Christianity is the largest world religion by number of followers (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, the second person of the Trinity. It is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God. It has its roots in Judaism. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus.

To most of the people of his time, Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to Earth to die on a cross for their sins.

The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time. His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible. Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred. The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.

God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.

The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.

Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion. Christianity started out as a Jewish sect in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. Armenia was the First Nation in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion, under the rule of King Tiridates III of the Arsacid dynasty in the early 4th century. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India. Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.

Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.

Jesus Christ

The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word  (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Jesus is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.

Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.

There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead," he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father" and will return again to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.

The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.

Death and resurrection of Jesus
Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.
Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology. From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards. Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that after rising from the dead Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples.  Once He appeared before "more than five hundred brethren at once". This was before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remembered by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week.

Salvation of Christ

Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and the eternal death of hell. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.

Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved, it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church. Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.

Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace. Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart. Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.

Scriptures

Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God. The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.

Creeds

Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.

Some main Christian creeds are:

 The Apostles' Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum)
 The Nicene Creed

Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above. A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.

Trinitarianism
The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, which are three persons of the one True God. This idea, called Trinity, was developed at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and formalized during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.

Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."
Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.

An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.

The afterlife and end times

Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.

There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.

Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God. There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever. Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.

Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
 to learn the best way to live and to follow his example
 to pay the price of sin in our lives by being the perfect sacrifice, without sin. (John 3:16)
 to tell people that their mistakes and sins will be forgiven and will be saved if they believe and have faith in the Lord Jesus and confess that they have sinned (1 John 1:9) (John 3:16) (Ephesians 1:7) (Romans 10:9).
 to teach people to forgive each other and repent of their own sin through grace. (Matthew 6:14)
 to "destroy the devil's work" (1 John 3 v 8)
 to help people share in his life through the gift of God's Spirit.

Worship
Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.

The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did

The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.

The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.

Sacraments
In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass."  The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.

Liturgical calendar

Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.

Symbols

These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
 Alpha and Omega - The Greek letters Alpha and Omega are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. Alpha and Omega is a reference to God, who calls himself the "Alpha and Omega" (the first and the last letter of the Greek alphabet) in the Book of Revelation.
 Chi - The Greek letter Chi is the first letter of 'Christ' ( "Christos").
 Chi Rho - The Greek letters Chi and Rho are the first two letters of 'Christ' in Greek: Christos. Usually, the long stem of Rho (ρ) runs up and down through the cross of the Chi (χ).
 Christian cross - The cross is the most common symbol of Christianity. Christians believe that their savior Jesus Christ was crucified by the Romans. The cross is important because Jesus died as a sacrifice for the sins of believers. It represents God's love for humanity.
 Crucifix - The crucifix is a cross with the body of Jesus still hanging on it. It is a more popular symbol with Catholics and Eastern Orthodox. It has the same meaning as the cross.
 Dove - The dove is a bird and a symbol of the Holy Spirit. When Jesus was baptized, the Holy Spirit came to him in the form of a dove and rested on him.

 Ichthys - In Greek, the word ichthys /iktheews/ means 'fish', and forms an acronym, "Ίησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ", meaning "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour" in Greek.
 Lamb - A lamb may be a symbol of Jesus himself, portrayed as the sacrifice for humans.
 Shepherd - A shepherd is also a symbol of Jesus himself and is used in the earliest Christian art. In the Bible, Jesus calls himself the good shepherd who cares for his sheep.
 INRI - INRI is an acronym in Latin "Iēsus Nazarēnus, Rēx Iūdaeōrum" meaning "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews." This is the message that was put on the cross as being the crime for which he was being punished. Christians now use it as a symbol that Jesus is the Messiah, or King of all kings.
 Interlocking rings - Three interlocking rings are a symbol of the Trinity. Each ring is a complete circle, representing each complete person of the Trinity. But each ring is locked with the other two rings, showing that each divine person cannot be separated from the Trinity.

History

Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.

The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.

Types of Christianity

People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history, the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.

Disagreements
Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called "doctrine") or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.

The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.

In the 15th century, the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.

 Groups have different ideas on the nature of God.
 Groups have different ideas on the nature and work of the Holy Spirit in a believer's life.
 The pope is the leader of all Catholics. Other churches have leaders similar to the pope. For example, in the Eastern Orthodox Church, these are called Patriarchs. Still other groups let each church decide about things.
 Some Christians say that women may not become priests or pastors.
 Some Christians say married people may not become priests.
 Some Christians say that priests can forgive sins by giving out the forgiveness of God, others say that only God can do this.
 In modern times, the rise of atheism and scientific challenges to the traditional Christian story of creation have caused some to believe in "Young Earth Creationism", or a literal interpretation of the first chapters of the Bible, and others to argue that those parts of the Bible are not literally true, but more like poetry.
 Most Christians worship on Sunday,  but some believe that Saturday is the true "Sabbath" and should be kept.
 Some Christians believe that baptism must mean going fully under water, others put some water on the head.
 Some Christian groups baptize babies, while Baptists only baptize persons who have chosen for themselves to follow Jesus .

Demographics
With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around 2.2 billion, split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion. The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America. It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa. However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain, Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, South Korea, Taiwan and Macau).

In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades. Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches, while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.

Ecumenism
Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways. One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.

The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada, and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches. And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.

Related pages

 Christian
 Catholicism
 Freedom of religion
 Judaism
 Islam

References and notes

Other websites

 The Christian Bible in Basic English
 Christianity portal at Beliefnet
 The Dictionary of Biblical Theology is a Valuable Source The Dictionary of Biblical
 Religious Tolerance- Christianity

Christianity


The Myriapoda is a subphylum of arthropods. It contains the millipedes, centipedes, and others. The group has 13,000 species, all of which are terrestrial. Their name suggests they have many legs. In fact one has over 750 legs (Illacme plenipes), but some have fewer than ten legs.

The fossil record of myriapods goes back into the late Silurian, though molecular evidence suggests they diversified in the Cambrian period. Cambrian fossils do exist which look like myriapods.

Structure
Myriapods have a single pair of antennae and, in most cases, simple eyes. The mouthparts lie on the underside of the head,
. There is an "epistome" and labrum forming the upper lip, and a pair of maxillae forming the lower lip. A pair of mandibles lie inside the mouth. Myriapods breathe through spiracles that connect to a tracheal system similar to that of insects.

Classification
There has been much debate as to which arthropod group is most closely related to the Myriapoda. Under the Mandibulata hypothesis, Myriapoda is the sister taxon to Pancrustacea, a group comprising the Crustacea and Hexapoda. Under the Atelocerata hypothesis, Hexapoda is the closest, whereas under the Paradoxopoda hypothesis, Chelicerata is the closest. This last hypothesis, although supported by few morphological characters, is supported by a number of molecular studies.

There are four classes of living myriapods, Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda (millipedes), Pauropoda and Symphyla. There is a total of around 12,000 living species. While each of these groups of myriapods is believed to be monophyletic, relationships among them are less certain.

Centipedes

Centipedes make up the class Chilopoda. They are fast, predatory and venomous, hunting mostly at night. There are around 3,300 species, ranging from the diminutive Nannarup hoffmani (less than half an inch in length,  mm) to the giant Scolopendra gigantea, which may exceed .

Millipedes

Millipedes are the class Diplopoda, where most segments appear to have two pairs of legs. This happened because each pair of body segments fused (joined) into a single unit, which gives them the appearance of having two pairs of legs per segment.

They are slower than centipedes, and feed on leaf litter and detritus. Around 8,000 species have been described, which may represent less than a tenth of the true global millipede diversity. One species, Illacme plenipes has the greatest number of legs of any animal, with 750. Millipedes typically have between 36 and 400 legs. Pill millipedes are much shorter, and are capable of rolling up into a ball, like pillbugs.

Symphyla

About 200 species of symphylans are known worldwide. They resemble centipedes but are smaller and translucent. Many spend their lives as soil infauna, but some live arboreally. Juveniles have six pairs of legs, but, over a lifetime of several years, add an additional pair at each moult so that the adult instar has twelve pairs of legs.

Pauropoda

Pauropoda is another small group of small myriapods. They are typically 0.5–2.0 mm long and live in the soil on all continents except Antarctica. Over 700 species have been described. They are believed to be the sister group to millipedes, and have the dorsal tergites fused across pairs of segments, similar to the more complete fusion of segments seen in millipedes.

