This is a complete list of four-star generals in the United States Marine Corps. The rank of general (or full general, or four-star general) is the highest rank in the Marine Corps. It ranks above lieutenant general (three-star general).

There have been 74 four-star generals in the history of the United States Marine Corps. Of these, 56 achieved that rank while on active duty, 17 were promoted upon retirement in recognition of combat citations (1942–1959), and one was promoted posthumously. Generals entered the Marine Corps via several paths: 29 via Officer Candidates School (OCS), 25 via Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC) at a civilian university, 10 via the United States Naval Academy (USNA), seven via ROTC at a senior military college, and three via Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) at a civilian university,

List of generals
Entries in the following list of four-star generals are indexed by the numerical order in which each officer was promoted to that rank while on active duty, or by an asterisk (*) if the officer did not serve in that rank while on active duty. Each entry lists the general's name, date of rank, active-duty positions held while serving at four-star rank, number of years of active-duty service at four-star rank (Yrs), year commissioned and source of commission, number of years in commission when promoted to four-star rank (YC), and other biographical notes.

Tombstone generals
The Act of Congress of March 4, 1925, allowed officers in the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard to be promoted one grade upon retirement if they had been specially commended for performance of duty in actual combat. Combat citation promotions were colloquially known as "tombstone promotions" because they conferred all the perks and prestige of the higher rank including the loftier title on their tombstones but no additional retirement pay. The Act of Congress of February 23, 1942, enabled tombstone promotions to three- and four-star grades. Tombstone promotions were subsequently restricted to citations issued before January 1, 1947, and finally eliminated altogether effective November 1, 1959.  The practice was terminated in an effort to encourage senior officer retirements prior to the effective date of the change to relieve an overstrength in the senior ranks.

Any general who actually served in a grade while on active duty receives precedence on the retirement list over any tombstone general holding the same retired grade. Tombstone generals rank among each other according to the dates of their highest active duty grade.

History

Four-star positions

1945–present

By the Act of March 21, 1945, Congress permitted the President to appoint the Commandant of the Marine Corps to the grade of general. Alexander Vandegrift, then Commandant, was promoted from lieutenant general to general on April 4, 1945, to rank from March 21 of that year. He thus became the first Marine to serve in the grade of general. The Office of the Commandant was permanently fixed at the grade of four-star general under authority of the Act of August 7, 1947. All Commandants since that date have been entitled by law to serve in the grade of general and, in accordance with the provisions of , to retire in that grade.

In April 1969, the Senate passed and sent a bill to the White House that makes the Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps a four-star general when the active duty strength of the Marine Corps exceeds 200,000. On May 5, 1969, President Richard Nixon signed the bill, and Lieutenant General Lewis William Walt was promoted to that rank on June 2, 1969, thus becoming the first Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps to attain four-star rank. Legislation allowing the Assistant Commandant to wear the four-star insignia regardless of the strength of the Marine Corps was approved by President Gerald Ford on March 4, 1976.

On November 22, 1985, General George B. Crist was promoted to four-star rank and on November 27, he assumed the position of Commander in Chief of U.S. Central Command at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida. His appointment marked the first time a Marine headed a unified command and the first time the Corps had three four-star generals on active duty at the same time. Since 1985, a number of Marines have served in joint positions holding four-star rank, and it is no longer uncommon for the Corps to have four or five four-star generals on active duty at the same time.

In 2005, General Peter Pace became the first Marine to be appointed as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the chief military advisor to the President of the United States and most senior appointment in the United States armed forces. Previously, in 2001, General Pace was the first Marine officer to be appointed as Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (VJCS).

The standard tour length for the commandant (CMC) is four years; two years for the assistant commandant (ACMC); for a combatant commander, three years; and a total of four years served in consecutive two-year terms for the chairman and vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS/VJCS).

See also

 General (United States)
 List of active duty United States four-star officers
 List of United States Army four-star generals
 List of United States Navy four-star admirals
 List of United States Air Force four-star generals
 List of United States Space Force four-star generals
 List of United States Coast Guard four-star admirals
 List of United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps four-star admirals
 List of United States military leaders by rank
 List of United States Marine Corps lieutenant generals on active duty before 1960
 List of United States Marine Corps lieutenant generals since 2010

References

Bibliography

Four-star officers
Marine Corps four-star generals
Lists of generals
Four-star generals

List of United States Marine Corps four-star generals


The rest energy based on relativity theory, it is concluded that an equivalence relation exists between mass and energy. The energy is equal to the product of mass and the square of light velocity: E = mc2. The rest energy E0 is also the energy equivalent of a resting, i.e. immobile particle. Therefore, the rest energy of a proton for example is 938.257 MeV. The rest energy of 1 g mass is about 2.5·107 kWh.

Relativity

Rest energy


James Hay, 2nd Earl of Carlisle (1612 – 30 October 1660) was the Earl of Carlisle (2nd Creation), succeeding James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle. Hay was the second son of the 1st Earl, a Scottish nobleman, and his wife Honoria, heir to Edward Denny, 1st Earl of Norwich.

James Hay was Colonel of a Regiment of Foot in Germany, and was appointed Knight of the Order of the Bath.

In 1632 he married Margaret Russell, third daughter of Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford. In 1639 he inherited the Carlisle Islands, later called Barbados. Between 1642 and 1646 he was a Royalist Colonel of a Regiment of Horse. He lived mainly in Barbados but returned in 1652. He died without issue on 30 October 1660. At his death, the peerage became extinct in the Hay family.

References

Catalogue note for a Portrait of James Hay, by Anthony van Dyck

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1612 births
1660 deaths
02
Lord-Lieutenants of Essex

James Hay, 2nd Earl of Carlisle


Sydney George Checkland FRSE (9 October 1916 – 22 March 1986) was a British-Canadian economic historian.

Life

Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Checkland worked at the Bank of Nova Scotia, then the Ottawa Sanitary Laundry Company, while he gained associate membership of the Canadian Bankers' Association.  In 1938, he moved to England to study at the University of Birmingham, and in his final year served as President of the Guild of Students at the university.  In 1941, he was elected as President of the National Union of Students, serving for only one year before becoming President of the International Council of Students.

In late 1942, Checkland enrolled at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, then was commissioned as a lieutenant into the Manchester Regiment, before becoming a tank commander in the Governor General's Foot Guards of the Canadian Army.  An injury during the Normandy landings at Falaise left him with permanent nerve damage.

After the war, Checkland joined the Common Wealth Party and stood unsuccessfully in Sheffield Ecclesall at the 1945 general election.  He then returned to study for a master's degree at Birmingham, after which he took up an academic post in economic science at the University of Liverpool, where he also obtained a doctorate.  In 1953, he transferred to the University of Cambridge, then in 1957 he accepted a personal chair at the University of Glasgow and founded the Department of Economic History.  He quickly developed a strong reputation in a range of fields relating to economic history, and continued to write until his death in 1986. He is credited with "being instrumental" in the establishment in 1976 of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Glasgow "strong in the fields of business, banking, and urban history".

Sydney Checkland was elected as a Fellow of the British Academy in 1977, and as Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1981. He was a member of the Economic History Committee of the Social Science Research Council and then a Council member between 1970 and 1972. He was President of the Economic History Society between 1977 and 1980. Of his many scholarly publications, The Gladstones: a Family Biography, 1764-1851 (1971) won a Scottish Arts Council book award and Scottish Banking: a History, 1695-1973 (1975) won a Saltire Society prize. Checkland also served as a board member with the East Kilbride Development Corporation, 1964 to 1968.

During his career as a historian Checkland contributed to the development of archival records.  In Liverpool he collected the archives of merchant firms and he later initiated the University of Glasgow's collection of business records. He chaired of the Scottish Records Advisory Council, the National Register of Archives (Scotland) and was vice-president of the Business Archives Council of Scotland. Checkland's own papers are held by Glasgow University Archive Services.

Family

Checkland met Edith Olive Anthony in Birmingham and they married in 1942. Olive nursed Sydney back to health following his war injuries. Olive Checkland was an eminent scholar in her own right in the field of social history.

References

1916 births
1986 deaths
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Academics of the University of Glasgow
Academics of the University of Liverpool
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Canadian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Common Wealth Party politicians
Economic historians
Presidents of the National Union of Students (United Kingdom)
People from Ottawa
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Manchester Regiment officers
Canadian Army officers
20th-century British historians
Canadian military personnel of World War II
Fellows of the British Academy
British Army personnel of World War II
Governor General's Foot Guards
Common Wealth Party

Sydney Checkland


Robert Smith (Robin) Dods (9 June 1868 – 23 July 1920) was a New Zealand-born Australian architect.

Personal life
Dods was born in Dunedin, New Zealand on 9 June 1868. His parents were Robert Smith Dods (a wholesale grocer) and Elizabeth Gray, née Stodart. His parents both came from Edinburgh, Scotland. However, the family did not stay long in New Zealand and returned to Edinburgh in the early 1870s, where his father died in 1876. His mother Elizabeth then immigrated to Brisbane. On the voyage she met Charles Ferdinard Marks, a physician, whom she married in Brisbane in 1879. Dods was educated at Brisbane Grammar School. He died at Edgecliff, Sydney on 23 July 1920. He was the brother of solicitor Stodart Dods and Queensland Medical Officer Espie Dods. He was the father of eminent physician Lorimer Dods. He had three half-brothers and a half-sister from his mother's second marriage to Dr Charles Marks. They included Alexander Marks and Edward Marks.

