Randall D. Wright (born August 4, 1956) is a Canadian academic macroeconomist who advanced the fields of monetary economics and labor economics through his role in the development of matching theory.

Biography
Wright obtained a B.A. in Economics at the University of Manitoba in 1979 and a Ph.D. in Economics at the University of Minnesota in 1986. He was awarded an honorary M.A. by the University of Pennsylvania in 1990. His first position was as an assistant professor at Cornell from 1984 to 1987. He then moved to the University of Pennsylvania, where he became a full professor in 1994, later becoming the James Joo-Jin Kim Professor of Economics. In 2009, Wright accepted a position in the Economics Department at University of Wisconsin–Madison. He is at the same time the Ray B. Zemon Chair in Liquid Assets in the Wisconsin School of Business' Department of Finance, Investment and Banking.

In addition to his academic position, Wright is a research associate at the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, the Bank of Canada, NBER, and Panthéon-Assas University. Wright was elected a Fellow of the Econometric Society in 1997.

Wright was the editor of the International Economic Review in 1998–2008 and served on the Board of Editors of the American Economic Review in the period 1998–2000.

Research contribution
Wright, together with co-author Nobuhiro Kiyotaki, pioneered the use of search theory in monetary economics. The application of search theory to macroeconomics would later be known as matching theory. Search-theoretic models of monetary exchange are based on explicit descriptions of the frictions that make money essential, which contrasts with earlier reduced form approaches to money in macroeconomics, such as putting money in the utility function or imposing cash-in-advance constraints. These earlier ways of modeling money's role did not show explicitly how it helps overcome informational, spatial, or temporal frictions. Search-theoretic models, on the other hand, are based on explicit descriptions of specialization, the pattern of meetings, and the information structure.

Kiyotaki and Wright (1989) was the first attempt to use a search-theoretic model to endogenously determine which commodities would become media of exchange, i.e. commodity money. Later, Kiyotaki and Wright (1991) constructed an alternative search-based model to prove that fiat money can be valued as a medium of exchange even if it has a rate of return that is inferior to other available assets. The application of these theories emerged in Kiyotaki and Wright (1993), when the authors developed a tractable model of the exchange process that captures the "double coincidence of wants problem" in a pure barter setup. In this model, the essential function of money is its role as a medium of exchange. The model can be used to address issues in monetary economics, such as the interaction between specialization and monetary exchange, and the possibility of equilibria with multiple fiat currencies.

A shortcoming of search-theoretic models of money is that these models becomes intractable without very strong assumptions, and are therefore impractical for the analysis of monetary policy. Wright and Ricardo Lagos (2005) attempt to overcome this shortcoming by proposing a more general, yet still tractable, framework for the analysis of monetary policy.

Sources
 Nobuhiro Kiyotaki and Randall Wright (1989), "On Money as a Medium of Exchange," Journal of Political Economy, 97, 927–54.
 Nobuhiro Kiyotaki and Randall Wright (1991), "A Contribution to the Pure Theory of Money," Journal of Economic Theory, 53, 215–35.
 Nobuhiro Kiyotaki and Randall Wright (1993), "A search-theoretic approach to monetary economics," American Economic Review, 83 (1), 63–77.
 Ricardo Lagos and Randall Wright (2005), "A Unified Framework for Monetary Theory and Policy Analysis," Journal of Political Economy, 113, 463–84.

External links
 Webpage at University of Wisconsin–Madison
 Curriculum Vitae
 Wisconsin School of Business Gazette article announcing Randall Wright's move to Wisconsin

Canadian economists
Macroeconomists
New classical economists
University of Minnesota College of Liberal Arts alumni
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Federal Reserve economists
Fellows of the Econometric Society
1956 births
Living people
20th-century American economists
21st-century American economists

Randall Wright


Tom Whittaker (born 1948 in York) was the first disabled person to climb to the summit of Mount Everest.

Whittaker's right foot needed to be amputated following a car accident in 1979. Following this serious accident, he regained his strength and continued climbing. He was educated at Idaho State University

In 1981 he founded the Cooperative Wilderness Handicapped Outdoor Group (C.W.HOG) in Pocatello, Idaho. While living in Idaho, he was active in the southeast Idaho climbing community.

His first attempt on Everest was in 1995.

On May 27, 1998, on his third attempt, Whittaker reached the summit of Mt. Everest, a lifelong dream, making him the first person with a disability to accomplish this feat.

Whittaker's current quest is to climb the highest peaks on all seven continents.

In the 2006 Queen's Birthday Honours List, Whittaker was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). Tom currently lives in Prescott Arizona with his daughter, Georgia.

References

External links

American mountain climbers
American amputees
1948 births
Living people
British summiters of Mount Everest
People from York

Tom Whittaker (mountaineer)


Perpetual war, endless war, or a forever war, is a lasting state of war with no clear conditions that would lead to its conclusion. These wars are usually situations of ongoing tension that may escalate at any moment, similar to the Cold War. From the late 20th century, the concepts have been used to critique the United States Armed Forces interventions in foreign nations and the military–industrial complex such as the Vietnam War and the Soviet-Afghan War, or wars with ambiguous enemies such as the war on terror or war on drugs.

Causes
Poor military planning is one of the major reasons that a forever war can occur. If the territory gained in a war is not occupied or controlled properly, this can allow a deadly insurgency to occur, potentially stretching out a conflict that never ends. Similarly, warfare that is fought irregularly, such as rebellions in Africa, do not have a set of military objectives in mind, usually because these rebel groups intend to commit war crimes against the civilian population. Thus, the lack of actual military goals can in itself be a reason that a forever war can occur.  A very large defense budget may also be a factor in the transpiration of a forever war. , the United States has an inflation-adjusted military budget that is greater than its budget for World War II, which enables it to fight continuously in Iraq and other countries.

Civil wars are prone to military stalemate which can prolong the war indefinitely. A lack of democracy is associated with an increased risk of civil war.

Forever wars can occur in order to keep money flowing into institutions, such as the military–industrial–congressional complex (MICC). Thus, forever wars can serve as domestic political engines, as policy makers promote policies of continuing and expanding wars.

Forever wars can be to the benefit of small armed groups, who may achieve political goals by wearing down a larger group or country. For example, in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks and the beginning of the war on terror, Al-Qaeda aimed to involve the United States in a prolonged guerrilla war in Afghanistan, challenging its will to fight such a long war.

Wars between ethnic or ideological groups can become forever wars, as such wars are harder to end with a negotiated peace deal due to the different interests of the two sides. An additional barrier may arise in the case of religious wars if one or both parties believe that the other must be destroyed.

In current events

The concept of a perpetual war has been used since opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War. James Pinckney Harrison argues in The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam (1981) that the Vietnam War was "endless" due to the success of the communist revolution in nationalizing the people. The concept was used by Trần Văn Đôn, a general in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, in his book Our Endless War: Inside Vietnam (1978).

American historian James Chace argues in his book Endless War: How we got involved in Central America (1983) that US policy in Central America is based upon the assumption that US hegemony is threatened within the region. According to Chace, US involvement in Central America worked towards resisting the domino effect of the spread of a "communist take-over", largely through establishing the credibility of US military. Though these policies were meant to deter conflict, they themselves created the conditions for instability in the region, which furthered a US response. This resulted in a self-perpetuating, or "endless", loop. He additionally argues US investment in pursuing an expanding military presence in Central America reflects an endless preparation for war.

A key argument of Chace is that much this military involvement stems from a logic of US paranoia in reaction to the Cuban Revolution. A similar argument is put forward by David Keen, political economist and Professor of Complex Emergencies at the London School of Economics. His book Endless War? Hidden Function of the 'War on Terror''' (2006) argues that the United States' strategies and tactics in the war on terror use a "militaristic state-cased framework". This framework, though "counterproductive", has an "inner logic" and a "psychological function" of responding to the trauma of September 11 attacks.

Noam Chomsky posits that a state of perpetual war is an aid to (and is promoted by) the powerful members of dominant political and economic classes, helping maintain their positions of economic and political superiority.

British journalist Robert Fisk, a critic of Western policies in the Middle East, argues that recent Western conflicts against the Middle East, after the end of the Cold War, have been part of a new perpetual war. He suggests that former U.S. President George H. W. Bush launched attacks on Iraq, Sudan, and Afghanistan to distract the population from his domestic political problems. In addition, he claims that despite victorious claims after the first Gulf War that Saddam Hussein had been "defanged", he was again the target of Western attacks until his execution in 2006.

Similarly, Ted Koppel described the war on terror as "Our Children's Children's War". Critics of Western policies have used the term "perpetual war" in reference to non-military "wars", such as the "War on Drugs", "War on Poverty", "War on Cancer", Lou Dobbs's "War on the Middle Class", the "War on Terrorism", the "War on Women", or Bill O'Reilly's "War on Christmas".

In socioeconomics and politics
The economic make-up of the 5th century BC Athens-led Delian League also bears resemblance to the economic ramifications of preparing for perpetual war.  Aspects of any given empire, such as the British Empire and its relation to its domestic businesses that were owned by a wealthy minority of individuals, such as the East India Company, the Hudson's Bay Company, and De Beers, manifest an observed relationship between a minority of individuals influencing Empire or State policy, such as the Child's War in India, the Anglo-Mysore Wars in India, the Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay in Canada, and the Second Boer War in South Africa, follow a pattern where the Empire allocates resources pursuing and sustaining policies that financially profit the Empire's domestic business's owners.

