The Battle of Morgarten took place on 15 November 1315, when troops of Schwyz, supported by their allies of Uri and Unterwalden, ambushed an Austrian army under the command of Leopold I, Duke of Austria on the shores of Lake Ägeri, in the territory of Schwyz.

After a brief close-quarters battle, the Austrian army was routed, with numerous slain or drowned. The Swiss victory consolidated the League of the Three Forest Cantons, which formed the core of the Old Swiss Confederacy.

Background
Toward the end of the 13th century the House of Habsburg coveted the area around the Gotthard Pass, as it offered the shortest passage to Italy. However, the Confederates of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which had formalized the Swiss Confederacy in 1291, held imperial freedom letters from former Habsburg emperors granting them local autonomy within the empire. In 1314 tensions between the Habsburgs and Confederates heightened when Duke Louis IV of Bavaria (who would become Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor) and Frederick the Handsome, a Habsburg prince, each claimed the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor.

The Confederates supported Louis IV because they feared the Habsburgs would annex their lands (which they had tried to do in the late 13th century). War broke out after the Confederates of Schwyz raided the Habsburg-protected Einsiedeln Abbey.
The conflict with Einsiedeln erupted after settlers moved from Schwyz into unused parts of the territories claimed by Einsiedeln. The settlers cleared the primal forest and established farms or pastures. This led the abbot of Einsiedeln to complain with the bishop at Constance, who moved to excommunicate Schwyz.
In revenge for this, men of Schwyz under the leadership of Werner Stauffacher raided Einsiedeln abbey on the night of 6 January 1314. They plundered the monastery, desecrated the abbey church, and took several monks as hostages. The abbot managed to escape to Pfäffikon, from where he alerted the bishop. The bishop now extended excommunication to Uri and Unterwalden as well as Schwyz.

Battle
Frederick's brother, Habsburg duke Leopold of Austria, led a large army to crush the rebellious Confederates.
Johannes von Winterthur's chronicle of the battle puts the Habsburg forces at 20,000, although that number is likely an exaggeration. A 19th century account by Rudolf Hanhart states that there were 9,000 men in the Habsburg army, while historian Hans Delbrück stated in 1907 that the Habsburg army consisted of only 2,000–3,000 men and that these were mainly well-trained and -equipped knights.  Delbrück's estimate is accepted by Kelly DeVries.

The Confederates of Schwyz were supported by the Confederates of Uri and Unterwalden.
The size of the Confederate force is unknown, with estimates ranging from 1,500 to around 3,000-4,000.
Regardless of  numerical considerations, the main contrast between the two forces was that a well-equipped and trained medieval army was meeting an improvised militia of farmers and herdsmen.

According to the 15th-century Swiss chronicles, Leopold upon reaching  Ägeri debated with his nobles how to best invade Schwyz, with several possible routes under consideration. After the decision was taken to take the direct approach, marching to Sattel from the north, Leopold is said to have asked his fool, one Cuoni von Stocken, for his opinion. The fool expressed misgivings, quipping that "you have all deliberated on how to reach that land, but none of you deliberated how you will get out again".

In order to hide his intentions to attack from the north, Leopold sent a number of smaller detachments in order to create diversions. One such attack was sent to Arth, attacking from the northwest, one from Entlebuch attacking Unterwalden from the north, one from Lucerne attacking Schwyz from the west across Lake Lucerne, and one under the command of count Otto von Strassberg was sent across Brünig Pass to Obwalden. When news of the Habsburg defeat at Morgarten reached von Strassberg, he decided to turn back. He was reportedly injured on the retreat and died from his wounds soon after.

According to Konrad Justinger's chronicle, written c. 1430, the people of Schwyz were warned by their neighbours, the lords of Hünenberg.
The warning is said to have been delivered by the means of arrows fletched with parchment, with the message written on the fletching, "beware near Morgarten" (hütend üch am morgarten), thus indicating the route chosen by Leopold for entering Schwyz.

Upon receiving this warning, the men of Schwyz, with the support of 600 men of Uri and Unterwalden, hurried to Sattel to intercept the enemy.  Between Lake Ägerisee and Sattel, where a small path led between a steep slope and a swamp, they prepared an ambush.
The marching army would have been stretched out in a column of some 2 km along the path when the vanguard encountered a roadblock near Schafstetten.
The Confederates attacked the column, frightening the horses by throwing rocks from above and engaging the mounted knights with halberds.

About 1,500 men were said to have been killed in the attack; according to Johannes von Winterthur (writing ca. 1340), this number does not include those drowned in the lake. According to Karl von Elgger, the Confederates, unfamiliar with the customs of battles between knights, brutally butchered retreating troops and everyone unable to flee. He records that some infantry preferred to drown themselves in the lake rather than face the brutality of the Swiss.

The earliest mentions of the battle, in chronicles of the 14th century, identify it as having taken place in the land of Schwyz, or Schwyz and Uri (Peter of Zittau has Sweicz et Uherach).
The name of Morgarten is recorded by Konrad Justinger in the context of the written warning attached to arrows. The toponym Morgarten originally refers to an alpine pasture near  (now Chli Morgarten). The name translates to "pig corral", "enclosure for swine".
The entire passage between Lake Ägeri and Sattel is now known as Morgarten, but this is in reference to the battle.

Use of halberds
There is some evidence to suggest that the attack at Morgarten involved the first recorded use of halberds against knights, the weapon that would become iconic of the Old Swiss Confederacy.

Matthias of Neuenburg writing in Latin around 1350 uses the term jesa to describe a type of polearm used by the Confederates; this has been interpreted as referencing an early form of the halberd.
Konrad Justinger, writing in German in c. 1430, cites the use of halberds explicitly: "the Swiss held in their hands certain most terrible murder weapons, known in the vernacular as helnbarten, by means of which even the best armed opponents were cut apart as with a razor blade, and hacked to pieces: this was no 'battle', but, for the reasons mentioned, so to speak a mere butchering of the men of duke Leopold by those mountain dwellers, as with a herd led to slaughter".

In the assessment of John Guilmartin, writing for Encyclopædia Britannica (2015, s.v. "Military technology", section "The infantry revolution, c. 1200–1500"):

Aftermath

Within a month of the battle, in December 1315, the Confederates renewed the oath of alliance made in 1291, initiating a period of growth within the Confederacy. In March 1316 Emperor Louis IV confirmed the rights and privileges of the Forest Cantons. However, Leopold prepared another attack against the Confederacy. In response, Schwyz attacked some of the Habsburg lands and Unterwalden marched into the Bernese Oberland. Neither side was able to prevail against the other, and in 1318 the isolated Forest Cantons negotiated a ten-month truce with the Habsburgs, which was extended several times. By 1323 the Forest Cantons had made alliances with Bern, and Schwyz had signed an alliance with Glarus for protection from the Habsburgs. Within 40 years cities including Lucerne, Zug and Zürich had also joined the Confederacy. The Confederate victory gave them virtual autonomy and, for a time, a peace with the Habsburgs that lasted until the Battle of Sempach in 1386.

Commemoration
As the first military success of the Confederacy, Morgarten became an important staple of
Swiss patriotism in the early modern period.
Records of formal commemorations of the battle go back to the 14th century;
Johannes von Winterthur in the 1340s records the decision of Schwyz to hold a yearly commemoration. The existence of a chapel at the site of the battle is recorded in 1501.
Writing in 1530, Joachim Vadian suggests that the first such chapel may have been built immediately after the battle, with the proceeds from the spoils. The modern chapel dates to 1604.
In 1891, in the context of the 600-years anniversary of the Confederacy, plans were made to erect a new memorial at the site of battle.
There was some dispute as to the appropriate location (not least because the "battle" was an attack on a marching column stretched out for some 2 kilometres), with both the cantons of Schwyz and of Zug claiming the site of the battle.
A monument was eventually inaugurated in 1908 at the southern shore of Lake Ägeri, in the village of Hauptsee, in the canton of Zug. On this occasion, the village was renamed to "Morgarten" (part of Oberägeri municipality). The authorities of Schwyz refused to acknowledge a site of the battle outside of their territory and did not send any official representation to the monument's inauguration ceremony.

