Level 4 vehicles tested by Cruise were G3 AVs. The safety driver was relegated to the passenger's (right-hand) front seat and did not have access to the traditional controls.

Later in 2021, a G2 Cruise AV nicknamed "Poppy" was filmed for a short promotional video while undergoing testing in San Francisco. The California Public Utilities Commission approved Cruise's application in June 2022; with the permit, Cruise plans to start offering driverless revenue taxi services in San Francisco with Cruise AVs.

Redesign

For the 2022 model year, the Bolt received a significant redesign to its front clip and its rear end, along with some parts of its interior. The front end carries new headlights, along with a new faux-grille and trim. The tail lights and the tailgate hatch also differ slightly from the previous model. For the interior, the shifter has been replaced with gear shifter buttons and the seats have been redesigned along with some of the interior detailing. Dimensions of the vehicle remain unchanged.

GM also began selling a Bolt EUV crossover SUV alongside the existing Bolt EV hatchback that year. The EUV and EV share the same BEV2 platform; however, the EUV has an extended wheelbase along with some enhanced key features.

Specifications

Battery

The Bolt's battery uses "nickel-rich lithium-ion" chemistry, allowing the cells to run at higher temperatures than those in GM's previous electric vehicles, allowing a simpler and cheaper liquid cooling system for the  battery pack. The battery pack is a stressed member and weighs . It accounts for 23% of the car's value, and is composed of 288 flat "landscape" format cells. Cells are bundled into groups of three connected in parallel, and 96 groups connected in series compose the pack, which is rated at 160 kW peak power. GM offers a battery warranty of 8 years / , and has no plans for other battery sizes.

In October 2015, General Motors said they will purchase the Bolt's battery cells at a price of $145 per kilowatt hour from LG Chem, representing a minimum of $8,700 in revenue per car. The cost is reportedly about $100 cheaper per kWh than the price LG was giving other customers at the time. GM estimated a cell price of $130/kWh in December 2016.

While initially expected to share its lithium-ion battery technology with the second generation Chevrolet Volt, the production version of the Bolt uses batteries with a different chemistry more suited to the different charge cycles of a long-range electric vehicle, compared to the more frequent charging/discharging of hybrids and short-range EVs.

The 2020 model year's battery capacity increased to 66 kWh because of a small change made to the battery chemistry that increased the EPA rated range by . Physically, the battery is  wide,  long, and  high, weighing .

Drivetrain

Other specifications include a  and  Interior Permanent Magnet electric motor, acceleration from  in 2.9 seconds and  in less than 7 seconds, and a top speed of . The electric motor is integrated with a single-speed transmission and differential, to form a single modular drive unit that connects directly to the front axles. The single-speed transmission has a final drive ratio of 7.05:1.

Body and chassis

The Bolt EV is tall hatchback design, with a curb weight of .  Despite its overall height of nearly , the center of gravity is under  above the ground, yielding surprisingly stable handling during cornering. The low center of gravity is due to under-floor mounting of the battery pack.

Bolt uses the now-common kammback/hatchback low-drag body design, with sweeping curves leading to an abrupt back end. It was initially reported to have a  but GM says the final production vehicle has .

Range and efficiency

Under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) five-cycle test methodology, the Bolt fuel economy is rated at 119 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) () for combined driving,  in city and  in highway.

The Bolt EV has a combined EPA-rated range of . For city driving, the EPA rated the Bolt range at , and due to its relatively high drag coefficient, its range for highway driving is .  One Bolt owner was able to drive from McHenry, Maryland in the western part of the state to Ocean City, Maryland, a distance of , on a single charge.

The Ampera-e has a certified range of  under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) test cycle with a full battery, and achieved a range of  under the more strict Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedures (WLTP). Opel expected the Ampera-e to achieve a NEDC range of about .

Before the Tesla Model 3 was introduced in July 2017, the Bolt was the only plug-in electric car with a manufacturer's suggested retail price (MSRP) of less than  capable of delivering an EPA-rated range of over .

As of the 2020 model year, the Bolt has an EPA all-electric range of , up from  for the 2017–2019 model years, and EPA fuel economy rating of  for combined city/highway driving.

Charging

All models of Bolt support standard SAE J1772 EV charging plugs, at Level 1 or Level 2 (AC). A factory option supports Level 3 (rapid DC) charging with the CCS1 connector. For model year 2021, the upper trim level ("Premier") was equipped with the CCS1 connector as standard. A portable Level 1 charging adapter is supplied with each Bolt, stowed in a special compartment under the hatchback floor. It is UL Listed to operate at 120 VAC in the US market but is capable of operating at 240 VAC.

Level 1 (110 VAC) charging supplies roughly 1 kW and adds  of range per hour of charging. Level 2 (240 VAC) charging supplies up to 7.2 kW and adds  of range per hour of charging. Level 3 charging with the factory-option 55 kW SAE Combo DC fast charging system can add  of range per hour. The Bolt user manual suggests fast-charging to only 80% charge to ensure consistent 50 kW charging. The fast charge rate steps down to 38 kW at 56% charge and again to 24 kW at 68% charge. Above 85%, the charge rate varies from 16 kW to 0 kW.

With the 2022 refresh, the on-board AC charger was upgraded to a maximum rate of 11.5 kW and the CCS1 connector was made standard, although DC charging remained limited to a maximum rate of 55 kW.

Tires

The Bolt EV is delivered with self-sealing tires whose interior surfaces are coated with a sticky compound to automatically seal small leaks and punctures in the tread area. There is no spare tire, nor is there a built-in place to store one. The car is equipped with a digital Tire Pressure Monitoring System to warn the driver if a tire is leaking, and a portable air compressor kit is supplied as an optional part.  Under the rear hatchback cargo deck, there is a space that can be used to store an undersized spare, and some owners carry a compatible Chevrolet Cruze spare tire there.

Test drives

The EPA-rated range of  was confirmed by automotive reporters driving a preproduction Bolt with a 60-kWh battery. Driven under different driving modes with the air conditioning on, the trip between Monterey and Santa Barbara was completed with an energy consumption of 50.1 kWh, representing an average efficiency of . A total of  were driven, with the Bolt's display showing  of range remaining. Several other journalists conducted a preproduction Bolt test drive on the same route, and all reported similar results regarding the Bolt EPA-estimated range.

As part of its debut at the 2016 Paris Motor Show, Opel reported driving an Ampera-e without recharging from Piccadilly Circus in London to Porte de Versailles in Paris, the venue of the exhibition. The rebadged Bolt traveled  with  of range remaining.

Markets and sales

United States

Pre-production versions of the Bolt EV were built in March 2016 and sent to Cruise Automation, which modified them as test vehicles for autonomous driving. The modified pre-production vehicles were photographed in San Francisco in May.

Ordering began in California and Oregon in mid-October 2016. Production for the model year 2017 began in November 2016. The first three Bolts were delivered in the San Francisco Bay Area on December 13, 2016, and a total of 579 units were delivered in 2016. Availability was rolled out gradually across the United States, and by August 2017 the car was available nationwide.

Demand profile did not exactly match predictions, leading GM to slow production in July 2017.  However, in the last months of 2017 Bolt demand rose rapidly; by October, it outsold any other model of electric car, including those from Tesla. Sales totaled 23,297 units in 2017, making the Bolt the U.S. second best selling plug-in car in 2017 after the Tesla Model S (≈26,500). In California, the Bolt listed as the top selling plug-in car with 13,487 units delivered, ahead of the much more expensive Tesla Model S, listed second with 11,813. The Bolt also led the state's subcompact segment in 2017, with a market share of 14.7% of all new cars sold in this category. , cumulative sales in the American market totaled 26,477 units.

In January 2019, GM reported that 2018 US sales for the Bolt totaled 18,019, down 22% from the previous year. (US sales of the Tesla Model 3, on the other hand, jumped from 1,764 in 2017 to 139,782 in 2018.) The combined sales of the Bolt and Volt also triggered the start of the full $7,500 tax credit phase out in Q4 2018, prompting the tax credit to reduce to $3,750 in April 2019 and $1,875 in October 2019 before disappearing entirely April 2020.

Canada
The Bolt has been available in Canada since the beginning of 2017. A total of 4,025 Bolt EVs were sold in Canada in 2020.

South Korea
In South Korea, General Motors opened the order books on March 18, 2017, and all 400 units of the first allotment were sold out in 2 hours.

European countries
The European version began production in February 2017.