 Military–industrial complex

The concept of a military–industrial complex was first suggested by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the idea that military action can be seen as a form of market-creation goes back at least as far as speeches beginning in 1930 prior to the publication of War Is a Racket in 1935. On January 16, 1961, President Eisenhower delivered his farewell speech expressing great concern for the direction of the newfound armaments industry post-WWII. While recognizing the boom in economic growth after the war, he reminded the people of United States that this was a way of profiting off warfare and that if not regulated enough it could lead to the "grave" expansion of the armaments industry. For his warning of the thirst to profit from warfare through weapon production, Eisenhower coined the term "military industrial complex". He said, "The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist." Eisenhower feared that the military–industrial complex could lead to a state of perpetual war as the big armament industry will continue to profit from warfare. Additionally, NSC 68 can be used as a reference to understand U.S. President Harry S. Truman's reasoning for the continued build up the United States' nuclear arsenal and how this contributed to the Cold War. This concept is still present in today's policies as William D. Hartung states in his article "The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism".

 Cold War

The Cold War was a time of extreme tensions between the Soviet Union's interest of expansion of Communism and the NATO countries which operated on a dominantly capitalist economy. The Soviet Union was viewed as a threat to the American national government as well as its citizens. When the Soviet military reached Afghanistan, the United States took action in training the people of the Middle Eastern nations to combat the Soviet Army. During the Soviet–Afghan War under the Carter administration, the CIA gave a lot of aid and training to the Islamic Jihadists and helped fund Wahhabi Universities in Afghanistan, Pakistan as well as Iraq. In 1979, Osama Bin Laden was assigned to the CIA and received U.S. military training. In 1985, President Reagan met with Islamic Jihadists at the White House. Under Reagan's presidency, these Islamic Jihadists were known as "freedom fighters", but were later relabeled as "Islamic terrorists" under President George W. Bush's administration. It should also be noted that non-Jihadist Islamist resistance fighters were also aided by the CIA during the Soviet-Afghan War, and these groups became the Northern Alliance, but since the support was funnelled through Pakistan's ISI, Massoud received less support than the more radical factions.

 War on terror

Traditionally, the term "war" referred to the physical and conventional act of engaging in armed conflict. However, the implications of what war entails has evolved over time. The war on terror has often been cited as a perpetual war, being a war with "no specific battlefield and the enemy isn't an army." The war on terror has been directed at countless "enemies," as it has no clear target. Georgetown University Historian Bruce Hoffman describes traditional war as a war that "ends with the vanquishing of an opponent, with some form or armistice or truce- some kind of surrender instrument or document." In contrast, the war on terror continues with no end in sight.

The war on terror was declared in 2001 by President George W. Bush, following the September 11 attacks, but as early as 1996, Osama bin Laden of Al-Qaeda made a threat to the United States, by making a declaration of war. The growing tensions of the Middle East are suggested by Laurence Andrew Dobrot to be very wide cultural misunderstandings and faults the West for not making peace with the Middle East. As the deputy director for the Missile Defense Agency's Airborne Laser Program, Dobrot examines the hostility which has been continuous not only since 2001, but since the birth of Wahhabism.

Dobrot proposed that the U.S should recognize the cultural hostility of the tribal Arabs in order to make the first steps towards progression of making peace.

The Crusades arose as European expansion was growing at the peak of unified Islamic dominance. On September 16, 2001, in a speech, President Bush referred to the war on terror as a crusade. He said:

 No one could have conceivably imagined suicide bombers burrowing into our society and then emerging all in the same day to fly their aircraft - fly U.S. aircraft into buildings full of innocent people - and show no remorse.  This is a new kind of  -- a new kind of evil.  And we understand.  And the American people are beginning to understand.  This crusade, this war on terrorism is going to take a while.  And the American people must be patient.  I'm going to be patient.

Andrew Bacevich described Bush's naming of the war on terror as a crusade as something which does not make the war separate, rather something that shows that it is part of an "eternal war."

 War on drugs

The 1960s gave birth to a rebellious movement that popularized drug use. "Hippies" sought to expand their minds with the use of hallucinogens like LSD, whilst many soldiers returned from the Vietnam War with heroin habits. Demand for drugs skyrocketed in the 1960s.

The War on drugs was declared by President Nixon in June 1971. It was later picked up by the Reagan administration as First Lady Nancy Reagan spread the message with her slogan "Just Say No" to drugs. Though coined by Ronald Reagan, the policies which his administration implemented existed stretching back to Woodrow Wilson's presidency. Security measures were taken under Reagan to restrict drugs. The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 was passed so that pharmaceutical companies may keep track of the distributions and maintain restrictions on certain types of drugs. In 1988 the Office of National Drug Control Policy was set to pass more regulations and restrictions on drug policies, though the media labeled the agency directors as "drug czars." The average annual funding for eradication and interdiction programs increased from $437 million during Carter's presidency to $1.4 billion during Reagan's first term. Under George Bush's administration, a significant increase of actions were taken toward the war on drugs, including militant force, student drug testing, and drug raids.

The war on drugs received criticism from political figures, such as President Barack Obama and Pat Robertson. Robertson said that the war on drugs must come to an end as there is a mass incarceration of drug users, who did not commit any violent acts, serving time. He says, "We here in America make up 5 percent of the world's population, but we make up 25 percent of jailed prisoners", in reference to the war on drugs.

 War memorials

With the advent of perpetual war, communities have begun to construct war memorials with names of the dead while the wars are ongoing. The Northwood Gratitude and Honor Memorial in Irvine, California was dedicated in 2010 to American troops who lost their lives in the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, with space for 8,000 names (approximately 4,500 used at time of construction) and the intention to update it yearly.

Views of influential writers

 Thomas Hobbes

Political Philosopher Thomas Hobbes succinctly wrote in 1651 that a hypothetical state of nature was a condition of perpetual war.  The following quotation from chapter 13 of his book Leviathan explores the causes and effects of perpetual war:

Sun Tzu

Ancient war advisor Sun Tzu expressed views in the 6th century BC about perpetual war.  The following quotation from chapter 2, Waging War, of his book The Art of War suggests the negative impacts of prolonged war:

Alexis de Tocqueville

Historian Alexis de Tocqueville made predictions in 1840 concerning perpetual war in democratic countries.  The following is from Volume 2, chapter 22, "Why Democratic Nations Naturally Desire Peace and Democratic Armies, War", 18th paragraph, in his book, Democracy in America:

 Relationship with the democratic republic
The development of a relationship network between people who wield political and economic power as well as those who own capital in companies that financially profit from warfare have a relationship to records influencing public opinion of war through the influence of mass media outlets. These may also include the presentation for the causes of war, the effects of war, and the Censorship of war. The following authors, have suggested that entering a state of perpetual war becomes progressively easier in a modern democratic republic, such as the United States:
 The Iron Triangle: Inside the Secret World of the Carlyle Group (2004), by Dan Briody.
 The Pentagon Labyrinth: 10 Short Essays to Help You Through It (2011)  an anthology by nine authors who are Pierre M. Sprey, George Wilson, Franklin C. Spinney, Bruce I. Gudmundsson, Col. G. I. Wilson, Col. Chet Richards, Andrew Cockburn, Thomas Christie, and Winslow T. Wheeler.
 Prophets of War: Lockheed Martin and the Making of the Military-Industrial Complex (2010), by William D. Hartung.
 Media Control, Second Edition: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda (2002), by Noam Chomsky.
 Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (2002), by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky.  The hypothesized relationship of networking between people wielding such power is known as the military–industrial complex and was briefly described by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on 17 January 1961.