Since 1912, a yearly target shooting event has been held on the day of the battle in the vicinity of the monument, the Morgartenschiessen. The competition is over the distance of 300m. In addition, a pistol competition over a distance of 50m was introduced in 1957, taking place in the territory of Schwyz, near the battle chapel.

A large celebration for the 600-year anniversary of the battle was organised in 1915, held in two locations at the chapel and the monument.
In the context of the 650-year anniversary in 1965, efforts were made to preserve the site of the battle. Money was raised for the canton of Schwyz to buy up private land in the area.

Felicia Hemans's poem Song of The Battle of Morgarten was published in The Edinburgh Magazine in 1822.

See also
Battles of the Old Swiss Confederacy

References

Bibliography

Further reading

 Magill, Frank N. Great Events from History: Ancient and The medieval Series, Volume 3:951–1500 (1972), pp. 1603–1607, historiography
 Winkler, Albert (2008). "The Battle of Morgarten in 1315: An Essential Incident in the Founding of the Swiss State," Swiss American Historical Society Review, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 3–25.

External links

1310s in the Holy Roman Empire
1315 in Europe
14th century in Austria
Conflicts in 1315
Battles involving Switzerland
Battles involving Austria
Battles of the Middle Ages
14th century in the Old Swiss Confederacy

Battle of Morgarten


Lake Austin, formerly Lake McDonald, is a water reservoir on the Colorado River in Austin, Texas. The reservoir was formed in 1939 by the construction of Tom Miller Dam by the Lower Colorado River Authority. Lake Austin is one of the seven Highland Lakes created by the LCRA, and is used for flood control, electrical power generation, and recreation.

Hydrology

Lake Austin is a part of Texas' Colorado River; it begins below Mansfield Dam and is principally fed by the outflow of Lake Travis. The lake meanders generally from northwest to southeast, with few significant tributaries; the largest are Bull Creek, entering from the north near where Loop 360 spans the lake at the Pennybacker Bridge, and Bee Creek, entering from the west just above Tom Miller Dam, where the lake ends. Its outflow through Tom Miller Dam then becomes the principal inflow for Lady Bird Lake.

Lake Austin is maintained as a constant-level lake by releases of water from Lake Travis upstream. The other Highland Lake reservoirs on the Colorado River are Lake Buchanan, Inks Lake, Lake LBJ, Lake Marble Falls, and Lake Travis upstream, and Lady Bird Lake downstream.

History
The first lake on the same site was named Lake McDonald, a reservoir formed by the construction of Austin Dam between 1890 and 1893. In 1900 a heavy rainstorm overwhelmed and destroyed the first Austin Dam, causing extensive flooding. The dam began to be rebuilt in 1915, but repairs were abandoned because of a contract dispute, and the unfinished dam was again destroyed in a heavy storm later that year. In 1938 the Lower Colorado River Authority began building the Tom Miller Dam; the dam was completed and the lake filled in 1939.

Recreational uses
Lake Austin is a popular fishing and boating destination.

Boating
Numerous companies rent out sailboats, motorboats, jet skis/waverunners, canoes, pontoon boats, and large party boats in the Austin area.

The Austin Parks and Recreation Department offers classes in canoeing, kayaking, and sailing.

Fish and wildlife populations
Lake Austin has been stocked with several species of fish intended to improve the utility of the reservoir for recreational fishing. The lake is considered to have an excellent stock of largemouth bass. Other fish present include catfish and sunfish.

Lake Austin is one of the Texas Highland Lakes infested with hydrilla, a non-native aquatic plant species.  The Lower Colorado River Authority has intentionally lowered the water levels in the lake in the months of January and February so that freezing air temperatures might destroy substantial portions of the hydrilla in the lake each winter. As of March 2014, hydrilla has been completely eliminated from the lake through the stocking of Asian grass carp by the City of Austin. As of September 2016 the grass carp released into Lake Austin have begun to devastate the lake's natural resources. This has led to a decline in the wildlife native to this section of the Colorado River.

References

External links

Reservoirs in Texas
Geography of Austin, Texas
Protected areas of Travis County, Texas
Bodies of water of Travis County, Texas
1939 establishments in Texas
Lower Colorado River Authority

Lake Austin


Semsvannet is a lake in Asker municipality in Viken county, southwest of Oslo, in Norway. The lake is situated close to, for the Norwegians, famous places such as the ridge Skaugumsåsen, the old cultural house Tangen and Skaugum the official residence of the heir to the throne of Norway, i.e. the crown prince or princess of Norway. The status of Semsvannet as a nature reserve was upgraded when the area was protected as a conservation area October 2, 1992. The lake and its vicinity was elected a millennium site in the year 2000.

Numbers
Lake Semsvannet is  and is situated at a height of  above sea level. The greatest depth is . To the lake flows the river Gupelva. From the lake flows the river Askerelva. Regarding the inhabitants of the lake, fish, there are: Northern pike (Esox lucius), European perch (Perca fluviatilis) and Roach (Rutilus rutilus). There are also smaller populations of Brown trout (Salmo trutta), Arctic char (Salvelinus aplinus) and European whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus).

Sports and Outdoor Pursuits
For generations, Semsvannet has been utilized as a lake for swimming, especially among the, at the time, permanent residents at Tangen, et cetera. It is possible to perform cross-country running around the lake or – according to the Norwegian expression – "gå på tur" [eng. do a walkabout, to trek]. The distance is then . For outdoor and athletic people there are summer trails and winter ski trails, into the Vestmarka, that begins here.

Landscape of Nature, Agriculture and Culture

Countryside of Nature and Agriculture

Semsvannet and vicinity belongs to the Norwegian natural, agricultural and cultural history.
The estates Sem, Store Berg and Tveiter are to be found nearby the lake. However, situated even closer to the lake, by far – at the foot of the ridge Skaugumsåsen – is the cultural house Tangen, which during the first half of the twentieth century was the domicile of the Family Kaspersen; who among others frequently was visited by the Norwegian cultural personality and friend Alf Prøysen at social gatherings and feasts arranged by the family.

Culture and Songs Dedicated to The Area
To have the songwriter, troubadour and friend Alf Prøysen nearby, made a mutual impact, and inspired the just a few years younger son of Tangen, Karsten Kaspersen. Who in his turn wrote several songs dedicated to the area, and how it was to live and grow up close to the lake Semsvannet and at Tangen in the first half of the twentieth century (i.e. around the years 1900 to 1950). From Karsten Kaspersen's musical production, the following songs dedicated to the area around Semsvannet can be noted:
 "Skaugumsåsen" (eng. The Mountain Ridge of Skaugumsåsen)
 "I ungdomsår" (In Our Youth)
 "Skymning over Tangen" (Nightfall over Tangen)

Place of The Millennium
The old house of Tangen was culturally protected in 1992, and it and the Semsvannet area are much-loved destinations in nature for the Norwegians. In 1998, the Millennium Committee of Asker arranged the Millennium Election for its community residents, regarding the most favoured place in nature. Among the many nominations, Semsvannet and its surrounding area was chosen as the finest and most beautiful.