Career
Robin Dods worked for the following architectural firms:
 Hay & Henderson (Edinburgh)
 Sir Aston Webb (London)
 Hall & Dods (Brisbane)
 Spain, Cosh & Dods (Sydney)

Dods' period of activity in Brisbane between 1896 and 1916 place him firmly within what is now known as the Federation period. His work however has its origins clearly in the Arts and Crafts movement which swept Britain from the 1870s. Its influence was felt there right up until the beginning of World War I.

Robin Dods was a gifted and capable designer, and was well connected. His surgeon stepfather, Dr Charles Ferdinand Marks, and his uncle, James Stodart, were both members of the Queensland Parliament, in its Upper and Lower houses respectively. Like them, he was admitted into the Protestant power base of the Queensland Club. This was a great asset in building a successful career. Dods was also a founding member of the Brisbane Golf Club and designed its first and second club houses.

Hall & Dods were architects in Queensland for several national enterprises including the AMP Society, the Bank of New South Wales, the New Zealand Insurance Co, JC Hutton & Co, the Australian Mercantile Land and Finance Company, the Engineering Supply Company of Australia as well as several local department stores. For such clients there was the likelihood of repeat commissions, many of which eventuated.

Within the original firm John Hall began in 1864, and the next incarnation, there was an established client base, although many new clients were secured by Dods. Through Dods' links with the medical profession, Hall & Dods became architects for both of the major hospitals in Brisbane at the time. For the Brisbane General Hospital, where Dods' stepfather was visiting surgeon and his uncle was chairman of the Hospital Board, Hall & Dods were commissioned for some 10 projects. The Sisters of Mercy also employed Hall & Dods to design a new hospital at South Brisbane — the Mater Misericordiae Hospital. From 1908 the first four buildings were designed and built under the firm's supervision.

An ambitious chapel for the sisters was also designed but not built. Dods designed most of the projects emanating from the partnership. These included a number of modern and distinctive houses in timber for a handful of doctors and other professional clients (often also his friends), several graziers, as well as private residences for his commercial clients. It was through the design of these houses that his reputation largely survives.

Dods visited the Continent in 1891 for a study tour of Italy. It was in Naples that he met Charles Rennie Mackintosh, who was also travelling to fulfil the terms of the Alexander Thomson Scholarship which he had won the previous year. Macintosh was destined to be recognised as one of the pioneers of the Modern Movement, and this meeting could have influenced Dods' architectural outlook.

Robin Dods died on 23 July 1920, and was buried in the South Head Cemetery. At the age of 52, a busy and useful life was thus cut short, and a distinguished architect passed on, to leave in Queensland a legacy of outstanding achievement in the development of its architecture.

Practice in Sydney
Although he had been so busy and successful in Brisbane, Dods felt that his architectural future in this city was limited.

His ambition made him anxious to break into the larger commercial work offering in the south. In 1913 he terminated his partnership with Francis Hall and went to Sydney to join the firm of Spain and Cosh.

Little is now known of Dods' architectural activity in Sydney. He built for himself a house at Edgecliff, described by a contemporary as "charming in its quiet Georgian character, well planned, and forming an attractive setting for the antique furniture he had collected for many years."
The Newcastle Club, from the offices of Spain and Cosh, is certainly Dods' work, as it exhibits many features characteristic of his Queensland domestic architecture. The largest known work in Sydney that was substantially of Dods' design was the South British Insurance Coy. Ltd. building, at the corner of O'Connell and Hunter Streets.

Domestic work
"A modern house is like matrimony in this, that it is most frequently assailed by those who have failed to attain it for themselves."

Robin Dods achieved early recognition of his domestic work. His houses, when built, were soon noticed and admired. His clients were evidently people with means, since a great bulk of his Brisbane houses were in the wealthy suburbs of Clayfield and New Farm. There is also a Dods house in Charleville and another in Reynella, South Australia. In two known cases only did he design cottage-type houses. These were two groups of three, and evidently designed for clients who were investing in real estate.

Designing to suit the climate was a primary consideration with him. Planning suited the prevailing north-east breeze, and a generous area of wide verandah shaded the living and bedroom areas of his houses. His belief that an insulating layer of air over the house was essential gave rise to the characteristic high-pitched roof ventilated by gablets and neat lanterns.

The Robin Dods Award for Residential Architecture – Houses (New) was established in his honour by the Queensland chapter of the Australian Institute of Architects.

Commercial work
As with his domestic work, Dods' commercial architecture is easily recognised. Again wherever possible he attempted to design for the climate, and his best work shows spacious planning and good ventilation. Soaring real estate values have made much of his planning now seem wasteful, but in any evaluation of his work it must be remembered that he worked in a comparatively small city whose commercial expansion has exceeded even the dreams of the then most visionary businessmen.

Even in Brisbane, commercial buildings have a transitory life, so that of the many buildings designed by the architect a number of them have been demolished, added to, or
altered out of all recognition. By and large, Dods' commercial work was not inspiring, but several of his buildings were significant, advanced for their time, and well worthy of further study.

Works
His architectural works include:
 4BC House 30-38 Wharf St, Brisbane City, Queensland (destroyed)
 Albury Civic Fire Station, 565 Kiewa Street, Albury, New South Wales
 All Hallows Convent and School, 547 Ann Street, Fortitude Valley, Queensland
 All Saints Memorial Church, Tamrookum Church Road, Tamrookum, Queensland
 Australian Mercantile Land & Finance Woolstores, 34 Vernon Terrace, Teneriffe, Queensland
 Brisbane General Hospital Group 20-30 Bowen Bridge Road, Herston, Queensland
 Brisbane Grammar School (Honour Boards), 24 Gregory Terrace, Spring Hill, Queensland
 Brunoy, 144-146 Beecroft Road, Beecroft, New South Wales
 Church House, 417 Ann Street, Brisbane
 Corbett and Son Store, 446-452 Brunswick Street, Fortitude Valley, Queensland
 Cressbrook Homestead, off Cressbrook-Caboombah Road, Toogoolawah, Queensland
 Eagle Farm Racecourse (St Leger Stand), 230 Lancaster Road, Ascot, Queensland
 Espie Dods House, 97 Wickham Terrace, Spring Hill, Queensland
 Fenton and Garden, 8 Albert Street, Edgecliff, New South Wales
 Fire Station (Former), 932-934 Bourke Street, Zetland, New South Wales
 Franklyn Vale Homestead (summerhouse only), Franklin Vale Road, Grandchester, Queensland
 Glengariff (1907 additions), 5 Derby Street, Hendra, Queensland
 Guildford Fire Station, 263 Guildford Road, Guildford, New South Wales
 Johnson's Building, 64-70 Palmerin Street, Warwick, Queensland
 Killara, 92 Windermere Road, Ascot, Queensland
 Kitawah, 59 Heath St, East Brisbane, Queensland
 Lady Lamington Nurses Home, 282 Herston Road, Herston, Queensland
 Lyndhurst, 3 London Road, Clayfield, Queensland
 Manumbah, 64 Massey Street, Ascot, Queensland
 Mardoc Building, Federal Street, Narrogin, Western Australia
 Mark Foys Warehouse (Former), 133 Goulburn Street, Surry Hills, New South Wales
 Maryborough City Hall, 388 Kent Street, Maryborough, Queensland
 Mater Misericordiae Private and Former Public Hospitals, Raymond Terrace, South Brisbane, Queensland
 Mount Carmel Convent, 199 Bay Terrace, Wynnum, Queensland
 Mudgee Post Office, 80 Market Street, Mudgee, New South Wales
 Myendetta Homestead Myendetta Station, Bakers Bend, Shire of Murweh, Queensland
 Ringsfield House, Nanango, Queensland
 Nindooinbah Homestead (1906 extensions), Nindooinbah House Road, Beaudesert, Queensland
 Old Bishopsbourne, 233 Milton Road, Milton, Queensland
 Old Bishopsbourne Chapel, 233 Milton Road, Milton, Queensland
 Ralahyne (1904 alterations), 40 Enderley Road, Clayfield, Queensland
 Rangemoor Circa 1910, 165 Adelaide Street East Clayfield, Queensland
 Narallan, Abbott Street, 41 Abbott Street, New Farm, Queensland
 Ruddle's Building, 327 Brunswick Street Mall, Fortitude Valley, Queensland
 Shafston House, 23 Castlebar St, Kangaroo Point, Queensland
 St Andrew's Anglican Church, Mangerton St, Toogoolawah, Queensland
 St Brigid's Church, 78 Musgrave Road, Red Hill, Queensland
 St Mark's Anglican Church, Junner Street, Dunwich, Queensland
 St John's Cathedral, 401–413 Ann Street, Brisbane
 TC Beirne Department Store, 28 Duncan Street, Fortitude Valley, Queensland
 The Deanery (1909-10 verandahs), 417 Ann Street, Brisbane
 The Newcastle Club, 40 Newcomen Street, Newcastle, New South Wales
 Theosophical Society Building, 355 Wickham Terrace, Spring Hill, Queensland
 Turrawan, 8 London Road, Clayfield, Queensland
 Wairuna, 27 Hampstead Road, Highgate Hill, Queensland
 Wattlebrae Hospital Group (former), 30 Bowen Bridge Road, Herston, Queensland
 Webber House, 417-19 Ann Street, Brisbane
 Willoughby Fire Station 53 Laurel Street, Willoughby, New South Wales
He designed the school badge for Somerville House, a Brisbane private school in 1902.