Fiction

 In George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, the three superstates of the world, Eurasia, Oceania and Eastasia, are said to be in a perpetual state of war with each other. The attacks are in the form of rocket attacks (similar to the V2 Attacks on London in WW2) although it is implied in the book that the attacks could be launched by the home Government against their own people in order to perpetuate fear and hatred of the enemy. Therefore, perpetual war may in fact secretly be a strategy used by the state to continuously promote its own political agenda. However, the military attacks are limited to the non-aligned areas (North and Central Africa, India etc.), an example of this is The Malabar Front (India) where Oceania won a victory against Eurasia.
 In the Doctor Who series Genesis of the Daleks, the Kaleds and the Thals are in a perpetual state of war and have been for 1000 years.  This state of war finally results in both sides occupying one city each on either side of mountains, and leads to both sides supplies being so completely ravaged by the war that both sides have a collection of black powder weapons, modern and futuristic weapons and armour.  It is out of this war that the Daleks are created by Davros.
 Also in the Doctor Who series, the Sontarans and the Rutans have been in a perpetual state of war for over 50,000 years. There appears to be no end in sight, with each side continually attempting to completely obliterate the other. This has resulted in either side constantly gaining and losing territory (including the Milky Way galaxy, which is known in Doctor Who as the "Mutter's Spiral").
 And again in Doctor Who in Destiny of the Daleks, the Daleks and the Movellans have basically been drawn into an Endless War, due to their battle computers both giving a logical set of orders, only to have one set countered by the other battle computer with an equally logical set of orders.  As both sides are using logical instructions neither side could win as both sides would be able to counter the advances of the other as both were using logic.  The Daleks returned to Skaro to find Davros to see if he could give them an advantage.  The Movellans tried to get the Doctor to give them the same advantage.
 In the 2000AD series Rogue Trooper, the North (Norts) and South (Southers) of the Planet Nu-Earth, for hundreds of years, have been in a perpetual state of war against each other using conventional, biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons. The length of the war as well as the weapons involved have turned the planet uninhabitable without protective suits. It was for this reason that the Southers created the GIs or Genetic Infantry which would be able to survive in the environment.
 Joe Haldeman's The Forever War is about a war that is made perpetual due to the Einsteinian time dilation effects due to space travel. The novel is said to have been shaped by Haldeman's experience in the Vietnam War as the book contains references to the war paired up with sci-fi concepts. A quote by Haldeman shows great influence from Hobbes' concept of perpetual war, "Life begins in a bloody mess and sometimes it ends the same way, and only odd people seek out blood between those times, maybe crazy people."
 In the original Star Trek episode "A Taste of Armageddon", the neighboring planets of Eminiar and Vendikar have been at war for 500 years. To avoid the physical devastation of an actual war, the belligerents agreed to conduct only computer-simulated attacks as long as the resulting "victims" voluntarily kill themselves in "disintegration stations".
 The 2006 film Children of Men displays themes of perpetual war by exploring the wars on Terror and Poverty. The movie is set in a dystopia suffering universal infertility. The social and political world has become chaotic as few people exercise social power from their wealthy positions. Meanwhile, there is constant conflict all around the world, which specifically the oppressed group suffers. Manohla Dargis of The New York Times takes notice to the norm of bombs casually exploding in public places, such as a cafe. Dargis writes, "It imagines the unthinkable: What if instead of containing Iraq, the world has become Iraq, a universal battleground of military control, security zones, refugee camps and warring tribal identities?"
 The 2013 science fiction film Snowpiercer illustrates tensions between socioeconomic classes, environmentalism, and usage of militarism. The Earth is rendered uninhabitable due to human destruction and carelessness. What remains of humanity must live in a self-sustaining biosphere on a train ruled by a tyrannical government. The working class are oppressed by the elite. The film displays a strong message on class structure and war between socioeconomic classes.
 The Danganronpa videogame series centers around an ongoing crisis known as "The Biggest, Most Awful, Most Tragic Event in Human History," or just The Tragedy. Originally beginning as a student protest against Hope's Peak Academy, it gradually escalated into an uprising of the poor against the elite, and a state of global social unrest, violence, and warfare happening not for any sort of political or ideological purpose, but just for the sake of causing death and destruction.
 Perpetual war is also associated with Warhammer 40,000 and other Warhammer titles. This concept is seen throughout these universes with the common tagline: "In the grim darkness of the far future, there is only war" and is essential to the "Grimdark" setting.
In 2045, an economic disaster known as Simultaneous Global Default triggered the never-ending economic war, called the "Sustainable War", taking place at the 2020 animated web series Ghost in the Shell: SAC_2045, which was released on Netflix in April 2020.
 In Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series), Sheev Palpatine creates a perpetual war, making a Clone Trooper army allied with the Jedi and Senate fight a Battle Droid army allied with the Sith and the Separatists. In reality, Palpatine is the mastermind behind the entire war, since he is in control of the senate and the Sith Lord Count Dooku, the separatist leader.

See also

Arab–Israeli conflict
Endemic warfare
Just war
List of ongoing armed conflicts
List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity
Permanent war economy
Perpetual peace
Rogue state
Roman–Persian Wars, noted for being "never-ending" by classical authors
Si vis pacem, para bellum
Syrian civil warThe Report from Iron MountainWar as metaphorWar Is a RacketNotes

ReferencesPerpetual War for Perpetual Peace, by Gore Vidal. Nation Books, 2002. Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace'', edited by Harry Elmer Barnes, The Caxton Printers Ltd., 1953 -  Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace

External links
Homeland Security: When The Phoenix Comes Home To Roost, by Douglas Valentine.
The Eternal War Parade, from Intervention Magazine.
The State, by Randolph Bourne – origin of the phrase, "war is the health of the state".
The War on Drugs as the Health of the State, by Bob Black.
The Doctrine of Armed Exceptionalism. by William Hartung.

Cold War
Military doctrines
Military operations
Public policy
Wars by type

Perpetual war


Clan Schaw is a Lawland Scots clan. The clan haes no connection wi the similarly named Clan Shaw o Tordarroch (commonly kent as Clan Shaw) which is ane o the Hieland clans o the Clan Chattan Confederation. Clan Schaw daes nae hae a chief recognised bi the Lord Lyon King o Arms therefore the clan haes no staundin unner Scots Law. Clan Schaw is considered an armigerous clan, meanin that it is considered tae hae haed at ane time a chief who possessed the chiefly arms, houiver no ane at present is in possession o sic arms.

Schaw
Schaw

Clan Schaw


Rethinking "Gnosticism": An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category, is a 1996 book by Michael Allen Williams.

This is one of the first critical works that goes about comparing the established academic definitions of gnosticism to the texts discovered at Nag Hammadi. The main points of the book are that there is no established definition of "gnosticism" by people who use the term, let alone the academic world; and that the groups referred to as "gnostic" by the Christian Church apologists referred to themselves often by their leader or leaders' names, but no group referred to themselves as "gnostic" or "gnostics".

Also, Williams mentions the argument that none of the groups labeled "gnostic" shared a common set of beliefs that put them in a group together. The only things close to this would be the Christian heresiographical use of referring to these varied groups as "gnostics". As well as the varied set of interruptions of the creator of the material world (Yahweh or demiurge) by these early groups. Finally Williams clarifies that the ancient "gnosticism" of the Nag Hammadi groups and the misused "gnosticism" of modern groups and academia have little if anything in common. Williams suggests a better and more adequate term for these heretical groups would be "biblical demiurgical traditions".

References

Religious studies books
Gnosticism
1999 non-fiction books
1999 in religion

Rethinking "Gnosticism"


Geoffrey V (1113–1151), called the Handsome () and Plantagenet (), was the Count of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine from 1129. He was the Duke of Normandy from 1144. By his marriage to the Empress Matilda, daughter and heiress of Henry I of England, Geoffrey had a son, Henry Curtmantle, who succeeded to the English throne. Geoffrey was the founder of the House of Plantagenet, so named for his nickname.

Early career

Geoffrey was the elder son of  Fulk V, King of Jerusalem and his wife Ermengarde of Maine. She was the daughter of Elias I of Maine.  Geoffrey, born 24 August 1113, was named after his great-grandfather Geoffrey II, Count of Gâtinais. He received his nickname, Plantagenet, from the yellow sprig of broom blossom (genêt is the French name for the planta genista, or broom shrub) he wore in his hat. King Henry I of England sent his royal legates to Anjou to arrange a marriage between Geoffrey and his daughter, Matilda. Consent was given by both parties. On 10 June 1128 King Henry I knighted the fifteen-year-old Geoffrey.

Marriage

In 1128 Geoffrey married Empress Matilda, the daughter and heiress of King Henry I of England and widow of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. The marriage was meant to seal a peace between England/Normandy and Anjou. She was about eleven years older than Geoffrey, and very proud of her status as an Empress (as opposed to being a mere Countess). Their marriage was a stormy one with frequent long separations, but she bore him three sons and survived him.

Count of Anjou

The year after the marriage Geoffrey's father left for Jerusalem to marry the heiress of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Geoffrey became the sole count of Anjou. When King Henry I died in 1135, Matilda at once entered Normandy to claim her inheritance. The border districts submitted to her, but England chose her cousin Stephen of Blois for its king, and Normandy soon followed suit. The following year, Geoffrey gave Ambrieres, Gorron, and Chatilon-sur-Colmont to Juhel de Mayenne, on condition that he help obtain the inheritance of Geoffrey's wife. In 1139 Matilda landed in England with 140 knights, where she was besieged at Arundel Castle by King Stephen. In the "Anarchy" which ensued, Stephen was captured at Lincoln in February, 1141, and imprisoned at Bristol. A legatine council of the English church held at Winchester in April 1141 declared Stephen deposed and proclaimed Matilda "Lady of the English".  Stephen was subsequently released from prison and had himself recrowned on the anniversary of his first coronation.

During 1142 and 1143, Geoffrey secured all of Normandy west and south of the Seine, and, on 14 January 1144, he crossed the Seine and entered Rouen.  He assumed the title of Duke of Normandy in the summer of 1144. In 1144, he founded an Augustine priory at Chateau-l'Ermitage in Anjou. Geoffrey held the duchy until 1149, when he and Matilda conjointly ceded it to their son, Henry, which cession was formally ratified by King Louis VII of France the following year.

Geoffrey also put down three baronial rebellions in Anjou, in 1129, 1135, and 1145–1151. He was often at odds with his younger brother, Elias, whom he had imprisoned until 1151. The threat of rebellion slowed his progress in Normandy, and is one reason he could not intervene in England.  In 1153, the Treaty of Wallingford allowed Stephen should remain King of England for life and that Henry, the son of Geoffrey and Matilda should succeed him.

Death
Geoffrey died suddenly on  7 September 1151. According to John of Marmoutier, Geoffrey was returning from a royal council when he was stricken with fever. He arrived at Château-du-Loir, collapsed on a couch, made bequests of gifts and charities, and died. He was buried at St. Julien's Cathedral in Le Mans France.