References

Bibliography
 Grosvold, et al. (1999). Semsvannet: liv og landskap. [Semsvannet: Life and Countryside.] Asker: Published by Asker kommunes tusenårskomité [The Millennium Committee of Asker.]
 Thon, Jorunn Marie (editor) (no year). På tur rundt Semsvannet. Asker: NaKuHel-senteret.  [The book has got many facts and nice photographs regarding Semsvannet and its surroundings. Language: Norwegian. No English translation known. Norwegian book title translated to English: 'A Semsvannet walkabout. Trekking Semsvannet and its vicinity.' (Article Author)]

Lakes of Viken (county)
Asker
Tourist attractions in Viken
Culture in Viken
Protected areas of Norway
Millennium sites

Semsvannet


Julien Michel Friedman (; born 25 February 1956 in Paris) is a German author, former CDU politician and talk show host. From 2000 to 2003 Friedman was vice president of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, and president of the European Jewish Congress from 2001 to 2003. From 1998 to 2003 he had his own show on German television. Since 2004 he has been hosting a weekly talk show on N24 called Studio Friedman.
Friedman is a lawyer by profession and studied law and philosophy.

Early life and education
Friedman was born to a Polish-Jewish family. His parents and his grandmother were Schindlerjuden, i.e. Oskar Schindler had recruited them for slave labor, thereby rescuing them from a concentration camp. They had been in the most infamous of all camps, the extermination camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. After the Second World War, his family opened a fur shop in Paris. In 1965, the family returned to Germany and settled in Frankfurt am Main.

Friedman began studying medicine, but then switched to law. He graduated from law school in 1988 and became a doctor of law in 1994. He has a brother living in Israel.

Career
After qualifying as a lawyer in 1988, Friedman became a partner in an international law firm specializing in financial and media matters. Today, he is a professor of real estate and media law.

From 2000 until 2003, Friedman served as President of the European Jewish Congress (EJC).

Friedman's career in TV began with a talk show called Vorsicht! Friedman (Caution! Friedman) on the public broadcaster Hessischer Rundfunk in 1998. Since 2004, he has been presenting "Studio Friedman" on Germany's Welt channel. His talk show Auf ein Wort premiered on Deutsche Welle in 2017.

Other activities
 Wall GmbH, Member of the Supervisory Board (since 2003)
 Atlantik-Brücke, Member
 Federal Academy for Security Policy (BAKS), Member of the Advisory Board
 ZDF, Member of the Broadcasting Council (1990–2003)

Recognition
 2001 – Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
 2001 – German Television Award

Controversy
In 2003, Friedman was convicted in a case involving prostitution and drug usage. Friedman had been accused of offering cocaine to Ukrainian prostitutes he had ordered through an escort service that was being investigated for forced prostitution. Friedman's crime was discovered almost by chance, when police wiretaps for the investigation into forced prostitution led them to the name "Paolo Pinkel", which turned out to be Friedman's alias when using the service. However several Jewish leaders claimed Friedman's arrest was part of an anti-Semitic witch-hunt. Investigators raided his home and found small quantities of cocaine. He was fined €17,400 for possession of cocaine, on 8 July 2003. The settlement enabled him to avoid a trial. After publicly admitting to the drug possession Friedman stated "I have made a mistake. Drugs are no help. I am resigning from all public offices that I hold." As well as resigning from the Central Council of Jews Friedman also resigned from the Christian Democratic Party.

However, since he did not apologise to the forced prostitutes themselves (keeping silent about the nature of his "mistake"), the German women's rights organisation Terre des Femmes and others strongly criticised Friedman's speech.

When Friedman interviewed Youth and Sports Minister Akif Çağatay Kılıç in 2016 about the Turkish coup d'état attempt, mass layoffs and arrests that followed the failed putsch, and the media situation and the position of women in Turkey, the Turkish government confiscated the recordings. In response, Deutsche Welle Director-General Peter Limbourg condemned Turkey the seizure of the video tape as "a blatant violation of press freedom."

Personal life
Since July 2004 Friedmann has been married to Bärbel Schäfer, a former German TV celebrity. They got married at Park East Synagogue. The couple has two sons, Samuel (*2005) and Oscar (*2008 – named after Oskar Schindler).

References

1956 births
Christian Democratic Union of Germany politicians
20th-century German Jews
Jewish German politicians
20th-century German lawyers
German television talk show hosts
German broadcast news analysts
German newspaper journalists
German television journalists
Living people
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
ZDF people
Die Welt people
Hessischer Rundfunk people
Jurists from Hesse

Michel Friedman


Thomas Mangey (1688 – 6 March 1755) was an English clergyman and scholar, known for his edition of Philo.

Life
He was son of Arthur Mangey, a goldsmith of Leeds,  and was educated at the Leeds free school. He was admitted as sub-sizar to St. John's College, Cambridge, 28 June 1704, at the age of sixteen. He graduated B.A. in 1707 and M.A. in 1711, and was admitted a fellow of St. John's 5 April 1715. In 1716 he is described on the title-page of one of his sermons as chaplain at Whitehall.

In 1718 he resigned his fellowship. In 1719 or earlier he was chaplain to the Bishop of London, John Robinson . In 1719 he also proceeded LL.D., and in July 1725 D.D., being one of the seven who then received their doctorate at the hands of Richard Bentley. As deputy to William Lupton, preacher of Lincoln's Inn (who died in December 1726), he delivered a series of discourses on the Lord's Prayer, of which a second edition appeared in 1717.

From 1717 to 1720 he was the Rector of St. Nicolas' Church, Guildford, and subsequently the vicarage of Ealing, Middlesex, which he resigned in 1754, and the rectory of St. Mildred's, Bread Street, which he retained till his death. In May 1721 he was presented to the fifth stall in Durham Cathedral, and promoted from that to the first in January 1722. Mangey died at Durham, 6 March 1755, and was buried in the east transept of the cathedral.

Works
His major work was his edition of Philo of Alexandria (Philo Judaeus), Philonis Judaei Opera . . . typis Gulielmi Bowyer, 2 vols. London, 1742. He also made collations of the text of the Greek Testament, and critical notes and adversaria on Diodorus Siculus and other classical authors.

His other printed works are mainly sermons, and polemical treatises against John Toland and William Whiston. One volume of collected sermons by him was published in 1732. His 'Remarks upon "Nazarenus," wherein the Falsity of Mr. Toland's Mahometan Gospel. &c., are set forth,' 1719, called forth more than one answer. Toland replied to it the year after in his Tetradymus. Another of his treatises, Plain Notions of our Lord's Divinity, also published in 1719, was answered the same year by 'Phileleutherus Cantabrigiensis,' i.e. Thomas Herne.

Family
He married Dorothy,  daughter of John Sharpe, archbishop of York, by whom he left a son, John, afterwards vicar of Dunmow, Essex, and prebendary of St. Paul's, who died in 1782. His widow survived him till 1780.

Notes

References

1688 births
1755 deaths
18th-century English Anglican priests
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
17th-century Anglican theologians
18th-century Anglican theologians

Thomas Mangey


The Literary Encyclopedia is an online reference work first published in October 2000.  It was founded as an innovative project designed to bring the benefits of information technology to what at the time was still a largely conservative literary field. From its inception it was developed as a not-for-profit publication aimed to ensure that those who contribute to it are properly rewarded for the time and knowledge they invest - as such, its authors and editors are also shareholders in the Company.

The Literary Encyclopedia offers both freely available content and content and services for subscribers (individual and institutional, consisting mainly of higher education institutions and higher level secondary schools). Articles are solicited by invitation from specialist scholars, then refereed and approved by subject editors, which makes the LE both authoritative and reliable. It contains general profiles of literary writers, but also of major cultural, historical and scientific figures; articles on individual works of literature from all over the world (often containing succinct critical commentary and sections on critical reception); entries on hundreds of literary terms, concepts and movements, as well as extended essays on topics of historical and cultural importance.