The Ampera-e launch in the Norwegian market was scheduled for April 2017, when 13 were registered. Deliveries to retail customers began on May 17, 2017. Over 4,000 cars were ordered in Norway, with some to be delivered in 2018. Registrations totaled 1,121 units in 2017.

European discontinuation controversy

The Ampera-e was first offered for sale in Norway, the first country in Europe where it was marketed, at a starting price of  () in December 2016, higher than that of the Nissan Leaf and BMW i3. Availability was limited, as the Ampera-e and Bolt both were assembled at the same Orion Township factory. Three months later in March 2017, Groupe PSA agreed to acquire Opel, the English twin sister brand Vauxhall and the European auto lending business from General Motors as GM exited the European market; the acquisition was completed in November.

By October 2017, European sales had expanded into Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Germany; there were 4,000-5,000 orders for the Ampera-e in Norway alone, which has a population of 5.2 million. However, dealers in Europe were asked to completely stop accepting orders for the Opel Ampera-e at the same time, as the entire annual allotment for Europe had been sold and the earliest possible delivery date was pushed to 2019. The starting price was raised to  in November. The fact that Opel was limiting orders of the Ampera-e in Norway, its most promising market, led to speculation that GM was planning to discontinue the model in Europe. GM previously has been accused of purposefully sabotaging its EV1 programme, most notably in the 2006 documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car?.

In February 2018, it was reported that 1,971 Opel Ampera-e had been sold in Europe to date. Deliveries in Norway trickled at fewer than 100 units per month in 2018. For comparison, in 2018, the Hyundai Kona Electric, equipped with a 64 kWh battery and offering comparable range to the Ampera-e, was offered for sale in Norway. The entire yearly allotment, 2,500 vehicles, was sold out almost instantly.

 although in November 2018, it was reported to be on sale in the Netherlands for , possibly as a way to reduce overall emissions of the cars sold by Opel/Vauxhall. Sales records show that, as of February 2019, fewer than 5,000 Ampera-e vehicles were ever delivered in the entirety of Europe. Even though the Ampera-e could be ordered and bought in the Netherlands in 2019, its steep price was still an issue. In early 2020, the importer lowered the price to €34,149, which brought it closer to the official American MSRP, but still remained thousands of USD more than Americans were actually paying for the car. This was enough to put the car in the top 10 of bestselling cars in the country (regardless of the powertrain), and make it #1 among electric cars. However, the 2020 price reduction was an incentive to sell the remaining stock; as of 2020, Opel refuses to import any more Bolt/Ampera-e into the Netherlands and Germany.

Opel/Vauxhall offered the Opel Crossland X, a gasoline- or diesel-powered crossover utility vehicle with styling mildly reminiscent of the Bolt, using a platform developed by Groupe PSA under a partnership with GM predating the acquisition. Under PSA, Opel/Vauxhall announced plans to offer EVs based on the Opel Corsa and the Peugeot 208, both being smaller cars than the Bolt. The Corsa-e went on sale in March 2020.

Awards and recognition

The Bolt won the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year award, the 2017 North American Car of the Year, the 2017 AutoGuide.com Reader's Choice Green Car of the Year, 2017 Popular Mechanics Automotive Excellence Awards Car of the Year and the Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2017.
The Bolt also ended up Car & Driver's '10 Best Cars' list for 2017. The Chevy Bolt also won the 2017 Green Car of the Year awarded by the Green Car Journal. It was also named by Time among its list of 25 Best Inventions of 2016, and among Popular Science 10 Greatest Automotive Innovations of 2016. The Bolt EV beat out the Cadillac CT6 and Jaguar XE to win the Detroit Free Press award for Car of the Year. Automobile included the Bolt in its 2017 All Star list.

See also
 Chevrolet Spark EV
 General Motors EV1
 Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
 List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
 List of production battery electric vehicles
 Plug-in electric vehicle

Notes and references

Note

References

Bibliography

External links

Bolt
Bolt
Production electric cars
Subcompact cars
Cars introduced in 2016
Hatchbacks
2020s cars
Electric vehicles introduced in the 21st century

Chevrolet Bolt


A pressure switch is a form of switch that operates an electrical contact when a certain set fluid pressure has been reached on its input.  The switch may be designed to make contact either on pressure rise or on pressure fall. Pressure switches are widely used in industry to automatically supervise and control systems that use pressurized fluids.

Another type of pressure switch detects mechanical force; for example, a pressure-sensitive mat is used to automatically open doors on commercial buildings. Such sensors are also used in security alarm applications such as pressure sensitive floors.

Construction and types
A pressure switch for sensing fluid pressure contains a capsule, bellows, Bourdon tube, diaphragm or piston element that deforms or displaces proportionally to the applied pressure. The resulting motion is applied, either directly or through amplifying levers, to a set of switch contacts. Since pressure may be changing slowly and contacts should operate quickly, some kind of over-center mechanism  such as a miniature snap-action switch is used to ensure quick operation of the contacts. One sensitive type of pressure switch uses mercury switches mounted on a Bourdon tube; the shifting weight of the mercury provides a useful over-center characteristic.

The pressure switch may be adjustable, by moving the contacts or adjusting tension in a counterbalance spring. Industrial pressure switches may have a calibrated scale and pointer to show the set point of the switch. A pressure switch will have a hysteresis, that is, a differential range around its setpoint, known as the switch's deadband, inside which small changes of pressure do not influence the state of the contacts. Some types allow adjustment of the differential.

The pressure-sensing element of a pressure switch may be arranged to respond to the difference of two pressures. Such switches are useful when the difference is significant, for example, to detect a clogged filter in a water supply system. The switches must be designed to respond only to the difference and not to false-operate for changes in the common mode pressure.

The contacts of the pressure switch may be rated a few tenths of an ampere to around 15 amperes, with smaller ratings found on more sensitive switches. Often a pressure switch will operate a relay or other control device, but some types can directly control small electric motors or other loads.

Since the internal parts of the switch are exposed to the process fluid, they must be chosen to balance strength and life expectancy against compatibility with process fluids. For example, rubber diaphragms are commonly used in contact with water, but would quickly degrade if used in a system containing mineral oil.

Switches designed for use in hazardous areas with flammable gas have enclosure to prevent an arc at the contacts from igniting the surrounding gas. Switch enclosures may also be required to be weatherproof, corrosion resistant, or submersible.

An electronic pressure switch incorporates some variety of pressure transducer (strain gauge, capacitive element, or other) and an internal circuit to compare the measured pressure to a set point. Such devices may provide improved repeatability, accuracy and precision over a mechanical switch.

Pneumatic
Uses of pneumatic pressure switches include:
 Switch a household well water pump automatically when water is drawn from the pressure tank.
 Switching off an electrically driven gas compressor when a set pressure is achieved in the reservoir
 Switching off a gas compressor, whenever there is no feed in the suction stage.
 in-cell charge control in a battery
 Switching on an alarm light in the cockpit of an aircraft if cabin pressure (based on altitude) is critically low.
 Air filled hoses that activate switches when vehicles drive over them. Common for counting traffic and at gas stations.

Hydraulic
Hydraulic pressure switches have various uses in automobiles, for example, to warn if the engine's oil pressure falls below a safe level,  or  to control automatic transmission torque converter lock-up. Prior to the 1960s, a pressure switch was used in the hydraulic braking circuit to control power to the brake lights; more recent automobiles use a switch directly activated by the brake pedal.

In dust control systems (bag filter), a pressure switch is mounted on the header which will raise an alarm when air pressure in the header is less than necessary.  A differential pressure switch may be installed across a filter element to sense increased pressure drop, indicating the need for filter cleaning or replacement.

Examples

Pressure sensitive mat
A pressure sensitive mat provides a contact signal when force is applied anywhere within the area of the mat.  Some mats provide a single signal, while others can resolve the position of the applied force within the mat. Pressure sensitive mats can be used to operate electrically operated doors, or as part of an interlock system to ensure machine operators are clear of dangerous areas of a process before it operates. Pressure sensitive mats can be used to detect persons walking over a particular point, as part of a security alarm system or to count attendance, or for other purposes.

See also
Dynamic pressure
List of sensors
Pressure sensor

References

External links

Pneumatic tools
Hydraulic tools
Security technology

Pressure switch


Michel, Count Didisheim (18 April 1930 – 6 January 2020) was the private secretary and chief of the Royal household (1962–1986) of Albert, Prince of Liège, later to become king Albert II of Belgium. He was also the CEO and president of the King Baudouin Foundation (1976–2001).

His parents
Michel Georges Charles Gaspard David Didisheim was born in Kingston-Wimbledon, the son and eldest child of (baron) René Didisheim and Claire Maigret de Priches.