Styles
He built in the following architectural styles:
 Federation Gothic, Arts and Crafts and Bungalow
 Inter-War Georgian Revival

Gallery

References

Further reading
 Dods, Robin Smith (Robin), Australian Dictionary of Biography
 Domain Photography: The legacy of Robin Dods
 Robert Riddel, Art in Architecture: the work of Robin Dods, Brisbane, URO Media, 2012
 Robin Dods: An introduction, August 8, 2012, Australian Design Review
 R. Boyd, Australia's Home (Melbourne, 1952)
 P. Cox and H. Tanner (eds), Twelve Australian Architects (Sydney, 1979)
 JRHSQ, 8 (1968–69), no 4, p 649
 J. S. Egan, The Work of Robin Dods, A.R.I.B.A (B. Arch thesis, University of Sydney, 1932)
 R. J. Riddel, R. S. Dods in Sydney, 1913–20 (conference paper, Art Assn of Australia, 1979)
 R. S. Lorimer, letters to R. S. Dods, 1896–1920 (University of Edinburgh)
 R. S. Dods diary, 1909 (privately held)
 Harriet Edquist, Pioneers of Modernism, The Arts and Crafts Movement in Australia, Melbourne, Miegunyah Press, 2008
 Elizabeth Farrelly They went their own way, to a late acclaim
 J. Hall & Son, tender book, vol 2 (1859-1912) (copy in State Library of Queensland)
 Correspondence, Hall & Dods and Spain, Cosh & Dods (Bank of New South Wales Archives, Sydney).
 Federation-Home Archive| Architect Robin Dods

External links

 Hall & Dods: Designing Queensland album of architectural plans on Flickr, by State Library of Queensland.
 Hall & Dods architectural drawings: conservation and digitisation, at State Library of Queensland.

1868 births
1920 deaths
Architects from Brisbane
Federation architects
Architects from Dunedin
Scottish emigrants to Australia
19th-century Australian architects
20th-century Australian architects

Robin Dods


Gladys Alberta Bentley (August 12, 1907 – January 18, 1960) was an American blues singer, pianist, and entertainer during the Harlem Renaissance.

Her career skyrocketed when she appeared at Harry Hansberry's Clam House, a well-known gay speakeasy in New York in the 1920s, as a black, lesbian, cross-dressing performer. She headlined in the early 1930s at Harlem's Ubangi Club, where she was backed up by a chorus line of drag queens. She dressed in men's clothes (including a signature tail coat and top hat), played piano, and sang her own raunchy lyrics to popular tunes of the day in a deep, growling voice while flirting with women in the audience.

On the decline of the Harlem speakeasies with the repeal of Prohibition, she relocated to southern California, where she was billed as "America's Greatest Sepia Piano Player" and the "Brown Bomber of Sophisticated Songs". She was frequently harassed for wearing men's clothing. She tried to continue her musical career but did not achieve as much success as she had had in the past. Bentley was openly lesbian early in her career, but during the McCarthy Era she started wearing dresses and married, claiming to have been "cured" by taking female hormones.

Early life
Bentley was born August 12, 1907, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the daughter of George L. Bentley, an American, and his wife, Mary Mote, a Trinidadian. In Bentley's Ebony article, she wrote about trouble in the home as she was growing up and the relationship between her and her mother. She was the eldest of four children in a low-income family living at 1012 W. Euclid Ave. in North Philadelphia and always felt unwanted or rejected because her mother desperately wanted her to have been born a boy: "When they told my mother she had given birth to a girl, she refused to touch me. She wouldn't even nurse me and my grandmother had to raise me for 6 months on a bottle before they could persuade my mother to take care of her own baby." She believed that growing up feeling rejected shaped her behavior; she never wanted a man to touch her, hated her brothers, wore boys' clothes, and had a crush on one of her female teachers in elementary school.

Clothing choices
In an interview with Ebony magazine, Bentley stated that "It seems I was born different. At least, I always thought I was." From an early age, Bentley defied gender normative behaviors and femininity. She did not match the early-twentieth century beauty ideal of being slender and boyish, and she preferred to wear her brother's suits instead of dresses or blouses. As a result of her lack of gender conformity, she was teased by her classmates and often ostracized by her family and peers. Bentley recalled dreaming and being infatuated with her primary school female teachers but did not understand those feelings until later on in her life. Bentley's behavior was seen as abnormal and "unladylike" which led to her family sending her to doctors to fix Bentley's desires. Later psychiatrists would coin Bentley's non-heteronormative behavior as "extreme social maladjustment." Due to her inability to feel conformable and her family's inability to accept her as she was, Bentley ran away from home at the age of 16 to begin her life in New York City.

Career
She moved from Philadelphia to Harlem, a neighborhood in New York City in 1925 at the age of 16. She heard that Harry Hansberry's Clam House on 133rd Street, one of the city's most notorious gay speakeasies, needed a male pianist.  This is when she began performing in men's attire ("white full dress shirts, stiff collars, small bow ties, oxfords, short Eton jackets, and hair cut straight back"), and here she perfected her act and became popular and successful.

Her salary started at $35 per week plus tips and went to $125 per week, and the club was soon renamed Barbara's Exclusive Club, after her stage name at the time, Barbara "Bobbie" Minton. She then began performing at the Ubangi Club on Park Avenue, got an accompanist on piano, and was successful enough to own a "$300/month apartment in Park Ave. With servants and a nice car" (although some have said that she was living in the penthouse of one of her lesbian lovers). She toured the country, some destinations being Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Chicago, and Hollywood, where she was well liked by Cesar Romero, Hugh Herbert, Cary Grant, Barbara Stanwyck, and other celebrities.

Bentley had great talent as a piano player, singer, and entertainer. Her performances were "comical, sweet and risqué" for the era and the audience. In her music, she called out men and openly sang about sexual relationships which was seen as risqué behavior at the time. Even more, she often sang about "sissies" and "bulldaggers" and, through innuendo or more literally, about her female lovers, and she flirted with women in the audience. She mostly played the blues and parodies of popular songs of the time: "mocking 'high' class imagery with 'low' class humor, she applied aspects of the sexually charged 'black' blues to demure, romantic 'white' ballads, creating a culture clash between these two music forms". Bentley was known for taking popular songs and putting a promiscuous spin on them.

She sang loud, and her vocal style was deep and booming, sometimes using a growling effect and imitations of a horn. In August 1928, she signed with Okeh Records company and recorded eight sides over the course of the next year up until 1929. In 1930 she recorded a side with the Washboard Serenaders for Victor, and later recorded for the Excelsior, and Flame labels. Her vocal range was wide, as can be heard in her recordings. She mostly sang in a deep, low range, but also reached high notes. Bentley's performances appealed to black, white, gay, and straight audiences alike, and many celebrities attended her shows. Langston Hughes recorded his reaction to the beginning of Bentley's career success:

For two or three amazing years, Miss Bentley sat, and played piano all night long … with scarcely a break between the notes, sliding from one song to another, with a powerful and continuous underbeat of jungle rhythm. Miss Bentley was an amazing exhibition of musical energy – a large, dark, masculine lady, whose feet pounded the floor while her fingers pounded the keyboard – a perfect piece of African sculpture, animated by her own rhythm.

On the decline of the Harlem speakeasies with the repeal of Prohibition, she relocated to southern California, where she was billed as "America's Greatest Sepia Piano Player" and the "Brown Bomber of Sophisticated Songs". She tried to continue her musical career by playing in a number of gay nightspots but did not achieve as much success as she had had in the past. As times progressed and federal laws continued to change, there became a point where Bentley had to carry special permits to allow her to perform in men's clothing. She was frequently harassed for wearing men's clothing. She claimed that she had married a white woman in Atlantic City.   Bentley was openly lesbian early in her career, but during the McCarthy Era, she started wearing dresses and married (within five months of meeting) Charles Roberts, age 28, a cook, in a civil ceremony in Santa Barbara, California, in 1952. Roberts later denied that they had ever married.

On May 15, 1958, she appeared as a contestant on You Bet Your Life, engaging in discussion with host Groucho Marx before accompanying herself on piano as she sang "Them There Eyes".

Bentley also studied to be a minister, claiming to have been "cured" by taking female hormones. In an effort to describe her supposed "cure" for homosexuality she wrote an essay, "I Am a Woman Again", for Ebony magazine in which she stated she had undergone an operation, which "helped change her life again".

Legal battle

In 1933, Bentley found herself in the middle of a Supreme Court battle with Harry Hansberry and Nat Palein. Hansberry and Palein sued Bentley to prohibit her from taking her musical to the Broadway division. Hansberry insisted that the club had been built around the popularity of Bentley's success and that he owned a five-year contract over Bentley and her raunchy songs. The duo insisted that Bentley left them high and dry at the rise of the club and wanted to pursue other interests that she could financially benefit from.

The same year, she attempted to move her act to Broadway, despite legal issues. There she received many complaints about her raunchy performances which resulted in the police locking up the doors of places she performed. Unable to express her talent on Broadway, she was forced to move back to Harlem in 1934, where she then played at the Ubangi Club for three years before it closed in 1937.

Personal life and death
In 1930, Bentley lived with a woman named Beatrice Robert. In 1931, Bentley had a civil ceremony in New Jersey, in a public union with a white woman whose identity is unknown. When Bentley relocated to Los Angeles, she allegedly married J. T. Gibson, who died in 1952, the same year in which she married Charles Roberts, a cook in Los Angeles; they were married in Santa Barbara, California, went on a honeymoon in Mexico. Gibson denied ever marrying her.

Bentley died of pneumonia unexpectedly at her home in Los Angeles on January 18, 1960, aged 52. It was initially believed to be the "Asian flu" but later turned into "pneumonia". At the time of her death, she had been more involved in the church and had just been ordained as a minister despite never getting her official paperwork. She is buried beside her mother at Lincoln Memorial Park in Carson, California.

