The native flora of Chile is characterized by a higher degree of endemism and relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other countries of South America. A classification of this flora necessitates its division into at least three general zones: the desert provinces
of the north, Central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.

Northern Chile
The first is an arid desert(Atacama desert) absolutely barren along part of the coast,
between Arica and Copiapó, but with a coarse scanty vegetation
near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes where
moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the sand.

The altiplano of the northernmost portion of the Chilean territory is home to the Browningia candelaris, a candelabrum-shaped cactus. Another cactus species, the Echinopsis atacamensis, grows in the pre-Andean area. The high Andean region is also characterized by the presence of species of the genus Polylepis and the Azorella compacta. Cacti occur in the coastal desert. Here, the most common species are those of the genus Copiapoa, which are recognizable by their distinctive shapes.

An endemic tree of the Norte Grande is the Prosopis tamarugo. It grows mainly in the Pampa del Tamarugal. South of Loa River and west of Cordillera Domeyko, the Atacama Desert is completely destitute of vegetation.

In the valleys of the Copiapó and Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry. River channels below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing southward into the Coquimbo Region a gradual change in the arid conditions may be observed. The higher summits of the Andes afford a larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent growth near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be found the "algarrobo" (Prosopis chilensis) and "chañar" (Geoffroea decorticans), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is a species of Skytanthus.

Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (Echinopsis chiloensis). The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better covered with a thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua.

Central Chile
To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than this, however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly its own. This zone, with the Chilean Matorral, extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps a little farther south to include some characteristic types. The evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south, and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a sub-tropical aspect.
One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the peumo (Cryptocarya alba), whose dense evergreen foliage is everywhere conspicuous. The quillay (Quillaja saponaria) is another characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark possesses saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm (Jubaea chilensis) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it is almost completely extinct due to the destructive extraction process of its sweet sap, from which a syrup is made. Through the central zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain slopes.

Southern Chile

One of the most striking forest trees is the pehuén or Chilean pine (Araucaria araucana), which often grows to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its fruit. Three native species of the genus Nothofagus: the roble (Nothofagus obliqua), coihue (Nothofagus dombeyi), and raulí (Nothofagus alpina)--are widely diffused and highly prized for their wood, especially the first, which is misleadingly called roble (oak).

Chile's thickest forest are found between the Bío-Bío River and the Taitao Peninsula. Among those trees are the alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides), the ciprés de las Guaitecas (Pilgerodendron uviferum), the Chilean cypress (Austrocedrus chilensis), lingue (Persea lingue), laurel (Laurelia sempervirens), avellano (Gevuina avellana), luma (Luma apiculata), and many others.

In the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception of small areas near the Strait of Magellan, and the forests are universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part, of the evergreen beech (Nothofagus betuloides), the deciduous antarctic beech (Nothofagus antarctica) and Winter's bark (Drimys winteri), intermingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of shrubs and plants, among which are Maytenus magellanica, Gaultheria mucronata, Berberis buxifolia, wild currant (Ribes magellanicum), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, reed-like grasses and innumerable parasites (including species of the genus Misodendron). On the eastern side of the Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open, and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region
is a small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which is a staple article of food among the Fuegians—probably the only instance where a fungus is the bread of a people.

See also
Central Andean dry puna
Chilean Matorral
Magellanic subpolar forests
Magellanic moorland
Valdivian temperate rain forests

References
 (See p. 146.)

External links

Chileflora — online live herbarium of Chilean plants

Natural history of Chile

Flora of Chile


"Cinderella, or The Little Glass Slipper"  is a fairy tale by Charles Perrault. It was first published anonymously in Paris in 1697  in Histoires ou contes du temps passé (), a collection of eight fairy tales by Perrault.

The story is about a girl who who was treated badly. Her fairy godmother helps her travel to a dancing party in a pumpkin coach.  She leaves the ball at midnight and loses her glass slipper. A prince, who has fallen in love with her, finds her lost slipper and uses it later to find her.

Similar European tales are found in Bonaventure des Periers's New Recreations and Joyous Games (1558) and Giambattista Basile's Pentamerone (1634-6). The Brothers Grimm included their version, "Aschenputtel", in Children's and Household Tales (1812). Tales similar to "Cinderella" exist in Chinese, Indian, African, Javanese, Australian, and Japanese literature and folklore. The tale has been adapted to the stage, movies, television, and other media.

Story
A widower marries a very proud woman. She already has two daughters. They despise the man's daughter by his first marriage, but she is gentle and beautiful, They treat her meanly. She is told to do  all the housework and sleeps in the attic. Cinderella's step-mother gave her that name because she sits in the chimney corner.

A prince gives a ball and all the high-status ladies are invited. Cinderella's stepsisters go to the ball. Cinderella stays at home crying. Her fairy godmother appears and changes a pumpkin into a golden coach to take Cinderella to the ball. The fairy turns mice, lizards, and a rat into horses and coachmen by waving her wand. She gives Cinderella a gown of gold and silver and slippers made of glass. She orders Cinderella to return home by midnight because that's when the charm ends. Cinderella goes to the ball. Everyone is amazed. The prince gives her special attention. Her stepsisters do not recognize her. She leaves at midnight and returns home. The next evening she goes again to the prince's ball. She forgets the time and leaves just at midnight, but loses one of her glass slippers. At home, Cinderella's gown turns to rags, but the other glass slipper continues to be a glass slipper. .

The stepsisters tell her that the prince is in love with an unknown beautiful lady. The prince orders the slipper to be tried on all the ladies in the land. He will marry only the girl whose foot will fit the slipper. The stepsisters try it on but it does not fit. Cinderella tries it on and it fits. She pulls the other slipper from her pocket and puts it on. The Godmother appears and touches Cinderella's clothes with her wand. They change into a gown more beautiful than the one she wore to the ball.  A few days later, the prince marries her. She forgives her stepsisters for their past meanness and finds husbands for them at the court.

References

 Betts, Christopher. 2009. The Complete Fairy Tales. Oxford UP.
 Opie, Iona and Peter. 1974. The Classic Fairy Tales. Oxford UP. .
 Zipes, Jack (Ed.) 2000. The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales. Oxford UP.

Fairy tales
Works by Charles Perrault

Cinderella


Raclette (, ) is a Swiss dish, also popular in the other Alpine countries, based on heating cheese and scraping off the melted part, then typically served with boiled potatoes. Raclette cheese is historically a dish originating from the canton of Valais in Switzerland. This cheese from Valais benefits from an AOP. Raclette cheese is also a Swiss-type cheese marketed specifically to be used for this dish.

Raclette is also served as street food, but often with bread instead of potatoes.

History

Dishes of melted cheese were mentioned in medieval texts from Swiss convents as early as 1291. Melted cheese was originally consumed by peasants in the mountainous Alpine regions of the cantons of Valais and Fribourg (Switzerland). It was then known in the German-speaking part of Switzerland as Bratchäs or Bratkäse, "roasted cheese". Traditionally, cow herders carried cheese with them when they were moving cows to or from pastures up in the mountains. In the evening, the cheese would be placed next to a campfire for softening, then scraped onto bread. Melting raclette-type cheese in front of a fire is attested in Valais since 1574. Since 1875, the French term raclette is commonly used for this dish. At the 1909 Cantonal Exhibition of Sion, raclette was promoted as a national dish of Valais. Raclette eventually gained national (and international) popularity from the 1964 National Exhibition.

In Valais, raclette is typically served with potatoes, cornichons (fermented, pickled cucumbers), pickled onions, black tea, other warm beverages, or Fendant wine. A popular French option is to serve it with white wine, such as Savoy wine, but Riesling and pinot gris are also common. Traditionally, it is consumed with black tea, since a warm beverage is considered to improve digestion.

In Switzerland, a scraper continuously serves all in the restaurant from an oven placed in a separated table or near a wood fire. In France, restaurateurs often place a raclette oven directly on the table, in which case the scraping is to be done by the guests.

The name of the dish comes from the French verb racler, 'to scrape'. It refers to both the type of cheese and the dish it is served with.

Dish
Raclette is a dish native to parts of Switzerland. The raclette cheese round is heated, either in front of a fire or by a special machine, then scraped onto diners' plates. In at least one traditional Geneva restaurant the solid cheese is impaled on a spike next to the fire so that it drips. Warm plates with two or three slices of boiled new potato are held underneath to catch the drips and served immediately to patrons, whose bill is calculated by the number of servings they eat.

Traditionally the melting happens in front of an open fire, with the big piece of cheese facing the heat. One then regularly scrapes off the melting side. Some restaurants that serve raclette use a heat lamp to substitute for the open fire, with the cheese being put under the lamp as the customer orders and the melted cheese scraped off, as in the traditional method. The melted cheese is accompanied by small firm potatoes (Bintje, Charlotte or Raclette varieties), cornichons (gherkins), pickled onions, and dried meat, such as jambon cru/cuit, salami, and viande des Grisons, and to drink, kirsch, black or herbal tea or white wine from a Valais vineyard (a Fendant wine from the Chasselas grape).

A modern way of serving raclette involves an electric table-top grill with small pans, known as coupelles, in which slices of raclette cheese are melted. This new way has been used since the 1950s. Generally the grill is surmounted by a hot plate or griddle. In Switzerland the electrical raclette is called "raclonette". The device is put in the middle of the table. The cheese is brought to the table sliced, accompanied by platters of boiled or steamed potatoes, other vegetables, and charcuterie (various meats). These are then mixed with potatoes and topped with cheese in the small wedge-shaped coupelles that are placed under the grill to melt and brown the cheese. Alternatively, slices of cheese may be melted and simply poured over food on the plate. The emphasis in raclette dining is on relaxed and sociable eating and drinking, the meal often running to several hours. French and other European supermarkets generally stock both the grill apparatus and ready-sliced cheese and charcuterie selections, especially around Christmas. Restaurants also provide raclette evenings for parties or dinners.