René Didisheim (1907–1994), doctor in law, member of the Bar at the Court of Appeal in Brussels, was Capitaine-Commandant de réserve, Etat-Major second to the Belgian 1st Infantry Brigade, also known by the name of its commander as the Brigade Piron. It was a Belgian infantry formation formed in Great Britain in 1940. It began with Belgian soldiers who had crossed the Channel, and, by the end of 1940 it had expanded to a "fusilier" battalion that played a significant role for the liberation of Belgium and its neighbouring countries of France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.

Here is a short abstract found on the Brigade Piron's website about René Didisheim:

« Officier d'un moral élevé. Evadé de Belgique en 1941, pour rejoindre les Forces Belges en Grande-Bretagne, a participé à la création et à l'instruction de la 1ère Brigade. Au cours de la campagne de Normandie n'a cessé comme officier de renseignements d'accomplir avec dévouement et intelligence des missions en première ligne. Comme commandant en second d'un bataillon d'infanterie a fait preuve en Hollande de courage et de sang-froid au cours de la campagne, participant personnellement à une patrouille importante ayant permis la prise d'Opheusden ».

(Highly motivated officer. Escaped from Belgium in 1941, to join the Belgian Forces in Great Britain, participated in the creation and training of the 1st Brigade. During the Normandy campaign, as an intelligence officer, he continued to carry out front line missions with dedication and intelligence. As deputy commander of an infantry battalion in Holland demonstrated courage and composure during the campaign, personally participating in a major patrol that led to the capture of Opheusden.)

Claire Maigret de Priches (1906–1983), as an Allied agent and member of the Belgian Resistance, was deported to Ravensbrück German concentration camp for female prisoners in Mecklenburg, northwest of Berlin, established in 1936. Medical experiments were carried out on women at the camp and it was also the place of execution for Allied female agents.
There she was committed to the care of the Nazis' sadistic "quacks" in the Ravensbrück concentration camp Experimental Station. The Nazis injected typhus into her blood to make serum. In the typhus block they did not bother to feed prisoners.

Here is a short abstract about her from "Entre les mailles du filet" by Bernadette Jessie Rossion (Copyright  2003 Editions Clepsydre)

Le lendemain, j'ai vu sortir du Revier des malades habillées qu'on allait "trier". Je me tenais près d'un Block et j'assistai à la sinistre opération car j'avais reconnu dans ce groupe Juliette, une compagne de prison, très amicale, que je n'avais plus vue depuis un an. J'avais très envie de lui faire signe mais je ne pouvais pas me faire remarquer et l'heure était grave. Lorsqu'on appela son numéro, je sentis qu'elle faisait des efforts inouïs pour se tenir debout et marcher droit. Angoissée, je retins mon souffle en la voyant s'avancer. À un moment, je sentis qu'elle chancelait, mais elle se reprit et alla spontanément se ranger du côté des Stucken valides. Il n'y eut aucune contradiction et, déjà, on appelait le numéro suivant. Claire Didisheim a survécu : "Juliette" était son nom de guerre.

(The next day, I saw patients coming out of the sickbay who were going to be "sorted". I was standing near a Block and watched the sinister operation because among this group I recognised Juliette, a companion from prison, very friendly, whom I had not seen for a year. I wanted to wave to her but I couldn't make myself obvious and the moment was serious. When her number was called, I felt that she was making an incredible effort to stand up and walk straight. Anxious, I held my breath when I saw her walk forward. At one point I felt that she was tottering, but she recovered and went spontaneously to stand among the able-bodied. There was no contradicting order and the next number was already being called. Claire Didisheim survived: "Juliette" was her nom de guerre.)

The Swedish Red Cross, accompanying Allied liberation troops, found and saved her shortly before the end of the war, together with 7,500 prisoners who were brought to Switzerland and Sweden.

René Didisheim, was conferred hereditary nobility and created 1st Baron Didisheim (hereditary by male primogeniture) on 11 December 1984, for his services rendered to Belgium.

His sister
Michel Didisheim had a sister, Francine Didisheim, (Uccle, 2 March 1933 – Paris, 7 September 2011), married to doctor Bernard de La Gorce. She was co-founder, secretary general and vice-president of the work founded by Father Joseph Wresinski (1917–1988), under the name Mouvement A. T. D. – Quart Monde (Aide à Toute Détresse).

Marriage and family

Michel Didisheim married Monika Eugenie Therese Countess von und zu Trauttmansdorff-Weinsberg (b. Vienna 27 June 1933) in Vienna on 8 February 1956. Monika is the eldest daughter of count Josef Hieronymus Trauttmansdorff (b. Friedau 30 June 1894 – murdered by the Nazis at St.Pölten, Austria on 13 April 1945) who married in Trieste, Italy on 15 October 1932 Helene Economo von San Serff (b. London 1 June 1908 – murdered at St.Pölten, Austria on 13 April 1945).

They have five children: Johannes-Christophe (1956), Frédéric (1958), François (1960), Nathalie (1962) and Florence (1965) and ten grand children.

Education
Michel Didisheim accomplished most of his elementary and secondary schooling in Belgium, with the exception of two terms in 1935–36 at the Marie-José School in Gstaad (Switzerland).

He completed his secondary school education at Monkton Combe School in Somerset (September 1945 – July 1947) where he obtained the 'Oxford and Cambridge Schools Certificate', allowing him to enter higher education.

He graduated from the 'Université Libre de Bruxelles' in 1951 with a Master's degree in Political and Diplomatic Sciences and a Masters in Colonial Sciences. He continued his education through economics courses at the University of Vienna (Austria).

Service in the Army
Entering military service in 1952, Didisheim joined the battalion of Belgian volunteers, formed in 1950 as the "Volunteer Corps Korea", later renamed BUNC, Belgian United Nations Command in Korea. These volunteer soldiers were distinguished by a brown beret, issued only to them. Didisheim commanded a platoon until the armistice was signed, on 27 July 1953.

Due to his university degrees and his thorough knowledge of the English language, he was made a member of the Armistice commission at Panmunyong as the Belgian representative.

He left the army in 1954 as a captain-commander.

Career
He entered civil service as a directorial attaché at SABENA, the Belgian Airlines (1954–1960). He then became staff member at the cabinet of prime minister Gaston Eyskens and subsequently advisor and chief of staff of successive ministers of economic coördination, foreign trade, and cooperation & development.

In 1962 he became the secretary and later the chief of staff of Prince Albert, président of the Belgian Office of Foreign Commerce. In this capacity he participated in the organisation of 65 foreign commercial missions. He was also the main initiator of the Prince's activities in favour of the environment and the architectural heritage.

He also participated actively in the civic education of Prince Philippe, the present king.

King Baudouin Foundation
When Baudouin I (1930–1993) celebrated his 25th anniversary as King of the Belgians, he did not wish to receive a personal gift to mark his jubilee. So it was that the idea of a 'lasting memorial' was born. King Baudouin was very much interested in social problems, had a strong sense of justice and was concerned that society should be harmonious. A Foundation was therefore established to mark his jubilee that would make efforts to ensure better living conditions for the population. The King Baudouin Foundation, an independent public benefit foundation, came into being on 31 March 1976.

Didisheim was one of its co-founders and headed it as its CEO until 1996 and as its president (1996–2001).

This is a quote from La Dernière Heure (31 July 2008):
Pendant vingt-quatre ans il fut le conseiller puis le chef de cabinet du prince Albert. Il a aussi très bien connu le roi Baudouin : "En 1976, le Roi m'a demandé : "Pourriez-vous cumuler le travail que vous faites auprès de mon frère avec la gestion d'une fondation que l'on va créer pour moi?" Michel Didisheim est devenu secrétaire général de la Fondation Roi Baudouin, avant d'en être l'administrateur-délégué puis, jusqu'en 2001, le président. "Je voyais régulièrement le roi Baudouin. Nous avons beaucoup marché ensemble dans le parc de Laeken. Mais je ne peux pas prétendre, pour autant, que nous étions intimes. Très peu de gens étaient des intimes du Roi."

(For twenty-four years he was the counselor and then chief of staff to Prince Albert. He also knew King Baudouin very well: "In 1976, the King asked me: "Could you combine the work you do for my brother with managing a foundation that is being created for me?" Michel Didisheim became secretary general of the King Baudouin Foundation, later being its managing director and, until 2001, its president. "I saw King Baudouin regularly. We walked a lot together in the Laeken park. But I cannot pretend, however, that we were intimate. Very few people were close friends of the King.")