The Literary Encyclopedia offers free access, upon request, to its entire database to all educational institutions in countries where the GDP is below the world average. It also offers a number of research grants to young and emerging scholars in its subscribing institutions, funded by royalties donated by the publication's contributors and editors.

The encyclopedia's founding editors were Robert Clark (University of East Anglia), Emory Elliott (University of California at Riverside) and Janet Todd (University of Cambridge), and its current editorial board numbers over 100 distinguished scholars from higher education institutions all over the world.

Written and owned by a global network of scholars and researchers, The Literary Encyclopedia is an ongoing project. So far, it has published over 8000 articles in 16.8 million words, on a wide range of authors, works and topics in world literature, from the classical to the postcolonial. It continues to publish an average of 20-40 new articles every month, and subscribers benefit from considerable cross-referencing possibilities to its articles under the form of lists of recommended critical bibliographies, course-specific bookshelves, and clusters of related articles.

See also
List of online encyclopedias

Notes

External links

Online encyclopedias
Encyclopedias of literature
2000 establishments

The Literary Encyclopedia


Paul Muldoon (born 20 June 1951) is an Irish poet. He has published more than thirty collections and won a Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and the T. S. Eliot Prize. At Princeton University he is currently both the Howard G. B. Clark '21 University Professor in the Humanities and Founding Chair of the Lewis Center for the Arts. He held the post of Oxford Professor of Poetry from 1999 to 2004 and has also served as president of the Poetry Society (UK) and Poetry Editor at The New Yorker.

Life and work
Muldoon was born, the eldest of three children, on a farm in County Armagh outside The Moy, near the boundary with County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. His father worked as a farmer (among other jobs) and his mother was a school mistress. In 2001, Muldoon said of the Moy: It's a beautiful part of the world. It's still the place that's 'burned into the retina', and although I haven't been back there since I left for university 30 years ago, it's the place I consider to be my home. We were a fairly non-political household; my parents were nationalists, of course, but it was not something, as I recall, that was a major area of discussion. But there were patrols; an army presence; movements of troops; and a sectarian divide. And that particular area was a nationalist enclave, while next door was the parish where the Orange Order was founded; we'd hear the drums on summer evenings. But I think my mother, in particular, may have tried to shelter us from it all. Besides, we didn't really socialise a great deal. We were 'blow-ins' – arrivistes – new to the area, and didn't have a lot of connections. Talking of his home life, he continues: "I'm astonished to think that, apart from some Catholic Truth Society pamphlets, some books on saints, there were, essentially, no books in the house, except one set, the Junior World Encyclopaedia, which I certainly read again and again. People would say, I suppose, that it might account for my interest in a wide range of arcane bits of information. At some level, I was self-educated." He was a '"Troubles poet" from the beginning.

In 1969, Muldoon read English at Queen's University Belfast, where he met Seamus Heaney and became close to the Belfast Group of poets which included Michael Longley, Ciarán Carson, Medbh McGuckian and Frank Ormsby. Muldoon said of the experience, "I think it was fairly significant, certainly to me. It was exciting. But then I was 19, 20 years old, and at university, so everything was exciting, really." Muldoon was not a strong student at Queen's. He recalls: "I had stopped. Really, I should have dropped out. I'd basically lost interest halfway through. Not because there weren't great people teaching me, but I'd stopped going to lectures, and rather than doing the decent thing, I just hung around". During his time at Queens, his first collection New Weather was published by Faber and Faber. He met his first wife, fellow student Anne-Marie Conway, and they were married after their graduation in 1973. Their marriage broke up in 1977.

For thirteen years (1973–86), Muldoon worked as an arts producer for the BBC in Belfast. In this time, which saw the most bitter period of the Troubles, he published the collections Why Brownlee Left (1980) and Quoof (1983). After leaving the BBC, he taught English and Creative Writing at the University of East Anglia and at Caius College and Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, where his students included Lee Hall (Billy Elliot) and Giles Foden (Last King of Scotland). In 1987, Muldoon emigrated to the United States, where he taught in the creative writing program at Princeton. He was Professor of Poetry at Oxford University for the five-year term 1999–2004, and is an Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford.

Muldoon is married to novelist Jean Hanff Korelitz, whom he met at an Arvon writing course. He has two children, Dorothy and Asher, and lives primarily in New York City.

Poetry and other works
His poetry is known for his difficult, sly, allusive style, casual use of obscure or archaic words, understated wit, punning, and deft technique in meter and slant rhyme. As Peter Davidson says in The New York Times review of books "Muldoon takes some honest-to-God reading. He's a riddler, enigmatic, distrustful of appearances, generous in allusion, doubtless a dab hand at crossword puzzles".  The Guardian cites him as being "among the few significant poets of our half-century"; "the most significant English-language poet born since the second world war" – a talent off the map. (Notably, Seamus Heaney was born in 1939.) Muldoon's work is often compared with Heaney, a fellow Northern Irish poet, friend and mentor to Muldoon.

In 2003, Muldoon won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry. He has been awarded fellowships in the Royal Society of Literature and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; the 1994 T. S. Eliot Prize; the 1997 Irish Times Poetry Prize, and the 2003 Griffin International Prize for Excellence in Poetry. He was also shortlisted for the 2007 Poetry Now Award. Muldoon's poems have been collected into four books: Selected Poems 1968–1986 (1986), New Selected Poems: 1968–1994 (1996), Poems 1968–1998 (2001) and Selected Poems 1968–2014 (2016). In September 2007, he was hired as poetry editor of The New Yorker.

Most of Muldoon's collections contain shorter poems with an inclusion of a long concluding poem. As Muldoon produced more collections, the long poems gradually took up more space in the volume, until in 1990 the poem Madoc: A Mystery took over the volume of that name, leaving only seven short poems to appear before it. Muldoon has not since published a poem of comparable length, but a new trend is emerging whereby more than one long poem appears in a volume.

Madoc: A Mystery, exploring themes of colonisation, is among Muldoon's most difficult works. It includes, as "poetry", such non-literary constructions as maps and geometric diagrams. In the book Irish Poetry since 1950, John Goodby states it is "by common consent, the most complex poem in modern Irish literature [...]  – a massively ambitious, a historiographical metafiction". The post-modern poem narrates, in 233 sections (the same number as the number of Native American tribes), an alternative history in which Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey come to America to found a utopian community. The two poets had, in reality, discussed but never undertaken this journey. Muldoon's poem is inspired by Southey's work Madoc, about a legendary Welsh prince of that name.  Critics are divided over the poem's success. Some are stunned by its scope and many others, such as John Banville, have professed themselves utterly baffled by it – feeling it to be wilfully obscure. Muldoon says of it: "I quite enjoy having fun. It's part of how it is, and who we are."

Muldoon has contributed the librettos for four operas by  Daron Hagen: Shining Brow (1992), Vera of Las Vegas (1996), Bandanna (1998), and The Antient Concert (2005). His interests have not only included libretto, but rock lyric as well, penning lines for the band The Handsome Family as well as Warren Zevon whose title track "My Ride's Here" belongs to a Muldoon collaboration. Muldoon also writes lyrics for (and plays "rudimentary" rhythm guitar in) his own Princeton-based rock bands. Rackett (2004–2010) was disbanded in 2010. Another of Muldoon's bands, Wayside Shrines, has recorded and released thirteen of the lyrics included in Muldoon's collection of rock lyrics, Word on the Street. His current group is known as Rogue Oliphant.

Muldoon has also edited a number of anthologies, including The Lyrics: 1956 to the Present by Paul McCartney, published in 2021, written two children's books, translated the work of other authors, performed live at the Poetry Brothel. and published critical prose.