"Vercouline" is a raclette in which Bleu du Vercors-Sassenage is used. In Franche-Comté, the Bleu de Gex (or "Bleu du Haut Jura") and Morbier, both PDO, are used as variants.

See also

Culinary Heritage of Switzerland
Fondue, a different Swiss dish based on cheese melted in a pot

References

Cheese dishes
Culinary Heritage of Switzerland
Swiss cuisine
Cuisine of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
French cuisine
Potato dishes
Table-cooked dishes
Street food
Valais

Raclette


Hans-Georg Bürger (1 April 1952 – 22 July 1980) was a racing driver from West Germany. He was fatally injured in a racing accident while practicing for the 1980 European Formula Two Championship at Circuit Zandvoort in the Netherlands.

Career
Bürger started his racing career at 23 years of age, winning the German Slalom title in 1976, and graduating to the Renault 5 Cup. In his rookie season he finished with 3 wins and 2nd overall in the championship. Thanks to the help of German magazine Autozeitung, in 1978 Bürger joined the Bertrand Schafer Racing team and made his F3 debut. He finished 2nd in his rookie season in the F3 Championship. In 1979 he drove a BMW in the German Sportscar Championship. In the 1000 km of Nurburgring, he came in 6th place, with Eckhard Schimpf as his co-driver, and came in 1st overall in their class.

On 30 November 1979 Bürger had shared a BMW M1 entered by Dr. Helmut Marko, with Markus Höttinger in the 1000 km of Kyalami, retired. He and Höttinger were close friends, they both started racing the German Renault 5 Cup, then they were teammates in Team GS Sport and together graduated to the Procar series, becoming the most promising young German drivers, under the guidance of Jochen Neerpasch, general manager of Team BMW.

In 1980 Bürger raced in the European F2 Championship, finishing 8th at Thruxton and starting on the front row of the grid at Nurburgring.

Death

He qualified 6th during his first practice session for the Grote Prijs van Zandvoort, the Dutch round of the 1980 European F2 Championship. Towards the end of the second practice session, he had a minor crash in the chicane and went back to the pits. Even though the mechanics repaired the broken suspension and changed the nose of the car, he could not test his Tiga F280 BMW until the warm-up session on Sunday 20 July 1980. During his first two laps, he circulated slowly around the track to control the suspension. He took his 3rd lap at full speed. On the following lap, he went off the track, on the left side at the Scheivlak bend, at about 200 km/h. He crashed head-on into the guardrail and hit his head on the fence-pole. The first driver to arrive at his accident was Beppe Gabbiani, who found Bürger's helmet broken in two.

In a few minutes he was taken by ambulance to the EG Elizabeth Hospital of Haarlem. One hour later, he was transferred to the intensive care unit of the Wilhelmina Hospital in Amsterdam, where he succumbed to his head injuries two days later.

Sources
Motorsport Memorial Page

1952 births
1980 deaths
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
German racing drivers
Sportspeople from Trier
Racing drivers from Rhineland-Palatinate
Racing drivers who died while racing
World Sportscar Championship drivers
European Formula Two Championship drivers
Sport deaths in the Netherlands
BMW M drivers

Hans-Georg Bürger


Tea Act of 1773 was a law made by the Parliament of Great Britain. The law was made to help the East India Company which had massive amounts of tea stored in London which they could not sell. The law would make the company's tea cheaper than other tea which was being smuggled into Britain's North American colonies.  This was supposed to make people buy East India Company tea on which the Townshend duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to accept Parliament's right of taxation.

The law gave the Company the right to directly ship its tea to North America and the right to the duty-free export of tea from Britain. The tax imposed by the Townshend Acts and collected in the colonies remained in force. It became law on May 10, 1773.

Legislation
Kingdom of Great Britain

Tea Act


Captain John Barneson (1862-1941) was one of the most important figures in commerce and development on the Pacific Coast of California. He was responsible for the first oil pipeline in the State of California and was the Founder of General Petroleum which he later sold to Standard Oil of New York. Captain Barneson was a Director and Vice President of Standard Oil after the merger.

Captain Barneson was also a pioneer in the use of oil as a fuel for ocean steamers. He was one of the most popular social and business figures in the early 1900s and helped transform the economy of California.

In his memoirs Herbert Hoover wrote:
The matter was not itself so important but it brought me the acquaintance of Captain John Barneson, the president of General Petroleum. Captain John was one of the choice souls in American life. Honest, courageous, frank, generous and loyal, and with a high quality of humor, he had started before the mast; risen to command a naval supply ship in the Spanish–American War; gone into the shipping business for himself; thence into oil fuel business; from there finally into oil production, where he built up the General Petroleum Company to a great industry." (The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, pg 111)

Career at sea
 Served as First officer of the bark "Wollahra" from 1880-1883
 Received his Captain's papers in 1883
 Commanded the English Clipper Ship "George Thompson" from 1885-1890
 Retired from the sea in 1890
 Entered the service of the U.S. Government at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War and commanded the USAT Arizona
 Appointed "Marine Superintendent" by the U.S. Government, in which he oversaw all vessels involved in the transportation of troops into the Pacific

Personal life

Captain Barneson was the son of James Barneson and Elizabeth Rose Bremner Barneson.  He married Harriet Emily Harris in Sydney, Australia on January 8, 1886.  They had four children; John Leslie Barneson, Muriel E. Barneson, Lionel T. Barneson and Harold James Barneson (b. 1896 Port, WA, d. 1945 Los Angeles, CA).

He received his education in the public schools of New South Wales.

Affiliations

 American Institute of Mining Engineers
 Panama Pacific Expedition Board Member
 General Petroleum Founder and Managing Director
 General Pipe Line Company Founder and President
 General Construction Company President
 Wabash Oil Company President
 Las Flores Land and Oil Company President
 Coalinga Kettlemen Oil Company Vice President
 Sauer Dough Oil Company Director
 Bankline Oil Company President
 Union Oil Company Director
 Union Provident Director
 San Vincent Land Company
 Santa Barbara Improvement Company
 Residential Development Company
 San Mateo Improvement Company
 San Mateo Hotel Company President
 Barneson-Hibberd Co-Founder
 Barneson-Hibberd Warehouse Company Co-Founder
 Macondray & Company
 Tyee Whaling Company
 San Francisco Chamber of Commerce Director
 Seattle Yacht Club Member
 Northwest International Yachting Association Commodore 1893
 San Francisco Yacht Club Member
 St. Francis Yacht Club Member
 Pacific Union Club Member
 Union League Club Member
 Olympic Club Member
 Press Club Member
 Bohemian Club Member
 Commercial Club Member
 California Club of Los Angeles Member
 San Mateo Polo Club Vice President

References

 Press Reference Library, "Portraits and Biographies of Men of the West", by International News Service
 The Memoirs of Herbert Hoover, Years of Adventure 1874-1920
 From the Garage to the Boardroom, National Commission on Entrepreneurship
 Torrance Refinery

1862 births
1941 deaths
Founders of the petroleum industry
American company founders
British emigrants to the United States

John Barneson


Victor-Charles Mahillon (March 10, 1841 in Brussels – June 17, 1924 in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat, France) was a Belgian musician, instrument builder and writer on musical topics. He was the founder and first curator of the Musée instrumental du Conservatoire Royal de Musique, known today as the Musical Instrument Museum. He built, collected, and described more than 1500 musical instruments.

Biography

Early life and family
Born in a family of instrument makers and music publishers, son of Charles Mahillon (1813-1887),  and brother of Joseph-Jean Mahillon (1848-1923, Adolphe Désiré Mahillon (1851-1906) and Ferdinand-Charles-Eugène Mahillon (1855-1948). His uncle Barthelemi and his son Fernand-Charles-Henri had the same profession.

Partly self-taught, Mahillon studied Musical Acoustics and Organology and started working at his father's factory of musical instruments in 1865. In 1869, he started the musical journal L'Echo musical, which ran until 1886.

Brussels Royal Music Conservatory

He was the first curator of the instrument collection at the Brussels Royal Music Conservatory from 1879 and contributed many of his own instruments to the collection. He had a deep interest in the acoustical science but especially that pertaining to wind instruments. While his work in acoustics was advanced for the time, and has some historical interest, it has been largely supplanted. In addition to gathering a large number of historically interesting European wind instruments, he collected many ethnologically interesting specimens from around the world and prepared a three volume catalog of these (in French). His various articles that appeared in the Encyclopædia Britannica, ninth edition, are still of interest. In 1885 he provided instruments to Alfred James Hipkins for use in a series of concerts at the International Inventions Exhibition in London.

In 1890 he collaborated with Brian Greene to develop much of the more in-depth classifications of idiophones. His classification of instruments was later adopted by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs, and is still in use today.

Honours
 1919 : Commander of the Order of Leopold.

Works

1874: Les Éléments d'acoustique musicale et instrumentale
1889: contributor to Encyclopædia Britannica Ninth edition
1910: contributor to Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh edition

References

External links

1841 births
1924 deaths
Belgian musical instrument makers
Musicians from Brussels

Victor-Charles Mahillon


A Verbandsgemeinde (plural Verbandsgemeinden) is an administrative unit unique to the German Bundeslands (federal states) of Rhineland-Palatinate and, since 2009, Saxony-Anhalt.

Rhineland-Palatinate
There are 163 Verbandsgemeinden in Rhineland-Palatinate, which are grouped into the 24 districts and subdivided into nearly 2200 Ortsgemeinden.
Most of these Verbandsgemeinden were established in 1969. Formerly the name of the administrative units was Amt.  Most of the functions of municipal government for several villages are consolidated and administered centrally from a larger or more central village among the group, while the individual villages (Ortsgemeinden) still maintain a limited degree of local autonomy.

Districts

The 24 districts:

Settlements in Rhineland-Palatinate
Settlements in Saxony-Anhalt
Collective municipalities in Germany

Verbandsgemeinde


Itzchok Reev "Ray" Smolover (January 15, 1921 – September 11, 2015) was an American vocal pedagogist, voice teacher, tenor, opera librettist, opera director, and hazzan.