Associations
In 1967, with the support of Prince Albert, Didisheim and a few friends founded the association Quartier des Arts with the objective of enhancing the administrative and cultural heart of the Belgian capital. He was its first president and remained member of the board until 2011.

On 25 September 1971 he was a co-founder of Inter Environnement – Bond Beter Leefmilieu, together with Dominique de Wasseige, Mark Dubrulle, Pierre Dulieu, Jan Tanghe and Baudouin du Bus de Warnaffe. He was its first president.

He was also a member of B Plus, an action group promoting Belgian unity and federalism.

Didisheim is an Honorary Member of the Brussels EU Chapter of the Club of Rome, a non-profit organisation, independent of political, ideological or religious interests. Its essential mission is "to act as a global catalyst for change through the identification and analysis of the crucial problems facing humanity and the communication of such problems to the most important public and private decision makers as well as to the general public."

From 1977 to 1981 he was a lecturer at the 'Université catholique de Louvain', where he created and animated a seminar devoted to the environment. At the College of Europe in Bruges he also created a program devoted to the environment. The Belgian government appointed him as president of the High School of architecture and visual arts La Cambre in Brussels. He was also made a member of the Royal Commission for monuments and sites.

Honours

Didisheim received numerous awards and honours including (in 1996) the Medal of Honour from Europa Nostra, the pan-European Federation for Cultural Heritage, for his dedicated and tireless leadership of heritage conservation, which has served not only to motivate public support in Belgium, but also to act as an inspiration more widely in Europe.

On 18 June 1986, King Baudouin I conferred on Michel Didisheim and all his descendants the hereditary title of Baron, for services rendered to the Belgian dynasty. On 19 July 1996, King Albert II conferred on he and his descendants the title of Count. His armorial motto, a phrase intended to describe his motivation or intention is .

Bibliography

After his retirement, Didisheim took up writing activities.

Under the pseudonym Thomas Valclaren he participated in writing a history of European monarchies during the 19th and 20th Centuries:
 Les Rois ne meurent jamais, with José-Alain Fralon and Linda Caille, Paris, Editions Fayard, 2006

Under his own name he wrote two novels, placed within European aristocratic environments:
 Tu devais disparaitre! Le roman d'une enfant royale cachée, Editions Alphee, 2008,
 Pour le sourire d'une tortue, Tome 2 of Tu devais disparaître..., Editions Alphee, 2010,

Literature
 Gaspard MAIGRET DE PRICHES, Les de Priches dans l'ancien comté de Hainaut (1295–1710), Mons, 1950
 Gaspard MAIGRET DE PRICHES, La Famille Maigret, Maigret de Priches, Bruxelles, 1958
 R. HARMIGNIES, Les armoiries des officiers belges anoblis, in: Le Parchemin, 1996
 Humbert DE MARNIX DE SAINTE ALDEGONDE, État présent de la noblesse belge. Annuaire de 2005, Brussel, 2005
 Luc TAYART DE BORMS & Dominique ALLARD, In memoriam Michel Didisheim,  in: Bulletin de l'Association de la Noblesse du Royaume de Belgique, april 2020.

Sources
 Improving living conditions (King Baudouin Foundation)
 Europe of Culture forum
 Europa Nostra
 Le Monde
 Brigade Piron

1930 births
2020 deaths
Counts of Belgium
Dignitaries of the Belgian court
Academic staff of the College of Europe
People educated at Monkton Combe School

Michel Didisheim


Frank S. Gile (September 15, 1847 – March 19, 1898) was a Union Navy sailor in the American Civil War and a recipient of the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for helping to free his grounded ship.

Born on September 15, 1847, in Massachusetts, Gile was living in North Andover when he joined the Navy. He served during the Civil War as a landsman on the . On November 16, 1863, Lehigh was in Charleston Harbor providing support for Union troops on shore when the ship ran aground on a sand bar and came under heavy fire from Fort Moultrie. Several attempts were made to pass a hawser to another Union ironclad, the , but each time the cable snapped due to friction and hostile fire. Officers were about to give an "abandon ship" order when Gile and two other sailors, Landsman William Williams and Seaman Horatio Nelson Young, volunteered to make one more attempt. Despite intense Confederate artillery fire, the men rowed a small boat from Lehigh to Nahant, trailing a line attached to a hawser. This operation successfully completed, Nahant was able to tow Lehigh off the sandbar to safety. For this action, Gile, Williams, and Young were each awarded the Medal of Honor five months later, on April 16, 1864. Two sailors involved in the earlier attempts to save Lehigh, Coxswain Thomas Irving and Gunner's Mate George W. Leland, also received the medal at the same time.

Gile's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
On board the U.S.S. Lehigh, Charleston Harbor, 16 November 1863, during the hazardous task of freeing the Lehigh, which had been grounded, and was under heavy enemy fire from Fort Moultrie. After several previous attempts had been made, Gile succeeded in passing in a small boat from the Lehigh to the Nahant with a line bent on a hawser. This courageous action while under severe enemy fire enabled the Lehigh to be freed from her helpless position.

Gile served on three other ships before leaving the Navy. On October 20, 1864 he joined the 20th Maine Infantry Regiment as a substitute and remained in that unit until the close of the war.

A father of seven children, Gile died at age 50 on March 19, 1898, in North Andover. He was buried there in Ridgewood Cemetery. His descendants continued the family tradition of military service.

References

External links

1847 births
1898 deaths
People from North Andover, Massachusetts
People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
Union Navy sailors
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor

Frank S. Gile


Daubechies wavelets are a family of orthogonal wavelets named after Belgian physicist and mathematician Ingrid Daubechies. They are used in discrete wavelet transform.

Definition
Scale function coefficients (low pass filter in orthogonal filter banks) must satisfy following conditions ( is length of filter).

 Normalization
  or  (then coefficients must be divided by factor of )
which implies
  or  (then coefficients must be divided by factor of )

 Orthogonality
  for

 Vanishing moments
  for

There is more than one solution (except case of ). However, it is necessary to distinguish between low pass and high pass filter.

Wavelets are denoted like Dx, where x is either number of coefficients () or number of vanishing moments (). First case of notation (number of coefficients) is more recent and more frequented (e.g. D8 is wavelet with 8 coefficients).

Example
MATLAB code for enumeration of wavelet with 4 coefficients (denoted as D4).
t = solve(
	'h0*h0 + h1*h1 + h2*h2 + h3*h3 = 1',           % normalization
	'h2*h0 + h3*h1 = 0',                           % orthogonality
	'+(0^0)*h0 -(1^0)*h1 +(2^0)*h2 -(3^0)*h3 = 0', % zero
	'+(0^1)*h0 -(1^1)*h1 +(2^1)*h2 -(3^1)*h3 = 0'  % and first vanishing moments
);

Solutions (low pass filters only):

Related pages
 Wavelet transform
 Quadrature mirror filter

Harmonic analysis
Digital signal processing

Daubechies wavelet


Reed B. Wickner (born c. 1942) is an American yeast geneticist. In 1994 he proposed that the [PSI+] and [URE3] phenotypes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a form of budding yeast, were caused by prion forms of native proteins - specifically, the Sup35p and Ure2p proteins, respectively.

Wickner graduated from Cornell University with a B.A. degree in 1962. He then went to medical school at Georgetown University and received his M.D. degree in 1966. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences [(AAAS)], and the American Academy of Microbiology, and has been a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.  He is (as of 2012) Chief of the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Genetics at the National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases, part of the National Institutes of Health. His research interests pertain to prions and amyloid diseases.

References

American geneticists
Cornell University alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
1940s births
Living people
Georgetown University School of Medicine alumni
National Institutes of Health people
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science

Reed Wickner


Eorcenberht of Kent (also Ærconberht, Earconberht, or Earconbert) (died 14 July 664) was king of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Kent from 640 until his death, succeeding his father Eadbald.

The Kentish Royal Legend (also known as the Mildrith legend) suggests that he was the younger son of Eadbald and Emma of Austrasia, and that his older brother Eormenred was deliberately passed over, although another possibility is that they ruled jointly.

According to Bede (HE III.8), Eorcenberht was the first king in Britain to command that pagan "idols" (cult images) be destroyed and that Lent be observed. It has been suggested that these orders may have been officially committed to writing, in the tradition of Kentish law-codes initiated by Æthelberht, but no such text survives.

After the death of Honorius, Archbishop of Canterbury, Eorcenberht appointed the first Saxon archbishop, Deusdedit, in 655.