Awards
Muldoon has won the following major poetry awards:
 1990: Guggenheim Fellowship
 1992: Geoffrey Faber Memorial Prize for Madoc: A Mystery
 1994: T. S. Eliot Prize for The Annals of Chile
 1997: Irish Times Irish Literature Prize for Poetry for New Selected Poems 1968–1994
 2002: T. S. Eliot Prize (shortlist) for Moy Sand and Gravel
 2003: Griffin Poetry Prize (Canada) for Moy Sand and Gravel
 2003: Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for Moy Sand and Gravel
 2004: American Ireland Fund Literary Award
 2004: Aspen Prize for Poetry
 2004: Shakespeare Prize
 2009: John William Corrington Award for Literary Excellence
 2017: Queen's Gold Medal for Poetry

Selected honours
 Honorary Professor in the School of English at the University of St Andrews (Scotland)
 Professor of Poetry at Oxford University 1999–2004 (England)
 Honorary Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford University (England)
 Fellowship with the Royal Society of Literature (England)
 Fellowship with the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (US)
Awarded an honorary doctorate by Trinity College Dublin in 2014 (Ireland)

Bibliography

Poetry: Main Collections
 New Weather (1973) Faber & Faber, London
 Mules (1977) Faber & Faber, London / Wake Forest University Press, Winston-Salem, N.C.
 Why Brownlee Left (1980) Faber & Faber, London / Wake Forest University Press, Winston-Salem, N.C.
 Quoof (1983) Faber & Faber, London / Wake Forest University Press, Winston-Salem, N.C.
 Meeting the British (1987) Faber & Faber, London / Wake Forest University Press, Winston-Salem, N.C.
 Madoc: A Mystery (1990) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 The Annals of Chile (1994) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 Hay (1998) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 Moy Sand and Gravel (2002) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York (Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and the Griffin Poetry Prize)
 Horse Latitudes (2006) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York (shortlisted for T. S. Eliot Prize)
 Maggot (2010) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York (shortlisted for 2011 Poetry Now Award)
 One Thousand Things Worth Knowing (2015) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 Frolic and Detour (2019) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 Howdie-Skelp (2021) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York

Poetry: Selected Editions
 Selected Poems 1968–1983 (1986) Faber & Faber, London
 Selected Poems 1968–1986 (1987) Ecco Press, New York
 New Selected Poems: 1968–1994 (1996) Faber & Faber, London
 Poems 1968–1998 (2001) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 Selected Poems 1968–2014 (2016) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 Dislocations: The Selected Innovative Poems of Paul Muldoon (2020) Liverpool University Press, Liverpool

Limited Editions and Booklets (poetry, prose, and translations)
 Knowing My Place (1971) Ulsterman Publications, Belfast
 Spirit of Dawn (1975) Ulsterman Publications, Belfast
 Names and Addresses (1978) Ulsterman Publications, Belfast
 Immram (1980) Gallery Press, Dublin
 The O-O's Party, New Year's Eve  (1980) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Out of Siberia (1982) Gallery Press, Dublin
 The Wishbone (1984) Gallery Press, Dublin
 The Astrakhan Cloak (By Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill in Irish. Trans Muldoon.) (1992) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Shining Brow (1993) Faber & Faber, London
 The Prince of the Quotidian (1994) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Incantata (1994) Graphic Studio, Dublin
 Six Honest Serving Men (1995) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Kerry Slides (1996) Gallery Press, Dublin
 The Last Thesaurus (1996) Faber & Faber, London
 The Noctuary of Narcissus Batt (1997) Faber & Faber, London
 The Birds (Adaptation after Aristophanes) (1999) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Hopewell Haiku (1997) Warwick Press, Easthampton, Massachusetts
 The Bangle (Slight Return) (1998) Typography Press, Princeton, N.J.
 Bandanna (1999) Faber & Faber, London
 The End of the Poem: 'All Souls Night' by WB Yeats (lecture) (2000) Oxford University Press, Oxford
 Vera of Las Vegas (2001) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Unapproved Road (2002) Pied Oxen Press, Hopewell, N.J.
 Medley for Morin Khur (2005) Enitharmon Press, London
 Sixty Instant Messages to Tom Moore (2005) Modern Haiku Press, Lincoln, Illinois
 General Admission (2006) Gallery Press, Dublin
 I Might Make Out With You (2006) Lori Bookstein, New York
 The End of the Poem: Oxford Lectures (2006) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 The Fifty Minute Mermaid (By Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill in Irish. Trans Muldoon.) (2007) Gallery Press, Dublin
 When the Pie was Opened (2008) Sylph Editions, Lewes, East Sussex
 Plan B (2009) Enitharmon Press, London
 Wayside Shrines (2009) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Feet of Clay (2011) Four Candles Press, Oxford
 Epithalamium (2011) Emanon Press, Princeton, NJ
 Songs and Sonnets (2012) Enitharmon Press, London
 The Word on the Street (2013) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York
 At Sixes and Sevens (2013) Stoney Road Press, Dublin
 Encheiresin Naturae (2015) Nawakun Press, Santa Rosa, CA
 Rising to the Rising (2016) Gallery Press, Dublin
 I Gave The Pope A Rhino (2017) Fine Poetry Press, Manchester (Illustrated by Paul Wright, published by Andrew J Moorhouse, Fine Press Poetry, 2017)
 Superior Aloeswood (2017) Enitharmon Press, London
 Lamentations (2017) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Sadie and the Sadists (2017) Eyewear Publishing, London
 The Dead, 1904 (2018) Gallery Press, Dublin
 Binge (2020) Lifeboat Press, Belfast
 Sure Thing (2022) Lifeboat Press, Belfast

Anthologies (edited)
 The Scrake of Dawn: Poems by Young People from Northern Ireland. Ed.(1979)
 Contemporary Irish Poetry: An Anthology. Ed. by Anthony Bradley (1980)
 The Faber Book of Contemporary Irish Poetry. Ed. (1986)
 The Faber Book of Beasts. Ed. (1997)
 The Oxford and Cambridge May Anthologies 2000: Poetry. Ed. (2000)
 The Best American Poetry 2005. (Ed. with David Lehman) (2005)

Criticism, book reviews and other contributions

 To Ireland, I (Clarendon Lectures of 1998) (2000) Oxford University Press, London
 The End of the Poem (Oxford Lectures) (2006) Faber & Faber, London / Farrar, Straus & Giroux, New York

Interviews, critical studies and reviews of Muldoon's work
 Alonso, Alex, Paul Muldoon in America: Transatlantic Formations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021.
 Holdridge, Jeff. The Poetry of Paul Muldoon. Dublin: Liffey Press, 2009.

 Kendall, Tim. Paul Muldoon. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, 1996.
 Randolph, Jody Allen. "Paul Muldoon, December 2009." Close to the Next Moment. Manchester: Carcanet, 2010.
 Redmond, John. "Interview with Paul Muldoon." Thumbscrew 4 Spring 1996.
 Sherman, Susan. "Yusef Komunyakaa and Paul Muldoon [Interview]." Bomb 65 Fall 1998.
 Wills, Clair. Reading Paul Muldoon. Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe, 1997.