References

Myriapoda


The Delmarva Peninsula is a large peninsula on the East Coast of the United States, made up by parts of three U.S. states: Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Named as a portmanteau of the letters of the states that occupy it, it is almost 300 by 100 km or about 180 by 60 miles, and is bordered by the Chesapeake Bay on the west, and the Delaware River, Delaware Bay, and Atlantic Ocean on the east.

Delmarva Peninsula is home to beaches like Ocean City, Maryland and Bethany Beach, Delaware

Peninsulas of the United States
Geography of Delaware
Geography of Maryland
Geography of Virginia

Delmarva Peninsula


An ideology is a collection of ideas or beliefs shared by a group of people. It may be a connected set of  ideas, or a style of thought, or a world-view. It was coined by a French philosopher, Destutt de Tracy in 1801/5.

There are two main types of ideologies: political ideologies, and epistemological ideologies. Political ideologies are sets of ethical ideas about how a country should be run. Epistemological ideologies are sets of ideas about the philosophy, the Universe, and how people should make decisions.

There are many different types of ideologies. Communism, socialism, and capitalism are  political/economical ideologies.

Many political parties base their political action and program on an ideology. In social studies, a political ideology is a certain ethical set of values, principles, doctrines, myths, or symbols of a social movement, institution, or class which explains how society should work. It offers a political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used. Some parties follow a certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them.

Political ideologies have two dimensions:
 Goals: how society should work (or be arranged).
 Methods: the most appropriate ways to achieve the ideal arrangement.

An ideology is a collection of ideas. Typically, each ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers to be the best form of government (e.g. democracy, theocracy, etc.), and the best economic system (e.g. capitalism, socialism, etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, "socialism" may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology which supports that economic system.

Ideologies also identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (such as the left, the center or the right), though this is very often controversial. Finally, ideologies can be distinguished from political strategies (e.g. populism) and from single issues that a party may be built around (e.g. legalization of marijuana).

Today, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age, in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This is often associated with Francis Fukuyama's writings on "the end of history".

References

Philosophy
Sociology
Political ideologies

Ideology


The British Rail Class 03 locomotive is, together with Class 04, one of BR's most successful smaller 0-6-0 diesel-mechanical shunters.  There are 230 members of the class and it was built by British Railways' Swindon and Doncaster works in 1957-1962. They are numbered D2000-D2199 and D2370-D2399 (later 03004 to 03399). D2370 and D2371 were used as departmental locomotives and originally numbered 91 and 92 respectively.

03

British Rail Class 03


Stephan Kekulé von Stradonitz (1 May 1863, in Ghent – 5 May 1933, in Berlin), was a German lawyer, heraldist and genealogist who popularized a genealogical numbering system of ancestors.

Stephan was the son of the prominent chemist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, descended from a Czech noble family from Bohemia, and his Belgian wife Stéphanie Drory.

In 1898, Kekulé von Stradonitz published his interpretation of Eytzinger's and Sosa's method in his Ahnentafel-Atlas. Ahnentafeln zu 32 Ahnen der Regenten Europas und ihrer Gemahlinnen, Berlin: J. A. Stargardt, 1898–1904, containing 79 charts of the sovereigns of Europe and their wives. This method became the most common method of numbering ancestors and is known as the Sosa–Stradonitz Method or Ahnentafel.

External links
 The Sosa–Stradonitz System or Ahnentafel Numbering System

1863 births
1933 deaths
German genealogists
German untitled nobility
German male non-fiction writers
Immigrants to the German Empire

Stephan Kekulé von Stradonitz


Kelly Taylor is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Brooke Kinsella. The character was introduced by executive producer John Yorke, in 2001. She was only due to appear in eight episodes as part of a prostitution/homelessness storyline featuring Michelle Ryan's established character, Zoe Slater, who had run away from home in late 2001 and was living at the same brothel as Kelly. However, the viewer response to Kelly was positive, so she was reintroduced as a regular at the end of 2002. The character remained in the serial until 2004, when executive producer Louise Berridge decided that her storylines had come to a natural end.

In March 2008 Kinsella said in an interview with Woman magazine that she would love to return to EastEnders at some point but the ball is in the court of the producers.

Storylines
Kelly first appears on screen in December 2001. She is a young prostitute who is being pimped by the malicious Roxy Drake (Tracy Brabin). She had been thrown out by her family when she was a young girl and Roxy had taken her in off the streets. Kelly felt that she owed her and she had soon been persuaded to act as an underage prostitute for Roxy's clientele. Zoe Slater (Michelle Ryan), another runaway, has also been taken under Roxy's wing and she gives her a place to stay. Here, she meets and befriends Kelly, and on Roxy's instruction, Kelly sets about trying to convince Zoe to prostitute herself too. Zoe refuses to oblige, after which a furious Roxy starts demanding money from her in exchange for her hospitality. On Christmas Day that year, Kelly helps Zoe escape Roxy's evil clutches and Zoe returns to Albert Square, leaving Kelly to face up to a fuming Roxy.

Kelly is next seen in December 2002 when Zoe runs away from home for a second time, following her father's heart attack. She and Zoe decide to leave the United Kingdom and go to stay in Tenerife with one of Kelly's rich punters. Zoe returns to Walford and brings Kelly back with her. She takes up lodging with the rest of the Slaters and is soon welcomed in as part of the family. Now that she has given up prostitution, Kelly has no money, so Zoe decides that she should become a partner in her clothing stall, and the two run it together in Bridge Street market.

On New Year's Eve, Kelly sets her sights on the inexperienced Spencer Moon (Christopher Parker) and the two share a kiss. This leads Spencer to imagine that something more serious will happen between them, and he adorns Kelly with gifts and flowers in the hope that she will agree to date him. However, it is just a bit of fun for Kelly and she rebuffs all his further advances.

In order to buy into the stall, Kelly had stolen money from her ex-punter, Simon, and in January 2003 he shows up demanding that she pay him back. When she cannot repay him, he threatens her with the police, so Kelly cons Spencer into giving her money and also steals money from the stall to raise the funds. Zoe soon discovers that the money is missing, so Kelly blames Spencer and then flees. When the truth finally emerges, Zoe manages to talk Kelly out of leaving Walford and she quickly forgives her. Spencer decides to give up on Kelly after this, but on the night of his 18th birthday in April, Kelly decides to give him a night to remember by taking his virginity. Spencer is ecstatic, but his brother, Alfie (Shane Richie), manages to upset things by offering Kelly money to take Spencer out for a second date. Kelly wrongly assumes that Alfie knows about her past as a prostitute and furiously accuses Spencer of trying to buy her body, which puts a halt on their potential relationship.

Later in the year, Kelly and Zoe decide to move out of the Slaters' and share a flat on their own. At their flat warming party, Kelly gets friendly with new Walford arrival Ronny Ferreira (Ray Panthaki). This upsets Zoe because unbeknownst to Kelly, she has a crush on him and she proceeds to get drunk in The Queen Victoria public house one night and begins bad-mouthing Kelly to her mother Kat (Jessie Wallace), maliciously bringing up her past as a prostitute for all to hear. Ronny's best friend, Tariq Larousi (Nabil Elouahabi), overhears their conversation and he forces Zoe to inform Ronny about Kelly's past. Ronny is disgusted, and cruelly dumps Kelly, which leaves her devastated. Kelly is furious when she discovers that it was Zoe who had told him, and accuses her of doing it to get her hands on Ronny. After much arguing, Zoe eventually promises not to make a play for Ronny, as their friendship is more important. However, with Ronny now showing a keen interest in Zoe, she finds it difficult to shun his attention. A few weeks later at Martin Fowler (James Alexandrou)'s birthday party, Kelly decides to make a move on Martin to make Ronny jealous. Ronny isn't interested and only has eyes for Zoe. Kelly ends the night in bed with Martin, feeling hurt and rejected. Despite her past promise, Zoe starts to date Ronny, which causes major rows between the girls.