Biography
He was a graduate of Carnegie Mellon University and Columbia University. One of his notable students was Richard Kiley. He is the author of several publications on the art of singing, including The Singer's Handbook, Vocal Behavior Analysis and Modification, and Sing Your Best.

Smolover founded and directed the Opera Theatre of Westchester, which in the late 1950s and early 60s commissioned and produced six chamber operas on Jewish themes and performed them throughout the Midwest and East Coast of the United States. Smolover wrote the libretti and performed leading roles for all six operas. Included among the operas was Chelm (1956), as set to music by Robert Strassburg

Though a cantor and singer devoted primarily to performing music by others, Smolover composed a cantata, several art songs and liturgical settings, and: two folk rock sacred services: Edge of Freedom (a Sabbath eve service, 1967) and Gates of Freedom (a Torah service, 1970). As he explained in an oral history session, he was inspired by hearing Bob Dylan records that his son played at home. Certain aspects of Dylan's vocal delivery reminded him of the way Jews daven, or pray, in synagogue.

Smolover served as cantor for more than 40 years at Congregation Kol Ami in White Plains, New York. He was also the executive vice president of the American Conference of Cantors for over three decades. He died on September 11, 2015, in Scarsdale, New York.

References

1921 births
2015 deaths
Voice teachers
American opera librettists
American opera directors
Carnegie Mellon University alumni
Columbia University alumni
20th-century American Jews
Hazzans
21st-century American Jews

Ray Smolover


The Calgary Region is a region of Canada that includes the area around the city of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It includes the city of Calgary, Rocky View County, and Municipal District of Foothills No. 31.

The region is a major transportation hub for southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, eastern British Columbia, and parts of the northern United States. The Calgary International Airport is in the Calgary region.

In 1999, fifteen municipalities in the region formed the Calgary Regional Partnership to coordinate regional growth and planning issues.

Geography of Alberta

Calgary Region


John Baptist Wolf (July 16, 1907 – April 22, 1996) was an American historian, specializing in modern European history.

Life
Born in Ouray, Colorado, on July 16, 1907, Wolf was the son of a German immigrant.

Wolf received his B.A. and M.A. from the University of Colorado, then attended Northwestern University, before entering the doctoral program at the University of Minnesota. He received his doctorate in 1934 for a dissertation on the diplomatic history of the Baghdad Railway, published in 1936.

Wolf began his teaching career at the University of Missouri in 1934, remaining there until 1943, when he took a position at the University of Minnesota. In 1966 he moved to the University of Illinois, Chicago Circle, retiring in 1974 as professor emeritus.
Wolf died of leukemia on April 22, 1996 while living in a retirement community located near Syracuse. Writing his obituary (AHA Perspectives Dec. 1996), two of his students, Joseph Klaits and John T. O'Connor, recalled "his wit, passion for history, and zest for life" that stimulated his classes.

Work
Wolf published a number of important books, including France, 1815 to the Present (1940), The Emergence of the Great Powers (1685–1715) (1951), Toward a European Balance of Power (1640–1720) (1969). His most important study was the major biography, Louis XIV (1968).

In retirement Wolf published The Barbary Coast: Algiers under the Turks, 1500-1730 (1979), which was translated into Arabic. He was twice a fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, first in Paris (1959–60), then in Madrid (1967–68). For his work in French history, Wolf was decorated as a Chevalier des Palmes Académiques by the French government in 1979. He was also president of the Society for French Historical Studies (1968–69).

Notes

1907 births
1996 deaths
University of Minnesota alumni
University of Missouri faculty
Historians of Europe
20th-century American historians
American male non-fiction writers
People from Ouray, Colorado
20th-century American male writers

John Baptist Wolf


A Gregorian telescope was the first telescope to be designed that uses mirrors instead of lenses. It was invented by the English astronomer John Gregory. Even though it was designed in 1663, it wasn't the first reflecting telescope to be built. Newton's telescope, a different design, was built in 1668. The Gregorian telescope was first built in 1673 by Robert Hooke.

The telescope uses two curved mirrors. The large primary gathers light, and the small secondary reflects the light out the back of the primary mirror. Both mirrors are concave (bowl-shaped).

It is very similar to the Cassegrain telescope, which uses a large concave primary mirror and a small convex secondary mirror.

Telescopes

Gregorian telescope


Eden Park is a sports venue in Auckland, New Zealand. It is located three kilometres southwest of the Auckland CBD, on the boundary between the suburbs of Mount Eden and Kingsland. The main stadium has a nominal capacity of 50,000, and is sometimes referred to as New Zealand's national stadium. The stadium is used primarily for rugby union in winter and cricket in summer, and has also hosted rugby league and association football matches, as well as concerts and cultural events. It is owned and operated by the Eden Park Trust Board, whose headquarters are located in the stadium.

Eden Park is considered one of international rugby union's most difficult grounds for visiting sides. New Zealand's national rugby union team, nicknamed the All Blacks, have been unbeaten at this venue in 48 consecutive test matches stretching back to 1994.  Eden Park is the site of the 2021 Te Matatini. It was the site for the 2022 Women's Cricket World Cup, the final of the 2021 Women's Rugby World Cup and staged the opening match of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup. In 2011 it hosted pool games, two quarter-finals, both semi-finals and the final of 2011 Rugby World Cup. In doing so it became the first stadium in the world to host two Rugby World Cup finals, having held the inaugural final in 1987. It was a venue for the 2015 Cricket World Cup, which was jointly hosted by Australia and New Zealand.

History

Origins of Eden Park

The land where Eden Park stands was originally swampland, fed by lava caverns created by Maungawhau / Mount Eden and Mount Albert over 30,000 years ago. Tāmaki Māori used the swamp to collect food and materials. In 1845, the area was purchased by Cornish farmer John Walters. Eden Park has been a sports ground since 1900. The park began as a cricket ground in 1903, and was due to the vision of one Harry Ryan, a cricket enthusiast who approached landowner John Walters to lease part of his land as a sports field. In the book Eden Park: A History, the authors write, "Certainly the rough paddock strewn with stones, studded with outcrops of rock and streaked with cowpats, falling away to a boggy trough that filled in a downpour and remained flooded throughout the winter, looked better suited to frog-hunting or duck-shooting than cricket, let alone rugby. Ryan knew or at least imagined better." Much early work on the cricket ground was needed, including clearing the stone walls that had been used to divide farmland, and ongoing drainage issues.

Those who saw Ryan's vision as madness most likely felt vindicated when, in 1907, massive downpours of rain saw the ground submerged in water for a week. The same thing happened again later in the year. By 1910, the ongoing maintenance costs led the Eden District Cricket Club to approach the Auckland Cricket Association to take over running the park. By 1912, the land had been transferred from John Walters to the trustees of the cricket association, backed financially by a number of well-known Auckland businessman. The name 'Eden Park' settled into general usage around 1912, soon after it had been taken over by the association.

Opening as a cricket and rugby venue

In 1913 the park was leased to the Auckland Rugby Football Union, becoming both a summer and winter sporting venue, with the union leasing the venue initially for 21 years. The union agreed to pay to build the park's first grandstand, erected in 1913 to hold an audience of 2,500, and later followed by a second members' stand built in 1914. In 1914, the first international cricket match was held, with Auckland hosting Australia. The first rugby match played at the venue was a seven-a-side series on 9 May 1914, and the first representative match was played on 5 September, against Wellington. Drainage issues ceased to be a regular issue for Kingsland and Eden Park in the 1920s, after which the park began to flourish. The first rugby test was held on 27 August 1921, when South Africa beat New Zealand 5–9 before a crowd of 40,000. The Auckland Rugby Football Union officially made Eden Park its home in 1925, and in 1926, a trust was set up to manage Eden Park primarily for the benefit of Auckland Cricket and Auckland Rugby.

In 1930, the ground hosted its inaugural British and Irish Lions matches as part of the 1930 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia. Matches were held against Auckland and New Zealand sides, both won by the home sides with an attendance of 45,000 at the latter. The ground hosted its first match between New Zealand and Australia as part of the 1931 Australia rugby union tour of New Zealand. New Zealand won 20 – 13. In 1933, New Zealand hosted England in the first cricket test match, where Wally Hammond set an individual test batting record of 336 not out.

Eden Park served as the opening ceremony and athletics venue for the 1950 British Empire Games, when the western part of the grounds were first opened. In 1955, New Zealand hosted England in the second test match of their 1954–55 Tour of New Zealand. During the same year, the New Zealand Parliament passed the Eden Park Trust Act, enshrining the governance structure of the park until 2009. By 1956, the West Stand was completed, followed by the South Stand in 1958. New Zealand won its first cricket test match against the West Indies as part of the 1955–56 West Indies Tour of New Zealand. The ground hosted its third rugby international between New Zealand and South Africa. New Zealand won 11 – 5 before a record crowd of 63,000. The British and Irish Lions returned for the third time in the 1959 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand with matches against Auckland and New Zealand. The visitors win both, their first test match win at the ground.

During the 1960s and 70s, further large scale events were held at the venue, including 1961 French tour of New Zealand and Australia, the 1963 England tour of New Zealand, the 1969 Wales rugby union tour of Oceania, a welcoming party for the royal family during the 1970 New Zealand Royal Visit Honours, the Australian tour of New Zealand (1973–74), and a gymnastic display held by touring Russian gymnasts including Olga Korbut. During the 1975 Scotland rugby union tour of New Zealand, both teams famously played during a downpour on a completely saturated pitch, before the one-off test had to be cancelled as the drainage system was unable to cope with the flooding.

During the 1981 Springbok Tour, a low-flying Cessna 172 piloted by Marx Jones and Grant Cole disrupted the final test by dropping flour-bombs on the pitch.