See also

List of Northern Irish writers
Oxford Professor of Poetry
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
Postmodernism

References

External links

Paul Muldoon discusses poetry with Wunderkammer Magazine 17 January 2011 (Video, 20 mins)
Paul Muldoon reads "Wulf and Eadwacer" from The Word Exchange: Anglo-Saxon Poems in Translation (audio)
Paul Muldoon at the Key West Literary Seminar, 2010: "The Borderline" (Audio)
Poetry Foundation profile and poems Accessed 2010-02-27
Profile at Poets.org
Poetry Archive biography (U.K.) Accessed 2010-02-27
 The Guardian article – Extended interview with Muldoon and analysis The poet at play 12 May 2001 Accessed 2010-02-27
Poetry Society essays on Muldoon Accessed 2010-02-27
Transcript of interview with Ramona Koval, The Book Show, ABC Radio National, March 2008. Accessed 2010-02-27
Griffin Poetry Prize biography Accessed 2010-08-27
"Word Freak". Profile of Muldoon in The New York Times Magazine. Accessed 2010-02-27
Archival Material at
Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: Paul Muldoon papers, 1939–2016

1951 births
Formalist poets
Living people
Male poets from Northern Ireland
Aosdána members
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
Academics of the University of St Andrews
Academics of the University of East Anglia
Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners
Princeton University faculty
Writers from County Armagh
People from Franklin Township, Somerset County, New Jersey
Fellows of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
People educated at St Patrick's Grammar School, Armagh
The New Yorker people
Oxford Professors of Poetry
21st-century poets from Northern Ireland
T. S. Eliot Prize winners
Presidents of the Poetry Society
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
People from Moy, County Tyrone
Writers from County Tyrone
20th-century poets from Northern Ireland

Paul Muldoon


Cairns Masonic Temple is a heritage-listed former masonic temple at 8 Minnie Street, Cairns City, Cairns, Cairns Region, Queensland, Australia. It was built from 1934 to 1935. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 August 1998.

Masonic duties ceased here after its sale to the Catholic Church in 2017.

History
Completed in 1935, this two-storeyed concrete structure was the third building to be used as a Masonic Temple in Cairns.

The first recorded gathering of Freemasons in Cairns was held in December 1885, at Hides Hotel. The first Masonic Lodge in Cairns, Gregory Lodge No. 50 was constituted in April 1886. By the mid 1920s, there were six Lodges that met in Cairns, in a building in Lake Street. Prior to the destruction of this building by a cyclone in 1927, the Lodges moved to a building adjoining the site of the present Temple.

In 1921, at a meeting held in the Cairns Masonic Hall, it was resolved that the representatives of the Gregory Lodge would communicate with the Grand Lodge regarding the establishment of a District Grand Lodge (DGL) of Carpentaria, with headquarters at Cairns. The creation of the DGL of Carpentaria was approved by the Grand Lodge in December 1923, and was subsequently formed in 1924; the Carpentaria district spread from Cardwell to Cape York, and west to Normanton.

In 1928, it was recommended that the DGL erect a suitable memorial to the craftsman who sacrificed so much in World War I, and to the peace which followed. The following year, the DGL organised an appeal for individual donations towards the erection of the Memorial Temple. In 1934 it was decided to proceed with the erection of a Memorial Temple adjoining the present Hall at a cost not exceeding .

Tenders for the new Masonic Temple were called in August 1934. The architects for the buildings were the north Queensland firm of Hill and Taylor, who had offices in Townsville and Cairns. Richard Hill and Arthur Taylor established the firm of Hill and Taylor in Cairns in 1927, and in 1931, the firm took over the practice of CV Rees in Townsville. Both Hill and Taylor appear to have been masons.

The contractor for the building was CE Steadman, also a mason. The foundation stone of the building was laid on Armistice Day in 1934. Reports from the laying of the stone refer to the building as the Masonic Peace Memorial Temple, and the following description was given of the building:it would [upon its completion] be a worthy and fitting monument of the union of Freemasonry and a fitting memorial and tribute to those who sacrificed so much in the Great War. When it was decided to have the foundation stone laid on Armistice Day, he believed that no more fitting day could have been chosen as it was a day symbolising peace and harmony which was an attribute of the CraftThe Temple was constructed during the large-scale interwar redevelopment of Cairns, in which the city centre was virtually rebuilt. The redevelopment was partly a consequence of severe cyclone damage suffered by the city in 1920 and 1927, and also of the developing role of Cairns as an important regional centre in Far North Queensland.

The dedication ceremony for the completed Temple was held in October 1935, and was performed by Sir Leslie Wilson, Governor of Queensland and Masonic Grand Master. The ceremony was a large occasion; attended by about 700 representatives of Lodges in Queensland.

A description of the building shortly before the dedication, referred to the imposing facade facing Minnie Street, and the North Queensland walnut and maple joinery. The attention given to the ventilation of the building was also important, and ducts from the external wall were brought through under a raised platform around the lodge room and the air exhausted by two big fans ensuring a continuous flow of fresh, cool air on even the most humid evenings.

A tablet to the memory of WHJ Mayers, the Foundation District Grand Master, was set into the base of the pillar at the left entrance to the temple and unveiled in March 1954.

The two large pillars at the entrance to the temple were destroyed/damaged by a cyclone in March 1956. There was considerable damage also to the windows and outbuildings of the temple. New columns are recorded as being completed in 1957, and in accordance with Masonic tradition, were formed hollow and a copy of all records subsequent to the laying of the foundation stone was placed inside one of the pillars.

Description

The Masonic temple, a two-storeyed concrete structure with a gable roof concealed behind a parapet wall, is located on the northern corner of Grafton Street with the main entry to Minnie Street to the southeast. The building is T-shaped in plan, with the main body of the building consisting of a minimally adorned box with high set steel framed windows. The gable entrance sits proud of the main section, and features a symmetrical facade composed of classical elements.

The entry consists of a flight of stairs to a recessed door with a cantilevered awning. The doorway is surmounted by a tall rendered arch flanked by a Corinthian column, supporting a large globe, to either side. Each column sits on a pedestal with a marble plaque. The rendered arch mouldings contain a large keystone and surround a circular window above a row of four small square windows. The parapet has a deep cornice above the words AD GLORIAM DEI, and is crowned with the masonic emblem of the carpenter's square and divider.

The building has high-level steel framed, multi-paned windows to each side and rear. Entrance doors area also located on either side and at the rear.

Internally, the building appears to consist of a large hall with a gallery, with staircases to the first floor at the front and rear.

The Minnie Street facade has an iron fence with concrete posts.

Heritage listing
Cairns Masonic Temple was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 28 August 1998 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

The Masonic Temple was completed in 1935, since which time it has served as the headquarters for Freemasonry in far north Queensland. The Temple survives as an illustration of the development of Cairns as an important regional centre during the early twentieth century.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

The Masonic Temple has an imposing idiosyncratic facade which makes a strong contribution to the Cairns townscape. The building's facade, scale and form ensures its status as a Cairns landmark.

References

Attribution

External links

Queensland Heritage Register
Buildings and structures in Cairns
Masonic buildings in Queensland
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
Cairns City, Queensland

Cairns Masonic Temple


Michael Valvo (April 19, 1942 in New York – September 18, 2004 in Chanhassen, Minnesota) was an International Master of chess.

By 1962, he was one of the top blitz players in the United States. He won the 1963 U.S. Intercollegiate Championship.

A native of Albany, New York and a graduate of Columbia University, Valvo was a member of the U.S. team that competed in the 11th Student Olympiad in Kraków, Poland, in 1964. His teammates included William Lombardy, Raymond Weinstein, Charles Kalme, and Bernard Zuckerman. The Americans finished fourth, behind the USSR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary.

By 1976, Valvo had essentially dropped out of tournament chess and his rating was no longer published in the USCF rating lists, until Bill Goichberg and Jose Cuchi invited him to a futurity tournament. Valvo did well, earning a rating of 2440. However, Professor Arpad Elo refused to award Valvo the rating he had earned, because Elo had never heard of Valvo and suspected that the tournament had been rigged.  This matter was debated at the 1978 FIDE Congress in Buenos Aires and FIDE voted to give Valvo his 2440 rating.  Valvo quickly proved that he really was a 2440 strength player and earned the International Master title.

Valvo never played in the U.S. Chess Championship, but he was to make his mark in computer chess, which became his primary focus. At every World Computer Chess Championship from the early 1980s until his death, Valvo was the organizer, moderator, commentator or acted in some official capacity. He also played a two-game play by email match against Deep Thought, winning both games.