Later in the year, Kelly witnessed Ronny kissing another woman, but Zoe refused to believe her best friend, accused her of being jealous and threw her out of their flat. That night, a hurt Kelly decided to forget her woes and went clubbing in Angie's Den, only to collapse later after taking some dodgy ecstasy (which was provided by Tariq). Kelly's brush with death made Zoe realise how much she valued their friendship and she immediately dumped Ronny. Kelly was forced to remain quiet about Tariq providing her the drug, after he threatened to tell everyone about her sordid past unless she kept her mouth shut.

On New Year's Eve 2003, Kelly and Zoe go to Scotland for an all-night rave along with the other youths in Walford. Whilst on the way to their destination, disaster strikes when the mini bus they are driving crashes in the middle of the Scottish moors, leaving them stranded and injured. Zoe is hurt the most, and whilst the others all go in search of help, Kelly stays by the wreck with her injured friend to care for her. The weather is bitterly cold and the two huddle together to keep warm. A concerned Kelly relays to Zoe how happy she is to have her as a friend and how meeting her has changed her life. As the night wears on, Zoe begins to lose consciousness, and Kelly becomes frantic, fearing that Zoe is dying. Kelly becomes tearful and overemotional, as does Zoe, and in the heat of the moment, they kiss. The following day the stranded teenagers are rescued, but Zoe is reluctant to discuss the kiss with Kelly. Zoe spends a few days in hospital and upon her release, she becomes distant from Kelly, refusing to spend any time alone with her. Eventually, Kelly manages to get Zoe to talk and they both decide they aren't lesbians and that the kiss only happened because they believed they were going to die. Soon after, Zoe moves out of their flat as she can no longer afford the rent. Gus Smith (Mohammed George) comes to live there in her place, but the girls remain close friends and working partners.

In May 2004, Vicki Fowler (Scarlett Johnson) decides to play match-maker and attempts to set Kelly and Spencer up on several dates. Each attempt fails miserably so she decides to lock them both in the office at Angie's Den, taking both their phones so they have to spend the night in there together. They initially start to argue. Kelly tells Spencer she only had sex with him a year earlier out of pity and Spencer insults Kelly about her sordid past. However, as the night wears on, the two began talking, and when Vicki finally comes to let them out, she is overjoyed to find them kissing.

The couple remain happy for a while and it seems that Spencer and Kelly are smitten with each other. During the summer,  Kelly, Spencer and Kareena Ferreira (Pooja Shah) decide they want to become holiday reps in Ibiza. Kelly finds an article in a magazine promoting 'Red Hot Holiday' and the trio get ready for their interviews. Kelly and Kareena pass with flying colours, but Spencer doesn't so he is forced to stay behind while Kelly goes away. On the day of her departure, Kelly tells Spencer she loves him, which he reciprocates, and after a tearful farewell, Kelly promises she'll be back after the summer.

Spencer waits for Kelly to return, but by the end of the summer, Kareena returns and there is no sign of Kelly. Eventually, Kareena tells Spencer that she'd met another man and is not coming back. Kelly's last appearance is in June 2004. When Zoe leaves Walford in 2005, she goes to Spain to join Kelly.

Character creation
The character Kelly Taylor was introduced in December 2001 by the executive producer of EastEnders, John Yorke. Kelly was introduced on a short-term basis as part of a storyline that saw the regular character, Zoe Slater (Michelle Ryan), living rough on the streets of London and being taken in by a madam of a prostitution organisation, Roxy Drake (Tracy Brabin). Kelly was one of the young girls already working as a prostitute for Roxy.

Actress Brooke Kinsella was cast in the role. In the past, Kinsella had auditioned for the parts of Janine Butcher, Zoe Slater and Sonia Fowler, but had been unsuccessful. Kinsella has commented, "I went up for the part of every girl in the Square. I was closest to getting the part of Zoe. I did workshops with all the Slater girls but you have to say they are all dark and look very alike while I'm blonde. Obviously that wasn't the right one for me. It was hard at the time but I'm very glad because I love playing Kelly. She's totally different from any other character and she's good fun to play."

The character was only brought in to appear in eight episodes, however the producers were impressed with Kinsella's performance and there was a positive reception from viewers, so she was asked to return to the role the following year. In the storyline, Kelly ran away from Roxy and she and Zoe went on an extended holiday to the Canary Islands. Kinsella has said that establishing Kelly as a regular character was a gradual process: "Kelly wasn't automatically made a regular and I kept thinking, 'It will be just a few more episodes'. It's a horrible feeling, not knowing if you have a job or not." By the end of 2002, Kelly and Zoe had returned to the serial, and Kelly's first big storyline was a brief romance with the character Spencer Moon (Christopher Parker). Kinsella has said, "That was the first on-screen kiss for both of us and that was the first time I thought there might be places for Kelly to go because it didn't involve Zoe. Kelly was interacting with other characters on [Albert Square]. It came bit by bit. She moved in with the Slaters, helped Zoe set up the stall and that's all slowly securing her on the Square."

Character development and reception
The friendship between Kelly and Zoe was a recurring storyline for both characters. In the British press, Kelly and Zoe were compared to two former popular characters, who also shared a close screen friendship, Bianca Butcher (Patsy Palmer) and Tiffany Mitchell (Martine McCutcheon). Kinsella has commented, "It is nice to be compared because they were great [characters] but, hopefully, [Michelle Ryan] and I will bring our own characters to light and show what we can do. We have so much in common and we balance each other out - when she's crazy I'll calm her down and vice-versa. It's worked well, which is why Kelly has been kept on, which is great for me but also for Michelle because she's got somebody to have fun with. Kelly's been one of the slowest developing characters and that's been good for me. I wasn't thrown into it and having Michelle has been great for me."

On-screen, the characters moved into a flat together, worked together, and fought over the same boys. In December 2003, EastEnders made headlines in the UK press, after they screened a lesbian kiss between Kelly and Zoe. The storyline was featured in a special New Year's Eve episode that was filmed on-location in Scotland. In the storyline, a group of teenagers had travelled from London to Scotland for New Year's Eve; however, the minibus they were driving crashed, leaving them stranded and injured on the freezing cold Scottish moors. While stranded, Kelly cared for an injured Zoe, they became overemotional, and kissed. Kinsella has explained the reasons behind the kiss: "They're stuck in the hills, thinking they're going to die - it's a way of saying goodbye and also of showing how much they love each other as friends. Which is quite sweet really." She claims that the lesbian kiss was made easier, due to the fact that she was kissing her off-screen best friend: "That made it so much easier. We thought we were just going to be laughing and giggling the whole way through, but we were very professional. It was so cold that we just wanted to get it over with. We were shaking from cold - not from nerves - and it was raining, so we just thought, 'Let's do it and get it done with'. I was really scared but it was fine. Now it just seems like a dream, I can't really remember it. We laugh about it now. When it came down to it, the truth was that it was just like any other screen kiss. The episode featuring the lesbian kiss attracted  9.5 million viewers, and the precise moment that they kissed was watched by 44% of the available viewing audience.

The kiss between the characters received criticism. The lesbian news site AfterEllen.com branded it a "gratuitous ratings-stunt…The writers bottled out and the two young women dismissed it as a one-off, assuring each other that neither of them was "like that," leaving lesbian and bisexual viewers feeling cheated. This was a wasted opportunity, a chance to explore an emotionally complex situation between best friends that became just another exploitive TV moment instead." In an interview about homosexual television characters in The Guardian, scriptwriter Daran Little criticised UK lesbians in British soap: "Most lesbian characters are so lipstick. They start off straight and, lo and behold, they just can't resist it. You can see the straight fantasy at work behind the character". Journalist Paul Flynn stated that Zoe was an example of this, describing her as a "tabloid-friendly 18-year-old - who…brushed with lesbianism for all of five minutes."

Kinsella has defended the kiss. In an interview she commented, "It's not a gratuitous ratings getting move, it's not some kind of big lesbian kiss. It's the way two best friends who have a lot of love for each other show their emotions."