Children
Geoffrey and Matilda's children were:
Henry II of England (1133–1189)
Geoffrey, Count of Nantes (1 June 1134 Rouen- 26 July 1158 Nantes) died unmarried and was buried in Nantes
William X, Count of Poitou (1136–1164) died unmarried

Geoffrey also had illegitimate children by an unknown mistress (or mistresses): Hamelin; Emme, who married Dafydd Ab Owain Gwynedd, Prince of North Wales; and Mary, who became a nun and Abbess of Shaftesbury and who may be the poetess Marie de France. Adelaide of Angers is sometimes sourced as being the mother of Hamelin.

Notes

References

House of Plantagenet
Counts of Anjou
1113 births
1151 deaths

Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou


The Central American Technological University () (UNITEC) is a private coeducational institution with campuses in the three main cities of Honduras: Tegucigalpa, San Pedro Sula and La Ceiba.

History

UNITEC (Central American Technological University) is a higher education private institution founded in 1987 by a group of Honduras businessmen and professors of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras (UNAH), including William Chong Wong, who had envisioned the creation of an institute that had its main focus the teaching of the sciences to its students without compromising their knowledge of the humanities.

It has been rated as the most prestigious private university in Honduras (Unimer Research International, amongst other independent firms), and throughout its history has demonstrated important leadership in the country, based on academic excellence, high technology, and promoting entrepreneurship; supported by strong internationalization programs for its students and faculty. This makes UNITEC one of the most recognized educational institutions in Central America also, thanks to its innovative educational model (SENECA, Laspau-Harvard), for its interest in contributing to national extension of society, and leading the development of various projects that have contributed to the development of marginalized populations in Honduras.

This university also provides a choice of higher education to working adults through CEUTEC (Centre for Technological Development), which began operations in 2005.

In that same year UNITEC became a member of Laureate International Universities.

Currently, UNITEC has five different campuses distributed in five major cities in Honduras, three in Tegucigalpa, one in San Pedro Sula and another in La Ceiba. It has over 17,000 university students nationwide.

Academics

Its academic programs are focused on the contribution of professionals in the areas of business and engineering, some of them unique in Honduras offering 20 undergraduate programs and 8 master's programs.

Agreements and relationships

Unitec has established agreements and close relationships with other universities and Institutions worldwide:

 Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Learning), Mexico
 Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico National Autonomous University), Mexico
Universidad del Valle de México (UVM), Mexico
 Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, (Madrid Politechnical University) Spain
 Escuela de Administración de Negocios para Graduados - ESAN- (School of Graduate Business Administration), Peru
 Centro de Investigación de Tecnología de Alimentos de la Universidad de Costa Rica (CITA-UCR) (National Research Center on Food Service of Costa Rica University), Costa Rica
 Escuela Superior de Economía y Administracion de Empresas (Graduate School of Economy and Business Administration), Argentina
 Universidad de Huelva (Huelva University), Spain
 Calvin College, Michigan, United States
 University of Miami, United States
 Louisiana State University, United States
 Instituto Tecnológico de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Institute of Technology), Argentina
 Rochester Institute of Technology, United States
 Universidad Central (Central University), Chile
 Universidad Diego Portales (Diego Portales University), Chile
 Universidad de Fortaleza (Fortaleza University), Brazil
 Universidad Torcuato di Tella (Torcuato di Tella University), Argentina
 Universidad del Salvador (University del Salvador), Argentina
 Universidad de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires University), Argentina
 Universidad de Santiago de Chile (Santiago de Chile University), Chile
 Universidad Politécnica de Valencia (Valencia Politechnical University), Spain
 Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona (Barcelona Autonomous University), Spain
 Universidad Antonio de Nebrija (Antonio de Nebrija University), Spain
 Universidad Católica del Norte (Catholic University of the North), Chile
 Universidad Mayor (Major University), Chile
 Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial (Industrial Technology National Institute), Argentina
 IAE Universidad Austral, Argentina
 Normandy Business School, France
 Institute of Industrial Engineers, United States
 Tompkins Cortland Community College, United States
 National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan
 Tamkang University, Taiwan
 Universidad de Caxias do Sul (Caxias do Sul University), Brazil
 Fundacao Universidade de Brasil (Foundation of Brazil Universities), Brazil
 Universidad de Cienfuegos Carlos Rafaél Rodríguez, Cuba

Since 2005 UNITEC Honduras is affiliated member of Laureate International Universities, they have a partnership with more than 100 institutions worldwide.

References

External links
Unitec website

Unitec
Universities and colleges established in 1987
Tegucigalpa
1987 establishments in Honduras


General William Beckwith, KCH (1795 – 23 February 1871) was a general in the British Army.

He was the eldest son of William Beckwith of Trimdon, County Durham.

Career
In 1813 he enlisted as a cornet in the 16th Light Dragoons and served with the regiment in the Peninsular War, where he was involved in the battles of Nivelle, Nive and Bayonne. In 1815 he was present at the battles of Quatre Bras and Waterloo and in December of that year was promoted lieutenant.

In 1822 he transferred to the 14th Kings Dragoons as a captain, rising to major in 1828. The regiment was posted to India in 1822 and took part in the Siege of Bharatpur. Back in England he was responsible for the quelling of reform riots in Bristol in 1831. In 1833 he was retired on half pay with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, rising to the rank of colonel in 1846, major general in 1854, lieutenant-general in 1861 and general in 1869.

He was given in 1860 the colonelcy of the 14th King's Hussars, previously the 14th Kings Dragoons, which he held until his death.

Private life

He married the heiress Priscilla Maria Hopper of Silksworth, Co. Durham in 1821, who went on to inherit Silksworth House from her father. Beckwith was appointed High Sheriff of Durham for 1857.

On his death in 1871 he was buried in Houghton Hillside Cemetery, Houghton Le Spring.

References

1795 births
1871 deaths
People from Trimdon
British Army generals
High Sheriffs of Durham
14th King's Hussars officers
16th The Queen's Lancers officers

William Beckwith


Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge  (Mary Adelaide Wilhelmina Elizabeth; 27 November 1833 – 27 October 1897), later known as the Duchess of Teck, was a member of the British royal family. She was one of the first royals to patronise a wide range of charities and  was a first cousin of Queen Victoria.

Mary Adelaide was the daughter of Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, and Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel. Her father was the seventh son of King George III and Queen Charlotte. Mary Adelaide married Francis, Duke of Teck, with whom she had four children. The Duke and Duchess of Teck's daughter, "May", was the wife of George V and became known as Queen Mary. Through her daughter, Mary Adelaide was the grandmother of the British kings Edward VIII and George VI.

Early life

Mary Adelaide was born on 27 November 1833 in the Kingdom of Hanover, German Confederation. Her father was Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, the youngest surviving son of George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Her mother was Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel, the daughter of Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel. As a male-line granddaughter of a British monarch, she was styled as a British princess with the prefix of Royal Highness.

The young princess was baptised on 9 January 1834 at Cambridge House, Hanover, by Rev John Ryle Wood, Chaplain to the Duke of Cambridge. Her godmother and paternal aunt Princess Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg, was the only godparent who was present. The others were William IV and Queen Adelaide (her paternal uncle and aunt), Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh (her paternal aunt), Princess Marie of Hesse-Cassel (her maternal aunt) and Princess Marie Luise Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel (her maternal first cousin). She was named Mary Adelaide Wilhelmina Elizabeth for her aunts and uncle.

Mary Adelaide spent the early years of her life in Hanover, where her father acted as viceroy, in place of her uncles George IV and later William IV.

After the death of William IV, Mary Adelaide's first cousin, Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent, ascended the throne in 1837. However, Salic law prevented Victoria from ascending the throne of Hanover, which instead passed to Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland. Thus, the personal union which had existed for over a century between Britain and Hanover came to an end along with the arrangement of Hanover's ruler living in England as the British monarch and using a viceroy to represent him in Hanover. The Duke of Cumberland moved to Hanover as king and Mary Adelaide's father, no longer needed in Hanover, returned to London with his family, setting up residence in Kensington Palace.

Marriage

By the age of 30, Mary Adelaide was still unmarried. This situation was largely of her own choosing, as she had declared that she did not want to leave Britain, and would not marry a husband who would require her to live abroad. Suitors for her hand included Prince Wilhelm of Baden; the Duke of Brunswick; and the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, while reportedly Napoleon III considered proposing to her but was deterred by her unwillingness to leave her home country. At one point Victor Emmanuel II of Italy was thought of as possible husband for Mary Adelaide. He had a scandalous reputation and was a notorious womaniser; it was said that whenever he visited a country he went to the theatre and music halls and sent notes propositioning the chorus girls. His behaviour in England did little to enhance his reputation. Mary Adelaide's above-average weight (earning her the disparaging epithet of "Fat Mary") and lack of income were also considered to deter potential suitors, as was her advancing age. However, her royal rank prevented her from marrying someone not of royal blood, and Mary had reportedly resigned herself to living out her days as a "jolly old maid". Her cousin, Queen Victoria, and Victoria's son the Prince of Wales took pity on her and attempted to arrange pairings.