Legacy
Aside from her musical talent and success, Bentley is a significant and inspiring figure for some in the LGBT community and African Americans, and she was a prominent figure during the Harlem Renaissance. She was revolutionary in her masculinity: "Differing from the traditional male impersonator, or drag king, in the popular theater, Gladys Bentley did not try to 'pass' as a man, nor did she playfully try to deceive her audience into believing she was biologically male. Instead, she exerted a 'black female masculinity' that troubled the distinctions between black and white and masculine and feminine".

Fictional characters based on Bentley appeared in Carl Van Vechten's novel Parties, Clement Woods' novel Deep River, and Blair Niles' novel Strange Brother.

In 2016, musician Shirlette Ammons released an album entitled Twilight for Gladys Bentley, that paid tribute to Bentley's legacy and "reimagined" Bentley in relationship to hip hop culture.

In 2019, The New York Times newspaper began a series called "Overlooked No More," in which the editorial staff aims to correct a perceived bias in reporting by republishing obituaries for historical minorities and women. Bentley was one of the featured obituaries in Overlooked No More.

Venues
Bentley appeared at:
 The Mad House, 133rd Street, Harlem, New York City, New York
 Harry Hansberry's Clam House ("Gladys' Clam House"), 133rd Street, Harlem, Harlem, New York City, New York
 Ubangi Club, Harlem, New York City, New York
 Connie's Inn ("Jungle Alley"), 2221 Seventh Street, Harlem, New York City, New York
Apollo Theatre, Harlem, New York City, New York
 The Cotton Club, Harlem, New York City, New York
 Joaquin's El Rancho, Los Angeles, California
Mona's 440 Club, North Beach, San Francisco, California

Discography
Okeh Records

Recorded August 8 and 31, 1928
"Worried Blues" / "Ground Hog Blues" (August 1928) #8610
"How Long, How Long Blues" / "Moanful Wailin' Blues" (August 1928) #8612
Recorded November 15, 1928, and March 26, 1929
"Wild Geese Blues" / "How Much Can I Stand" (November 1928, with piano, not released)
"Wild Geese Blues" / "How Much Can I Stand" (November 1928, with guitar) #8643
"Red Beans and Rice" / "Big Gorilla Man" (March 1929) #8707

Victor
"Washboards Get Together" / "Kazoo Moan", #38127, scatting vocal on A-side only (title often listed as "Washboard Get Together"), with the Washboard Serenaders, recorded March 1930; reissued twice, as Bluebird B-5790 (circa 1934) and B-6633 (circa 1936)

Excelsior Records

As Gladys Bentley Quintette, 1945
"Boogie'n My Woogie" / "Thrill Me Till I Get My Fill", #164
"Red Beans & Rice Blues" / "Find Out What He Likes (and How He Likes It)" #165/166
"Big Gorilla Blues" / "Lay It on the Line", #166/165
"Boogie Woogie Cue" / "Give It Up", #168
"Notoriety Papa" / "It Went to the Girl Next Door", #169

Swingtime Records
"Jingle Jangle Jump", #321, vocals for Wardell Gray and the Dexter Gordon Quintet, 1952
"Fourth of July Boogie" / "June-Teenth Jamboree", #337, as Fatso Bentley, July 4, 1953

Flame Records
"Easter Mardi Gras" / "Before Midnight", Flame 1001, Cincinnati, early 1950s, label misspells name as Gladys Bently; mentioned in her August 1952 article in Ebony and thus recorded in 1952 or earlier

References

External links

Collection of newspaper clippings and recording information about Gladys Bentley, from Queer Music Heritage by JD Doyle
.

1907 births
1960 deaths
20th-century African-American women singers
American blues singers
Deaths from pneumonia in California
American drag kings
African-American LGBT people
American lesbian musicians
Bisexual women
Singers from Philadelphia
Singers from New York City
Musicians from Harlem
Harlem Renaissance
20th-century American singers
LGBT people from Pennsylvania
American LGBT singers
Infectious disease deaths in California
20th-century American women musicians
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American women singers
20th-century American LGBT people

Gladys Bentley


George Lipsitz is an American Studies scholar and professor in the Department of Black Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and the author of over half a dozen books, including The Possessive Investment in Whiteness. He is a leading scholar in social movements, urban culture, inequality, the politics of popular culture, and Whiteness Studies. In addition to The Possessive Investment in Whiteness, he has written Midnight at the Barrelhouse, Footsteps in the Dark, A Life in the Struggle, Time Passages, Dangerous Crossroads, American Studies in a Moment of Danger, Rainbow at Midnight, Sidewalks of St. Louis, Class & Culture in Cold War America and How Racism Takes Place.

Lipsitz serves as Chairman of the Board of Directors of the African American Policy Forum and is on the board of the National Fair Housing Alliance. He edits the Critical American Series for University of Minnesota Press, and co-edits the American Crossroads series for University of California Press. Lipsitz is Jewish.

See also
 Whiteness studies

References

External links

 Conversations with Scholars of American Popular Culture
 http://journals.cambridge.org/images/fileUpload/images/The_Bitter_But_Beautiful_Struggle.mp3

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
University of California, Santa Barbara faculty

White culture in North America
Critical race theory

George Lipsitz


John Richard Dunne (January 28, 1930 – November 1, 2020) was a Republican politician,  and lawyer from Long Island, New York. Dunne was a major figure in New York Republican politics in the second half of the 20th century. He is best remembered for his twenty-three years in the New York State Senate and his involvement in the Attica prison riots.

Dunne was born in Baldwin, New York, and attended Garden City High School. He graduated from Georgetown University in 1951, and received his law degree from Yale Law School in 1954. He married Denise in 1958 and they had four children together. Dunne resided in Garden City and Columbia County. He was senior counsel at the Albany law firm of Whiteman Osterman & Hanna. He was also a director of several corporations.

In the State Senate

Dunne was a member of the New York State Senate from 1966 to 1989, sitting in the 176th, 177th, 178th, 179th, 180th, 181st, 182nd, 183rd, 184th, 185th, 186th, 187th and 188th New York State Legislatures.

Dunne served as Deputy Majority Leader, as well as chairman or ranking member of six committees. Numerous Republican public figures from Long Island served on Dunne's staff, including Michael Balboni.

Dunne was a major figure in the Attica prison riots of 1971. At the time, Dunne was chairman of the Senate Corrections Committee, which oversees the prison system. At one dramatic moment during the riot, Dunne entered the prison with New York Times editor Tom Wicker and Assemblyman Arthur Eve to negotiate with the prisoners. He strongly criticized Governor Nelson Rockefeller for the latter's actions, including a refusal to visit the prison, and argued that the prison standoff could have ended without bloodshed if state officials had acted differently.

Dunne was an original sponsor of the Rockefeller drug laws in 1973, but by the 2000s argued for major changes in New York drug laws. Dunne sponsored the New York law that protects the confidentiality of tests for HIV/AIDS.

He was regularly mentioned as a possible candidate for other offices, including statewide offices. In 1977, he sought the Republican nomination for Nassau County Executive, but lost the primary election.

He resigned his seat in September 1989. Dunne's papers from his days in the Senate are archived at the New York State Modern Political Archive at the University at Albany.

George H. W. Bush administration and later legal career

In 1990, President George H. W. Bush nominated Dunne to be Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. His appointment was supported by members of both parties, including Mario Cuomo, Charles Rangel and Richard Thornburgh.

After serving at the Justice Department, Dunne became a partner in the firm of Rivkin Radler LLP, then known as Rivkin, Radler, Dunne & Bayh.

He was recognized several times for his contribution to the law in New York State, earning the New York State Bar Association's Gold Medal Award in 2006, among other awards. In 2003, the New York State Bar Foundation named its fund for legal services for indigent persons after Dunne.

In 2006, Dunne was appointed chairman of a task force charged with reforming the state probation system.

2009 New York State Senate leadership crisis

On June 20, 2009, Governor David Paterson asked Dunne and former Lieutenant Governor Stan Lundine to serve as special mediators to resolve the 2009 New York State Senate leadership crisis.

Further reading
 President George H.W. Bush nominates Dunne to the Justice Department
 Governor Paterson picks Dunne to intervene in the 2009 Senate crisis
 The NYS Bar Foundation names its fund after Dunne
 Dunne on the Attica prison riots and his Justice Dept. nomination

References

External links
 Dunne's profile at Whiteman Osterman & Hanna
 Oral history interview with John R. Dunne (2008) from Justice in New York: An Oral History (full transcript)

Republican Party New York (state) state senators
People from Baldwin, Nassau County, New York
Yale Law School alumni
1930 births
2020 deaths
People from Garden City, New York
George H. W. Bush administration personnel
United States Assistant Attorneys General for the Civil Rights Division
Garden City High School (New York) alumni
New York (state) lawyers

John R. Dunne


The Sunnegga Paradise is a ski area that forms part of the Zermatt ski resort, in Valais, Switzerland.

The area relating to skiing is found on the Rothorn mountain, above the town of Zermatt. The trails extend to the valley floor between the Rothorn and Gornergrat mountains, and includes the ski runs directly down to the Oberhausern area of the town of Zermatt, terminating at the passenger lift that takes skier directly down inside the funicular train station in the area.

The Sunnegga area catches a large amount of sun due to its unique topography, often despite the rest of Zermatt being submerged in cloud.

Restaurants
There are several restaurants in the Findeln area, including Chez Vrony, Findlerhof, Enzian and Paradise.