Eorcenberht married Seaxburh of Ely, daughter of king Anna of East Anglia. They had two sons, Ecgberht and Hlothhere, who each consecutively became king of Kent, and two daughters who both were eventually canonized: Saint Eorcengota became a nun at Faremoutiers Abbey on the continent, and Saint Ermenilda became abbess at Ely.

Eorcenberht was probably buried alongside his parents in the Church of St Mary, which his father had built in the precincts of the monastery of St Peter and St Paul in Canterbury, a church later incorporated within the Norman edifice of St Augustine's. At that time, his relics were translated for reburial in the south transept ca. A.D. 1087.

Notes

References
 Bede, The Ecclesiastical History of the English People

External links

Kentish monarchs
664 deaths
7th-century English monarchs
Year of birth unknown
House of Kent

Eorcenberht of Kent


In cryptography a universal one-way hash function (UOWHF, often pronounced "woof"), is a type of universal hash function of particular importance to cryptography. UOWHF's are proposed as an alternative to collision-resistant hash functions (CRHFs). CRHFs have a strong collision-resistance property: that it is hard, given randomly chosen hash function parameters, to find any collision of the hash function. In contrast, UOWHFs require that it be hard to find a collision where one preimage is chosen independently of the hash function parameters.  The primitive was suggested by Moni Naor and Moti Yung and is also known as "target collision resistant" hash functions; it was employed to construct general digital signature schemes without trapdoor functions, and also within chosen-ciphertext secure public key encryption schemes.

The UOWHF family contains a finite number of hash functions with each
having the same probability of being used.

Definition
The security property of a UOWHF is as follows.  Let  be an algorithm that operates in two phases:

 Initially,  receives no input (or, just a security parameter) and chooses a value .
 A hash function  is chosen randomly from the family.   then receives  and must output  such that .

Then for all polynomial-time  the probability that  succeeds is negligible.

Applications
UOWHFs are thought to be less computationally expensive than CRHFs, and are most often used for efficiency purposes in schemes where the choice of the hash function happens at some stage of execution, rather than beforehand.  For instance, the Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem uses a UOWHF as part of the validity check in its ciphertexts.

See also
Preimage attack

Further reading

External links
 Moni Naor and Moti Yung,  "Universal One-Way Hash Functions and their Cryptographic Applications", 1989.

Cryptographic hash functions

Universal one-way hash function


The Permanent Council () was the highest administrative authority in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between 1775 and 1789 and the first modern executive government in Europe. As is still typically the case in contemporary parliamentary politics, the members of the Council were selected from the parliament or Sejm of the Commonwealth. Even though it exerted some constructive influence in Polish politics and government, because of its unpopularity during the Partitions period, in some Polish texts it was dubbed as Zdrada Nieustająca - Permanent Betrayal.

History
The establishment of an institution of permanent council, an early form of executive government in the late years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, was originally recommended by the political reformer Stanisław Konarski. It was intermittently under consideration, as permitted by Poland's intrusive neighbors, during the period of government reforms, beginning with the Convocation Sejm of 1764. The Permanent Council was actually created in 1775 by the Partition Sejm, when Empress Catherine the Great of Russia and her ambassador to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, became convinced that it was a way of securing the Empire's influence over the internal politics of Poland (control over the Sejm and the King). The Council had remained in continuous operation and was therefore largely immune from szlachta's liberum veto obstructionism, which could be pursued only during the sessions of the Sejm. The Council was also much less prone than the Sejm  to other distractions from minor gentry. Empress Catherine and Ambassador Stackelberg believed that the Council would be dominated by anti-royal magnates and that it would put an end to the King's push toward reforms.

The Council was composed of King Stanisław August Poniatowski (who acted as a modern prime minister and had two votes instead of one), 18 members from the Senate and 18 members from the Sejm's lower chamber. The Council, in addition to its administrative duties, would present to the King three candidates for each nomination to the Senate and other main offices. The meetings were supervised by Marshal Roman Ignacy Potocki.

In reality all the Council's members were nominated in accordance with the wishes of Ambassador Stackelberg, who acted as a representative of the Empress, protectress of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since 1768. Soon after its creation, the Council became an instrument of Russian surveillance over Poland.

The council was divided onto 5 separate ministries called Departments:
 Foreign interests
 Military
 Police ("Good Order")
 Treasury
 Justice

Among the prerogatives of the Council was heading the state administration, preparation of projects of laws and Sejm acts, which were to be later accepted by the parliament, control over law enforcement and interpretation of the law. Although heavily criticized, most notably by the Familia and the so-called Patriotic Party, the Council managed to give rise to a period of economic prosperity in Poland. Its functioning strengthened (despite the intentions of some of its creators) the power of the monarch and reduced the power of the already existing and highly influential magnate-ministers, who were placed under the Council's supervision. The Permanent Council was eliminated in 1789 by the Four-Year Sejm and briefly reinstated in 1793 by the Sejm of Grodno. However, this time it was directly headed by the Russian ambassador. Majority of the Council's members were then bribed by the Russian embassy in Warsaw.

Notable members
 King Stanisław August Poniatowski
 Marshal Roman Ignacy Potocki
 Stanisław Małachowski
 Tomasz Adam Ostrowski
 Ludwik Szymon Gutakowski
 Stanisław Poniatowski (kings' relative)
 Józef Ankwicz
 Michał Jerzy Poniatowski (primate of Poland)

See also
 Ambassadors and envoys from Russia to Poland (1763–1794)
 Lords of the Articles

References

Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1770s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1780s in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1775 establishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1789 disestablishments in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Permanent Council


The Valleys of the Saja and Nansa Rivers comprise an administrative comarca in Cantabria, Spain. It is formed by the valleys of said rivers, each one being a natural comarca of its own.

Saja valley
The valley of the Saja River, located in the autonomous community of Cantabria is formed by two natural comarcas.
The mid-upper course, corresponding to the municipalities of Los Tojos, Cabuérniga, Ruente and the Mancomunidad Campoo-Cabuérniga, is called Cabuérniga Valley as a whole. It contains the rivers Argoza (which crosses the historic-artistic complex of Bárcena Mayor), Viaña, Lamiña and Bayones (which flows down the Uceda Mountains).
From Hoz de Santa Lucía to San Pedro de Rudagüera it is called Cabezón Valley, containing the municipalities of Cabezón de la Sal, Mazcuerras and Reocín. Little past Rudagüera, in Torrelavega, the Besaya River flows into the valley until it reaches its mouth in the Ria of San Martín near Suances, flowing into the Bay of Biscay

This valleys share the varied relief of the Cantabrian Mountains. In the upper course can be found the Cordel mountains, the mountain ranges of Bárcena Mayor, the mounts of Cabuérniga and Ucieda and the Sierra del Escudo de Cabuérniga where the Hoz of Santa Lucía is formed. After that, the geography smooths, with larger lowlands, bordered by the Ibio Ranges and the small pre-coastal hills.

Nansa valley
Valley and natural comarca of Cantabria; located between the valleys of Liébana and Saja. It is bordered by the Escudo Range on the north and the Peña Labra Range on the south.
Through the Nansa valley flows the river of the same name, which forms remarkably steep slopes at its sides, due to its torrential and eroding nature, chiefly at the first part of its course.
The municipalities comprehended by the Nansa valley are: Lamasón, Rionansa, Tudanca, Polaciones and the part of Cabuérniga corresponding to the village of Carmona.

The comarca has a great landscape quality, thanks to its high peaks characteristics, large native forests (mostly oaks and beeches), and low population density, mostly dedicated to cattle farming.

External links
 El Soplao cave

Saja-Nansa
Saja-Nansa
Green Spain

Saja and Nansa valleys


Vulcan could mean:

Mythology
Vulcan (mythology), the blacksmith god of fire and volcanoes in Roman mythology
Hephaestus, the Greek god of smiths identified with Vulcan.