The character of Kelly was involved in numerous other storylines, which included prostitution, a drugs overdose, and various flings with characters such as Martin Fowler (James Alexandrou) and Ronny Ferreira (Ray Panthaki) - a relationship that ended when her past as a prostitute caught up with her. Later on, in 2004, the character began a romance with Spencer Moon (Christopher Parker). The two characters began their interaction at the end of 2002, with Spencer becoming infatuated with Kelly, while she teased and led him on. According to actress Brooke Kinsella, this was not well received by a proportion of viewers. In an interview in 2003 she commented, "It's been a really challenging time on the show. When Kelly first came along there was a really mixed reception to her from the public. A lot of girls didn't like her because she was flirting with Spencer and was also giving him the run-around. The girls can't stand the fact she's played around with him - all these 13-year-olds don't like their beloved Spencer being treated badly! It got quite bad - I just couldn't believe it. I didn't feel frightened but I was aware about just how much impact this show has on people. It's incredible how many viewers think the show is real." Later Kelly took Spencer's virginity as a birthday gift, but they did not become a legitimate couple until 2004.

In March 2004 it was announced that the character would be leaving the serial. A BBC spokesman said Brooke had "brought considerable talent and youthful energy to the show". Fans were assured that the character would not be killed off, and that "the door will be open for the character to re-join the show in the future". The character was axed by the executive producer of EastEnders Louise Berridge to allow further character development of her on-screen best friend, Zoe Slater. Berridge said: "[Kelly's] been a great addition to the show but her storyline had come to a natural ending." However, Kinsella has insisted that she was not axed, and her character's departure was a mutual decision between herself and Berridge, who both decided that Kelly had run out of storylines. In an interview she commented, "I honestly think my character, Kelly Taylor, came to a bit of a standstill. All she seemed to do was work on the market stall and give Zoe (Slater) advice and that got quite tedious. So it was the right time for her to leave … While there was a lot that hadn't been discovered about her, after the whole Kelly and Zoe kiss it didn't seem that there was anywhere to go. We did sit and discuss storylines but it didn't work out in the end … She's leaving to be a holiday rep. I'm very grateful Kelly doesn't get killed off and I'm sure if they can find the right storyline she'll return … The ending is very sweet and quite hopeful."

On-screen Kelly and her boyfriend Spencer applied to become holiday reps in Ibiza, however when Spencer's application was unsuccessful, Kelly left without him. The character made her final appearance in June 2004.

References

External links

EastEnders characters
Fictional prostitutes
Television characters introduced in 2001
British female characters in television

Kelly Taylor (EastEnders)


MV Jessica was an oil tanker that was involved in an oil spill in the Galápagos Islands, a chain of islands  west of continental Ecuador, of which they are a part. The ship was registered in Ecuador and owned by Acotramar. On the evening of 16 January 2001, Jessica ran aground at Wreck Bay, at the entrance to the port of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, the capital of the Galápagos Province, located on the southwestern coast of San Cristóbal Island. The ship was carrying 600 tons (160,000 gallons) of diesel oil and 300 tons (80,000 gallons) of intermediate fuel oil. The diesel was destined for the fuel dispatch station on Baltra Island, while the fuel oil was destined for the tourist vessel Galapagos Explorer.

On 20 January, the fuel oil began to spill from Jessica. Recovery attempts began immediately, with the Ecuadorian Navy, the GNP, and local fishermen and volunteers containing and recovering the oil from the ocean surface. Oiled animals were attended to. On San Cristóbal, seven Galápagos sea lions and 17 birds (brown pelicans and blue-footed boobies) were affected by the fuel oil spill. On Santa Fe Island, a number of sea lions were affected and the marine iguana population was greatly reduced.

Due to lack of equipment and conditions at sea, the containment measures failed, and slicks drifted with the wind. A small beach on the southern side of Santa Cruz Island, as well as Tortuga Bay, were affected. The United States Coast Guard assisted in recovering the fuel oil remaining aboard the ship. A total of  of diesel and fuel oil spilled into the sea; this was one of the worst environmental disasters in the archipelago's history.

References

NOAA Provides Oil Expertise in Galapagos Islands Spill
Accident of the Oil Tanker "JESSICA" off the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador) – Final Report to European Commission DG Environment ENV.C.3. – Civil Protection

Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Maritime incidents in 2001
Oil tankers

MV Jessica


Wojciech Jastrzębowski (; 19 April 1799 – 30 December 1882) was a Polish scientist, naturalist and inventor, professor of botany, physics, zoology and horticulture at Instytut Rolniczo-Leśny in Marymont in Warsaw, and insurgent of the November Uprising. He was one of the fathers of ergonomics.

Biography
Jastrzębowski was born in Szczepkowo-Giewarty, Janowo parish, near Mława, on 19 April 1799. He was a member of a Polish noble family that originated from the village of Janowiec-Jastrząbki in the Janowiec Kościelny on Pobożany parish, under the coat of arms of Pobóg. His father, Maciej Jastrzębowski, married Marianna Leśnikowska, heiress of part of Szczepkowo-Giewarty. Soon after the wedding he moved to his wife's estate.

Jastrzębowski passed his maturity examination at the Warsaw Lyceum. He participated in the November Uprising. He was the creator of the sundial at Warsaw Lyceum as well as the creator of "Jastrzębowski Compass" – a device that allows sundials to be set in any place under any circumstances.

He was a pioneer of ergonomics.

Jastrzębowski became a member of the Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning, as well as a member of the Cracow Science Society, the Agricultural Society in Kielce and Lvov Agricultural Society. He was the honorary member of the Poznań Society of Friends of Learning.

He was the creator of Zakład Praktyki Leśnej, the first institution for the improvement of professional performance of woodsman and gamekeepers, in Feliksów near Brok. In 2004 a monument in Jastrzębowski's honour was erected in Brok.

Jastrzębowski married Aniela z d'Cherów and had five daughters and two sons. His grandson, also named Wojciech Jastrzębowski (1884-1963), was an artist, senator of the Second Polish Republic, and professor. Jastrzębowski died in Warsaw on 30 December 1882.

About the everlasting peace between the nations

During the battle at Olszynka Grochowska in defence of Warsaw in 1831, Wojciech Jastrzębowski formulated a document which may be described as a project of the first constitution of Europe united as one republic without internal borders, with unified judicial system and institutions consisting of representatives of all nations. The document was named 'About the everlasting peace between the nations' ("O wiecznym pokoju między narodami"), and consisted of 77 articles. It was published on 3 May 1831 on the anniversary of the Constitution of 3 May 1791. In his text he suggested that all nations should renounce their freedom and become enslaved with the laws, all monarch should be henceforth the guardians and executors of these laws and should not be referred to with no other title than fathers of nations.

Commemorations
In Mazovian Voivodeship one may find a cycling path named after Jastrzębowski. It stretches from Ostrów Mazowiecka to Brok.

Selected writings
 Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody (The Outline of Ergonomics, i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science) (1857).
 Traktat o Wiecznym Przymierzu Miedzy Narodami Ucywilizowanymi - Konstytucja dla Europy (The Treatise on the Eternal Union between the Civilized Nations - the Constitution for Europe) (1831).

See also
 List of biologists
 Ergonomics

External links
 Ergonomia-polska.com
 Website of Akademia Rolnicza in Szczecin devoted to ergonomy
 Personal description of Wojciech Jastrzębowski
 Image of Olszynka Grochowska
 Personal description of W. B. Jastrzębowski

1799 births
1882 deaths
19th-century Polish inventors
November Uprising participants
Polish biologists
19th-century Polish botanists
19th-century Polish zoologists
Burials at Powązki Cemetery

Wojciech Jastrzębowski


HZE ions are the high-energy nuclei component of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) which have an electric charge of +3  or greater – that is, they must be the nuclei of elements heavier than hydrogen or helium.

The abbreviation "HZE" comes from high (H) atomic number (Z) and energy (E). HZE ions include the nuclei of all elements heavier than hydrogen (which has a +1  charge) and helium (which has a +2  charge). Each HZE ion consists of a nucleus with no orbiting electrons, meaning that the charge on the ion is the same as the atomic number of the nucleus. Their source is not certain, but is thought likely to be supernova explosions.

Composition and abundance
HZE ions are rare compared to protons, for example, composing only 1% of GCRs versus 85% for protons. HZE ions, like other GCRs, travel near the speed of light.

In addition to the HZE ions from cosmic sources, HZE ions are produced by the Sun. During solar flares and other solar storms, HZE ions are sometimes produced in small amounts, along with the more typical protons, but their energy level is substantially smaller than HZE ions from cosmic rays.