Lift system

Access from the resort to the Sunnegga area is via the SunneggaExpress funicular railway, built in 1980. From here there is a new "Combi" lift (a combination of 6-seat chairlifts and 8-seat gondola lifts, built in 2005) that takes skiers up to the Blauherd interchange. From here there is a 150-person cable car (built in 1996) up to the Rothorn, and an old 4-seater gondola (built in 1971) down to Gant on the valley floor, from which a connecting cable car carries passengers up to the Gornergrat ski area. At the Rothorn area there is the Kumme 3-seat chairlift that serves a series of runs to the side of the Rothorn.

Skiing down below the Sunnegga area is covered by the Patrullarve 4-seat lift (built in 1989), which transports skiers directly up to Blauherd. Accessing the Gornergrat area is the Sunnegga-Findeln-Breitboden 4-seat chairlift (built in 2007 to replace a 2-seat chairlift built in 1956).

Leisee Shuttle leads from Sunnegga to Leisee.

Skiing
The main novice arterial of the Sunnegga area, the Standard, starts at Blauherd, and continues down to Sunnegga. There is a narrow, often busy, novice run down to Findeln, Easy run, which mainly serves the purpose of serving the area's famous restaurants and terminates at the 4-seat Findeln chairlift. Below this is a beginners area, the Eisfluh. The other main novice run, the Kumme, can be found outside the Rothorn top station, that takes skiers down to the Kumme 10-person Gondola, the first fully autonomous gondola in Switzerland which opened in 2020.

Advanced runs are best found by Fluhalp, which links the Rothorn to the Gornergrat via the Gant Hothalli cable car, and the Tuftern which takes the skier from Blauherd down to Patrullarve. Zermatt does not have many listed expert runs, as such tend to be graded as itineraries. The Rothorn area has several expert runs, but have been poorly used in the last few years due to inadequate snowfall and the area's propensity to catch large amounts of sunshine.

There are only two expert runs in the area, the longest of which, the Obere National, runs from Blauherd down to Patrullarve. There are off-piste sections off to the left of this run that can prove enjoyable when snow cover is good. The second expert run, the Downhill, is found by taking a left turn at the top of the Rothorn, from which you can find a blue, red and black. This run is actually quite timid - being a simple straight run, and all of these runs suffer badly if snowfall is not plentiful.

References

Ski areas in Switzerland
Zermatt
Buildings and structures in Valais
Tourist attractions in Valais

Sunnegga Paradise ski area


Diane Lynn Dixon (born September 23, 1964) is an American athlete who competed mainly in the 400 metres. She was born in Brooklyn, New York.  She has an Olympic gold medal for running with the American 4x400 meters relay team at the 1984 Olympics, running in the preliminary rounds.

She competed for the United States in the 1988 Summer Olympics held in Seoul, South Korea in the 4 x 400 metres where she won the Silver medal with her teammates Denean Howard, Valerie Brisco-Hooks and Florence Griffith Joyner. Second place in that race is still the second fastest time ever run in that event behind the winning Soviet team and the current American record.  She set her personal record of 49.84 while finishing third in an open semi-final in Seoul. Four years earlier she ran in the qualifying heat for the same relay that eventually took gold.

Dixon was also a part of two medal-winning teams in the 4x400 relay at the IAAF World Championships, taking a bronze in 1987 in Rome and a silver in 1991 in Tokyo.

Dixon was known for her aggressive frontrunning style indoors, where she could take the lead at the break (after the first 50 meters) and hold off her competitors who would then be forced to try to run around her. In 1981 she won her first of her USA Indoor Track and Field Championships at the (then) Imperial distance of 440 yards. In 1983 she won again and began an unprecedented streak of ten consecutive wins in the 440 or 400 metres.
  In 1985, Dixon won the 400 metres at the IAAF World Indoor Championships.  She repeated the feat again in 1991, setting the American Record at 50.64 seconds in the event.  That record stood until March 13, 2010, when it was broken by Francena McCorory from Hampton University at the NCAA Championships.

Diane Dixon attended the Brooklyn Technical High School and graduated in 1982.

Diane Dixon owns the distinction of being the first Ohio State women's student-athlete to capture an individual national track                                                        championship in the 400 meters at the 1983 indoor championships.

After retiring, Diane worked to help other athletes with career guidance by founding Retired Elite Athletes Need Career Opportunities.

References

External links

 Brooklyn Technical High School Alumni Foundation

1964 births
Living people
Track and field athletes from Brooklyn
American female sprinters
Athletes (track and field) at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Ohio State Buckeyes women's track and field athletes
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in track and field
World Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1987 Pan American Games
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in track and field
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
World Athletics Indoor Championships winners
World Athletics Indoor Championships medalists
Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games
Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games
Olympic female sprinters
20th-century American women
21st-century American women

Diane Dixon


The stop sign is a sign that is often placed at crossroads, when a road does not have traffic lights. This sign instructs the drivers to stop when they reach the crossroad and wait for other vehicles to pass. They can only proceed when the road is clear. This sign is one of the most significant and well-known signs of road traffic.

Variants for the stop sign
The stop sign is very common in every country. In some countries the stop sign is also written in the local language. For example in Japan, the stop sign is written in Japanese and English. Some decades ago a different symbol was used to indicate the stop sign.

Stop signs around the world

Traffic signs

Stop sign


Yngve Ekström (June 16, 1913 in Hagafors, Småland - March 13, 1988) was a Swedish furniture designer, wood carver, sculptor and architect and an important figure in the evolution of the Scandinavian Modernism movement. Yngve Ekström is best known for the "Lamino" armchair, an ergonomic and minimalist easy chair that he designed in 1956 and which has been in continuous production ever since. In 1999, the "Lamino" was named by the influential Swedish magazine Sköna hem as the Swedish furniture design of the twentieth century.

Ekström was the co-founder of the furniture manufacturer ESE-möbler (later renamed Swedese) with his brother Jerker and business partner Sven Bertil Sjöqvist. Ekström worked at Swedese for over 40 years until his death in 1988.

References

Swedish furniture designers
1913 births
1988 deaths
People from Småland

Yngve Ekström


Agnes von Krusenstjerna (October 9, 1894 – March 10, 1940) was a Swedish writer and noble. She was a controversial writer whose books challenged the moral standards of the day and was the center of a great literary controversy of the freedom of speech.

Biography
Krusenstjerna was born in Växjö and brought up in Gävle. Niece of Edvard von Krusenstjerna, she was born in to the nobility. She was educated at the teacher's academy of Anna Sandström in Stockholm. She married David Sprengel in 1921.

Agnes von Krusenstjerna was on several occasions admitted to mental hospitals. In 1940, she was diagnosed with a brain tumour; she died on the operating table in March 1940. Krusenstjerna died in Stockholm.

Works

She debuted as a writer with the girls' novel Ninas dagbok (1917) and made her breakthrough with the Tony novel series (1922–26) about a girl's development in a noble environment.

The Tony series was greatly controversial, as it depicted sexual themes as well as mental disorders, which made Krusenstjerna controversial. Sexuality was, before the 1920s, not mentioned in novels, and her books depicted sex and intercourse. The novel series Fröknarna von Pahlen created one of the greatest debates and controversies of its time in Sweden, known as Krusenstjernafejden (The Krusenstjerna feud): the series described sexual intercourse, which caused an enormous amount of attention and led to a two-year-long (1933–35) debate about the freedom of speech, the relation of literature toward the moral standards, the right of female expression and the right to sexual freedom, which ended with the writers' conference of Sigtuna 1935. She was supported by Eyvind Johnson, Johannes Edfelt, Elmer Diktonius and Karin Boye, who compared the affair to the censorship of Nazi Germany.

Her writing was closely inspired to her own life and can be regarded as partially autobiographical, especially her last, unfinished series, Fattigadel (Poor Nobility) (1935–1938).

Works
Novels
Ninas dagbok (Nina's diary) 1917
Helenas första kärlek (The first love of Helena) 1918
Fru Esters pensionat (Mrs Ester's boarding house) 1927
Händelser på vägen (Events on the way) 1929

Series

The Tony series:
Tony växer upp (Tony's adolescence) 1922
Tonys läroår (Tony's years of learning) 1924
Tonys sista läroår (Tony's last years of learning) 1926

The Miss von Pahlen's series:
Fröknarna von Pahlen:
 Den blå rullgardinen (The blue curtain) 1930
 Kvinnogatan (The Women's street) 1930
 Höstens skuggor (The shadows of the autumn) 1931
 Porten vid Johannes (The gate at Johannes) 1933
 Älskande par (Loving couples) 1933
 Bröllop på Ekered (Wedding at Ekered) 1935
 Av samma blod (By the same blood) 1935

Fattigadel (Poor nobility) original title: Viveca von Lagercronas historia (The story of Viveca von Lagercrona):
 Fattigadel (Pauper nobility) 1935
 Dunklet mellan träden (The shadow between the trees) 1936
 Dessa lyckliga år (These happy years) 1937
 I livets vår (In the spring of life) 1938

Poems
Nunnornas hus (The house of nuns) 1937

Short stories

En dagdriverskas anteckningar (The notes of an idle woman) (1923)
Delat rum på Kammakaregatan (A shared room at Kammakaregatan) (1933)
En ung dam far till Djurgårdsbrunn (A young lady visits Djurgårdsbrunn) (1933)
Vivi, flicka med melodi ( Vivi, a girl with a melody) (1936)
Stulet nyår (A stolen New Year's Eve)

Fiction
Her life was portrayed in Amorosa (1986 film).