Fiction
 Vulcan (Star Trek), a race in the fictional Star Trek universe
 Vulcan (Star Trek planet), home of the Vulcans
 Vulcan!, a 1978 Star Trek novel by Kathleen Sky
 Vulcan (DC Comics), a character from DC Comics
 Vulcan (comic), Ipc Comic produced in England from 1975-1976
 Vulcan (Marvel Comics), a character in the Marvel Comics universe
 Black Vulcan, a fictional African American superhero on the animated series Super Friends
 Vulcan, a fictional planet featured in the Doctor Who serial The Power of the Daleks
 Vulcan Raven, a character in Metal Gear Solid

Places
 Vulcan, Alberta, Canada
 Vulcan Airport
 Vulcan, Romania, in Hunedoara County in the Jiu Valley
 Vulcan, Braşov, also in Romania in Braşov County
 Vulcan, Michigan, United States
 Vulcan, Missouri, United States
 Vulcan (volcano), a volcano in Papua New Guinea
 Vulcano, a small volcanic island  in the Tyrrhenian Sea

Companies
 Vulcanair, an Italian based manufacturer of light twin-engined aircraft that took over Partenavia
 Vulcan (cars), a Southport, England based car manufacturer
 Vulcan Corporation, a materials manufacturing company in Clarksville, Tennessee
 Vulcan Foundry, a former British locomotive builder
 Vulcan Iron Works, a former United States locomotive builder
 Vulcan Materials Company, a construction materials company headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama
 Vulcan Inc., an investment company formed by Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen
 Stettiner Vulcan AG, a former shipyard in Hamburg, Germany
 Vulcan (shipyard) (1857–1944), the shipyard in Szczecin, Poland
 Vulcan Media, an educational software company from Poland
 Vulcan Software, a British computer game company
 Vulcan Stoves, a maker of commercial ranges, ovens, steam equipment, fryers griddles and broilers

Vehicles
 Avro Vulcan, British delta-wing subsonic bomber aircraft
 Vickers Vulcan, a single engined biplane of the 1920s
 Ford Vulcan engine, a 3.0L V6 automobile engine
 Kawasaki Vulcan, a cruiser-type motorcycle
 Kawasaki Vulcan 400 Classic
 Kawasaki Vulcan 800 Drifter
 M167 Vulcan, a towed short-range air defense gun
 M163 VADS (Vulcan Air Defense System), a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun
 Vulcan (1874-1892), one of the ten South Devon Railway Buffalo class steam locomotives
 Vulcan (1951-1967), one of the BR 'Britannia' Class locomotives
Vulcan Railcars are a type of railcar found in preservation in New Zealand.
 HMS Vulcan, either one of two Royal Navy ships, or a Royal Navy shore establishment at Dounreay, Scotland, dedicated to the development of nuclear power

Science
 Vulcan (hypothetical planet), a hypothetical planet between Mercury and the Sun, and Vulcanoid asteroids, hypothetical minor planets in the same place
 Vulcanization, a chemical process to improve the strength and durability of rubber
 Vulcan laser, the most intensely focused in the world, based at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Chilton, Oxfordshire.

Computing
 Vulcan processor, a type of central processing unit
 VULCAN (operating system), an operating system for some 24-bit Datacraft/Harris Corporation minicomputers
 Vulcan (programming language), a programming language, now known as dBase

Other uses
 The "Vulcans" are the nickname of California University of Pennsylvania's sports teams.
 Vulcan statue, the largest cast iron statue in the world and the symbol of Birmingham, Alabama
 Vulcan of the alchemists, the patron deity associated with Paracelsian alchemy
 Birmingham Vulcans, a 1975 World Football League team
 M61 Vulcan, a 20mm six-barreled gatling gun
 Vulcan M-11-9, a semi-automatic, closed bolt pistol manufactured by Vulcan Armament
 The Vulcans, an informal name of George W. Bush's foreign policy advisory team for the 2000 U.S. presidential election
 The Vulcan, an occasional magazine from various organizations within the Young Fine Gael, the youth wing of the Irish Fine Gael political party
 Vulcan, the title of an EP and a song by the rock band Snake River Conspiracy
 Operation Vulcan, Allied action in Tunisia during World War II

Related pages
 Vulcana - Welsh female bodybuilder
 Volcano

Vulcan


"Invitation to the Dance" is a piece of music for solo piano written by Carl Maria von Weber in 1819. It is written in D-flat major in rondo form. It was the first concert waltz. This means it was meant to be listened to rather than danced to.

In 1841, Hector Berlioz made an arrangement for orchestra. In 1911, the Berlioz version was used for a short ballet called Le Spectre de la rose. This ballet starred Nijinsky and Karsavina. It became very well known.

Compositions by Carl Maria von Weber
Solo piano pieces

Invitation to the Dance


In law, seriatim (Latin for "in series") indicates that a court is addressing multiple issues in a certain order, such as the order that the issues were originally presented to the court.

Legal usage
A seriatim opinion describes an opinion delivered by a court with multiple judges, in which each judge reads his or her own opinion rather than a single judge writing an opinion on behalf of the entire court. This is a practice generally used when a legal case does not have a majority opinion.

Use of the word, and other Latin phrases, has become less frequent in legal communications as a result of, among other factors, efforts by groups such as the Plain Language Movement to promote the use of "plain English" in legal discourse.

In the United Kingdom
In modern use pleadings is used for "one by one in sequence".  For example, in English civil cases, defence statements generally used to conclude with the phrase "save as expressly admitted herein, each allegation of the plaintiffs is denied as if set out in full and traversed herein seriatim." This formulation is now discouraged under the English Civil Procedure Rules, especially rule 16.5 (3)-(5).

It is sometimes seen in older deeds and contracts as a more traditional way of using terms of reference.  For example "the railway by-laws shall apply to the contract as if set out herein seriatim." It is sometimes found as part of the longer phrase brevatim et seriatim, meaning "briefly and in series".

The term is also used when replying to a communication that contains a number of points, issues or questions to show that the responses are in the same order in which they were raised in the original document: "To deal with your queries seriatim..."

In the United States
During the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Marshall, 1801 to 1835, the practice of judicial opinions being delivered in seriatim was discontinued.

In 2009, Title III, Rule 15(a)(1) of the U.S. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure regarding Amended and Supplemental Pleadings (part of pretrial procedure) was amended to allow three changes in the time previously allowed to make one change.
This provision will force the pleader to consider carefully and promptly the wisdom of amending to meet the arguments in the motion... and will expedite determination of issues that otherwise might be raised seriatim.
The right to make changes now ends 21 days after service of a motion.

References

Legal terms

Seriatim


"The Good-Morrow" is a poem by John Donne, published in his 1633 collection Songs and Sonnets.

Written while Donne was a student at Lincoln's Inn, the poem is one of his earliest works and is thematically considered to be the "first" work in Songs and Sonnets. Although referred to as a sonnet, the work does not follow the most common rhyming scheme of such works—a 14-line poem, consisting of an eight-line stanza followed by a six-line conclusion—but is instead 21 lines long, divided into three stanzas. "The Good-Morrow" is written from the point of view of an awaking lover and describes the lover's thoughts as he wakes next to his partner. The lover's musings move from discussing sensual love to spiritual love as he realises that, with spiritual love, the couple are liberated from fear and the need to seek adventure. The poem makes use of biblical and Catholic writings, indirectly referencing the legend of the Seven Sleepers and Paul the Apostle's description of divine, agapic love – two concepts with which, as a practising Catholic, Donne would have been familiar.

Donne's cartographic references in the third stanza have been the subject of much analysis, although academics have differed in their interpretation of their meaning and what the lines reference. Robert L. Sharp argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love; the maps with which Donne would have been familiar were not the Mercator-style maps that are common in the modern era, but instead cordiform maps, which appear in the shape of a heart and allow for the display of multiple worlds, which Donne alludes to in lines 11 to 18. Julia M. Walker, while noting that Sharp's work is "essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image", disagrees with his conclusions and argues that Donne is actually referring to a map showing one world.

Background and structure

Poet John Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to John Donne, a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers, and his wife Elizabeth. After his father's death when he was four, Donne, instead of being prepared to enter a trade, was trained as a gentleman scholar; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who trained him in grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, history and foreign languages. Elizabeth was soon remarried to a wealthy doctor, ensuring that the family remained comfortable; as a result, despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider, Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman. After study at Hart Hall, Oxford, Donne's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln's Inn, one of the Inns of Court, where he occupied his time with history, poetry, theology and "Humane learning and languages". It was at Lincoln's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry, looking upon it as "a life-sign or minor irritation" rather than something which defined him. This early poetry included "The Good-Morrow" as well as many other works which later went on to comprise his collection Songs and Sonnets, published in 1633, two years after his death; "The Good-Morrow" is considered, in terms of its theme and maturity, to be the first of this collection's poems.