Space radiation is composed mostly of high-energy protons, helium nuclei, and high-Z high-energy ions (HZE ions). The ionization patterns in molecules, cells, tissues, and the resulting biological harm are distinct from high-energy photon radiation: X-rays and gamma rays, which produce low-linear energy transfer (low-LET) radiation from secondary electrons.

While in space, astronauts are exposed to protons, helium nuclei, and HZE ions, as well as secondary radiation from nuclear reactions from spacecraft parts or tissue.
{|
|+ Prominent HZE ions
|-
| Carbon || C
|-
| Oxygen || O
|-
| Magnesium   || Mg
|-
| Silicon || Si
|-
| Iron || Fe
|}

GCRs typically originate from outside the Solar System and within the Milky Way galaxy, but those from outside of the Milky Way consist mostly of highly energetic protons with a small component of HZE ions. GCR energy spectra peaks, with median energy peaks up to 1,000 MeV/amu, and nuclei (with energies up to 10,000 MeV/amu) are important contributors to the dose equivalent.

Health concerns of HZE ions

Although HZE ions make up a small proportion of cosmic rays, their high charge and high energies cause them to contribute significantly to the overall biological impact of cosmic rays, making them as significant as protons in regard to biological impact. The most dangerous GCRs are heavy ionized nuclei such as Fe, an iron nucleus with a charge of +26 . Such heavy particles are "much more energetic (millions of MeV) than typical protons accelerated by solar flares (tens to hundreds of MeV)". HZE ions can therefore penetrate through thick layers of shielding and body tissue, "breaking the strands of DNA molecules, damaging genes and killing cells".

For HZE ions that originate from solar particle events (SPEs), there is only a small contribution toward a person's absorbed dose of radiation. During a SPE, there is such a small amount of heavy ions generated that their effects are limited. Their energies per atomic mass unit are all significantly less than protons found in the same SPE, meaning that protons are by far the largest contribution to astronaut body exposure during SPEs.

See also
 High-energy nuclear physics
 Cosmic radiation
 Solar energetic particles
 Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis
 Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight - HZE CNS health effects
 Swift heavy ion

References

External links

Subatomic particles
Cosmic rays

HZE ion


Stewart Alden McCrae (December 30, 1929 – September 2, 2015) was a provincial level politician from Alberta, Canada. He served as a member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1973 to 1982 sitting with the governing Progressive Conservative caucus. During his time in office he served a couple different cabinet portfolio's in the Peter Lougheed government.

Early life
Stewart Alden McCrae was born in 1929 and raised in Gladstone, Manitoba. He grew up in the province and went to the University of Manitoba to complete his post secondary education, attaining a degree in Law. He articled in Winnipeg, Manitoba at the lawfirm of Tallin & Kristiansen.  He moved to Calgary in 1957 and started work as a Division Land Manager for a petroleum company. He had three kids and also served as President of the Brentwood Home and School Association.

Political career
McCrae ran for election to the Alberta Legislature in a by-election held in the electoral district of Calgary-Foothills. He defeated Social Credit leader Werner Schmidt and three other candidates in a closely contested race to win his seat. He ran for re-election a couple years later in the 1975 Alberta general election doubling his vote and defeating five other candidates in a landslide.

After the provincial election McCrae was appointed to the Executive Council of Alberta by Premier Peter Lougheed. He became a Minister without Portfolio responsible for Calgary affairs. McRae ran for a third term in the 1979 Alberta general election. His popular vote dropped quite a bit from his 1975 result, he still however won a landslide victory.

McCrae became the Minister of Government Services in 1979 and held that portfolio until he retired from provincial politics at dissolution of the assembly in 1982. He died on September 2, 2015, in Calgary, Alberta from cancer.

References

External links
Legislative Assembly of Alberta Members Listing

Progressive Conservative Association of Alberta MLAs
University of Manitoba alumni
1929 births
2015 deaths
Members of the Executive Council of Alberta

Stewart McCrae (politician)


Stepan Petrovich Krasheninnikov (;  – ) was a Russian explorer of Siberia, naturalist and geographer who gave the first full description of Kamchatka in the early 18th century. He was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1745. The Krasheninnikov Volcano on Kamchatka is named in his honour.

Early life
Krasheninnikov was educated in the Slavic Greek Latin Academy of Moscow (1724–32), where Lomonosov was his class-mate. As part of Vitus Bering's extensive preparations for the Second Kamchatka Expedition, 12 students from the academy were selected as potential student interns or assistants for the professors – Krasheninnikov being one of them. Thus, he furthered his education in St Petersburg before embarking upon the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1731–42).

The Second Kamchatka Expedition
Krasheninnikov studied plants, animals and minerals, but in addition he developed a strong interest in Siberian history and geography. During the early part of the expedition, he accompanied professor Gmelin on the travel through the Urals and western Siberia to Yeniseysk. He made numerous observations of natural history, ethnology and linguistics, e.g. records of Evenki (tungus) and Buryat vocabulary. From Bering's headquarters at Yakutsk, the expedition professors Gmelin and Gerhard Friedrich Müller sent Krasheninnikov ahead to Okhotsk and Kamchatka to build house and make preliminary observations. Thus, he became the member of the expedition with the most extensive knowledge of the peninsula. He published his observations in 1755 ("Описание земли Камчатки"; English translation by James Grieve (1764) as History of Kamtschatka). However, he drew extensively on the manuscripts of the deceased Georg Wilhelm Steller. Apart from detailed accounts of the plants and animals of the region, there also were reports on the language and culture of the indigenous Itelmen and Koryak peoples, with whom he is said to have got along extremely well.

Later life
Krasheninnikov spent ten years on the Second Kamchatka Expedition. On his return to St Petersburg, he wrote and defended his doctoral thesis on ichthyology in 1745. He was appointed adjunct at the Academy of Sciences, and later head of the Academy's Botanic Garden and professor of natural history at the university. He was one of only 26 Russians to become Academy members in the 18th century. In 1752, Krasheninnikov went on his last expedition to the tracts of Lake Ladoga and Novgorod to investigate the flora. He died before being able to publish his observations, which instead were published by David de Gorter.

Plant species named for S. P. Krasheninnikov
More than 20 species have been named in his honour, e.g.
The sedge species Carex krascheninnikovii Komarov ex Hultén, which was collected by V. L. Komarov in 1909 on the same hillock that Krasheninnikov had found it on during the Second Kamchatka Expedition.
The genus Krascheninnikovia Gueldenst. (Chenopodiaceae)

References

External links
 Крашенинников, Степан Петрович.

1711 births
1755 deaths
Botanists active in Siberia
History of the Kamchatka Peninsula
Explorers from the Russian Empire
Geographers from the Russian Empire
Russian anthropologists
18th-century botanists from the Russian Empire
Explorers of Asia
Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
18th-century geographers
18th-century explorers
Great Northern Expedition
Burials at Lazarevskoe Cemetery (Saint Petersburg)
Russian scientists

Stepan Krasheninnikov


The Comptometer was the first commercially successful key-driven mechanical calculator, patented in the United States by Dorr Felt in 1887.

A key-driven calculator is extremely fast because each key adds or subtracts its value to the accumulator as soon as it is pressed and a skilled operator can enter all of the digits of a number simultaneously, using as many fingers as required, making them sometimes faster to use than electronic calculators. Consequently, in specialized applications, comptometers remained in use in limited numbers into the early 1990s, but with the exception of museum pieces, they have all now been superseded by electronic calculators and computers.

Manufactured without interruption from 1887 to the mid-1970s, it was constantly improved. The mechanical versions were made faster and more reliable, then a line of electro-mechanical models was added in the 1930s. It was the first mechanical calculator to receive an all-electronic calculator engine in 1961, with the ANITA Mark VII model released by Sumlock Comptometer. This created the link between the mechanical calculator industries and the electronic.

Although the comptometer was primarily an adding machine, it could also do subtractions, multiplication and division. Its keyboard consisted of eight or more columns of nine keys each. Special comptometers with varying key arrays were produced for a variety of special purposes, including calculating currency exchanges, times and Imperial weights. The name comptometer was formerly in wide use as a generic name for this class of calculating machine.