The 1980s saw a number of record events such as a crowd of 43,000 at the 1981–82 Australia Tour of New Zealand, where Australian batsman Greg Chappell dealing with an on ground streaker with his bat. An indoor cricket facility and stand were built next to the outer oval. At the inaugural Rugby World Cup, co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand in 1987, New Zealand defeated France 29 – 9 in the final in front of a crowd of 48,035. In 1988, Eden Park hosted the 1988 Rugby League World Cup final, with Australia defeating New Zealand 25 – 12 before a New Zealand rugby league record crowd of 47,363. This was the first game of rugby league played at Eden Park since 1919. Eden Park was a venue during the 1992 Cricket World Cup, cohosted with Australia.

In 1996, the new Auckland Blues began playing at the ground, with the inaugural Super 12 final held at the ground, with the Auckland Blues defeating the  45 – 21 before a crowd of 46,000. The ground hosted Super 12 finals in 1997, 1998 and 2003. The ground hosted its first rugby test between New Zealand and Ireland as part of the 2002 Ireland Tour of New Zealand. In 2003, the playing surface on the main oval was completely overhauled with the introduction of "Motz" turf.

2011 Rugby World Cup and redevelopment

In 2007, the ground was confirmed by the New Zealand Government as the venue for the final of the 2011 Rugby World Cup, with redevelopment beginning in 2008. The ground was the subject of a hotly debated dilemma, as to whether the event should be hosted at historic Eden Park or a new city centre stadium. The redeveloped stadium was officially opened by New Zealand Prime Minister John Key on 10 October. The first event was a Rugby League Four Nations double header, including matches between England and Papua New Guinea, and Australia and New Zealand.

The 2011 Rugby World Cup commenced on 9 September, with New Zealand defeating Tonga 41 – 10 before a crowd of 60,214. In addition to the opening ceremony and match, five pool games, two quarter-finals, both semi-finals and the final are held at Eden Park, with a cumulative attendance of more than 600,000. New Zealand defeated France 8 – 7 before a crowd of 61,079.
The ground hosted its first game of professional football, with the Wellington Phoenix hosting Adelaide United before a crowd of 20,078.

In 2013 the New Zealand Warriors announced they would be playing three home games at Eden Park in the 2014 NRL season.

The Auckland Council takes over five of the nine spots on the Eden Park Trust Board, giving ratepayers control over the ground.

In 2015, it hosted four matches during the 2015 Cricket World Cup, which was co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand including the first semi final between New Zealand and South Africa. The stadium hosted its first day night test match during the English cricket tour in 2018.

In 2020, after 117 years, Eden Park sold week-long naming rights to longtime partner, ASB. As part of their commitment to small business in New Zealand, ASB gifted their naming rights to Coopers Catch, a small fish-and-chip shop from Kaikōura.

In 2021, for the first time since 1975, Eden Park hosted a concert, headlined by the band Six60 to a sold-out crowd of about 50,000 attendees. The concert was also one of the biggest concerts in the world at the time, due to COVID-19.

Redevelopment

Capacity
The $256 million redevelopment completed in October 2010 provided a permanent capacity of 50,000 with a further 10,000 temporary seats for the 2011 Rugby World Cup games. This is the largest of any New Zealand sports arena. There are no standing areas. Temporary seating in front of the North Stand and the West Stand (usually only used for international rugby matches) is required for the capacity to be reached. Due to sight-screens and the larger area required for cricket matches, cricket capacity is smaller.

Prior to redevelopment, Eden Park had a crowd capacity of 45,472 for rugby and 42,000 for cricket .

Expansion
The redevelopment project included a three-tier South stand replacing the old South and West stands, with a capacity of 24,000, and a three-tier East replacing the Terraces. The number of covered seats increased from 23,000 to 38,000. The redeveloped Eden Park has an internal concourse that allows people to circulate around the grounds inside the stadium, and world-class facilities, including food and beverage outlets, toilets and corporate areas, were incorporated. The open plan approach to the design and establishment of a community centre and green space, and the removal of the perimeter fence, mean that the stadium has become more publicly accessible and a part of the neighbourhood.

There were public concerns about the height of the new structure and its shading effect on many nearby houses. Auckland City Council received 470 submissions on the resource consent application, over 300 of which were in favour of the redevelopment. On 26 January 2007, Eden Park received resource consent with 91 conditions imposed. The consent permitted the building of new stands in place of the terraces and south stand, but did not include consent for the NZ$385 million 'full option', which would have included covered seating.

Possible alternative stadium for the 2011 Rugby World Cup
In September 2006 it was announced that instead of Eden Park, the Government and Auckland City Council were assessing the possibility of a new stadium on Auckland's waterfront to host the 2011 Rugby World Cup. This assessment was part of the Government's formal due diligence process on the decision to redevelop Eden Park. The Government had said it would assist with the funding if a new stadium was built. The Government announced in a report in November 2006 that it would favour a new stadium on the Auckland waterfront, which would have meant that the Eden Park redevelopment would not have gone ahead, and that options for its use or redevelopment would have to be developed. After the Auckland City Council and the Auckland Regional Council differed in their support for the new stadium, the Government changed to supporting the redevelopment of Eden Park, subject to suitable resolution of the design, funding and governance issues.

Gallery

Rugby union

Eden Park is the home ground for the Auckland Blues in Super Rugby and Auckland in the Mitre 10 Cup. The ground regularly hosts All Blacks rugby union test matches. Auckland first used the ground in the 1913 season, and the first international fixture was against South Africa in 1921. The Auckland Blues have used the ground since their foundation in 1996.

The final game of the 1981 Springbok Tour was played at Eden Park. A low-flying Cessna 172 piloted by Marx Jones and Grant Cole dropped flour bombs on the field as part of widespread protests against the tour and apartheid.

Eden Park was used in the inaugural 1987 Rugby World Cup and the 2011 Rugby World Cup, both of which the All Blacks won against France, making it the first ground to host two Rugby World Cup finals.

In late 2015, the ground also hosted a public memorial for legendary All Black wing Jonah Lomu after he died at the age of 40.

It was one of the sites for the 2021 Women's Rugby World Cup, including the final.

New Zealand's overall Test match record at Eden Park against all nations, updated to 14 August 2021, is as follows:

Records
Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.

Cricket

Eden Park is the home ground for the Auckland cricket team. The ground regularly hosts international fixtures, including Tests, ODIs and Twenty20 Internationals, while the Outer Oval also hosts WODIs, domestic List A and Twenty20 games.

It first hosted a test in 1930. The ground was also the host to New Zealand's first Test victory, against West Indies in 1955–56 season. It has also been the scene of a dark day in New Zealand's cricket history when on 28 March 1955, the hosts collapsed to their lowest Test score (26 all out) against England.

The ground hosted four matches during the 1992 Cricket World Cup including the semi-final between New Zealand and Pakistan, which Pakistan won by four wickets en route to winning the tournament after Inzamam-ul-Haq's 60 off 37 in reply to Black Caps captain Martin Crowe's 91. It also hosted four matches during the 2015 Cricket World Cup, which was co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand. The matches played included two pool B games and the pool A clash between co-hosts New Zealand and Australia, which New Zealand won by one wicket via Kane Williamson's six off Pat Cummins with 6 required after Mitchell Starc had taken 6 wickets in reply to Trent Boult's 5. It also hosted the first semifinal between New Zealand and South Africa, which New Zealand won off the penultimate ball with another six – this time by Grant Elliott off Dale Steyn – to advance to their first Cricket World Cup final.

In 2018, Eden Park hosted the first day-night test in New Zealand, against England. England were bowled out for 58 in the first innings. It took New Zealand only 20.4 overs to dismiss England on the first day of the test match. Trent Boult and Tim Southee took six and four wickets each and bowled unchanged throughout the 20.4 overs. No other bowler was required to bowl. This was just the fourth instance that only 2 bowlers were required to dismiss the opposition since 1920. Five England players were dismissed for a duck. Trent Boult (6/32) picked his career best figures in test cricket. This was his second five wicket haul at Eden Park and his second consecutive five wicket haul in day night test cricket, the first one against Australia in Adelaide in 2015 which was the inaugural day night test.

The highest total set by a team here in Test cricket was by the South African national cricket team against the New Zealand national cricket team when they scored 621/5 dec on 27 Feb 1999. The most runs scored in this ground have been by John Wright (1060 runs), Martin Crowe (712 runs) and Nathan Astle (649 runs). The most wickets have been taken by Richard Hadlee- 45 wickets followed by Chris Cairns-35 wickets and Richard Collinge-29 wickets.

In ODI cricket, the highest total has been set by New Zealand national cricket team against the Australian national cricket team when they scored 340/5 on 18 Feb 2007. The most runs scored in this ground have been by Martin Guptill (818 runs), Martin Crowe (719 runs) and Nathan Astle (705 runs). The most wickets have been taken by Chris Cairns-33 wickets, followed by Chris Harris- 28 wickets.

In May 2018, New Zealand Cricket (NZC) said that the ground is no longer cost-effective or financially viable to host cricket matches, and that they were looking at hosting fixtures at the Western Springs Stadium instead.

The ground is also where famed Indian cricket player Sachin Tendulkar made his debut as an ODI opener. Ahead of the second ODI of the New Zealand-India series at the ground in March 1994, regular opener Navjot Singh Sidhu was ruled out with a stiff neck, opening the way for the 21-year-old Tendulkar's promotion. He made 82 off just 49 balls against to steer India to a 7-wicket victory.

It was a site for 2022 Women's Cricket World Cup.