See also
 Alfhild Agrell
 Frida Stéenhoff

References
Olof Lagercrantz: Agnes von Krusenstjerna, 1980 (delvis omarbetad från originalutgåvan 1951)
Merete Mazzarella: Agnes von Krusenstjerna, 1992
Börje Teijler: Agnes von Krusenstjerna och David Sprengel, 1977
Anna Williams: Tillträde until den nya tiden: fem berättelser om när Sverige blev modernt: Ivar Lo-Johansson, Agnes von Krusenstjerna, Vilhelm Moberg, Moa Martinson, 2002
Anders Öhman: Apologier: en linje i den svenska romanen från August Strindberg until Agnes von Krusenstjerna, 2001
 Lagercrantz 1951, Agnes von Krusenstjerna; Johannes Edfelts efterord until I livets vår i Krusenstjernas samlade skrifter

Further reading

External links

 Image
 Bibliography

1894 births
1940 deaths
People from Växjö
Swedish women writers
Swedish nobility

Agnes von Krusenstjerna


The Audi A3 is a car produced by Audi since 1996. It is based on the Volkswagen Golf's platform, and it is currently in its fourth generation. The first generation was produced between 1996 and 2003 with a 5-door added in 1999 and a facelift in late 2000. The second generation was produced from 2003 to 2012, and was facelifted in 2005 and again in 2008 with a convertible version added. The third generation was launched in 2012 with a saloon version added a year later. It was facelifted in 2016, commemorating the A3's 20th anniversary. In 2020, the fourth generation model launched, sold only with 5-door hatchback and saloon versions.

A3
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
2020s automobiles

Audi A3


The cuisine of the Southern United States is food prepared across the Southern United States. Foods prepared or from the Southern United States include corn, tomatoes, squash along with other fruits or vegetables.

Much of Creole or Cajun cuisine is based on France, West Africa and the Caribbean.

Traditional Southern meals usually involve catfish, fried chicken, butter beans, biscuits and cornbread.

The restaurants serving Southern food include Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits, Church's Chicken and Kentucky Fried Chicken.

American food

Cuisine of the Southern United States


"Piece of Me" is a 2007 pop single performed by Britney Spears. It is about a response to media scrutiny in Spears' life.

The song was from her fifth studio album Blackout. It peaked at #18 on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached #1 on certain other charts.

The song was released on November 27, 2007.

2007 songs
Britney Spears songs

Piece of Me


A bloomery is a type of furnace that was once widely used for smelting oxides. Bloomeries were the first smelters able to smelt iron. The result of using a bloomery is a mass of iron and slag called a bloom. This is called sponge iron, because it is porous like a sponge. Sponge iron is usually refined into wrought iron. Bloomeries are no longer used in smelting, because blast furnaces are better.

Process
A bloomery consists of a chimney with heat-resistant walls made of earth, clay, or stone. Near the bottom, pipes (made of clay or metal) enter through the side walls. The pipes allow air to enter.

To use a bloomery, charcoal is inserted into the chimney, then heated. Then roughly the same volume of iron is inserted. A common product of this process is fayalite, which occurs when iron mixes with slag.

History
Iron began to be used around 1200 BC.

China appeared to not use bloomeries, seemingly skipping to blast furnaces. However, bloomeries have been found in China, though these were likely only brought from other locations, and not built in China.

Bloomeries had been used in Sub-Saharan Africa before 500 BC.

European Bloomeries started very small, smelting about 1kg of iron with each use, but got larger over time, smelting about 14kg on average in the fourteenth century.
Iron

Bloomery


The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919 is an oil-on-canvas painting by Irish artist William Orpen, completed in 1919. It was one of the paintings commissioned from Orpen to commemorate the Peace Conference at Versailles in 1919.  The work is held by the Imperial War Museum in London.

Background
Orpen was one of the first people chosen as a war artist by the British Ministry of Information in 1917. Orpen was also the official painter at the peace conference and was commissioned to paint three canvases to record the proceedings. The work was the most expensive of the British public art commissions associated with the First World War: Orpen was paid £3,000; by comparison, John Singer Sargent received £300 for his much larger painting Gassed.

The painting depicts the signature of the Treaty of Versailles by representatives from Germany on 28 June 1919 that formally ended the First World War. The group portrait depicts soldiers, diplomats and politicians who attended the conference while the treaty was signed in the opulent surroundings of Louis XIV's Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. High up can be seen the words "Le Roy Gouverne par lui meme" (French: "The King governs alone"). It measures .

Orpen grew to dislike the politicians at the conference and considered them vain and greedy. In his painting, they are dwarfed by the scale of the palace.

Subjects
The people depicted are:

In the front row:
 Johannes Bell, German Centre Party politician, Reichskolonialminister (Minister of Colonial Affairs) and Reichsverkehrsminister (Minister of Transport), sitting in a chair, signing the treaty
 Hermann Müller, German SPD politician and Reichsaußenminister (Foreign Minister), stands beside him, leaning over

Seated in the middle row, from left to right:
 General Tasker H. Bliss, US Army officer and former Chief of Staff of the United States Army, in army uniform
 Edward M. House, US adviser to Woodrow Wilson
 Henry White, US diplomat and former US Ambassador to Italy and to France
 Robert Lansing, US Secretary of State
 Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, holding papers
 Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France
 David Lloyd George, British Prime Minister
 Bonar Law, British Lord Privy Seal (and later Prime Minister)
 Arthur Balfour, British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and former British Prime Minister
 Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner, British Secretary of State for the Colonies
 George Barnes, British Minister Without Portfolio representing Organised Labour
 Marquis Saionji Kinmochi, genrō and former Prime Minister of Japan

Standing in the back row, from left to right
 Eleftherios Venizelos, Prime Minister of Greece
 Afonso Costa, former Prime Minister of Portugal
 Sir George Riddell, British journalist
 Sir George Foster, Canadian MP and delegate
 Nikola Pašić, former Prime Minister of Serbia and Prime Minister of Yugoslavia, with long white beard
 Stéphen Pichon, French Minister of Foreign Affairs, resting on a pillar
 Colonel Sir Maurice Hankey, British civil servant and first Cabinet Secretary, leaning over behind Clemenceau
 Edwin Montagu, British Secretary of State for India, behind the Maharajah of Bikaner
 Ganga Singh, Maharajah of Bikaner, from India, one of only two non-European members of the Imperial War Cabinet, leaning against a pillar
 Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, former Prime Minister of Italy
 Paul Hymans, Belgian Minister for Foreign Affairs
 General Louis Botha, Prime Minister of South Africa
 Billy Hughes, Prime Minister of Australia

Orpen is depicted twice, as an indistinct figure visible in the distorting mirrors behind the main subjects.

Other paintings
Orpen's other paintings of the conference depict preliminary discussions of the "Council of Ten" in the Hall of Clocks at the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs at the Quai d'Orsay, and another showing a coffin lying in state in a marble hall covered by a Union Flag.

External links
The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June 1919, Imperial War Museum
 Art from Different Fronts of World War One, Roger Tolson, BBC History
 A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay, Imperial War Museum
Painting the Paris Peace Conference : William Orpen, 24 January 2009
The Treaty of Versailles, 1919: A Primary Source Examination of the Treaty that Ended World War I, Corona Brezina, The Rosen Publishing Group, 2005, , p. 31
Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations, John Milton Cooper, Cambridge University Press, 2001, , p. 412

1919 paintings
War paintings
Treaty of Versailles
Paintings in the Imperial War Museum
Paintings by William Orpen
Group portraits
Palace of Versailles
Portraits of politicians
Mirrors in art
Cultural depictions of Woodrow Wilson
Cultural depictions of David Lloyd George
Bonar Law
Eleftherios Venizelos
Arthur Balfour


A flashcard or flash card (also known as an index card) is a card bearing information on both sides, which is intended to be used as an aid in memorization. Each flashcard bears a question on one side and an answer on the other. Flashcards are often used to memorize vocabulary, historical dates, formulae or any subject matter that can be learned via a question-and-answer format. Flashcards can be virtual (part of a flashcard software), or physical.

Flashcards are an application of the testing effect − the finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing with proper feedback. Study habits affect the rate at which a flashcard-user learns, and proper spacing of flashcards has been proven to accelerate learning.

Use
Flashcards exercise the mental process of active recall: given a prompt (the question), one produces the answer. Beyond the content of cards, which are collected in decks, there is the question of use – how does one use the cards, in particular, how frequently does one review (more finely, how does one schedule review) and how does one react to errors, either complete failures to recall or mistakes? Various systems have been developed, mostly based around spaced repetition – increasing the time intervals between reviews whenever a card is recalled correctly.

Spaced repetition
Spaced repetition is an evidence-based learning technique which incorporates increasing time intervals between each review of a flashcard in order to exploit the psychological spacing effect. Newly introduced and more difficult flashcards are shown more frequently while older and less difficult flashcards are shown less frequently. The use of spaced repetition has been shown to increase rate of learning. Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must acquire a large number of items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is, therefore, well suited for the problem of vocabulary acquisition in the course of second language learning. Spaced repetition software has been developed to aid the learning process.

Leitner system

The Leitner system is a widely used method of efficiently using flashcards that was proposed by the German science journalist Sebastian Leitner in the 1970s. It is a simple implementation of the principle of spaced repetition, where cards are reviewed at increasing intervals.

In this method, flashcards are sorted into groups according to how well the learner knows each one in the Leitner's learning box. The learners try to recall the solution written on a flashcard. If they succeed, they send the card to the next group. If they fail, they send it back to the first group. Each succeeding group has a longer period of time before the learner is required to revisit the cards. In Leitner's original method, published in his book So lernt man Lernen (How to learn to learn), the schedule of repetition was governed by the size of the partitions in the learning box. These were 1, 2, 5, 8 and 14 cm. Only when a partition became full was the learner to review some of the cards it contained, moving them forward or back depending on whether they remembered them.

Software

There is a wide range of software (including open source and online services) available for creating and using virtual flashcards as an aid to learning.