Eventually a suitable candidate was found by the Prince of Wales and his wife Princess Alexandra on a visit to the Austrian court at Vienna in 1865. During the visit, they met and took a liking to a young officer in the Austrian Army, Prince Francis of Teck, a minor member of the royal family of Württemberg. Francis was of lower rank than Mary Adelaide, was the product of a morganatic marriage and had no succession rights to the throne of Württemberg, but was at least of princely title and of royal blood. He was also considered to be "the most handsome man at the Austrian court", where he was known as , "the handsome cavalry officer". The Prince of Wales invited the young officer to visit the royal court in Britain, and upon Francis's arrival on 6 March 1866 arranged for him to meet Mary Adelaide. "The wooing was but a short affair", according to Mary Adelaide: the pair were introduced on 7 March 1866, and a month later were engaged, much to the satisfaction of Mary Adelaide's family. "Everyone seemed to think it would do", Mary Adelaide's daughter May would later say, "and it did". The couple were married on 12 June 1866 at St Anne's Church, Kew, Surrey. Despite money problems, and perennial dissatisfaction about their low ranking within the British royal family, it would prove to be a happy marriage.

The Duke and Duchess of Teck chose to reside in London rather than abroad, mainly because Mary Adelaide received £5,000 per annum as a Parliamentary annuity and carried out royal duties. Her mother, the Duchess of Cambridge, also provided her with supplementary income. Requests to Queen Victoria for extra funds were generally refused; however, the Queen did provide the Tecks with apartments at Kensington Palace and White Lodge in Richmond Park as a country house.

Mary Adelaide requested that her new husband be granted the style Royal Highness, but this was refused by Queen Victoria. The Queen did, however, promote Francis to the rank of Highness in 1887 in celebration of her Golden Jubilee.

Children
The Tecks had one daughter and three sons:

Life abroad

Despite the couple's modest income, Mary Adelaide had expensive tastes and lived an extravagant life of parties, expensive food and clothes and holidays abroad. In 1883 they were forced to live more cheaply abroad in order to reduce their debts. With their children, they travelled to Florence, Italy, and also stayed with relatives in Germany and Austria. Initially, they travelled under the names of the Count and Countess von Hohenstein. However, Mary Adelaide wished to travel in more style and reverted to her actual title, which commanded significantly more attention and better service.

Later life and death
The Tecks returned from their self-imposed exile in 1885 and continued to live at Kensington Palace and White Lodge in Richmond Park. Mary Adelaide began devoting her life to charity, serving as patron to Barnardo's and other children's charities.

In 1891, Mary Adelaide was keen for her daughter, Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (known as "May"), to marry one of the sons of the Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII.  At the same time, Queen Victoria wanted a British-born bride for the future king, though of course one of royal rank and ancestry, and Mary Adelaide's daughter fulfilled the rank criteria. After Queen Victoria's approval, May became engaged to Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, second in line to the British throne. He died suddenly six weeks later. Queen Victoria was fond of Princess Mary and persuaded the Duke of Clarence's brother and next in the line of succession, Prince George, Duke of York, to marry her instead. They married in the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, on 6 July 1893.

Mary Adelaide never lived to see her daughter become Princess of Wales or Queen, as she died on 27 October 1897 at White Lodge, following an emergency operation. She was buried on 3 November 1897 in the Royal Vault at St George's Chapel, Windsor.

Mary Adelaide Close in Kingston Vale, on the edge of Richmond Park, is named after her.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

 27 November 1833 – 12 June 1866: Her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge
 12 June 1866 – 16 December 1871: Her Royal Highness The Princess of Teck or Her Royal Highness The Princess Mary Adelaide (The Princess of Teck)
 16 December 1871 – 27 October 1897: Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Teck

As a male-line granddaughter of the British monarch, she was styled Her Royal Highness Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge at birth. As the male-line granddaughter of a king of Hanover, Princess Mary Adelaide also bore the titles of Princess of Hanover and Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg.

Honours
 Companion of the Imperial Order of the Crown of India, 1878
 Order of St John Lady of Justice, 1896

Ancestors

References

Sources

External links

Cambridge, Princess Mary Adelaide of
Cambridge, Princess Mary Adelaide of
British princesses
Daughters of British dukes
Mary Adelaide
Hanoverian princesses
Companions of the Order of the Crown of India
Cambridge, Mary Adelaide of
Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Teck-Cambridge family
Residents of White Lodge, Richmond Park
People from Hanover

Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge


Isaac ben Moses Arama ( 1420 – 1494) was a Spanish rabbi and author.  He was at first principal of a rabbinical academy at Zamora (probably his birthplace); then he received a call as rabbi and preacher from the community at Tarragona, and later from that of Fraga in Aragon. He officiated finally in Calatayud as rabbi and head of the Talmudical academy. Upon the expulsion of the Jews in 1492, Arama settled in Naples, where he died in 1494.

Writings and thought
Arama is the author of Aḳedat Yitzchaḳ (Binding of Isaac), a lengthy philosophical commentary on the Pentateuch, homiletic in style. From this work he is frequently spoken of as the "Ba'al 'Aḳedah" (author of the Aḳedah). He also wrote a commentary upon the Five Scrolls, and a work called Ḥazut Ḳashah (A Difficult Vision), upon the relation of philosophy to theology; also Yad Abshalom (The Hand of Absalom), a commentary on Proverbs, written in memory of his son-in-law, Absalom, who died shortly after his marriage.

Arama was the very prototype of the Spanish-Jewish scholar of the second half of the fifteenth century. First of all he was a Talmudist. The study of the Talmud was of the utmost importance to him; so that he lamented deeply when his rabbinical pupils could not follow him from Zamora to Tarragona, because the latter community was unable to support them. In the next place, he was a philosopher. The study of philosophy was so universal in Spain at that period that no one could assume a public position who had not devoted himself to it. Arama had paid particular attention to Maimonides; but independent philosophical thought is hardly to be found in his work. His remarks concerning the nature of the soul (Aḳedah, chapter 6) are noteworthy. After a detailed account of the various theories about the soul which had prevailed, he comes to the conclusion that the first germ of the soul, common to the whole human race, has its origin with and in the body. His theory is that of Alexander of Aphrodisias—that the soul is the "form" of the organic body—but Arama is able to adduce support for it from Talmud and Kabbalah. The third element in Arama's mental composition was Kabbalah as expounded in the Zohar, which he believed to have been written by Simeon bar Yohai. He did not, however, occupy himself so much with the mystical side of Kabbalah as with its philosophy.

His earliest work, the Ḥazut Ḳashah, presenting in a certain sense an enunciation of Arama's religious philosophy, includes also much that is interesting pertaining to the history of the Jews in Spain prior to their expulsion. The aim of the work was to furnish a rejoinder to the missionary sermons of the Church, to which, under the laws then prevalent, the Jews were compelled to listen. Hence his polemic against the Christian dogma of Grace is the résumé of an oral disputation between Arama and a Christian scholar. In support of his attack upon this Christian dogma, Arama adduces the doctrine of the freedom of the will as formulated by Aristotle, and the consideration of God's transcendent justice, which would make Grace to consist of nothing but the exercise of the will of a despot. Besides this instance of his polemics, his treatment of the Deluge contains several attacks upon Christianity. The greater portion of the work, however, is devoted to the confutation of that philosophy which refuses to recognize Jewish revelation, or recognizes it only as identical with philosophy.

References

 Its bibliography:
Ḥayyim Jos. Pollak, in his edition of the Aḳedat Yiẓḥaḳ, Presburg, 1849, i.2-7;
Literaturblatt des Orients, iv.688;
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. s.v.;
Benjacob, Oẓar ha-Sefarim, under the respective titles;
Van Straalen, Cat. Brit. Mus. (Suppl.), pp. 114, 125, 137;
Winter and Wünsche, Jüd. Lit. ii.618-631;
S. I. Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, 647, 648;
Zunz, S.P., p. 528;
M. L. Kohn, Biographien Hervorragender Rabbinischer Authoritäten, pp. 7–20, 137-141;
Kaufmann, Die Sinne, Index, s.v.

1420s births
1494 deaths
15th-century Aragonese rabbis
15th-century Spanish philosophers
Jewish philosophers
People from Calatayud
15th-century Castilian rabbis
Jews expelled from Spain in 1492

Isaac ben Moses Arama


Modern cultivation of coffee in China began in 1988. In 2016 and 2017, China was among the top 20 worldwide producers of coffee. Ninety-eight per cent of the coffee grown in  China comes from Yunnan province.

History
A French missionary brought coffee to Yunnan province in the late 19th century, marking the crop's introduction to China. However, the modern Chinese coffee cultivation industry began in 1988 when the Chinese government, The World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme jointly initiated a program to introduce coffee growing in the region. Nestlé also arrived early in Yunnan to encourage the cultivation of coffee. Hogood Coffee, the largest domestic instant coffee maker, was founded in 2007 and has been responsible for cultivating much of the coffee in the Dehong region. Hogood capitalizes on relaxed land use policies in Yunnan which have allowed farmland consolidation through contract farming schemes; seedlings are planted by Hogood and harvested by farmers of the beans that are at the end purchased by Hogood.  In 2013, Yunnan Coffee Traders became the region's first dedicated specialty coffee exporter; they are now (2018) the largest exporter of Yunnan speciality coffee in China.

Domestic coffee consumption in China rose in parallel with an increase in domestic coffee production; from 2006 to 2017, Chinese coffee consumption had grown by an annual average of 22%.