Sonnets are, canonically, poems of 14 lines with assorted rhyming schemes. Originating in the 14th century works of Petrarch, the most common form of the sonnet is known as the Italian Sonnet: a stanza of eight lines in which the writer lays out a complex thought, followed by a pause and a six-line conclusion "which is characteristically both unpredictable and intense". This was interlinked with the idea of courtly love, in which the goal of a romance is not simply passion, but a more significant moral perfection. "The Good-Morrow", although identified by Donne as a sonnet, does not follow this structural layout, although it does follow the thematic one; Donne used "sonnet" simply to refer to any piece of love poetry, ignoring the fact that "The Good-Morrow" was a 21-line work divided into three stanzas.

Poem

The poem opens with a reference to a Catholic legend as Donne says:

This refers to the Seven Sleepers, the Catholic legend of seven Christian children, persecuted for their faith during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius, who fled to the shelter of a cave where they slept for more than 200 years. Donne, one of six or seven children and a baptised Catholic during a time of strong anti-Catholic sentiment from both the populace and the government, would certainly have been familiar with the story.

In this passage, the speaker experiences a sense of wonder, having awoken in bed with his lover; he makes the discovery that their love makes finding "new worlds" pale in importance. "[S]ouls" also awake, not just bodies, "as if called by love from the sleep of ordinary life and mere lust".

This passage shows the speaker communicating to his lover that they have proceeded from their former "childish" pleasures to this moment, where their souls have finally awakened; something "miraculous" has happened, because the speaker feels the sort of love that Paul the Apostle claimed would only be encountered in heaven.

While the version found in Songs and Sonnets includes this passage as the last two lines, other manuscripts and a later volume of poetry give the last lines as, "If our two loves be one, both thou and I/Love just alike in all, none of these loves can die".

Themes

A love poem, "The Good-Morrow" is thematically centred on several concepts. The poem is primarily to do with evolving love; the movement from pure lust, in the first stanza, to a nascent and evolving spirituality which liberates the lovers because they no longer "watch each other out of fear" but can instead see clearly. The lovers' faith in each other allows them to be brave, unlike the Seven Sleepers, who were forced out of fear to hide their beliefs; with love, the lovers can allow others to pursue their own dreams, accepting that "Let us possess one world; each hath one, and is one" – with each other, there is no need to search further for adventure. Harold Bloom notes the intertwining of both sensual and spiritual love, arguing that Donne is suggesting that it is impossible for those buried in sensual love, "busying themselves in mundane matters", to experience true love. Donne's emphasis on the importance of spiritual love can be seen from the biblical allusions; Achsah Guibbory states that the tone and wording of the poem is an intentional reference to Paul the Apostle's description of divine, agapic love; "At moments like these...eros merges with agape. Walls collapse, the veil parts, we know as we are known; our deepest, truest selves exposed". Alfred W. Satterthwaite, writing in The Explicator, argues that the story of the Seven Sleepers itself contains this theme; in the story, the Sleepers awoke to find themselves "thunderstruck" in their new environment, something analogous to "the radiant revelation love grants to the lovers in the poem".

Some scholars, such as William Empson, maintain that the poem also indicates that Donne seriously believed in separate planets and planes, and also the existence of more than one Christ – a belief that Donne later abandoned. Academics also see the poem as a more general allegory of the evolution of minds from childishness, as typified by the first stanza where the lovers "suck'd on country pleasures, childishly", towards a more mature form of love. Much has also been made of Donne's references to compasses and maps in the third stanza. Robert L. Sharp, writing in Modern Language Notes, argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love. The maps Donne would have been familiar with are not the Mercator-style maps, but instead cordiform maps, which appear in the shape of a heart. More than simply heart-shaped, cordiform maps also allow the display of multiple worlds, with opposing hemispheres – and Sharp argues that Donne's work references such a multiple world map in lines 11 to 18.

Julia M. Walker, writing in The Review of English Studies, notes that Sharp's work is "essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image", but disagrees with his conclusions. In particular, she argues that Sharp's conclusions are incorrect, and that the actual words of the poem refer to a cordiform map showing a single world rather than one showing two worlds; "my face on thine eye", for example, not "eyes". Instead, Walker suggests that Donne was basing his work on William Cunningham's Cosmographical Glasse, a 1559 book which showed a single-leafed cordiform map. More importantly, it gave a way to draw a two-leafed, heart-shaped map that displayed only a single world; this interpretation would "reconcile and unify" the problems with interpreting "The Good-Morrow". The essential distinction is thus that, while both interpret Donne's work as referencing cordiform maps, Sharp sees it as referencing a map showing two worlds, while Walker maintains that the reference is to a map showing only one.

References

Bibliography

1633 poems
Poetry by John Donne

The Good-Morrow


In mathematics a holomorphic function is a function that is defined on the complex numbers plane, and that can be differentiated everywhere where it is defined. Differentiating the function again leads to a function defined on the complex numbers. In older literature, these functions are sometimes called regular.

Holomorphic functions show a number of properties function defined on real numbers do not have.

Functions and mappings
Complex analysis

Holomorphic function


The School of Advanced Study (SAS), a postgraduate-only institution of the University of London, is the UK's national centre for the promotion and facilitation of research in the humanities and social sciences. It was established in 1994 and is based in Senate House, in Bloomsbury, central London, close to the British Museum, British Library and several of the colleges of the University of London. The School brings together nine research institutes, many of which have long histories, to provide a wide range of specialist research services, facilities and resources. It offers taught master's and research degrees in humanities and social science subjects (MA, MRes, LLM, MPhil, and PhD).

History
The School was established on 1 August 1994. Its nine institutes range in age; the oldest, the Institute of Historical Research, was founded in 1921; the youngest, the Institute of Philosophy, was founded in 2005.

Location
The School is in Senate House, the administrative centre of the University of London, in Bloomsbury, central London.

Organisation and structure

The Member Institutes of the School are:

Institute of Advanced Legal Studies
Institute of Classical Studies
Institute of Commonwealth Studies
Institute of English Studies
Institute of Modern Languages Research (including the Centre for Latin American and Caribbean Studies)
Institute of Historical Research
Institute of Philosophy
Warburg Institute

The Institutes of the School provide a range of specialist research services in their subject areas of expertise. In furtherance of their national and international role, the Institutes of the School undertake high-quality research; maintain and develop library collections and services; develop digital resources; publish journals and book series; host visiting scholars and postdoctoral fellows; organise a range of academic events including workshops, conferences, seminars and lectures; provide specialist research training and postgraduate taught, research, and doctoral programmes.

Publishing
The University of London Press (also known as UoL Press) is based in the School of Advanced Study. Founded in 1910, it was relaunched in 2019 as a fully open access publisher specializing in "distinctive scholarship at the forefront of the Humanities".

Deans
Notable deans of the school include:

 Roderick Floud – 2007 to 2009
 Roger Kain – 2010 to 2017
 Rick Rylance – 2017 to 2020
 Jo Fox – since December 2020

References

External links

University of London website

University of London
Educational institutions established in 1994
1994 establishments in England
Humanities institutes

School of Advanced Study


The Rock Music Awards was an annual awards ceremony showcasing the best in rock music that was held from 1975 to 1978.

During the mid-1970s, the only genre-specific musical awards ceremonies were for country music (where the Nashville-based Country Music Association, West Coast-oriented Academy of Country Music and short-lived Association of Country Entertainers all had competing awards ceremonies at the time). Up to this point, rock music, in its various forms, had been the dominant form of American popular music since overtaking doo-wop in the 1950s; as such, rock songs dominated general music awards such as the Grammy Awards and American Music Awards. By the mid-1970s, however, disco began a rise to mainstream popularity, pushing rock into a niche. The Rock Music Awards were conceived as a way to continue to recognize rock music that was not being recognized due to the rise of disco.

The Rock Music Awards was not able to establish a long-term presence, and the ceremony was not reprised after the third edition.

History

The first annual awards program was produced in the summer of 1975 in Los Angeles by Don Kirshner and featured Elton John and Diana Ross as hosts and presenters.  Winners of the 1975 awards included Elton John as 'Rock Personality of the Year' and The Who's Tommy as 'Rock Movie of the Year.' Linda Ronstadt was awarded the 'Best Rock Female Vocalist' honor, which she would also win the next two years after that. Other winners included The Eagles, Stevie Wonder and Bad Company.

The Second Annual awards show featured Diana Ross and Alice Cooper as hosts and presenters.

The Third Annual awards show featured Olivia Newton-John, pre-Grease, and Peter Frampton at the height of his fame as hosts and presenters.

References

External links
Elton John and Diana Ross host the Rock Music Awards
Tommy wins Rock Music award

American music awards
Awards established in 1975
American annual television specials
1975 establishments in the United States
Rock music awards

Rock Music Awards


Martin J. Wygod (born February 1, 1940) is an American businessman and a prominent Thoroughbred racehorse owner/breeder.