Mike Valvo died of a heart attack. He was eulogized by long-time friend, colleague and computer scientist Ken Thompson in the December 2004 issue of the International Computer Games Association Journal.

References

External links
The Chess Games of Michael Joseph Valvo
Commentary on his 2-0 victory over Deep Thought

1942 births
2004 deaths
American chess players
Chess International Masters
20th-century chess players
Columbia University alumni

Michael Valvo


The Pailace o Buenavista or Palacio de Buenavista is an umwhile pailace in Madrid, Spain. Originally built for Airchbishops o Toledo Efter passing through various owners, Elisabeth Farnese occupies it, on the daith o her stepson Ferdinand VI o Spain, in 1759, until the end o her days in 1766. In 1796, in the will o Isabel de Farnesio, Fernando de Silva acquires it an Fernando de Silva y Álvarez de Toledo, 12t Duke o Alba. However, Buenavista separates from the assets o the Alba. In 1807, through expropriation, the Ceety Council o Madrid gives it tae the valid King Charles IV o Spain, Manuel Godoy, I Duke o Alcudia. Godoy invests in its conditioning an decoration but niver lived in the pailace. When he lost his pouer, the property wis expropriated again, returning tae the ryal hoose.

Biggins an structurs in Madrid
Pailaces in Madrid
Hoose o Alba
Hoose o Godoy

Pailace o Buenavista


Bennett Henderson Young (May 25, 1843 – February 23, 1919) was a Confederate officer who led forces in the St Albans raid (October 19, 1864), an act of terrorism during the American Civil War. As a lieutenant of the Confederate States Army, he entered Vermont from Canada and occupied the town of St. Albans.

Early life

Young was born in Nicholasville, Kentucky, on May 25, 1843, to Robert Young and Josephine Henderson. He was 17 years old when he enlisted as a private in the Confederate 8th Kentucky Cavalry, a unit that became a part of General John Hunt Morgan's cavalry command.

St. Albans raid
Young had been captured in John Hunt Morgan's 1863 raid in Ohio, but escaped to Canada in the fall of that year. Young went to the south via Nova Scotia and Bermuda, where he proposed Canada-based raids on the Union as a means of building the Confederate treasury and forcing the Union army to protect their northern border as a diversion. Young was commissioned as a lieutenant and returned to Canada, where he recruited other escaped rebels to participate in the October 19, 1864, raid on St. Albans, Vermont, a quiet town 15 miles (25 km) from the Canada–US border.

Young and two others checked into a local hotel on October 10, saying that they had come from St. John's in Canada for a "sporting vacation." Every day, two or three more young men arrived. By October 19, there were 21 cavalrymen assembled; just before 3:00 p.m. the group simultaneously staged an armed robbery of the three banks in St. Albans. They announced that they were Confederate soldiers and stole a total of $208,000 ($ in current dollar terms). As the banks were being robbed, eight or nine of the Confederates held the townspeople prisoner on the village green as their horses were stolen. One townsperson was killed and another wounded. Young ordered his troops to burn the town down, but the four-ounce bottles of Greek fire they had brought failed to work, and only one shed was destroyed.

The raiders fled with the money into Canada, where they were arrested by authorities and held in Montreal. There, the Lincoln administration retained prominent Irish-Canadian lawyer Bernard Devlin, QC, as counsel for the prosecution in the subsequent court case, which sought the raiders' extradition. The court ultimately decided that the soldiers were under military orders and that the officially neutral Canada could not extradite them to America. They were freed, but the $88,000 ($ in current dollar terms) the raiders had on them was returned to Vermont.

Later career
After the end of the Civil War, Young was excluded from President Andrew Johnson's amnesty proclamation. He could not return home until 1868. Thus, he spent time studying law and literature in Ireland at the Queen's University of Ireland and at the University of Edinburgh.

After being permitted to return to the United States, he became a prominent attorney in Louisville, Kentucky. Young founded the first orphanage for blacks in Louisville, a school for the blind, and did much pro bono work for the poor. He also worked as a railroad officer as President of the Louisville Southern Railroad, author. Young also served on the board of trustees of the Confederate Veteran.

In 1876 Young was selected by Governor McCreary to represent Kentucky at the Paris Exposition.

In 1878, Young joined the Polytechnic Society of Kentucky, as a financier to the institution. Young became president of the society after the death of Dr. Stuart Robinson.

In 1899, Young represented former slave George Dinning in a case against the Ku Klux Klan.

Between 1890 and 1908, Young helped create the Louisville Free Public Library.

In 1913, Young was elected as Commander-in-Chief of the United Confederate Veterans, which he held until his retirement in 1916 where he was made "honorary commander-in-chief for life."

Family life
In 1866, Young married Mattie R. Robinson and they had a son named Lawrence, who became an attorney in Chicago. He remarried in 1895 to Eliza S. Sharp and they had a daughter, Eliza Bennett Young, by this union.

List of works

 The Prehistoric Men of Kentucky
 The History of the Kentucky Constitution
 Evangelistic Work in Kentucky
 Battle of Blue Licks
 The History of Jessamine County
 The History of the Division of the Presbyterian Church in Kentucky
 The Battle of the Thames
 Dr. Gander of Youngland
 Kentucky Eloquence

Death and legacy
By 1908, Young was known as "the father of the Louisville Free Public Library."

Young died on February 23, 1919, at his home at 429 West Ormsby Avenue in Louisville, Kentucky. He was buried at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville.

The railroad bridge over the Kentucky River at Tyrone, Kentucky was named Young's High Bridge for him and Youngstown, Kentucky was also named for him.

See also

References

External links

Bennett H. Young
The St. Albans raid
St. Albans Raid: Spies, Raiders and Partisans

Terrorist incidents in the United States by perpetrator
1843 births
1919 deaths
People from Nicholasville, Kentucky
Businesspeople from Louisville, Kentucky
Confederate States Army officers
St. Albans, Vermont
Burials at Cave Hill Cemetery
People of Kentucky in the American Civil War
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Writers from Louisville, Kentucky
Kentucky lawyers
19th-century American businesspeople
19th-century American lawyers

Bennett H. Young


Two instruments known as the Submillimetre Common-User Bolometer Array, or SCUBA, have been used for detecting submillimetre radiation on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii.

SCUBA-1
The older continuum single pixel UKT14 bolometer receiver was replaced in the 1990s by the Submillimeter Common-User Bolometer Array (SCUBA). The SCUBA project was green-lighted in 1987 by the JCMT board and was in development for nearly a decade before it saw first light on the telescope. While it was not the first bolometer array it was "unique in combining an unparallel sensitivity with an extensive wavelength range and field-of-view".

SCUBA operated simultaneously at wavelengths of 450 and 850 micron (with 91 and 37 pixels, respectively), and was sensitive to the thermal emission from interstellar dust. SCUBA is ranked second only to the Hubble Space Telescope in terms of publication of high-impact astronomical research. SCUBA was retired from service in 2005, and it is now in the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.

SCUBA-2
SCUBA-2, another continuum instrument, was commissioned in 2011. This ground-breaking camera consists of large arrays of superconducting transition edge sensors with a mapping speed hundreds of times larger than SCUBA. It has 5120 array elements at both 450 and 850 micron wavelength (10,240 total pixels). It has been conducting the JCMT legacy surveys since November, 2011, including the SCUBA-2 All Sky Survey, and was made available for general astronomical observations in February, 2012. Two ancillary instruments, FTS-2 and POL-2, add spectroscopic and polarimetric capabilities to SCUBA-2.