White-collar workers are the main force behind coffee consumption. In a survey, white-collar workers accounted for 30% of the total, which is the largest consumer group, followed by government officials, school staff and, people who work for organizations, accounting for 15%. The proportion of freelancers and coffee practitioners is close to that of public institutions.

Planting and varieties

Almost all domestic coffee comes from Yunnan, accounting for 98% of production. The main regions within Yunnan for coffee production are Baoshan, Dehong, and Menglian in Pu'er. Pu'er alone accounts for 60% of the country's total production. Other provinces where coffee is grown include Fujian and Hainan.

Fujian and Hainan mainly grow Robusta coffee, while Yunnan grows arabica, with Catimor (a Caturra-Timor hybrid) as the varietal of choice.

Marketing and trade
In Yunnan, about half of the crop went to export markets in 2016, generating $280 million in earnings.  Most Chinese coffee beans are commercial grade and exports are primarily green beans sent to European markets. The United States is also an export market for Chinese beans, with Starbucks purchasing more than half of the coffee imported into the U.S. from China in January-September 2014. Major trading houses like Volcafe, the coffee arm of London-based commodities trader ED&F Man with an office in Yunnan, and Miami-based commodities trader Coex, source from China to balance deficits in supply from traditional exporting countries during years of drought or crop rust.

The emergence of dedicated specialty coffee farming commenced around 2009 under early adopters such as Hu Xixiang from Mangzhang Farms in Menglian (Pu'er), Yunnan alongside the support of industry professionals such as Timothy Heinze, Joshua Jagelman, and Saxon Wright. While specialty coffee production in China is still less than 2% of total volumes, China's recent selection (2018) as the portrait country at the world's largest Specialty Coffee trade show held by the Specialty Coffee Association emphasizes the growing recognition of China as producer of specialty grade coffees.

Chongqing has emerged as the largest domestic trading hub for coffee. The Chongqing Coffee Exchange was established by the Chongqing Energy Group as a trading platform for both home grown and Southeast Asia sourced coffee. The exchange takes advantage of Chongqing's role as a transportation hub. The city is the starting point of the Chongqing-Xinjiang-Europe freight train, a corridor of the Belt and Road Initiative. Pu'er City also saw the establishment of a coffee trading hub when Yunnan Coffee Exchange started operations in January 2016.

See also

 Coffee wars in China
 List of countries by coffee production

Notes

China
Agricultural production in China by commodity
Economy of Yunnan

Coffee production in China


Arthur H. Bulbulian ( Art'ur Bulbulyan; December 20, 1900 – June 23, 1996) was a pioneer of Armenian descent in the field of facial prosthetics.

Life

His work as a part of the Mayo Clinic Aero Medical Unit led to his being credited with the creation of the A-14 oxygen mask for the United States Air Force in 1941. The A-14 fighter pilot's mask was frost proof, and included a microphone for radio communication, and allowed the pilot to talk and eat while wearing it.

He was a member of the team which included Drs. W. Randolph Lovelace and Walter M. Boothby, which developed the BLB (Boothby, Lovelace and Bulbulian) nasal and orinasal oxygen mask, which was useful for clinical settings, and, as it turned out, for aviators at high altitudes. The BLB and A-14 oxygen mask was used in combat in World War II.

Dr. Bulbulian also was the first director of the Mayo Medical Museum, and as such, developed content with staff doctors, and built the exhibits.  This was the first medical museum in the United States.  He also designed and created the exhibits for the Mayo Clinic's display at the 1933 "A Century of Progress Exposition," at the Chicago Worlds Fair.

Born in 1900 near Caesarea, Ottoman Empire, he moved to the United States in 1920.  He attended Middlebury College, where he received a B.S. and M.S. degree in Science.  He did more graduate work at Brown University and the University of Iowa.  In 1928, he entered the University of Minnesota School of Dentistry, and received the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery.  In 1931 he was appointed as an instructor in orthodontics at the same school.

References
"New Oxygen Mask Proves Success," Boston Herald, March 11, 1939, Pg 1
"Unique Museum has Masterpieces of Medical Artist," St. Paul Pioneer Press, Feb. 5, 1967
"Pathfinders: Arthur H. Bulbulian," Mayo Magazine, Winter, 1994, pg 20 - 23
"Who Was Who in America," v. 12, 1998 pg 30
"Sculpturing Facial Prostheses," Medical World News, July 17, 1964, pg 101
"Dr. Arthur H. Bulbulian: Pioneer in Facial Reconstruction," by Dr. Varoujan A. Achalian, Indiana University, Nor gyank, Vol XII, No. 14, March 22, 1990

1900 births
1996 deaths
American surgeons
Ethnic Armenian physicians
American people of Armenian descent
Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the United States
Armenians from the Ottoman Empire
Middlebury College alumni
Brown University alumni
University of Iowa alumni
University of Minnesota School of Dentistry alumni
University of Minnesota faculty
People from Kayseri
Armenian inventors
20th-century surgeons

Arthur H. Bulbulian


Randy Jackson (born 1956) is an American musician, record producer and judge on American Idol.

Randy Jackson may also refer to:

Randy Jackson (singer) (born 1961), member of The Jacksons and brother of Michael Jackson
Randy Jackson (Zebra), guitarist and lead singer of the rock band Zebra
Randy Jackson (baseball) (born 1926), American baseball player of the 1950s
Randy Jackson (offensive lineman) (born 1944), American football player of the 1960s and 1970s
Randy Jackson (running back) (1948–2010), former NFL football player

Randy Jackson (disambiguation)


The Capture of Savannah, sometimes the First Battle of Savannah (because of the siege of 1779), or the Battle of Brewton Hill, was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on December 29, 1778 pitting local American Patriot militia and Continental Army units, holding the city, against a British invasion force, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell. The British capture of the city led to an extended occupation and was the opening move in the British southern strategy to regain control of the rebellious Southern provinces by appealing to the relatively strong Loyalist sentiment there.

General Sir Henry Clinton, the Commander-in-Chief, North America, dispatched Campbell and a 3,100-strong force from New York City to capture Savannah, and begin the process of returning Georgia to British control. He was to be assisted by troops under the command of Brigadier General Augustine Prevost that were marching up from Saint Augustine in East Florida. After landing near Savannah on December 23, Campbell assessed the American defenses, which were comparatively weak, and decided to attack without waiting for Prevost. Taking advantage of local assistance he flanked the American position outside the city, captured a large portion of Major General Robert Howe's army, and drove the remnants to retreat into South Carolina.

Campbell and Prevost followed up the victory with the capture of Sunbury and an expedition to Augusta. The latter was occupied by Campbell only for a few weeks before he retreated to Savannah, citing insufficient Loyalist and Native American support and the threat of Patriot forces across the Savannah River in South Carolina. The British held off a Franco-American siege in 1779, and held the city until late in the war.

Background

In March 1778, following the defeat of a British army at Saratoga and the consequent entry of France into the American Revolutionary War as an American ally, Lord George Germain, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, wrote to General Sir Henry Clinton that capturing the southern colonies was "considered by the King as an object of great importance in the scale of the war". Germain's instructions to Clinton, framed as recommendations, were that he should abandon Philadelphia and then embark upon operations to recover Georgia and the Carolinas; whilst making diversionary attacks against Virginia and Maryland.

British preparations

In June and July 1778 Clinton removed his troops from Philadelphia back to New York. In November, after dealing with the threat of a French fleet off New York and Newport, Rhode Island, Clinton turned his attention to the South. He organized a force of about 3,000 men in New York and sent orders to Saint Augustine, the capital of East Florida, where Brigadier General Augustine Prevost was to organize all available men and Indian agent John Stuart was to rally the local Creek and Cherokee warriors to assist in operations against Georgia. Clinton's basic plan, first proposed by Thomas Brown in 1776, began with the capture of the capital of Georgia, Savannah.

Clinton gave command of the detachment from New York to Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell. The force consisted of two battalions (the 1st and 2nd) of the 71st Regiment of Foot, the Hessian regiments von Wöllwarth and von Wissenbach, and four Loyalist units: one battalion from the New York Volunteers, two from DeLancey's Brigade, and one from Skinner's Brigade. Campbell sailed from New York on November 26 and arrived off Tybee Island, near the mouth of the Savannah River, on December 23.

American defenses
The State of Georgia was defended by two separate forces. Units of the Continental Army were under the command of Major General Robert Howe, who was responsible for the defense of the entire South, and the state's militia companies were under the overall command of Georgia Governor John Houstoun. Howe and the Georgia authorities had previously squabbled over control of military expeditions against Prevost in East Florida, and those expeditions had failed. These failures led the Continental Congress to decide in September 1778 to replace Howe with Major General Benjamin Lincoln, who had negotiated militia participation in events surrounding the British defeat at Saratoga. Lincoln had not yet arrived when word reached Howe that Clinton was sending troops to Georgia.

In November 1778, British raids into Georgia became more and more threatening to the state's population centers. Despite the urgency of the situation, Governor Houstoun refused to allow Howe to direct the movements of the Georgia Militia. On November 18, Howe began marching south from Charleston, South Carolina with 550 Continental Army troops, arriving in Savannah late that month. He learned that Campbell had sailed from New York on December 6. On December 23, sails were spotted off Tybee Island. The next day, Governor Houstoun assigned 100 Georgia militia to Howe.