World Cup matches

References:

Gallery

Rugby league
The biggest rugby league game played at Eden Park was the 1988 World Cup final played on 9 October, giving the venue the distinction of hosting the Union and League World Cup finals in consecutive years. This also sees Eden Park (as of 2018) as the only venue to host the World Cup final for both rugby codes. In a spiteful match in which the New Zealand national rugby league team seemed more intent on dishing out punishment than playing football, the Wally Lewis-led Australians defeated the home side 25–12 after leading 25–0 early in the second half. The game was played in front of a record New Zealand rugby league attendance of 47,363 (only 672 less than attended the 1987 Rugby WCF between the All Blacks and France 16 months earlier). Australia had won the right to host the final, but as international crowds in Australia had been dwindling in recent years due to the Kangaroos dominance (only 15,944 had attended the dead rubber Ashes series test between Australia and Great Britain at the Sydney Football Stadium three months earlier), the Australian Rugby League agreed to New Zealand hosting the game in the interests of promoting international rugby league. Their efforts were rewarded with the largest World Cup final attendance since 1968, when 54,290 saw Australia defeat France at the Sydney Cricket Ground.

Eden Park hosted two matches (a double header) in the 2010 Rugby League Four Nations on 6 November. In the early game, England defeated Papua New Guinea 36–10, with Australia defeating New Zealand 34–20 in the second game. The fixture attracted 44,324 fans. The New Zealand Warriors played the Parramatta Eels in their first NRL match at Eden Park to start the 2011 NRL season in front of a crowd of 38,405 with Parramatta winning 24–18. The Warriors played their first home match of the 2012 season against the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles in a 2011 NRL Grand Final replay, with Manly winning 26–20 in front of 37,502. The 2012 ANZAC Test between Australia and New Zealand was played at Eden Park, with the Kangaroos winning 20–12 in front of 35,329. The Warriors played the Sydney Roosters in Round 2 of the 2013 NRL season, going down 16–14 in front of 32,740.

In 2013 a new faster format of rugby league was announced that it would be held at Eden Park. In 15–16 February 2014, Eden Park held the first ever NRL Auckland Nines tournament.

Association football
Eden Park has hosted four New Zealand men's national team games; friendlies against South Africa and FK Austria Wien in 1947 and 1957 respectively, an Olympic qualifier against Israel for the Seoul Olympics in 1988, and most recently a friendly against the Australian Socceroos in 2022. They were defeated in all four games.

On 19 November 2011, Eden Park hosted its first game of professional club football. The A-League regular season fixture between Wellington Phoenix and Adelaide United resulted in a 1–1 draw. The game attracted 20,078, a new attendance record for the Phoenix. The Phoenix returned to Eden Park on 2 February 2013 against long-distance rivals Perth Glory, drawing a crowd of 11,566 to see them win 1–0.

On 23 July 2014, Eden Park hosted English Premiership team West Ham United F.C. The A-League team Wellington Phoenix defeated West Ham 2–1.

The venue will host several matches of the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup including the opening match in which New Zealand beat Norway 1-0. This was the first ever victory for New Zealand at a men's or women's FIFA World Cup and was played in front of a record crowd of 42,137, which was the highest attended football match in New Zealand for men or women.

The attendance record was beaten on 1 August 2023 when 42,958 watched the final Group E game between USA 0-0 draw against Portugal.

The record was beaten for a third time on 5 August 2023 when 43,217 watched the first Round of 16 knockout match which saw Spain beat Switzerland 5-1.

The fourth highest attendance for a football match attended in New Zealand with 41,107, when USA beat Vietnam 3-0 in the group stages.

2023 FIFA Women's World Cup Fixtures

Outer Oval
Eden Park Outer Oval (also known as Eden Park No.2 and, since 2021, "Kennards Hire Community Oval") is a cricket ground on the western side of the main Eden Park ground. It is home to the Auckland Aces cricket team. The ground has a grandstand with seating for around 1,000 spectators, and can accommodate approximately 4,000 spectators overall. Its first first-class cricket match was held in January 1976. As of January 2023 it has staged 135 first-class matches and 124 List A matches.

See also
 1985–1988 Rugby League World Cup
 1987 Rugby World Cup
 1992 Cricket World Cup
 2011 Rugby World Cup
 2015 Cricket World Cup
 List of Test cricket grounds
 List of international cricket centuries at Eden Park
 List of international cricket five-wicket hauls at Eden Park

References

External links

Eden Park website

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1900 establishments in New Zealand
Sports venues in Auckland
Test cricket grounds in New Zealand
Rugby union stadiums in New Zealand
Rugby World Cup stadiums
Stadiums of the Commonwealth Games
Rugby league stadiums in New Zealand
Rugby League World Cup stadiums
Cricket in Auckland
Auckland cricket grounds
1992 Cricket World Cup stadiums
2015 Cricket World Cup stadiums
2023 FIFA Women's World Cup stadiums
Albert-Eden Local Board Area

Eden Park


John Tristan (8 April 1250 – 3 August 1270) was a French prince of the Capetian dynasty. He was jure uxoris count of Nevers from 1265 and of Auxerre and Tonnerre from 1268. He was also in his own right Count of Valois and Crépy, as an appanages of the crown, from 1268.

Birth and childhood

John was born in Damietta, Egypt. He was the sixth child and the fourth son of King Louis IX of France, called St. Louis after canonisation, and Margaret of Provence. Moreover, he was the first of three children of this royal couple who were born during the Seventh Crusade. He was born at the Egyptian port town of Damietta which had been conquered by the crusaders in 1249.

According to chronicler Jean de Joinville, an old knight acted as midwife during John's birth. Two days prior to his birth, the king was captured by the Mamluks which was the reason to name the child Tristan due to the triste occasion. He was baptised in the grand mosque of Damietta that had been re-consecrated into a church. One month later, Damietta had to be abandoned. John subsequently spent his childhood in the Holy Land where his siblings Peter (1251) and Blanche (1253) were born.

Marriage

His father wished that John joined the Dominican Order, but John resisted this wish successfully. In 1266, he was married to Yolande II, Countess of Nevers (1247–1280), making him Count of Nevers, Auxerre and Tonnere. In 1268, John was made Count of Valois and Crépy on his own right by his father the king, a gift he received as paréage.

Crusade

Two years later, John accompanied his father during the Eighth Crusade, which reached Tunis in July after setting out from Cagliari on Sardinia. But at Tunis the army suffered an outbreak of dysentery. John Tristan was one of the victims who died of it, and three weeks later, St. Louis also succumbed to the disease. Both bodies were transported to France and buried in the Basilica of St Denis.

John's marriage remained childless. His widow married again in 1272 with Robert III of Flanders; the county of Valois, his prerogative, returned to the Crown.

Ancestry

Notes

References

External links

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1250 births
1270 deaths
13th-century French people
French princes
Counts of Nevers
Counts of Valois
Counts of Anjou
Burials at the Basilica of Saint-Denis
Christians of the Seventh Crusade
Christians of the Eighth Crusade
Deaths from dysentery
People from Damietta
Sons of kings
Children of Louis IX of France

John Tristan, Count of Valois


Ned Christies War is a phrase that has been used when referring to the overall confrontation between American lawmen and the Cherokee renegade Ned Christie. After Deputy Marshal Daniel Maples was shot to death in May 1887, Christie was accused of being responsible for the murder, so he fled to a remote area of the Cherokee Nation. For five years Christie eluded the posses that came after him, mostly with the help of friends and family. However, in November 1892 a well-armed force of lawmen breached his stronghold and killed him.

War

Death of Daniel Maples
Before he became a renegade, Ned Christie was elected to the Cherokee tribal council in 1885. Like his father, who was also a member of the council, Ned was a blacksmith and gunsmith. Though newspapers and contemporary accounts claim that Christie was a typical bandit, or outlaw, there is no evidence to suggest that he ever committed a crime until after the Maples incident. The "war" began at Tahlequah, the capital of the Cherokee Nation, on May 4, 1887, with the killing of Deputy Daniel Maples. Maples had been sent in to arrest some whiskey peddlers, since alcohol was forbidden in the Indian Territory, but the deputy was ambushed and killed outside of town. A Cherokee man named John Parris was arrested for the murder, but he told the police that he saw Ned fire the gun that killed the officer. As a council member, Christie was in Tahlequah to attend a usual meeting so he proclaimed his innocence, saying he spent the night drinking and then fell asleep outside in some bushes. When the Hanging Judge, Isaac Parker, learned of the incident, he issued a warrant for Christie's arrest and sent out a posse from Fort Smith, Arkansas, under the command of Marshal Henry "Heck" Thomas. Christie was not about to surrender and be sentenced to hang in Judge Parker's court, so he fled to his cabin, which was located in a remote area of wilderness, about  east of Tahlequah. Some accounts claim that Ned wrote Judge Parker a letter, which said that "he was innocent and requesting the right of bail to give him and the authorities time to find the real killer." Parker had no authority of the sort, so Christie "surrounded himself with an army of men and set up a heavily armed barricade around his home." He also placed sentries so that he could be warned of approaching lawmen long before they arrived.

First encounter

For nearly two years Christie lived undisturbed with his friends and family in the wilderness. Marshal Thomas and other lawmen repeatedly led posses into the area, but usually they found Ned's house empty. According to author Loren D. Estleman, Ned slept at his cabin most nights, but he "took to the brush" when the alarm was raised. At the time, the Indian Territory was infested with outlaws. Banditry was common and every newspaper in the area accused Christie of being responsible for the raids, though he never left his hideout. There were occasional shootouts, though casualties remained light on both sides and all of the engagements took place at Christie's home. The first occurred on September 26, 1889. After months of searching, Marshal Thomas and a posse found Christie's cabin occupied by the renegade, as well as his wife and son. During the firefight that ensued, Christie was badly wounded in the face, and his son was shot and killed. One deputy, L.P. Isbel, was also wounded in the shoulder.