History

Origins

The comptometer is the direct descendant of the key-driven machine of Thomas Hill patented in the United States in 1857 and of the Pascaline invented by Blaise Pascal in France in 1642.  By just replacing the input wheels of the Pascaline by the columns of keys of Hill's machine, the comptometer was invented. Addition is performed exactly the same way, and both the Pascaline and the Comptometer make use of the 9's complement method for subtraction, but in the case of the comptometer it is the operator who must choose the right keys for the subtrahend (each key has its 9's complement written in miniature letter next to it).

The first comptometers
Dorr Felt began his work on the comptometer in 1882
and started building the first prototype during the American Thanksgiving holidays of 1884. Because of his limited amount of money, he used a macaroni box for the outside box, and skewers, staples and rubber bands for the mechanism inside. It was finished soon after New Year's Day, 1885. This prototype, called the macaroni box, is in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., United States.

Shortly after, Robert Tarrant, the owner of a Chicago workshop, gave Felt a salary of $6 a week, a bench to work on, and what would add up to $5,000 to build his first practical machine, which he finished in the autumn of 1886.

By September 1887, eight production machines had been built.

Comptometer and comptograph

The original comptometer design was patented by the American Dorr E. Felt. The first two patents were granted on July 19, 1887 and on October 11, 1887.

Two years later, on June 11, 1889, he was granted a patent for the Comptograph.  A Comptograph is a comptometer with a printing mechanism making it more like a key-set calculating machine (even though the keys are registered as they are typed and not when a handle is pulled), therefore slower and more complicated to operate. It was the first printing-adding machine design to use individualized type impression which made its printed output very legible.

The first comptograph was sold to the Merchants & Manufacturers National Bank of Pittsburgh, PA. in December 1889. It was the first sale of a  machine ever. This machine is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C..

The Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company built both comptometers and comptographs throughout the 1890s. In 1902, the Comptograph Company was set up to manufacture comptographs exclusively, but was shut down at the beginning of World War I.

Forty years later, in the mid-1950s, the Comptometer Corporation reused the name Comptograph for a line of 10 key printing machines.

Competition
The comptometer was the first machine in production to challenge the supremacy of the arithmometer and its clones; but not immediately, it took almost three years to sell the first hundred machines.

Companies and trademarks

Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company
Felt and Tarrant signed a partnership contract on November 28, 1887. The partnership was incorporated as the Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company on January 25, 1889. The firm often used the abbreviation Felt & Tarrant Mfg Co in their logo on both their machines as well as in print, with the ampersand chosen over the word "and" as part of their official corporate name.

Comptograph Company
In 1902, Felt and Tarrant parted ways in creating a second company and decided to split the shares of both companies so that one would own the controlling interest of a company with 51% of the shares and the other would still share the profits with the remaining 49% of the shares. Felt became the majority owner of the Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company and Tarrant became the majority owner of the Comptograph Company.  The Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company reabsorbed the Comptograph company at the beginning of World War I.

Comptometer Corporation
The Felt & Tarrant Mfg Co became public in 1947 and changed its name to the Comptometer Corporation in 1957.

Bell Punch Company – Sumlock Comptometer Ltd
In 1960, the Bell Punch Company bought the British rights to the Comptometer design and trademark, and continued its development. In 1961, Sumlock, a division of the Bell Punch Company, was renamed The Sumlock Comptometer Ltd and began marketing the first all-electronic desktop calculator, the ANITA Mark VII. The entire calculator division of the Bell Punch Company was bought by Rockwell International in 1973. They exited the calculator business in 1976 and shut down all operations.

Victor Comptometer Corporation
In 1961, the Comptometer Corporation merged with the Victor Adding Machine Company, and the two became the Victor Comptometer Corporation. After barely surviving the microprocessor revolution, it is still doing business today as Victor Technology LLC.

Development

Wooden boxes

The first machines were built using wooden boxes, which made them lighter but more fragile. They were called the "woodies", and about  machines were built in between 1887 and 1903.

Two major improvements happened during the first years of production: the first was the insertion of carry inhibit push buttons for quicker operations of subtraction and the second was the color grouping of the columns of keys (three by three except for the first two columns that represent hundredths). Felt continually improved his machine with seven patents filed during the first ten years. These included the patents that he took for the Comptograph.

Each row of keys is differentiated from the one above and the one below by a different tactile feel: the even rows have round and raised keys and the odd rows have flat and oblong keys. The keys of the first machines, with their metal rims, are similar to the typewriters keys of the same period. Plastic keys were also introduced very early on but their rows do not have that tactile difference.

The woodies had a three-part zeroing mechanism: a lever, a lever stop, and a knob. In order to reset the machine, first push the lever toward the stop, start rotating the knob and release the lever as soon as the result numbers start to move. Continue rotating the knob until all the result numbers are reset.

Model A
All the models, from this one on, have a metal casing, but the model A has a polished glass panel for the output display in the front. This model is produced from 1904 to 1906.

Described in patents 762,520 and 762,521, it introduces a new carry mechanism that reduces the power needed to operate the keys to one fourth of its predecessor's. It also introduces the duplex feature that allows for keys to be pressed simultaneously. And finally it introduces a simplified clearing mechanism that only requires one lever, and one back and forth motion of it, to reset the machine. "The machine gun of the office" as it was called in some World War I advertisements, was starting to develop the form and mechanism that it would keep for the next forty years.

Model B,C,D
These models are built from 1907 to 1915. They all have the shoebox metal casing that will be used until the end of World War II.

Model E

Very few machines of this type were built, but all were made between 1913 and 1915. This was a transition machine that introduced the "Controlled-Key" safeguard, which was part of an error detection mechanism that blocked most of the keyboard if a key was not pressed enough to add its total to the result. When this mechanism was activated, all the columns of keys were blocked except for the one where the error occurred. Therefore, the operator could find the column in question, reenter the number and unlock the keyboard by pressing the release key in order to resume the operations.

Each key was supported by a metal plate that wrapped around it on three sides. This created a support that was used to block the key when the error detection mechanism was activated. The blocking mechanism was moved inside the box in the following models.

Model F
The production of this model started in 1915 and lasted five years. The error detection mechanism is moved inside the box and the release key is red. This machine is the last machine without the Comptometer logo inscribed on its front and back panels.

Model H, J, ST
Manufactured from 1920 until the beginning of World War II, these models incorporate all of the improvements of the previous machines. The Comptometer logo is inscribed on their front and back panels and they have the red release key that was introduced with the previous two models.

The ST (SuperTotalizer) has two display output registers and two additional levers that allow for the creation of intermediate results. Each key pressed by the operator is added to the top display register creating an intermediate result which is added to the bottom display register when the operator activates the front right lever (it also resets it). The bottom display register accumulates the intermediate results until it is cleared by using the left lever.

These three models are the last of the shoebox design that was introduced in 1907 with the .

Model K
This electric model was introduced in the middle of the 1930s and had a very moderate success since the mechanical models were very easy to operate and less expensive to maintain.

Model M, WM
Introduced just before World War II, it had a new box design which was more symmetrical and rounder in shape. The WM was manufactured during World War II with a less wasteful use of material for the mechanism.

The WM had many aluminum parts which were more prone to failure so the use of steel was
resumed as soon as steel again became available. While the machine was lighter, it was also weaker.

Post World War II models

The models become lighter with the use of aluminum and more refined inner mechanical designs. Both mechanical and electric models are offered. Their outside is similar to the model M machines. The model 3D11 succeeds to the model M and the electric model 992 succeeds to the model K.
The major external appearance change of the 3D11 and 992, the keys were two tones of green with a fuller depth almost twice the old original style. making identification very easy. Also the lock
release key (red) was moved from the upper right corner of the keyboard to the center and just below the 'one' keys so it could be thumb operated. On model K electrics the motor was turned on with a switch and ran continuously during use. The 992 had a micro switch which started the motor at the start of any key depression and shut off after key action competed. This reduced the motor
wear to almost nil.

The most important new designs of this period came from the Sumlock comptometer Ltd company that introduced the first all-electronic desktop calculators almost two years before the competition. They were the ANITA Mark VII, first introduced in 1961 and marketed in Continental Europe and the ANITA Mark VIII, a slightly improved design, introduced at the same time, marketed in Britain and the rest of the world. They both started shipping in 1962.