Two-sided cards
Physical flashcards are two-sided; in some contexts one wishes to correctly produce the opposite side upon being presented with either side, such as in foreign language vocabulary; in other contexts one is content to go in only one direction, such as in producing a poem given its title or incipit (opening). For physical flashcards, one may either use a single card, flipping it according to the direction, or two parallel decks, such as one English-Japanese and one Japanese-English. They have a number of uses and can be simple or elaborate depending on the user. It is demonstrated that a two-sided flashcard is one of the most effective ways to learn foreign language vocabulary that helps learners memorize more easily, remember forever and learn more flexibly.

Example
An English-speaking student learning the Chinese word 人 (rén, person or people):
Q: person
A: 人, rén
Reverse:
Q: 人
A: rén, person

Three-sided cards
Physical flashcards are necessarily two-sided. A variant, found in electronic flashcards, is what is known as a three-sided card. This is a particular kind of asymmetric two-sided card; abstractly, such a card has three fields, Q, A, A*, where Q & A are reversed on flipping, but A* is always in the answer – the two "sides" are thus Q/A,A* and A/Q,A*. Concretely, these are most used for learning foreign vocabulary where the foreign pronunciation is not transparent from the foreign writing – in this case the Question is the native word, the Answer is the foreign word (written), and the pronunciation is always part of the answer (Answer*). This is particularly the case for Chinese characters, as in Chinese hanzi and Japanese kanji, but can also be used for other non-phonetic spellings, including English as a second language.

The purpose of three-sided cards is to provide the benefits of two-sided cards – ease of authoring (enter data once to create two cards), synchronized updates (changes to one are reflected in the other), and spacing between opposite sides (so opposite sides of the same card are not tested too close together) – without the card needing to be symmetric.

One can generalize this principle to an arbitrary number of data fields associated with a single record, with each field representing a different aspect of a fact or bundle of facts.

History
Paper flashcards have been used since at least the 19th century, with Reading Disentangled (1834), a set of phonics flashcards by English educator Favell Lee Mortimer being credited by some as the first flashcards. Previously, a single-sided hornbook had been used for early literacy education.

The Leitner system for scheduling flashcards was introduced by German scientific journalist Sebastian Leitner in the 1970s, specifically his 1972 So lernt man lernen. Der Weg zum Erfolg (How to learn to learn), while the SuperMemo program and algorithm (specifically the SM-2 algorithm, which is the most popular in other programs) was introduced on December 13, 1987, by Polish researcher Piotr Woźniak.

References

Learning methods

Flashcard


Crodowaldo Pavan (; December 1, 1919 – April 3, 2009) was a Brazilian biologist and geneticist, and a scientific leader in Brazil.

Early life
Pavan was born to a family of second-generation immigrants from Italy in 1919, in the city of Campinas, São Paulo state, Brazil. His great-grandfather was an expert in textile paints and a militant anarchist, who was frequently persecuted and imprisoned in Italy as well as in Brazil for his political activism. As a boy, influenced by his father's porcelain manufacturing plant at Mogi das Cruzes, he wished to follow a career in engineering, but changed radically when he had the opportunity in high school to attend a lecture by noted French physician and professor André Dreyfus and a screening of the film "The Story of Louis Pasteur", starring Oscar-winning actor Paul Muni in the title role.

Studies
Following Dreyfus' advice, in 1938 he enrolled in a course of natural history at the University of São Paulo, continuing to work in biological research under his mentor. His doctoral thesis on the subject of the blind cave fish Pimelodella kronei (syn. Typhlobagrus kronci) was completed in the same institution. In 1942, he accepted a position as assistant professor at the University of São Paulo, and quickly became a full professor, a position he held until his retirement in 1978.

In 1942, Pavan became involved in a pioneering research project on the genetics, taxonomy and ecology of Drosophila fruit flies, financed by the Rockefeller Foundation under the direction of the noted Russian-American biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky. This subject became Pavan's lifelong research interest and the source of his international recognition. In particular, Dr. Pavan introduced into biology the cytogenetical study of Rhynchosciara angelae, a fly which is noted for its giant chromosomes, thus facilitating the determination of the loci of genes. He and his collaborators were among the first to prove that the structure of genes and chromosomes was not fixed and could be changed by infections.

In 1966, Pavan accepted an invitation from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee to establish a laboratory for further investigation on cellular genetics. In 1968, he accepted an invitation to become a tenured full professor at the University of Texas at Austin, in Austin, Texas. He returned to Brazil in 1975, and, after officially retiring from his post at the University of São Paulo, he accepted the position of full professor at the recently founded State University of Campinas, working as departmental chairman and dean of the Instituto de Biologia da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Institute of Biology) until a second retirement. He is currently an emeritus professor at both universities.

Influence
As a scientific leader, Pavan was very influential and became involved in the main development of science and technology in Brazil in the second half of the 20th century. He was president of the National Research Council (CNPq) from 1986 to 1990, and president of the Brazilian Society for the Advancement of Science from 1980 to 1986, a critical period for the redemocratization of the country, when the Society played a leading role in civil resistance to the military government.

Pavan was a member of several international scientific societies, such as the Third World Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Sciences of Lisbon, the Physiographic Academy of Lund, and the Academy of Sciences of Chile, and received decorations, medals, and awards from several countries. He was one of the few Brazilians who was a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He was also a member of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, and one of the founders of the Academy of Sciences of São Paulo, the Academy of Medicine of São Paulo, the Academy of Letters of São Paulo, the Academy of Education of São Paulo, and the Brazilian Society of Genetics as well as one of its presidents.

During the final part of his life Pavan lived in São Paulo and was involved in several activities related to the public understanding of science. He was one of the founders and directors of the Associação Brasileira de Divulgação Científica, and was still active in research on the biological control of agricultural plagues.

Death
Pavan died on April 3, 2009, at the University Hospital of the University of São Paulo, of multiple organ failure resultant of complications after a cancer surgery.

Decorations
Comendador da Ordem do Rio Branco - Ministério das Relações Exteriores - 1986
Oficial da Ordem do Mérito - Forças Armadas do Brasil - 1986
Ordem da Inconfidência - Governo do Estado de Minas Gerais - 1987
Grande Oficial da Ordem do Mérito - Governo da Republica Portuguesa - 1987
Grã-Cruz da Ordem Nacional do Mérito Científico - Presidency of the Republic of Brazil - 1994

Medals
Medalha "Anchieta" - Câmara de Vereadores da cidade de São Paulo - 1988
Medalha CAPES 50 Anos - CAPES/MEC - Jul/2001

Awards
Prêmio Nacional de Genética - 1963
Prêmio Moinho Santista (Biologia) - Fundação Moinho Santista - 1980
Prêmio "Alfred Jurzykowski" - Academia Nacional de Medicina - 1986

Selected publications
 PAVAN, C. and BREUER, M. E. 1952. Polytene chromosomes in different tissues of Rhynchosciara. Journal of Heredity. vol. 63, p. 151-157.
 PAVAN, C. 1967. Chromosomal changes induced by infective agents Triangle. Sandoz J. Med. Sci. vol. 8, p. 42-48.
 PAVAN, C., BIESELE, J., RIESS, R. W. and WERTZ, A. V. 1971. XIII. Changes in the ultrastructure of Rhynchosciara cells infected by Microsporidia. Studies in Genetics. vol. VI, p. 7103.
 PAVAN, C., DA CUNHA, A. B. and MORSOLETTO, C. 1971. Virus-chromosome relationships in cells of Rhynchosciara (Diptera, Sciaridae). Caryologia. vol. 24, p. 371-389.
 PAVAN, C. and SANDERS, P. F. 1972. Heterochromatin in development of normal and infected cells. In Cell Differentiation. Munrsgaard- Copenhagen:.
 PAVAN, C. 1983. Karyotypes and possible regions of origin of three species of Calliphoridae (Diptera) recently introduced in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Genética. vol. 6, p. 619-638.

External links
 Biography. Brazilian Academy of Sciences.
 Crodowaldo Pavan's obituary

1919 births
2009 deaths
Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Brazilian scientists
Brazilian geneticists
Members of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the National Order of Scientific Merit (Brazil)
Brazilian people of Italian descent
People from Campinas
Brazilian science writers
Brazilian educators
University of São Paulo alumni
Academic staff of the State University of Campinas

Crodowaldo Pavan


Ad litem (Latin: "for the suit") is a term used in law to refer to the appointment by a court of one party to act in a lawsuit on behalf of another party such as a child or an incapacitated adult, who is deemed incapable of representing him or herself. An individual who acts in this capacity is generally called a guardian ad litem in such legal proceedings; in Scotland, curator ad litem is the equivalent term. In England and Wales, since the amendment of the Children Act 1989 established the role of children's guardian, the term is now used only in the term "guardian ad litem in Private Law proceedings under rule 9.5. The United States legal system, which at its inception was based on the English legal system, continues to use the terms "guardian ad litem and "attorney ad litem. The legal system in the Republic of Ireland also uses the term guardian ad litem.

The term is also used in property litigation, where a person may be appointed to act on behalf of an estate in court proceedings, when the estate's proper representatives are unable or unwilling to act.

The term is also sometimes used to refer to a judge who participates in only a particular case or a limited set of cases and does not have the same status as the other judges of the court. Such a jurist is more commonly called a judge ad hoc. Judges ad hoc are particularly common in international courts, and are fewer in number elsewhere.

The Latin term (ād lītem) translates literally as "for the suit" or "for the proceeding".