A November 8, 1890, edition of the Fort Worth Daily Gazette said the following about the skirmish:

A little over a year ago two deputy marshals [Thomas and Isbel] with a posse of five men surrounded his [Christie's] house just before daylight one morning and found him at home to their sorrow. They demanded his surrender and informed him that if he proposed to resist he had best send his family out as they intended to have him if they had to burn down the house. He answered them with a defiant yell, and they heard him ascending to the attic of the building, which was one story and built of logs, the gable ends only being weather boarded. Getting into the loft he kicked off a board and opened fire on the party, which they returned from every direction, each man having 'taken a tree.' Firing was kept up at intervals for some time without effect but finally one of the marshals [Isbel] exposed his shoulder and quick as a flash a Winchester ball went crashing through it, inflicting a wound that will make a cripple of the victim for life. This enraged the officers and they set fire to an outhouse hoping to scare out their game without burning the main building. In the meantime Christie's wife and son came out of the house and ran off, the boy being fired upon and wounded as he escaped into the brush. The outhouse burned rapidly and lit up the scene, soon spreading to the dwelling but the desperate Indian still held his fort [house] and answered the demands of the officers with shots and yells of defiance. By the time it was day light and the marshals fearing that Christie's wife had gone for help, and knowing that he had many relatives in the neighborhood, and it being apparent that he would die in the burning house before he would surrender if he had not already been shot, took their wounded comrade and retreated to where they had left their horses tied in the woods making their way to Tahlequah the same day. They afterwards learned that Christie was still in the burning building when they left and was wounded in the head but made his escape.

Another account of the fight says that the posse "surrounded Christie's shack at dawn and Christie was summoned to surrender," but "the only answer was a blast of rifle fire from Christie and a cohort." The same source says that Marshal Thomas set fire to an outbuilding and when Christie and his companion ran for safety both were wounded by gunfire. A shotgun slug tore off a piece of Christie's nose and hit one of his eyes while the other man was hit twice and killed.

Ned's Fort
Ned eventually went on to build a new home, which was more of a fort than his original cabin. According to Bill O'Neal, author of the Encyclopedia of Western Gunfighters:
After his home and shop were destroyed by a posse in 1889, he [Christie] rebuilt about a mile away on a forbidding cliff that became known as Neds Fort Mountain. A field of fire was cleared around the two-story fortification. The massive walls were two logs thick and lined with oak two-by-fours.O'Neal, pg. 59

It wasn't long before the fortifications were discovered. A November 3, 1890, edition of the Omaha Daily Bee said the following:

Ned Christie, the most distinguished outlaw within the Territory, unless it is Bill Pigeon, is receiving close attention of Deputy Marshals A.B. Ward and C.L. Howdon, says a Muskogee, I. T. [Indian Territory] special to the St. Louis Republican. Christie was a member of the Cherokee council, and about two years ago assassinated Deputy United States Marshal Dan Maples, from ambush, for some reason unknown. He at once took to the brush, where he has since been in hiding. About two weeks ago the above named officers learned that Christie was located about fifteen miles northwest of Tahlequah, and they proceeded to his rendezvous with a posse or two. The outlaw, it was discovered, had with him seven pals and brother desperadoes. These men have built two 'fort' houses, arranged on an elevation commanding favorable view, and from which forts the inmates have a cross-fire on the only approach to their stronghold. The officers were warned, and after a consultation quietly withdrew, it is believed to make a subsequent attack when the odds are in their favor.

There were several shootouts in the time between the construction of Christie's fort and the end of the conflict in 1892, three of which stand out among the others. The first was fought on November 25, 1890, shortly after authorities in Washington, D.C. issued a $1,000 reward for Christie, dead or alive. The African-American lawman Bass Reeves accepted the challenge and led a failed expedition to capture the elusive renegade.

On November 27, 1890, the newspaper Vinita Indian Chieftain wrote a brief account of the attack and its aftermath:

On Tuesday last U.S. Deputy Marshal Bass Reeves, of Fort Smith, with his posse, made an attack on the home of Ned Christie in the Flint district, who is perhaps the most notorious outlaw and desperado in the Indian Territory, and the outlaw's stronghold was burned to the ground. Supposing that the owner [Christie] had been killed or wounded and was consumed in the building, the news went out that he had met a violent death. But Christie has turned up alive, and may cause trouble yet, is said to be on the war path fiercer than ever and vows revenge on the marshal and his posse.

Reeves was reported to have been killed not long after the encounter. Some newspapers claimed that Ned was responsible while others said that Christie's involvement was a hoax, being that Reeves was ambushed well over  from the Going Snake District, where Christie lived (In fact Reeves lived until 1910). Whether Ned's fort was truly burned down by Reeves and his men will never be known, but what is certain is that the fort was still standing and still in use when later posses attempted to arrest the renegade. On October 11, 1892, a posse composed of Deputy Marshals Charley Copeland, Milo Creekmore, William Bouden, David Rusk, and D.C. Dye attacked the fort but they were quickly driven back into the bushes with two wounded. The posse then found a wagon, used in the construction of the buildings, and began loading it with brush so they could light it on fire and then send it rolling towards the house. However, the plan did not go as hoped. The wagon rolled off course and into an outbuilding. The deputies then decided on using the three sticks of dynamite they had brought with them. One by one, the sticks were thrown, but each one "bounced harmlessly onto the ground." Disgusted, the posse had no choice but to retreat.

Final encounter

The final battle to capture or kill Ned Christie began on November 2, 1892, and ended early the following morning. This time, the posse consisted of between sixteen and twenty-five men, heavily armed with rifles, dynamite and a 3-pounder field gun. Several men have been credited with leading the posse, including Deputy Marshals Gideon S. "Cap" White, Gus York, Dick Bruce, Heck Bruner and Paden Tolbert. Some of the possemen were veterans of earlier skirmishes, so they knew what to expect when the fighting began. Christie, Arche Wolfe, and possibly a man named Charley Hare, took up positions in the top of the fort, where they held off the attackers for over twelve hours. One account says that the lawmen fired thirty-eight cannonballs into the fort, and over 2,000 rounds of rifle ammunition was expended. The cannon proved to be useless though, so the deputies planted dynamite at a certain place along the wall and then lit the fuse. The explosion blew a hole large enough for men to pass through, and it also set the building on fire. Arche Wolfe escaped, but was later caught, and Christie was shot down at point blank range by Deputy Wess Bowman, when he charged out of the burning building. Immediately after that, the son of Deputy Maples, Sam, came up and emptied his revolver into Christie's corpse. According to author Dan Anderson, Charley Hare came out with his hands up and surrendered; he was badly burned and could no longer resist or evade capture. Other accounts make no mention of Charley Hare, though The Morning Call, a San Francisco newspaper, reported on November 4, 1892, that a man named Charles Wolff was killed during the fight and that his body was found badly burned inside Ned's fort.

The article from The Morning Call reads as follows:

Tahlequa, I. T., Nov. 4.—Ned Christy, a noted outlaw for whom the officers have been searching for some time, was killed to–day. A posse of United States Deputy Marshals headed by Dick Bruce surrounded his cabin this morning. When one of Christy's companions came out he was summoned to surrender, but replied with a shot from a Winchester [rifle], and his companions in the house also fired a volley. Then began a battle which lasted all day without damage on either side. This evening the officers resorted to dynamite and succeeded in blowing down a part of the cabin and setting fire to the remainder. While the blaze was at its height Christy tried to escape, and, failing to halt when ordered, was brought to the ground riddled with bullets. His companion gave himself up. The body of Charles Wolff, who was wounded in the morning, was burned to a crisp in the cabin. The females of the family had been allowed to retreat at the beginning of the fight.

Aftermath
Marshal Tolbert had Christie's body strapped to the door of the fort and then loaded it into a wagon for the ride to Fayetteville and then to Fort Smith by train. Along the way, curious citizens flocked to the roads and train stations to view Christie's remains. The door to which Christie was attached allowed the deputies to prop him up against buildings so photographs could be taken. After Fort Smith, Christie's body was sent to Fort Gibson to be identified by his family and to be buried, but the remains were later moved to the Watt Christie Cemetery in Wauhillau, Oklahoma.

There is some reason to believe that Christie may have been the victim of framing by a railroad company, being that he was a tribal council member, who was opposed to the construction of railroads through Cherokee land. In 1918, a witness to the murder of Daniel Maples came forward and effectively cleared Christie's name. Richard A. "Dick" Humphrey was a former slave, who was adopted into the Cherokee tribe and was working as a blacksmith in Tahlequah the night Maples was killed. Humphrey told the former deputy marshal and reporter for the Oklahoman, Fred E. Sutton, that he saw a known badman named Bud Trainor steal Christie's coat while he slept drunk in the bushes and then use it to conceal his identity for the murder of Maples. Humphrey was too afraid to come forward sooner because of what Trainor or his friends might have done.

Today, Christie is honored by a plaque at the Cherokee Court House in Tahlequah, which says that he was "assassinated by U.S. Marshals in 1892." Several descendants of Ned, or his family, still live in the Cherokee Nation.

See also
Goingsnake Massacre
Three Guardsmen

References

Bibliography

History of Oklahoma
19th-century military history of the United States
Wars involving the United States
Conflicts in 1887
Conflicts in 1888
Conflicts in 1889
Conflicts in 1890
Conflicts in 1891
Conflicts in 1892
1880s in the United States
1890s in the United States
American Old West gunfights
American frontier
Murder in Oklahoma
19th-century Cherokee history

Ned Christie's War


The Port of London was the main port of London. It no longer operates as a port: see London Docklands for an account. The river now operates as an alternative means of travel for work and recreation. It is not a major commercial port for importing and exporting goods. The Port of London Authority is still the legal authority controlling all use of the river.

The port was in the Thames at the city center. Major import and export trade is now done at the container port at Felixstowe in Suffolk. In 2010 the British government started building a new port outside the city, on the north bank of the river in Thurrock, Essex. The new project is called: London Gateway.

Other websites
 Port of London  - the website of the Port of London Authority
 PortCities London Home
 The Port of London in 1819
 Port of Tilbury
 London Gateway Planning Inquiry

References

Ports and harbours of the United Kingdom

Port of London


This list of pterosaurs is a comprehensive listing of all genera that have ever been included in the order Pterosauria, excluding purely vernacular terms. The list includes all commonly accepted genera, but also genera that are now considered invalid, doubtful (nomen dubium), or were not formally published (nomen nudum), as well as junior synonyms of more established names, and genera that are no longer considered pterosaurian. The list currently includes 263 genera.