Business career
A business administration graduate from New York University, he joined a Wall Street stock brokerage firm before becoming a managing partner in a similar firm.

In 1964, Wygod became involved with Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) in California, run by founders Roy Nutt and Fletcher Jones. In the 1970s he shifted his focus to the burgeoning health care industry, buying Glasrock Medical Services in 1977 and after five years of solid growth, sold it for a large profit. In 1983 he established Medco Containment Services, Inc. and built it into the largest mail order pharmacy in the United States. In 1993 Wygod sold Medco to Merck & Co. for more than US$6 billion.

Martin Wygod is currently Chairman of the New York City based WebMD Health Corporation which provides health information services to consumers, healthcare professionals, physicians, employers, and health plans through its public and private online portals. As well, Wygod is Chairman of HLTH Corporation, an Elmwood Park, New Jersey technology company providing healthcare information services.

Thoroughbred racing
Since boyhood, Martin Wygod has had a love of horses and the sport of Thoroughbred Horse racing. Growing up in New York he spent time as a hot walker at Belmont Park and Aqueduct Racetrack. As a result of his friendship with Fletcher Jones of CSC, Wygod first became a Thoroughbred owner when Jones gave him two racehorses, Verification and Heliotropic, as a 25th birthday gift. Fletcher Jones owned Westerly Stud Farms near Santa Ynez, California and was involved in horse racing for several years prior to his untimely death in 1972.

Since 1975 the Wygods have owned the  River Edge Farm near Buellton in the Santa Ynez Valley.  In 1995, they left the East Coast of the United States to make their home on a  estate in Rancho Santa Fe, California. A member of The Jockey Club, Martin Wygod and his wife Pamela began devoting more time to their horses and became major players in Thoroughbred racing. Their River Edge Farm was the leading breeder in California in 2006, 2007 and 2008.

In 1996 Martin Wygod became a trustee of the Thoroughbred Owners and Breeders Association and serves on the Board of Directors of the Del Mar Thoroughbred Club. Pamela Wygod also oversees two foundations, the Rose Foundation and the WebMD Health Foundation. They are supporters of Breeders' Cup Charities

Lefty Nickerson was the first trainer hired to condition Wygod's horses for racing. One of their early stakes race wins came in the 1973 Derby Trial with the colt, Settecento. As of 2009, their trainer is John Shirreffs. Other successful racehorses raced by Martin and Pamela Wygod include:
 Exotic Wood (b. 1992) - won G1s Go For Wand Handicap, Santa Monica Handicap, Santa Maria Handicap
 Tranquility Lake (b. 1995) - multiple Grade 1 winner and successful broodmare for the Wygods.  Her 2004 colt (later named Jalil) sired by Storm Cat was sold at the September 2005 Keeneland Sales for $9.7 million
 Sweet Catomine (b. 2002) - American Champion Two-Year-Old Filly. Won 2004 Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies
 After Market (b. 2003) - son of Tranquility Lake. Won four straight graded stakes including back-to-back Grade 1s, the Charles Whittingham Memorial and Eddie Read Handicaps
 Life Is Sweet (b. 2005) - in 2009 won the G1 Breeders' Cup Ladies' Classic and Santa Margarita Invitational Handicap

References

External links
 Martin Wygod at the NTRA
 Martin Wygod at WebMD

1940 births
Living people
American financial businesspeople
American racehorse owners and breeders
Businesspeople from New York City
20th-century American Jews
Stockbrokers
New York University Stern School of Business alumni
21st-century American Jews

Martin J. Wygod


A ransom bond was a legally binding document issued as a promise for future payment for the safety and the release of a captured marine vessel. It was particularly in use during the American Civil War when Confederate States Navy privateers would seize  Union merchant vessels and hold them for ransom. Once the bond was posted, the captured commercial ship was generally released and allowed to return to its rightful owners.

The U.S. had not signed the 1856 Declaration of Paris, which outlawed privateering. The Confederates commissioned privateers from many nations, and they preyed on commercial shipping lanes frequented by U.S. vessels. The Federal government finally offered to adopt the declaration's terms during the middle of the war after repeated losses to the Confederates. Many of the ransom bonds were never honored, and the owners of most Confederate privateers were unable to cash in on them when the war ended in a Union victory.

See also

Letter of marque

External links
 Ransom Bond for the USS Washington
 Ransom Bond for the USS Bethiah Thayer

Confederate States Navy
Union Navy
Privateering

Ransom bond


Eric Walter Frederick Tomlin CBE (30 January 1913 – 16 January 1988) was a British essayist, known mostly for many books and articles on philosophical topics.

He knew both T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis, and wrote on them.

Life

Tomlin was born in Croydon on 30 January 1913 and educated at Whitgift School.

He was head of the British Council in Japan from 1961 to 1967.

He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1959 and raised to Commander (CBE) in 1965.

He died in London on 16 January 1988.

Works

Turkey, the Modern Miracle (1940)
Life in Modern Turkey (1946)
The Approach to Metaphysics (1947)
The Oriental philosophers; an introduction (1950), First pub. abroad as The great philosophers: The Eastern world (1950), reprinted as Great philosophers of the East (1959)
The Western philosophers; an introduction (1950), First pub. abroad as The great philosophers: The Western world (1950), reprinted as Great philosophers of the West (1959)
R. G. Collingwood (1953)
Simone Weil (1954)
Living and Knowing (1955)
Wyndham Lewis (1955)
La Vie et l'Oeuvre de Bertrand Russell (1963)
T. S. Eliot : a tribute from Japan (1966) editor with Masao Hirai
Tokyo essays (1967)
Charles Dickens, 1812-1870; a Centennial Volume (1969) editor
Wyndham Lewis - An Anthology of His Prose (1969) editor
Japan (1973)
The Last country: My Years in Japan (1974)
Arnold Toynbee, a Selection From His Works (1978) editor
The world of Saint Boniface (1981)
The church of St.Morwenna and St. John the Baptist : a guide and history (1982)
In search of Saint Piran: an account of his monastic foundation at Perranzabuloe, Cornwall (1982)
Psyche, Culture and the New Science: the Role of PN (1985) on Psychic Nutrition (1985)
Philosophers of East and West: The Quest for the Meaning of Existence in Eastern and Western Thought (1986)
T. S. Eliot: A Friendship (1988)
The tall trees of Marsland: reflections on life and time (1991)

References

Tomlin, E. W.F.
Tomlin, E. W.F.
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Whitgift School
20th-century British essayists

E. W. F. Tomlin


Horace Mann (1796-1859) was an educator and politician who helped set up the first public schools in the United States. He did this in the state of Massachusetts. Mann personally visited every school in the state to inspect it. He later became the first president of Antioch College in Ohio. "Our means of education," he stated, "are the grand machinery by which the 'raw material' of human nature can be worked up into inventors and discoverers, into skilled artisans and scientific farmers."

1796 births
1859 deaths
Learning
19th-century American politicians

Horace Mann


Sanders Anne Laubenthal (December 25, 1943 – May 15, 2002) was an American poet, novelist, historian and textbook writer.

Life
Laubenthal served the United States Air Force from the time of the Vietnam War, starting writing OJT books for trainees in comic book style to train for lower level jobs such as dining hall cooks. She served as editor of many Air Force professional journals. Having reached the rank of Major in the Air Force, she retired, but continued to do research and write many reports/articles for the military. She had just finished her last military project and received payment for another reprint for Excalibur before she died from diabetic complications. Friends describe her as a quiet lady who was loyal and always creating.

Literary career
Much of Laubenthal's work concerns Mobile, Alabama, of which she was a native. She also wrote about the history of unrecorded areas of Scotland. She is best known, however, for one major work, the Arthurian fantasy Excalibur, first published in the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series in August 1973 and reprinted a number of times since.

Bibliography

Novels
The Last Confederate (1967)
Excalibur (1973)

Poetry
Songs of Mobile (1962)
The Gates of Wonder (1966)
Interlude and Other Poems (1969)

Nonfiction
A History of John Hay Air Base, Baguio City, Philippines (1981)

External links
The Excalibur Project - fansite for Sanders Anne Laubenthal's Excalibur.
Obituary

1943 births
2002 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American historians
American women novelists
Writers of modern Arthurian fiction
Deaths from diabetes
American fantasy writers
United States Air Force officers
20th-century American women writers
American women historians
American women poets
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
20th-century American poets

Sanders Anne Laubenthal