See also

Citations

References

Latin legal terminology

Ad litem


ඩයලොග් ආසියාටා (ඉංග්‍රීසි: Dialog Axiata PLC) යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ විදුලි සේවා සපයන්නෙකි. තවද ඔවුන්ගේ ජංගම දුරකථන ජාලය ග්‍රාහකයන් මිලියන 16.287 කට අධික ප්‍රමාණයකට සේවා සපයනු ලබයි. මේ වන විට 5G සේවාව ප්‍රථමව හදුන්වා දුන් ජාලය ඩයලොග් වේ.

About us
Dialog Axiata PLC is Sri Lanka's flagship telecommunications service provider, which operates Dialog Mobile– the country's largest mobile network. A subsidiary of the Axiata Group Berhad (formerly TM International), Dialog is one of the largest listed companies on the Colombo Stock Exchange in terms of market capitalisation. Dialog holds the distinction of being the first and only company in Sri Lanka to achieve a market capitalisation of USD 1 billion. In addition to its core business of mobile telephony,  Dialog Axiata PLC operates a wide portfolio of multi-sensory connectivity services. This includes Dialog TV, a direct-to-home satellite television service, and Dialog Global which operates a wide portfolio of international telecommunication services. In addition, Dialog Broadband offers fixed-line services and broadband internet, whilst Dialog Tele-Infrastructure is the company's National telco infrastructure arm. Dialog holds leadership position in almost all its business spheres, with innovation, superior technology solutions and world-class customer service serving as catalysts for growth.
 ඩයලොග් ටීවී

මූලා

ඩයලොග් ආසියාටා


Świętosława of Poland ( (c. 1046–1048 – 1 September 1126)) was the third wife of Duke (later King) Vratislaus II of Bohemia and the first Queen of Bohemia as of 1085.

Origin
Świętosława was the daughter of Duke Casimir I of Poland and his wife Maria Dobroniega of Kiev. She was related to the House of Přemysl, the family of her future husband, through her great-grandmother Doubravka of Bohemia. Her brothers Boleslaus II the Bold and Ladislaus I Herman were rulers of Poland.

Marriage to Vratislaus
Vratislaus married Świętosława in 1062, one year after the death of the previous duchess, Vratislaus' second wife Adelaide of Hungary. His first wife Maria had died after the birth of their stillborn child. According to German historians, Świętosława was 15 years' old at the time of their marriage, while according to Oswald Balzer, she was aged 19 to 22.

With this marriage, the neutrality of Bohemia was ensured in the Polish-German conflict. In addition, Vratislaus demonstrated friendly relationships with Boleslaus II the Bold, but at a later date they disputed the Czech-Polish borders.

The first Queen of Bohemia
The new duchess gave birth to four children; Vratislaus had four other ones already. The youngest son, Soběslav, was probably born in 1075. Her sons Vladislaus and Soběslav became dukes in the unquiet years after the death of their father, while her daughter Judith was married to Wiprecht, his ally and friend.

There is little information about this duchess, although she was crowned together with her husband as King and Queen in 1085 by archbishop Egilbert. They reigned for the next seven years.

Widow
In 1092 Świętosława was left a widow and saw a struggle for the throne of Bohemia among the Přemyslids. In 1111, she assisted in negotiations between Vladislaus I and Bolesław III Wrymouth. After Vratislaus' death, she tried to soften clashes between their youngest sons Vladislaus and Soběslav.

In 1125, the dying Vladislaus I confirmed his relative Otto II the Black as his successor, which was also the wish of Vladislaus' wife, Richeza of Berg. Only the intervention of his mother changed his opinion, and Vladislaus reconciled with his brother Soběslav.

Świętosława, who was a widow for thirty years, lived to see the victory of her son Soběslav in the Battle of Chlumec and died in September 1126.

Children
Boleslaus (died 1091)
Borivoj II of Bohemia (c. 1064 – 2 February 1124), Duke of Bohemia
Vladislaus I of Bohemia (died 12 April 1125), Duke of Bohemia
Soběslav I of Bohemia (died 14 February 1140), Duke of Bohemia
Judith (c. 1066 – 9 December 1108), married to Wiprecht de Groitzsch

Literature
VANÍČEK, V. Vratislav II. (I.) První český král. Prague : Vyšehrad, 2004.
KAREŠOVÁ, Z.; PRAŽÁK, J. Královny a kněžny české. Prague : X-Egem, 1996.

References

References

|-

1040s births
1126 deaths
Piast dynasty
Polish princesses
Queens consort of Bohemia
Year of birth uncertain
Place of birth unknown
Place of death unknown
Date of birth unknown
Duchesses of Bohemia
11th-century people from Bohemia
11th-century women from Bohemia
12th-century people from Bohemia.
12th-century women from Bohemia
11th-century Polish women
11th-century Polish people

Świętosława of Poland


San Sombrèro (subtitled A Land of Carnivals, Cocktails and Coups) is a parody travel guide book examining the eponymous fictional country, described as the birthplace of tinted sunglasses and sequins. This country is set in Central America, and was created by Australian comedic writers Tom Gleisner, Santo Cilauro and Rob Sitch (of The D-Generation and The Panel fame). Along with the other Jetlag Travel volumes, 2003's Molvanîa and 2004's Phaic Tăn, the book parodies both the language of heritage tourism and the legacy of colonialism and imperialism.

In Spanish, San Sombrèro would be translated into English as "Saint Hat", "San" being the shortened word for the Spanish word "santo" meaning saint, and "sombrero" (no accent mark in real-world Spanish) meaning hat.

According to the book the "full and technically correct" name of San Sombrèro is the "Democratic Free People's United Republic of San Sombrèro", and citizens may be arrested, without a warrant, if the title is not used.

About San Sombrèro

The "Democratic Free People's United Republic of San Sombrèro" is a composite of many stereotypes and clichés about Central America and South America. It would be difficult to position the fictional San Sombèro on a map of Central America. Although it is presented as a thin country between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea (similar to Panama), it runs diagonally from northeast to southwest, in comparison to the other states on the Central American strip of land that run more from the northwest to southeast, or west to east. If San Sombrèro were to be geographically placed it would probably fit best between Panama and Costa Rica.

The book says the nation has "362 separate public holidays (not including the 'carnivale' long weekend)". San Sombrèro appears to be a stereotypically corrupt and unstable banana republic with seemingly everlasting revolutions and counter-revolutions. The country is said to have had 17 different presidents over 10 years.

San Sombrèro is described as having a very high literacy rate because of an anti-illiteracy campaign in which "over 53,000 citizens who were unable to read [were] jailed or deported to Haiti".

Before the arrival of the Spanish, San Sombrèro was said to inhabited by several "Amer-Indian" ethnic groups, called the "Ciboney" (Siboney) (Nomadic hunter-gatherers), "Taino" (who lived on seafood), "Puorcina" (who practiced simple agriculture) and the most dominant "Guanajaxo" (they just stole from everyone else). But there was a tribe that existed before called the "Bollivquar", fierce warriors who regarded themselves as a very complex and advanced society, which is said to be odd because they "never quite" mastered fire, irrigation or star jumps. But they learnt how to farm tobacco, which to this day still remains a part of the Bollivquar diet, explaining their stunted growth. Note that their inability to light a fire made it harder to take up smoking.

Language
San Sombrèro is a Spanish-speaking country, but a dialect has developed known as San Sombrèran, which combines Castilian grammar, Portuguese pronunciation, and indigenous shouting. San Sombrèran Spanish is spoken a lot faster than normal Spanish, because it is considered impolite for people to take a breath during a sentence (particularly since their breath is so foul). San Sombrèran Spanish has many English loanwords, some of which are "beisbol" - baseball, "hamburgesa" - hamburger (these two are actual Spanish words), "beeras" - beers, and "dryvebyshooting" - drive by shooting.

National anthem
The San Sombrèran national anthem is "O Patria Gloriosa" (O Glorious Motherland), written in 1853 by independence leader Juan Robirro, who is famous for uttering "He who loves his country, lives forever" shortly before falling off a ladder and dying. The national anthem is set to a bossa nova beat, and loyal citizens of San Sombrèro will stand respectfully, place a hand on each hip and start to gyrate while the anthem is played.

A verse
 My baby melts my heart
 My baby drives me nuts
 The way she swings her hips
 The way her hair hangs down
 Give me a kiss,
 O gorgeous woman
 Cover my lips
 In passionate bliss
 Long live San Sombrèro
 O glorious fatherland.

Flag

The flag of San Sombrèro is the "Camouflagio", which resembles military camouflage, with a narrow vertical white stripe on the left side. When the nation first became independent from Spain a dirty red and white chequered tablecloth made an impromptu flag.

Regions
The capital city of San Sombrèro is Cucaracha City in Polluçión. There are five provinces in San Sombrèro including Polluçión, the other provinces are:
Maracca (Capital: San Pistachio)
Guacomala (Capital: Fumarole)
Lambarda (Capital: Aguazura)
San Abandonio (Capital: Nicotiño)

Fictional travel guides

The book advertises (fictional) guides on the following places: Unaudited Arab Emirates (the Middle East), Costa Lottsa (akin to Monaco), the Barbituros Islands (the Caribbean), Alpenstein (the Alps), Tyranistan (Former Soviet Union), Nuku'la Atoll (Polynesia), frozen Norgborg (Scandinavia), and the miserable Isle of Fogg (North Sea). It also advertises its website's forum, as well as world tours for botanists and golfers, and an opportunity to spend a year in an untouched part of Europe.

The book ends with The Jetlag Story.

See also
 Fictional country
 Phaic Tăn
 Molvanîa
 San Escobar

References

Fictional North American countries
2006 books
Australian books
Travel guide books
Australian travel books
Parody books

San Sombrèro