Scope and terminology
There is no official, canonical list of pterosaur genera, but the most thorough attempts can be found at the Pterosauria section of Mikko Haaramo's Phylogeny Archive, the Genus Index at Mike Hanson's The Pterosauria, supplemented by the Pterosaur Species List, and in the fourth supplement of Donald F. Glut's Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia series.

Authors and year
The authors column lists the authors of the formal description responsible for the erection of the genus listed. They are not necessarily the same as the authors of the type species as sometimes a species from one genus is determined sufficiently distinct to warrant the erection of a new genus to house it. If this is the case, only the latter authors will be listed. The year column notes the year the description was published.

Status
Naming conventions and terminology follow the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Technical terms used include:
 Junior synonym: A name which describes the same taxon as a previously published name. If two or more genera are formally designated and the type specimens are later assigned to the same genus, the first to be published (in chronological order) is the senior synonym, and all other instances are junior synonyms. Senior synonyms are generally used, except by special decision of the ICZN, but junior synonyms cannot be used again, even if deprecated. Junior synonymy is often subjective, unless the genera described were both based on the same type specimen.
 Nomen nudum (Latin for "naked name"): A name that has appeared in print but has not yet been formally published by the standards of the ICZN. Nomina nuda (the plural form) are invalid, and are therefore not italicized as a proper generic name would be. If the name is later formally published, that name is no longer a nomen nudum and will be italicized on this list. Often, the formally published name will differ from any nomina nuda that describe the same specimen.
 Preoccupied name: A name that is formally published, but which has already been used for another taxon. This second use is invalid (as are all subsequent uses) and the name must be replaced. As preoccupied names are not valid generic names, they will also go unitalicized on this list.
 Nomen dubium (Latin for "dubious name"): A name describing a fossil with no unique diagnostic features. As this can be an extremely subjective and controversial designation, this term is not used on this list.

Age
The age column denotes the epoch of geologic time to which the fossils date. Genera that are invalid, misidentified, or otherwise do not represent a valid pterosaur are listed as age N/A because there was never a time in which a pterosaur by that generic name actually lived.

Location and notes
The location column designates the geographic region where remains of the relevant genus have been found. The regions used are continents except in the case of smaller landmasses (e.g. Cuba.) Political bodies, being non-existent in the Mesozoic are not used to indicate genera locations. Genera that are invalid, misidentified, or otherwise do not represent a valid pterosaur are listed as location N/A because there was never a place in which a pterosaur by that generic name actually lived. The notes column is a collection of annotations on the scientific significance and taxonomic history of listed genera, as well as elaborations on the information presented in other columns.

The list

Genera

Ichnogenera

Oogenera
Although pterosaur eggs are known, some with complete embryos, no oogenera have been erected to house them. The holotype of the oospecies Oolithes sphaericus was briefly considered by Harry Govier Seeley to be pterosaurian in origin, although this attribution was dismissed before the formal erection of that oogenus.

See also

 List of dinosaurs
 List of plesiosaurs
 List of pterosaur classifications
 Pterosaur
 Timeline of pterosaur research

References

External links

 Pterosaur FAQs, by Raymond Thaddeus C. Ancog.
 The Pterosaur Database, by Paul Pursglove.

Pterosaurs
Pterosaurs

List of pterosaur genera


The Theatre Royal Stratford East is a 460 seat Victorian producing theatre in Stratford in the London Borough of Newham. Since 1953, it has been the home of the Theatre Workshop company, famously associated with director Joan Littlewood, whose statue is outside the theatre (see image at left).

History
The theatre was designed by architect James George Buckle, and commissioned by Charles Dillon, né Silver, adoptive son of the actor-manager Charles Dillon (died 1881) in 1884. It is the architect's only surviving work, built on the site of a wheelwright's shop on Salway Road, close to the junction with Angel Lane. It opened on 17 December 1884 with a revival of Richelieu by Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Two years later, Dillon sold it to Albert O'Leary Fredericks, his sister's brother-in-law and one of the original backers of the scheme.

In 1887 the theatre was renamed Theatre Royal and Palace of Varieties and side extensions were added in 1887. The stage was enlarged in 1891, by the original architect. In 1902, Frank Matcham undertook minor improvements to the entrance and foyer. The Theatre reverted to its Theatre Royal Stratford East ('TRSE') name in 1914. A fire on the stage on August Bank Holiday Monday of 1921 did considerable damage to the rear of the theatre. Thankfully the fire happened at midnight, with the safety curtain lowered, saving the auditorium which retains many of its original features to this day. The theatre was closed until January 1922.

The Fredericks family continued to manage the theatre until 1932, although after the World War I, the theatre fell into financial difficulties, opening only irregularly after 1926. The proscenium is surmounted by the letters "FF", commemorating the association with the Fredericks – possibly Frederick Fredericks, the husband of Dillon's sister, and a successful actor in his own right. Theatre superstition has it that should the letters ever be removed, the theatre will crumble.

TRSE closed in 1938 and remained closed until 1943. Revues were then briefly tried, but failed, and again the theatre was closed until October 1946. Taken over by David Horne, it briefly became a successful playhouse including the legendary premiere of Patrick Hamilton's Gaslight, with Sybil Thorndike and Derek Bond – which ran for six months and was the theatre's first transfer to the West End. The theatre closed again in December 1949.

 In late 1950, a touring company presented the Christmas pantomime, Alice in Wonderland. Highly experimental, its success was by no means guaranteed or uniform throughout the tour. "They'll lynch us", recalls Sven Stahl. "I still have nightmares about Alice in Wonderland at Barnsley and the miners throwing pennies at John Blanshard." The company were to return, as the Theatre Workshop in 1953, with artistic director Joan Littlewood and take over the theatre.

The theatre came under threat with the construction of the Stratford shopping centre in the 1970s, but was saved by a public campaign and protected in June 1972 by English Heritage with a Grade II* listing. Money remained short, and the manager, Gerry Raffles, only managed redecoration and replacements as cash became available. In 2001, following a successful Heritage Lottery Fund bid, all of the theatre's front of house and backstage areas were refurbished as part of the Olympiad's Stratford Cultural Quarter project.

In 1990, TRSE scored a massive hit with the premiere of Five Guys Named Moe, which immediately transferred to the West End and won the Olivier Award for Best Entertainment. The show has been produced all over the world, including Broadway, and continues to be revived regularly. In 2004, TRSE made history by having the first British Black musical, The Big Life, transfer to London's West End, where it played at the Apollo Theatre. In 2005, the theatre produced a musical version of the cult Jamaican film The Harder They Come – famous for its reggae soundtrack, which also transferred to the West End.  This production was written by the film director Perry Henzel and was one of the most successful productions in the theatre's history.

In 2018, Nadia Fall became artistic director.

Artistic directors

Joan Littlewood (1953–1974)

The Theatre Royal became famous under the management of Gerry Raffles (1928–1975), who worked with director Joan Littlewood on such productions as A Taste of Honey and Oh, What a Lovely War!. In 1975, her collaborator and partner, Gerry Raffles died of diabetes, and in 1979, a devastated Joan Littlewood moved to France, never to direct again. Notable names to get their break at TRSE include Richard Harris, Murray Melvin, Barbara Windsor, Victor Spinetti, Brian Murphy, Avis Bunnage, Harry H Corbett, Yootha Joyce, composer/lyricist Lionel Bart, and writer Shelagh Delaney.

Michael Caine was famously told by Littlewood: "P*ss off to Shaftesbury Avenue. You will only ever be a star. "

Ken Hill (1974–1975)
The playwright and director Ken Hill, a protégé of Joan Littlewood, took over as artistic director after she moved to France, prompted by the death of her partner, Gerry Raffles. After his short tenure as artistic director, Hill continued to work with TRSE until his death, most notably in raucous musicals. They included The Invisible Man which transferred from TRSE to the Vaudeville Theatre in the West End in 1993 and Zorro! The Musical which opened two weeks after Hill's death in 1995. Notable productions by Ken Hill at the TRSE include On Your Way, Riley! by Alan Plater, Scrape Off the Black by Tunde Ikoli, and My Girl by Barrie Keeffe.

Maxwell Shaw (1975–1977)
Maxwell Shaw, another member of the original Theatre Workshop, was a character actor on both stage and film, most notably in The Oblong Box and Start The Revolution Without Me. He opened his tenure at the TRSE with his own adaptation of a Georges Feydeau farce Out of Practice.

Clare Venables (1977–1979)
Clare Venables was artistic director from 1977 to 1979. She went on to run the Crucible Theatre Sheffield from 1981 to 1992, was a founding director of the Actors' Centre and a member of the Arts Council Drama panel. She was principal of the BRIT School of Performing Arts and Technology in Croydon from 1995 to 1999; and director of education of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1991 until her death in 2003. Notable Venables productions included Old King Cole, The Silver Tassie, The Funniest Man in the World, and Sisters.

Philip Hedley (1979–2004)
Philip Hedley, who had worked as an assistant to Joan Littlewood for some years, took over the artistic directorship of the Theatre Royal from Clare Venables in 1979. He provided traditional entertainment in style of old music hall variety shows on Sunday evenings while seeking to engage with new Asian and Black audiences, as the local demographic changed. The theatre continued Littlewood's agenda to portray and express the experience of local people in East London.

In 1999, he began the Musical Theatre Initiatives scheme to encourage new writing in musical theatre. The final show he produced at Stratford East, The Big Life, was the first black British musical to go to the West End. In 2004, after 25 years as artistic director, he retired.