The last ANITA machine with a Comptometer keyboard was the ANITA mk 10 introduced in 1965, still using cold-cathode switching tubes and that will be replaced in 1968 by the ANITA mk 11, a 10 key machine.

Sharp's first all transistor desktop calculator, the CS-10A COMPET, introduced in the summer of 1964, also had a Comptometer type keyboard.

See also
 Arithmometer
 Difference engine
 Genericized trademark
 Victor Technology LLC
 Z1 (computer)

References

External links

Comptometer "Biography of a Machine" – extensive history, model information, and Dorr Felt biography, archived - retrieved August 30th, 2017.
www.rechenmaschinen-illustrated.com
Comptometers and Key-Driven Calculators – more photos and descriptions of models, retrieved April 11, 2007
ami19.org – Patents and articles on 19th-century mechanical calculators
Comptometer instruction manual, retrieved April 11, 2007
Comptometer photo, retrieved August 21, 2007.
How the Comptometer Works – animated video describing in detail how the Model F Comptometer works, retrieved February 1, 2012.

1887 introductions
Mechanical calculators
American inventions
Mechanical calculator companies
Inventions in the Smithsonian Institution

Comptometer


Ugaunians or Ugannians (; ), referred to as Chudes by the earliest Russian chronicles, were a historic Finnic people inhabiting the southern Estonian Ugandi County (; also Ugania, Ugaunia) that is now Tartu, Põlva, Võru and Valga counties of Estonia.

The name and the territory

In modern Estonian literature, the province of Ugaunia is called Ugandi or Ugala. The name Ugandi is derived by associating Ugaunia with the name of Uandimägi hill near Otepää.  In Latvian, the country of Estonia is still called Igaunija after Ugaunians, their ancient neighbors.

The power center of Ugaunians is believed to have been in the fortified stronghold of Otepää (South Estonian for "bear's head"; , ) in present-day Linnamägi Hill in the town of Otepää. The hill was indeed shaped like a head of a bear. The bear was probably a holy animal for Ugaunians.

Another important Ugaunian stronghold was Tarbatu by the river Emajõgi (literally, "Mother River"). It was erected around 600 AD on the east side of Toome Hill (Toomemägi) in what is today Tartu.

In Estonian folklore, Ugaunians (ugalased) are enemy warriors and robbers. For example, a folk song from Viljandi calls for speeding up the harvest work because Ugaunians might attack. "Ugalane" has also been used as a disparaging word for an unsophisticated country person.

History of Ugaunia

Wars against Rus'
Due to its location, Ugaunia always bore the brunt of East Slavs' attacks against Chudes, as they called Finnic peoples around their North-Eastern boundaries. In 1030 Kievan Prince Yaroslav I the Wise organized a military campaign against Chuds, defeated them and established fort Yuryev (literally "Yury's" - Yury being Yaroslav's Christian name) in what is modern day Tartu. Kievan rule of Ugaunia may have lasted until 1061, when, according to Russian chronicles, Yuryev was burned down by Sosols (probably Sackalians, Oeselians or Harionenses).

Rulers of Novgorod and Pskov made frequent raids against Ugaunians in the 12th century but never succeeded to subjugate them. Fort Bear's Head was conquered in 1116 and 1193, Tharbata in 1134 and 1192. Ugaunians themselves made several raids against Pskov.

The Northern Crusade

At the beginning of the 13th century, a new powerful enemy appeared. German crusaders had established a foothold at the mouth of the Daugava river and started to expand and christen local tribes. The Ugaunians' southern neighbors, the Letts, saw the crusaders as potential allies against their traditional adversaries. The Ugaunians wanted to continue the truce with their new neighbors, but the crusaders had a list of preconditions. They demanded that the Ugaunians pay reparation for an old incident. Many years ago the Ugaunians, upon the advice of the Livonians, had robbed a caravan of German merchants by the Daugava river.

In 1207 the crusaders sent a priest called Alabrand to Ugaunia to demand compensation, but did not receive an answer. Next year the Letts and Livonian Brothers of the Sword sent a new delegation to Ugaunia and returned with Ugaunian envoys. Ugaunians were offered "eternal peace" if they accept Christianity and return everything they had robbed from Germans and Letts. Ugaunians refused and left, threatening the Letts with "very sharp lances".

The crusaders and Letts went to war against Ugaunians. They burned Otepää and returned with captives and booty. Ugaunians and Sackalians retaliated, raided territories of the Letts and burned their worst enemies alive. The Livonians and the Bishop of Riga wanted peace and sent the priest Alabrand to Otepää to negotiate. Alabrand used the gathering of Ugaunians to preach the Christianity to them. Some pagan Ugaunians wanted to kill him because of his preaching, but his status as the messenger of the bishop protected him. Ugaunians made peace with the Bishop of Riga, the leader of the Livonian crusade.

In 1210 the Novgorodian prince Mstislav and his brother, Vladimir the prince of Polatsk sent an army against Ugaunians. They besieged Otepää and fought there for eight days. Defenders of the fort suffered a shortage of food and water and were forced to ask for peace. Ugaunians had to accept Orthodox baptism and pay a tribute of 400 "nogata" marks. (Nogat or nahad is Estonian word for pelts).

The same summer Ugaunians of Otepää surrendered to crusader commander Bertold of Wenden. Ugaunians continued to raid Lettish territories. Wars between Ugaunians and Letts lasted the whole decade. The elders of Ugaunians and Letts had deep personal feuds. When Ugaunians captured Tālivaldis of Trikāta in 1215 and burned him alive, his sons burned alive all Ugaunian men they could catch to avenge. They also tortured Ugaunians to force them to show hiding places in the woods.

When all Ugaunian provinces were burnt down, the people still alive sent messengers to Riga, asking for peace and promised to receive baptism. They told that all who had been involved in the robbery of German merchants had already been killed. The priests Otto and Peter Kakuwalda were sent to baptize them.

Hearing about that, prince Vladimir of Pskov attacked Ugaunians. Ugaunians and German crusaders fortified Otepää and avenged Russians, raiding lands of Pskov and Novgorod. After that Ugaunians went with crusaders, Livonians and Letts against Estonian pagan provinces Jerwia and Vironia. Prince Vladimir of Pskov sent messengers through all of Estonia to besiege Germans and Ugaunians at Otepää. Harrians and Oeselians came and even already baptized Sackalians.

While troops of 20000 of Russians and Oeselians attacked Otepää, Ugaunians along with crusaders made raids against Novgorod, Vironians and Votians.

In 1220 Ugaunians rebelled against the Germans. Sackalians sent bloody swords with which they had killed Germans to Ugaunians of Tharbata and Otepää. In Tharbata they decided by lot whether to sacrifice to the gods an ox or their priest Hartwig, who was equally fat. Luckily for the priest, the lot fell upon the ox.

Ugaunians decided to side with Novgorodians. Russian princes of Pskov, Novgorod and Suzdal sent huge troops of 20000 men to Ugaunia. The people of Tharbata sent them large gifts and Otepää welcomed them too. The Russians left Vyachko (Vetseke) as their prince to rule Ugaunians and any other Estonian province around he could gathered tax from.

In 1224 crusaders retook all provinces in mainland Estonia. After casting lot, bishop Hermann of Buxhoeveden was given rule over Ugaunia while Sackala was given to the order. Otepää was happy over the rule of bishop Hermann but Tharbata was still ruled by Vetseke and his Russians. Later that year however, Tharbata was conquered and all its Ugaunian and Russian defenders killed.

Bishop Hermann started to fortify Otepää and Tarbatu. He chose Tharbata/Dorpat to be his residence. Bishop Hermann and his Ugaunian subjects fought frequently against Novgorod and were defeated by prince Alexander Nevsky in the Battle on Lake Peipus in 1242.

Ugaunia became subsequently known as the Bishopric of Dorpat.

See also
Ugandi County

References

Ancient peoples
Baltic Finns
Geographic history of Estonia

Ungannians


KAMA-FM (104.9 MHz, "104.9 Latino Mix") is a commercial radio station licensed to Deer Park, Texas, and serving the Greater Houston radio market. It is owned by the Uforia Audio Network, a subsidiary of Univision, and it airs a Spanish-language CHR/Top 40 radio format.