A council of war decided to attempt a vigorous defense of Savannah although it was thought that they were likely to be significantly outnumbered by the British and hoped to last until Lincoln's troops arrived. The large number of potential landing points forced Howe to hold most of his army in reserve until the British had actually landed.

Order of battle

Continentals
 Commanding Officer, Major General Robert Howe
 4th Georgia Regiment
 500–550 Georgia and South Carolina Militia led by Brigadier General Isaac Huger

British
 Commanding Officer, Lieutenant Colonel Sir Archibald Campbell
 71st Regiment of Foot (Highland Scots/Fraser's Highlanders)
 4 Battalions of German Mercenaries
 North Carolina Royalist Battalion
 South Carolina Royalist Battalion
 New York Volunteers
 Artillery, commanded by Lieutenant Ralph Wilson
 Detachments from No. 1 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 No. 2 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 Detachments from No. 3 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 Detachments from No. 4 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery
 Detachments from No. 8 Company, 4th Battalion, Royal Artillery

Battle

The place Campbell selected for landing was Girardeau's Plantation, located about  below the city. When word reached Howe that the landing had started on December 29, he sent a company of Continentals to occupy the bluffs above the landing site. Campbell realized that the bluffs would need to be controlled before the majority of his forces could land, and dispatched two companies of the 71st Regiment to take control of them. The Continentals opened fire at about . The British, rather than returning fire, advanced rapidly with bayonets fixed, denying the Continentals a second shot. The Continentals retreated after they had killed four and wounded five at no cost to themselves. By noon, Campbell had landed his army and began to proceed cautiously toward the city.

Howe held a council that morning and ground was chosen at which to make a stand. About one-half-mile (0.7 km) south of the city he established a line of defense in the shape of an open V, with the ends anchored by swampy woods. On the left, Howe placed Georgia Continentals and militia under Samuel Elbert, while on the right, he put South Carolina Continentals and militia under Isaac Huger and William Thomson. The line was supported by four pieces of field artillery, and light infantry companies guarded the flanks. Most of Howe's troops, including the Continentals, had seen little or no action in the war.

When Campbell's advance companies spotted Howe's line around 2:00 pm, the main body stopped short of the field and Campbell went to see what he was up against.  He viewed Howe's defenses as essentially sound, but a local slave told him that there was a path through the swamp on Howe's right. Campbell ordered Sir James Baird to take 350 light infantry and 250 New York Loyalists and follow the slave through the swamp, while he arrayed his troops just out of view in a way that would give the impression he would attempt a flanking maneuver on Howe's left. One of his officers climbed a tree to observe Baird's progress. True to the slave's word, the trail came out near the Continental barracks, which had been left unguarded sice the Continentals were unaware they had been flanked. When they reached position, the man in the tree signaled by waving his hat, and Campbell ordered the regulars to charge.

The first sounds of battle Howe heard were musket fire from the barracks, but these were rapidly followed by cannon fire and the appearance of charging British and German troops on his front. He ordered an immediate retreat, but it rapidly turned into a rout. His untried troops hardly bothered to return fire, some throwing down their weapons before attempting to run away through the swampy terrain. Campbell reported, "It was scarcely possible to come up with them, their retreat was rapid beyond Conception." The light infantry in the Continental rear cut off the road to Augusta, the only significant escape route, which forced a mad scramble of retreating troops into the city itself. The Georgia soldiers on the right attempted to find a safe crossing of Musgrove Creek, but one did not exist, and many of the troops were taken prisoner. Soldiers who did not immediately surrender were sometimes bayoneted. Colonel Huger managed to form a rear-guard to cover the escape of a number of the Continentals. Some of Howe's men managed to escape to the north before the British closed off the city, but others were forced to attempt swimming across Yamacraw Creek; an unknown number drowned in the attempt.

Aftermath
Campbell gained control of the city at the cost to his forces of seven killed and seventeen wounded; including the four men killed and five wounded during preliminary skirmishing. Campbell took 453 prisoners, and there were at least 83 dead and 11 wounded from Howe's forces. The number of men who drowned during the retreat has been estimated at about 30. When Howe's retreat ended at Purrysburg, South Carolina he had 342 men left, less than half his original army. Howe would receive much of the blame for the disaster, with William Moultrie arguing that he should have either disputed the landing site in force or retreated without battle to keep his army intact. He was exonerated in a court martial that inquired into the event, but the tribunal pointed out that Howe should have made a stand at the bluffs or more directly opposed the landing.

General Prevost arrived from East Florida in mid-January and soon sent Campbell with 1,000 men to take Augusta. Campbell occupied the frontier town against minimal opposition, but by then General Lincoln had begun to rally support in South Carolina to oppose the British. Campbell abandoned Augusta on February 14, the same day a Loyalist force en route to meet him was defeated in the Battle of Kettle Creek. Although Patriot forces following the British were defeated at the March 3 Battle of Brier Creek, the Georgia backcountry remained in Patriot hands.

Campbell wrote that he would be "the first British officer to [rend] a star and stripe from the flag of Congress." Savannah was used as a base to conduct coastal raids which targeted areas from Charleston, South Carolina to the Florida coast. In the fall of 1779, a combined French and American siege to recapture Savannah failed and suffered significant casualties. Control of Georgia was formally returned to its royal governor, James Wright, in July 1779, but the backcountry would not come under British control until after the 1780 Siege of Charleston. Patriot forces recovered Augusta by siege in 1781, but Savannah remained in British hands until 11 July 1782.

Notes

References

Savannah (1778)
Savannah (1778)
Savannah (1778)
History of Savannah, Georgia
Savannah (Capture of)
Conflicts in 1778
1778 in the United States
1778 in Georgia (U.S. state)

Capture of Savannah


John Kennedy, PC, 2nd Lord Kennedy (12 October 1454 – 29 December 1508) was a Scottish lord, the son of Gilbert Kennedy, 1st Lord Kennedy and Catherine Maxwell.  He succeeded to the title of 2nd Lord Kennedy in 1489 after the death of his father. He was a Commissioner to treat with the English in 1484. He was invested as a Privy Counsellor (P.C.) in Scotland to King James III of Scotland.

Family
John Kennedy married three times:

His first wife was Elizabeth Montgomerie, daughter of Alexander Montgomerie, 1st Lord Montgomerie, before 25 March 1460, and by her, he had three daughters and a son David Kennedy, 1st Earl of Cassillis (1463–1513) who married Agnes Borthwick.

His second wife was Lady Elizabeth Gordon, daughter of Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly and Elizabeth Crichton, whom he married between 24 August 1467 and 12 August 1471. By her, he had three sons and four daughters, including Elizabeth Kennedy, Lady Avondale (c. 1462 – c. 1510), Janet Kennedy (c. 1480 – c. 1545) and Margaret Kennedy.

His third wife whom he married after 1500 was known also as Elizabeth Kennedy.

References

1454 births
1500s deaths
John
15th-century Scottish people
16th-century Scottish people
Lords of Parliament (pre-1707)

John Kennedy, 2nd Lord Kennedy


The General Motors–Detroit Diesel V8 engine is a series of diesel V8 engines first introduced by General Motors for their C/K pickup trucks in 1982. Developed in collaboration with Detroit Diesel, the engine family was produced by GM through 2002, when it was replaced by the new Duramax line. AM General's subsidiary General Engine Products (GEP) still produces a military variant of this engine for the HMMWV.

The General Motors light-truck 6.2L and 6.5L diesel engines were optional in all 1982 through 2002 full-size GM pickups, SUVs, and vans: Chevrolet/GMC C/K pickup trucks, Chevrolet/GMC Suburban, Chevrolet K5 Blazer/GMC Jimmy and its replacement Chevrolet Tahoe/GMC Yukon, full-size Chevrolet/GMC Van and its successor Chevrolet Express/GMC Savana, as well as motor homes. The engine was standard on AM General's military HMMWV, civilian Hummer H1, and the 1980s GM military Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicle.

6.2L

The original  diesel V8 was introduced in 1982 for the Chevrolet C/K and was produced until 1993. The 6.2L diesel emerged as a high-fuel-economy alternative to the V8 gasoline engine lineup, and achieved better mileage than Chevrolet's 4.3L V6 gasoline engine of the 1980s, at a time when the market was focused on power rather than efficiency. However, it was designed to easily install in place of the gasoline V8, using the same mounting and attachments for transmissions as all GM truck engines. Overall weight for the complete engine is slightly heavier than the 7.4L/454 V8 big-block gasoline engine. There were about 300 6.2 diesel engines which were placed into 2-door cars in 1981, prior to official production. These were then given to the United States government and issued to various federal agencies and military branches. These were used as testbeds regarding long term fuel economy and reliability in cars.