Kerry Michael (2004–2017)
Kerry Michael joined Stratford East in 1997, as an associate director, becoming artistic director in September 2004. His manifesto is to bring London's new communities to the stage, and portray their experiences as second and third generation emigrants. His debut play as artistic director was The Battle of Green Lanes by Cosh Omar, set amongst London's Cypriot society. He directed the hit musicals The Harder They Come (at Theatre Royal Stratford East and then transferred to The Barbican and the West End's Playhouse Theatre) and also Come Dancing by Ray Davies and Paul Sirett.
 In 2007, Pied Piper won the Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in an Affiliate Theatre, as did Cora Bissett's play Roadkill. in 2011. The theatre was nominated again in 2014 with their production of Oh! What a Lovely War!, a revival of the Joan Littlewood classic. Michael also directed the annual pantomime and was again nominated for an Olivier Award for Cinderella.

In 2012 Stratford East, 'fast becoming one of the UK's most innovative and interactive theatres', launched its Open Stage Project, enabling people to participate with everything from programming ideas to working on productions. 2014 productions at TRSE included David Baddiel's musical The Infidel, co-directed by Kerry Michael and David Baddiel. The 2016 season included Hotel Cerise, an adaptation of Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard by Bonnie Greer.

In 2016 Kerry Michael expanded TRSE across the square to Gerry's, a new cafe and an 80-seater studio. Kerry Michael stepped down as artistic director in 2017.

Nadia Fall (2017–present)
A director and playwright, Fall has worked extensively at the Royal National Theatre, directing shows including Chewing Gum Dreams, Our Country's Good and Home – which she also wrote.

Fall has also worked with London's Hampstead Theatre and Bush Theatre, where she directed Taylor Mac's Hir.

Fall's first season (Sep 2018 – Jul 2019) opened with an adaptation of Lope de Vega's Fuenteovejuna by April De Angelis called The Village featuring Anya Chalotra and Art Malik. The season also included the UK premiere of The Wolves by Sarah DeLappe, Ballet Black, pantomime Sleeping Beauty, Frantic Assembly's The Unreturning by Anna Jordan, a revival of Peter Shaffer's Equus directed by Ned Bennett and co-produced with English Touring Theatre. The critically acclaimed production transferred to the West End in summer 2019 playing at Trafalgar Studios. Other shows included Pilot Theatre's touring show Noughts & Crosses (novel series), an adaptation of Malorie Blackman's novel by Sabrina Mahfouz, August Wilson's play King Hedley II, directed by Fall and starring Lenny Henry, Cherrelle Skeete, Leo Wringer, Martina Laird, Dexter Flanders and Aaron Pierre as Hedley. The season ended with a co-production with English National Opera for Benjamin Britten's community opera Noye's Fludde directed by Lyndsey Turner and featured different community groups and schools across Newham and East London.

Equus won three Off-West End Awards in 2020, including Best Production, Best Director (Ned Bennett) and Best Lighting Design (Jessica Hung Han Yun).

Fall's second season (Sep 2019 – Jul 2020) opened with Katori Hall's Our Lady of Kibeho and included the return of Ballet Black, pantomime Dick Whittington, Eclipse Theatre's new play The Gift by Janice Okoh and Frantic Assembly's 25th anniversary play I Think We Are Alone by Sally Abbott and co-directed by Kathy Burke and Scott Graham. The rest of the season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This included a new verbatim play by Nadia Fall Welcome To Iran in co-production with the National Theatre, an adaptation of Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist by Bryony Lavery for Ramps on the Moon and a revival of Roy Williams' seminal play Sucker Punch, directed by Roy Alexander Weise.

The productions Noye's Fludde and Our Lady of Kibeho were nominated for Olivier Awards, winning Outstanding Achievement in Opera for The Children's Ensemble in Noye's Fludde.

Controversies
The theatre scheduled a Black out performance which has received criticism from certain right wing media and press. The introduction of the performance was described by the Tory Bedfordshire Police and Crime Commissioner (PCC) Festus Akinbusoye, as a 'poor and dangerous precedent' The theatre defended the performance approach robustly.

Nadia Fall, the theatre's artistic director, defended the performance: "I understand that this initiative isn't going to chime with everyone, and that's OK; that's why there are 28 performances that aren't a Black Out night. No one is excluded from attending and during the course of the show's run we want audiences from all backgrounds to enjoy and discuss this thought-provoking new play."

References

Sources
 Guide to British Theatres 1750–1950, John Earl and Michael Sell pp. 142 (Theatres Trust, 2000)

Bibliography
 Coren, Michael – Theatre Royal: 100 Years of Stratford East – Quartet, 1984

External links
Official website

Theatres in the London Borough of Newham
Grade II* listed buildings in the London Borough of Newham
Grade II* listed theatres
1884 establishments in England
Stratford, London

Theatre Royal Stratford East


The Billion Dollar Boy is a 1997 science fiction novel by Charles Sheffield. The story takes place centuries in the future where asteroid mining is a major industry. Earth's population is 14 billion, most live in poverty. The protagonist is Shelby Cheever, a spoiled, exceedingly rich teenager, who lords his wealth over everyone around him, while taking pride in being completely unproductive. In a drunken vacation mishap, Shelby accidentally ends up in a remote mining colony with no easy return, due to entering a FTL translation node without setting the coordinates. There he is forced to work hard to survive, and interact with his new shipmates as equals. Through both routine labor, and many misadventures, Shelby endures much positive character building.

This book is a future retelling of Rudyard Kipling's 1897 novel Captains Courageous. Same plot: spoiled rich kid gets high [drunk] and falls off an ocean liner [spaceship] into the ocean [a wormhole node]. He is picked up by a fishing boat [space mining ship] and forced to work for/with them for several months until the hold is full. There is even the mysterious Pennsylvania Pratt [Scrimshander Limes] who has forgotten his identity after a personal tragedy and remembers it temporarily while saving shipwreck [sabotage] victims.

The book is a relatively light adventure tale, by Sheffield standards, and serves mainly as a platform for the author's views on child rearing, while giving some hard science fiction theories about far future technology and economics.

1997 science fiction novels
Novels by Charles Sheffield
1997 American novels
Jupiter novels
Fiction about asteroid mining
Overpopulation fiction
Dystopian novels
Faster-than-light travel in fiction
Fiction about wormholes
Tor Books books
Adaptations of works by Rudyard Kipling

The Billion Dollar Boy


A food coloring is any substance that is added to food or drink to change its color. Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in cooking at home.

Purpose of food coloring
People associate certain colors with certain flavors. The color of the food can therefore influence its perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine.
For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. One of the reasons this is done is to simulate the colour the customer expects as natural. An example would be to add red coloring to glacé cherries. Without coloring, the cherries would be beige. Food coloring can also be done for effect, such as a green ketchup instead of an expected red.
Most people are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors, such as the green ketchup mentioned, contains food coloring. Far fewer people know that "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon may also be dyed to hide natural variations in color. The color of foods varies through the seasons. Processing food and storing it may change its color. For these reasons, it may give a commercial advantage to add colors to food, so that it has the color expected or preferred by the customers. Some of the main reasons are:
Compensate for  color lost due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage conditions.
Hide natural variations in color
Make the naturally occurring colors stronger
Give identity to food, so it can be associated with the color
Protect flavors and vitamins from damage by light.
Decorative or artistic purposes such as cake icing

Regulation
Food colorings need to be tested before they can be used. These tests are done to make sure the coloring is not poisonous, and has no unwanted side-effects. Sometimes, different testing-bodies have different opinions on the safety of a certain coloring. In the United States, FD&C (generally indicates that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in Foods, Drugs and Cosmetics) numbers are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature. In the European Union, E numbers are used for all additives, both synthetic and natural, that are approved in food applications.

Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various applications, including maximum daily intake limits.

Natural colors are not required to be tested by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world, including the United States FDA. The FDA lists "color additives exempt from certification" for food.

Natural food dyes
A growing number of natural food dyes are being commercially produced, partly due to consumer concerns surrounding synthetic dyes.  Some examples include:

 Caramel coloring, made from caramelized sugar, used in cola products and also in cosmetics.
 Annatto, a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the Achiote.
 A green dye made from chlorella algae.
 Cochineal, a red dye derived from the cochineal insect, Dactylopius coccus.
 Beet juice
 turmeric
 saffron
 paprika

To make it easy to get the exact color, these color components are often available in very pure form. They can also be used with suitable carrier materials.

Dyes and lakes
In the United States, certifiable color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or "lakes".

Dyes dissolve in water, but are not soluble in oil.  Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules, liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in drinks, dry mixes, baked goods, confections, dairy products, pet foods and many other products. Dyes also have side effects which lakes do not, including the fact that large amounts of dyes ingested can color stools.

Lakes are the combination of dyes and insoluble material.  Lakes tint by dispersion.  Lakes are not oil soluble, but are oil dispersible.  Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes.  Typical uses include coated tablets, cake and donut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums, lipsticks, soaps, shampoos, talc etc.

Other uses
Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artistic dyes and pigments, some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures, especially in forms such as body-painting.
Food colorings can be used to dye fabric, but are usually not wash-fast when used on cotton, hemp and other plant fibres. Some food dyes can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibers.

Criticism and health implications
In the past, research has not shown any link between  Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and food dyes. Newer studies show that synthetic preservatives and artificial coloring agents can make the symptoms of ADD and ADHD worse. The older studies were inclonclusive on this point, perhaps because the  clinical methods of measuring this behavior were inappropriate. Parents' reports of food additives proved to be better indicators whether additives were present than clinical tests. Several major studies show academic performance increased and disciplinary problems decreased in large non-ADD student populations when artificial ingredients and artificial coloring were eliminated from school food programs.
 Norway banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. New legislation lifted this ban in 2001 after EU regulations.  As such, many FD&C approved colorings have been banned.
 Tartrazine causes hives in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it
 Erythrosine is linked to thyroid tumors in rats.

References

Other websites
 FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts
 Natural Food Colors (Food-Info)

Food ingredients
Color

Food coloring