KAMA-FM has an effective radiated power (ERP) of 10,500 watts and is a Class C2 FM station (equivalent to 50,000 watts at 500 feet). The transmitter is located on the historic 1948 KNUZ tower, along with sister station 102.9 KLTN, at 315 N. Ennis Street in the East End. The studios and offices are located in the Univision building in Uptown Houston, on the Southwest Freeway (U.S. Highway 59).

History

KFRD-FM and KPTY
Originally, the station was licensed to Rosenberg, Texas.  It signed on the air on January 7, 1969, as KFRD-FM, the sister station to AM 980 KFRD.  KFRD-AM-FM simulcast a country music format.

Since being owned by Univision, and its predecessor Tichenor Broadcasting, 104.9 has switched formats many times. It was once in simulcast with 93.3 KQBU-FM Port Arthur as both Spanish Adult Contemporary "K-Love" and Regional Mexican "Estereo Latino". After it broke off the simulcast with 93.3, 104.9 became an English language station once again, as "The House Party, 104.9" featuring a Rhythmic Contemporary format targeting second and third generation Hispanics. Once the 104.9 facility was moved from Missouri City, Texas, to Deer Park, it simply rebranded as "Party 104.9".

The 104.9 facility has moved its city of license (COL) on 2 separate occasions. Having originated in Rosenberg, it then was moved to the Wells Fargo Bank Building in downtown Houston, and relicensed to Missouri City. After a few years, Univision moved 104.9 once again, as well as increased power of the station to 10,500 watts. This time, 104.9 relocated its transmitter to the historic East End of downtown Houston's Ennis Street tower, which has historically housed both now-Univision co-owned 102.9 KLTN, as well as the original sister to 102.9, 1230 KNUZ (now KCOH). With the change to physical location at the Ennis tower, KAMA also changed COL again to its current Deer Park license. 104.9 also gained a simulcast partner as 105.3, licensed to Crystal Beach, Texas, became Party as well.  Univision applied for and was granted a similar call sign to 104.9's KPTY, with 105.3 becoming KPTI during the simulcast and remaining with those call letters until it took over KPTY after the end of the Party format on 93.3.

"Amor" and "Tu Musica"
On December 4, 2007, the station dropped the Rhythmic Contemporary "Party" format and became "Amor", a Latin pop format aimed at adults.  The rhythmic "Party" format and the KPTY call sign were moved to 93.3 FM in Port Arthur, Texas, replacing Regional Mexican KQBU-FM. 104.9 remained in simulcast with 105.3 KPTI Winnie (now KXXF) until 105.3 was sold to Excel Media. "Amor" competed with 101.1 KLOL and 107.9 KQQK in the Latin pop format.

In January 2008, Univision rebranded KAMA-FM from "Amor 104.9" to "104.9 Tu Musica".

"Latino Mix"
On September 28, 2014, KAMA rebranded as "104.9 Latino Mix". The new branding focuses more on Spanish rhythmic music, such as Reggaeton, as well as Bachata.

On December 1, 2017, sister station 93.3 KQBU-FM left its Regional Mexican format to simulcast with KAMA-FM. This gives KAMA-FM a strong signal to the Houston market, as well as serving the Golden Triangle, including Beaumont, Port Arthur, and Orange. The simulcast would last until September 27, 2021, when 93.3 began airing programming from TUDN Radio, simulcasting co-owned KLAT.

Callsign history
KFRD
KMIA – May 10, 1990
KMPQ-FM – April 10, 1993
KLTO – June 3, 1995
KOVA – January 8, 1998
KPTY – November 19, 2001
KAMA – December 3, 2007

References

External links
Official Website

Hispanic and Latino American culture in Houston
AMA-FM
AMA-FM
Contemporary hit radio stations in the United States
Latin rhythmic radio stations
Univision Radio Network stations
Radio stations established in 2007
1990 establishments in Texas

KAMA-FM


Staff Sergeant William Gordon Windrich (May 14, 1921 – December 2, 1950) was a United States Marine who was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for outstanding heroism as a platoon sergeant in the Battle of Chosin Reservoir during the Korean War.

Staff Sergeant Windrich was killed in action the early morning of December 2, 1950 near Yudam-ni, North Korea, during a savage night battle with Chinese forces on Hill 1520. He had refused to be evacuated after being wounded twice, once when a grenade fragment ripped through his helmet. Later felled by gunshot wounds in the legs, he directed his men in setting up defensive positions and shouted words of encouragement until he succumbed to his wounds and the bitter cold. He was carried down from the hill and was buried. He is now buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.

The Medal of Honor, the United States' highest award for valor in combat, was presented to his widow by Secretary of the Navy Daniel A. Kimball during ceremonies on February 8, 1952, in Washington, D.C.

Biography
William Windrich was born on May 14, 1921, in Chicago, Illinois.  He attended public schools in Hammond, Indiana.

US Marine Corps
He enlisted at seventeen in the Marine Corps Reserve on June 6, 1938, and was ordered to active duty in November 1940.

World War II
During World War II, he spent 20 months overseas in the South and Central Pacific as a machine gunner with the 2nd and 5th Defense Battalions and was on Tarawa. Discharged in November 1945, he reenlisted in the regular Marine Corps the following February.

Post-war years
In the summer of 1946, he participated in the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll while serving aboard the . After World War II, he served as a non-commissioned officer of the guard in Washington, D.C., at the Naval Gun Factory and at Marine Corps Headquarters, and in China.

Korean War
At the outbreak of the Korean War, SSgt. Windrich was on military police duty at Camp Pendleton, California. He went overseas with the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade and was among the first Marines to see action in Korea. He participated in the Inchon landing and in the capture of Seoul. It was during the Chosin Reservoir Campaign while now serving as a rifle platoon sergeant with Company I, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines, after the 1st Marine Division regrouped for its famous breakout to the sea, that he met his heroic death. His body was identified and was returned to the United States in 1955 for burial in Arlington National Cemetery.

Military decorations and awards
SSgt. Windrich received the following military awards:

Medal of Honor

SSgt. Windrich's Medal of Honor citation reads:

The President of the United States in the name of The Congress takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR posthumously to

for service as set forth in the following CITATION:

For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty as Platoon Sergeant of Company I, Third Battalion, Fifth Marines, First Marine Division (Reinforced), in action against enemy aggressor forces in the vicinity of Yudam-ni, Korea, the night of 1 December 1950. Promptly organizing a squad of men when the enemy launched a sudden, vicious counterattack against the forward elements of his company's position, rendering it untenable, Staff Sergeant WINDRICH, armed with a carbine, spearheaded the assault to the top of the knoll immediately confronting the overwhelming force and, under shattering hostile automatic weapons, mortar and grenade fire, directed effective fire to hold back the attackers and cover the withdrawal of our troops to commanding ground. With seven of his men struck down during the furious action and he, himself, wounded in the head by a bursting grenade, he made his way to his company's position and, organizing a small group of volunteers, returned with them to evacuate the wounded and dying from the frozen hillside, staunchly refusing medical attention himself. Immediately redeploying the remainder of his troops, Staff Sergeant WINDRICH placed them on the left flank of the defensive sector before the enemy again attacked in force. Wounded in the leg during the bitter fight that followed, he bravely fought on with his men, shouting words of encouragement and directing their fire until the attack was repelled. Refusing evacuation although unable to stand, he still continued to direct his platoon in setting up defensive positions until, weakened by the bitter cold, excessive loss of blood and severe pain, he lapsed into unconsciousness and died. His valiant leadership, fortitude and courageous fighting spirit against tremendous odds served to inspire others to heroic endeavor in holding the objective and reflect the highest credit upon Staff Sergeant WINDRICH and the United States Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for his country.

/S/ HARRY S. TRUMAN

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Korean War Medal of Honor recipients

References

External links

1921 births
1950 deaths
United States Marine Corps personnel of World War II
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
United States Marine Corps Medal of Honor recipients
United States Marines
American military personnel killed in the Korean War
Military personnel from Chicago
Korean War recipients of the Medal of Honor
United States Marine Corps personnel of the Korean War

William G. Windrich