Applications
 1981 Chevrolet Impala Sport Coupe (only available with upgraded suspension).
 1982–1993 Chevrolet/GMC C/K 10/1500, 20/2500, 30/3500
 1982–1991 Chevrolet Suburban/GMC Suburban
 1992–1993 AM General Hummer H1
 1982–1993 AM General HMMWV
 GM version of the CUCV
 1982–1993 Chevrolet Van

Specifications
 Engine RPO codes: LH6 ('C' series, with EGR / EPR) and LL4 ('J' series)
 Displacement:
 Bore × stroke:
 Block / Head: Cast iron / Cast iron
 Aspiration: Natural
 Valvetrain: OHV 16-valve
 Compression: 21.5:1
 Injection: Indirect
 Horsepower / Torque (at launch):  at 3,600 rpm /  at 2,000 rpm
 Horsepower / Torque (final):  at 3,600 rpm /  at 2,000 rpm
 Horsepower / Torque (US Army HMMWV model):  at 3,600 rpm /  at 2,100 rpm
 Redline: 3,600 rpm
 Idle RPMs: 550 ± 25

6.5L

The  version was introduced in 1992 to replace the 6.2. Most 6.5s were equipped with a turbocharger. This engine was never meant to be a power and torque competitor with Ford/International and Dodge/Cummins, but rather a simply designed workhorse engine that made credible power, achieved decent fuel economy, and met emission standards in half-ton trucks. The Duramax 6600 replaced the 6.5 in light trucks beginning in 2001 and the C3500HD medium duty cab and chassis (replaced by the C4500 Kodiak/TopKick) and vans beginning in 2003, but the 6.5 (6500 Optimizer) is still produced by AM General for the HMMWV.

There are several GM 6.5-liter diesel engine production options. The Turbocharged L56, (VIN "S") was used in most light duty 3/4 ton (2500). Heavy duty 3/4 ton and 1 ton trucks used the Turbocharged L65 (VIN "F") engine. The L56 is emissions controlled with EGR and catalytic converters. The L65 engine has no EGR, and has no catalytic converter. There is a soot trap on L65 engines that is often mistaken for a catalytic converter. GM was the first manufacturer to introduce an electronically controlled fuel injection system into a diesel pickup truck. The L49 (VIN "P") and L57 are both naturally aspirated engines. L57 is listed as HO or Heavy Duty. Additional RPO codes are LQM  and LQN .

Changes were made by GM to the 6.5 in their light trucks for emissions or reliability improvement. The 1992–1993 model years used a 6.5-specific Stanadyne DB-2 mechanical injection pump. GM replaced the DB-2 with the electronic throttle DS-4 in 1994–2000 vehicles. In mid-1996, GM implemented a redesigned engine cooling system incorporating twin non bypass-blocking thermostats and a  water pump. This improved the flow through the block by 70–75% and flow to the radiator 7%.

Applications
(6.5 diesel only)
 1994–1999 Chevy Blazer / 2-door Tahoe / GMC Yukon / Chevy K-1500, K-2500, K-3500
 1994–1999 Chevrolet Suburban / GMC Suburban / Holden Suburban
 1992–2000 Chevrolet and GMC C/K 1500, 2500, and 3500
 2001–2002 Chevrolet and GMC C3500HD
 1994–2004 AM General Hummer H1
 1994–present AM General HMMWV
 1994–1995 Chevrolet and GMC G20 and G30 vans (naturally aspirated)
 1996–2002 Chevrolet Express/GMC Savana 2500 and 3500 (turbocharged)
 1999–2001 Workhorse Custom Chassis (light- and medium-duty forward-control chassis) P42 Commercial, P32 Motorhome

Specifications

 Engine RPO Codes: L49, L56, L57, L65, LQM, and LQN.
 Displacement:
 Bore × stroke:
 Block / Head: Cast iron / Cast iron
 Aspiration: Turbocharged (Borg-Warner GM-X series)  Also available naturally aspirated.
 Valvetrain: OHV 2 valves × cyl.
 Compression: GM Early 21.3:1, GM Late 20.3:1, AMG/GEP Marine 18.0:1
 Injection: Indirect
 Power / Torque (lowest):  at 3,600 rpm /  at 1,700 rpm (naturally aspirated)
 Power / Torque (highest):  at 3,200 rpm /  at 1,800 rpm (turbocharged)
 Redline: 3,600

Fuel system

The fuel system is a very simple design. A mechanical or electric fuel lift pump feeds a Stanadyne rotary distributor injection pump at low pressure. The distributor injection pump controls both metering, via an internal centrifugal governor, and high pressure fuel delivery to the fuel injectors via internal precision hydraulic pumps. Near the top of the compression stroke, fuel is atomized at high pressure into a hemispherical Inconel prechamber in the cylinder heads using Bosch pintle and seat mechanical fuel injectors. This is called indirect injection. GM used fully mechanical DB2 series injection pumps on all military HMMWVs and 1982–1993 6.2s and 6.5s. From 1994 until end of production, GM used the electronically controlled Stanadyne DS4 series of injection pumps in its light trucks. A mechanical DB4 series injection pump can be found on some 6.5L marine engines.

Common problems

Main Bearing Web Crack: In both 6.2L and 6.5L engines, this is reportedly fixed with a combination of improved higher nickel cast iron alloy and lower block re-design including, but not limited to, a main bearing girdle. These features are in the new-for-2007 AM General GEP P400 6500 Optimizer enhanced 6.5L diesel presently being sold to the U.S. government for the 6-ton armored HMMWV.
Crank Failure: Related to age failures of the harmonic balancer, the vibration-dampened accessory drive pulley, or the dual mass flywheel.
Pump Mounted Driver: Relates to thermal failures. The PMD is screwed to the DS-4 injection pump on the 1994–2002 6.5L diesel utilizing fuel flow to dissipate heat. The injection pump is mounted in the intake valley (a high heat area). The PMD contains two power transistors that should be cooled by proper contact with the injection pump body. If the pump is not precisely machined to make complete contact with the transistors via the silicone thermal gasket and paste, the PMD is improperly installed without the gasket or paste, the PMD is installed off center with the pump body, or corrosion develops on the mounting surface the PMD will overheat. Several companies manufacture an extension harness and heat-sink kits. These allow an owner or a mechanic to relocate the PMD away from the injection pump to a lower heat environment or a place that can get more air flow.
Cylinder Head Cracking: higher-mileage 6.5 engines can exhibit stress related fractures in the cylinder head bowl. Stronger cylinder heads remedy this problem.
Oil Cooler Line Failure: Stock 1990s GM oil cooler lines are held together by a C-clip at the engine block and since the engine has no low oil pressure shutoff switch, if one clip fails, the engine loses its oil and seizes. Aftermarket oil cooler lines that utilize compression fittings rectify this.

See also

 List of GM engines
 Duramax V8 engine

References

External links
DB2 Injection Pump

General Motors engines
Detroit Diesel engines
Marine diesel engines
Diesel engines by model
V8 engines

Detroit Diesel V8 engine


Francis W. Chapin (February 14, 1899 – February 23, 1965) was an American artist.  His works included both watercolors and oil paintings of landscapes and portraits.

Biography
He was born in Bristolville, Ohio.  He graduated from Washington and Jefferson College, where he was a member of Phi Delta Theta, in 1921. A year later he enrolled at the Art Institute of Chicago where he spent six years and won the Bryan Lathrop Fellowship in his last year. He chose to remain in Chicago where he became known as the "Dean of Chicago Painters." It wasn't until 1929 when he hosted his first pair of one-man shows.

Chapin was an instructor at the Art Institute of Chicago from 1929 to 1947.  In 1932, Chapin was approached by Grant Wood and accepted a faculty position at the Stone City Art Colony, where he taught lithography for two summers. His work was also part of the painting event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics. From 1934 to 1938, he taught at Art Institute of Chicago's summer art school at Saugatuck, Michigan, and he served as director of the summer school from 1941 to 1945. He was also the Artist-in-Residence at the Old Sculpin Gallery on Martha's Vineyard for many years. In 1951, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full member in 1953. Also from 1951 to 1953, he served as visiting artist at the University of Georgia.

Among Chapin's notable showings were at the Art Institute of Chicago, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, D.C. His works are in permanent collections at the Art Institute of Chicago, Brooklyn Museum (NYC), Philadelphia Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art (NYC), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Syracuse University, and other museums.

Chapin died in his home at 347 Menomonee Street in Chicago on February 23, 1965.  In reporting his death, one newspaper described Chapin's appearance as follows: "he was a colorful figure, nearly 6 feet 6 inches tall, and thin, and usually wearing tweeds."

Chapin's papers are held in the Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.

References

  Francis Chapin entry, Social Security Death Index .
  Chicago Tribune, February 24, 1965.
 ^ http://richardnortongallery.com/artists/francis-chapin

External links
The Stone City Art Colony and School 1932-1933 - Francis Chapin biography
The Old Sculpin Gallery - Francis Chapin
Columbus Museum of Art Web page on Chapin's 1938 lithograph Jobless Man (click on picture for larger image)
Richard Norton Gallery, Chicago - works by Francis Chapin
Special exhibition; paintings by Francis Chapin, Antonio P. Martino, Moses Soyer Drawings by Jon Corbino, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF)

1965 deaths
1899 births
Washington & Jefferson College alumni
School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni
American landscape painters
American portrait painters
20th-century American painters
American male painters
Olympic competitors in art competitions
20th-century American male artists

Francis Chapin


A reagent bottle is a bottle designed to hold chemical liquids and solution for long-term storage. A reagent jar contains solid powder or crystals. Each bottle or jar is labelled with the name of the substance, details of the purity and safety precautions. Reagent jars or bottles are kept in chemical storeroom. The reagent bottle is usually made of glass but can be made from plastic.

Laboratory equipment

Reagent bottle