SCUBA-2 All Sky Survey
The SCUBA-2 All-Sky Survey (SASSy), is an astronomical survey using the SCUBA-2 camera to map the sky at submillimeter wavelengths (850 μm).  It is most sensitive to very cold gas and dust.  The survey started in 2011. A team of around 50 astronomers from the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Netherlands, and Japan aim to map a huge swathe of the sky to find rare galaxies and stars being formed.

The survey will achieve an angular resolution of 14 arcseconds, 1800 times more detailed than the best previous full-sky map in the sub-mm from COBE, which had only 7° angular resolution (25200 arcseconds).

Despite its name, the project will not be able to map the southernmost areas of the sky that are not visible from the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii.

SASSy is one of the major "legacy surveys" on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope.  It is the second-largest such legacy survey in terms of time on this telescope, and in terms of notional facility time is "worth" over £1 million.

The project seeks to answer the following questions:
 Is there an undiscovered population of extreme luminosity galaxies?
 What are the number counts of bright sub-mm galaxies?
 What is the fraction of lens sub-mm sources?
 Is there an undiscovered population of cold local galaxies?
 How many infrared dark clouds are there in our Galaxy and how are they distributed?
 What is the relation of infrared dark clouds to star formation and Galactic structure?
 Is there an underlying unknown population of star formation?
 What is the fraction of clustered vs. isolated star formation?
 What is the answer to the distributed T-Tauri problem?
This project will also assist in the foreground subtraction and calibration of the Planck microwave background satellite.

The project was led initially by Dr. Mark Thompson and Dr. Stephen Serjeant (University of Hertfordshire and Open University respectively), now expanded to a four-person co-ordinating team with the addition of Dr. Tim Jenness and Prof. Douglas Scott (Joint Astronomy Centre, Hawaii, and University of British Columbia respectively). The collaboration includes Cardiff University, UK; European Space Agency; Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics / NRC, Canada; Imperial College London, UK; Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Japan; Joint Astronomy Centre, Hawaii, USA; Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, The Netherlands; Keele University, UK; Liverpool John Moores University, UK; Open University, UK; Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK; SRON, The Netherlands; UK Astronomy Technology Centre, UK; Université Laval, Canada; University College London, UK; University of British Columbia, Canada; University of Cambridge, UK; University of Edinburgh, UK; University of Exeter, UK; University of Hertfordshire, UK; University of Kent, UK; University of St Andrews,  UK; University of Waterloo, Canada

See also

 Infrared astronomy
 Submillimeter astronomy
 Far infrared astronomy
 Radio astronomy

References

External links
 The SCUBA-2 "All-Sky" Survey: SASSy Main web site
 SCUBA 2 Main web site
 SCUBA-2 News Blog

Astronomical observatories in Hawaii
Submillimetre telescopes
Astronomical surveys


This is a list of political parties in Germany.

Germany has a multi-party system. There are two large parties, three smaller parties, and a number of minor parties.

The last federal elections were held in September 2021.

Major parties
These parties currently have seats in the German parliament, the Bundestag, sorted by the number of seats:
 Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) – social democratic, centre-left: 206
 Christian Democratic Union of Germany (Christian Democratic Union)  (CDU) + Christian Social Union of Bavaria (Christian Social Union) (CSU) – Christian democratic, conservative, centre-right: 152+45=197
 Alliance '90/The Greens (Greens) – green, centre-left: 118
 Free Democratic Party (FDP) - liberal, classical liberal, economically liberal, centre to centre-right: 92
 Alternative for Germany (AfD) - German nationalist, right-wing populist, Eurosceptic, right-wing to far-right: 78
 The Left / Left Party – democratic socialist, left-wing: 39

Minor parties

At least 1% of the vote at the last federal elections
 Free Voters (Freie Wähler) - conservative
 Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany (Basis) - Grassroots democracy, Anti-lockdown, Anti-vaccination
 Human Environment Animal Protection (Tierschutzpartei) - Centre-left, Animal rights, Animal welfare, Environmentalism
 The Party (Party for Labour, constitutional state, animal welfare, elite promotion and grassroots initiative) / Die PARTEI (Partei für Arbeit, Rechtsstaat, Tierschutz, Elitenförderung und basisdemokratische Initiative) - Left-wing, Political satire, Humanism, Anti-fascism, Environmentalism, Pro-Europeanism

Others
 Anarchist Pogo Party of Germany (Anarchistische Pogo-Partei Deutschlands - APPD)
 Basic Income Alliance (Bündnis Grundeinkommen - BGE)
 Bavaria Party (Bayernpartei)
 Communist Party of Germany (1990)
 Family Party of Germany (Deutsche Familienpartei)
 German Centre Party (Deutsche Zentrumspartei - ZENTRUM)
 German Communist Party (Deutsche Kommunistische Partei - DKP)
 Christian Centre Party (Christliche Mitte - CM)
 Citizens Make Politics (Bürger machen Politik)
 Civil Rights Movement Solidarity (Bürgerrechtsbewegung Solidarität - BüSo)
 Die Freien The Free Ones
 Die PARTEI (Partei für Arbeit, Rechtsstaat, Tierschutz, Elitenförderung und basisdemokratische Initiative - Die PARTEI), party created by editors of the satirical magazine titanic
 Die Violetten - für spirituelle Politik
 Ecological Democratic Party (Ökologisch-Demokratische Partei - ÖDP)
 Feminist Party of Germany (Feministische Partei - DIE FRAUEN)
 Human Environment Animal Welfare (Mensch Umwelt Tierschutz)
 Marxist Leninist Party of Germany (Marxistisch-Leninistische Partei Deutschlands - MLPD)
 National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)
 Party of Bible-abiding Christians (Partei Bibeltreuer Christen - PBC)
 Party of Humanists (Partei der Humanisten)
 Party of Reason (Partei der Vernunft - pdv)
 Pirate Party Germany (Piratenpartei Deutschland) (PIRATEN)
 Social Equality Party (Partei für Soziale Gleichheit - PSG)
 South Schleswig Voter Federation (Südschleswigscher Wählerverband - SSW) - this is the party of the Danish and frisian minorities in Germany
 The Republicans (Die Republikaner - REP)

Historical parties

Parties existing before World War II
 Bavarian People's Party (BVP) - Bavarian Regionalist (1920-1933)
 Centre Party - Christian Democrat/Conservative (1871-1947)
 Communist Party of Germany (KPD) - Communist (1919-1956)
 Communist Party Opposition (KPO)- Communist
 Conservative People's Party (KVP)
 Free Conservative Party (FKP)
 General German Workers' Association (ADAV)
 Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) - Socialist (1917-1922)
 German Conservative Party (DKP) - Conservative (before 1918)
 German Democratic Party (DDP) - Left-Liberal (1918-1930, became the German State Party, which lasted until 1933)
 German National People's Party (DNVP) - Nationalist-Conservative (1918-1933)
 German People's Party (DVP) - National-Liberal (1918-1933)
 German Progress Party (DFP) - Left-Liberal (before 1918)
 German Racialist Freedom Party (DVFP) - anti-semitic (early Weimar period)
 German Workers' Party (DAP) - precursor to the Nazi Party (1919)
 National Liberal Party - Right Liberal (before 1918)
 National Socialist German Workers' Party - aka the Nazi Party (NSDAP) (1919-1945)
 Progressive People's Party
 Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD, still in existence)
 Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany (SDAP) (since 1875 Social Democratic Party of Germany)
 Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAP) (since 1875 Social Democratic Party of Germany)
 Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (SAP) (between 1931 and 1941/45 an Social Democratic Party left of the SPD)

Defunct parties in (former) West Germany
 German Party (DP) - Conservative
 German Empire Party (DRP) - Far right (1949-64)
 German Right Party (DReP) - Far right (1946-51)
 Communist Party of Germany (KPD) - Communist (1919-1956) banned
 Sozialistische Reichspartei - Socialist Reich Party (SRP) - National Socialis (1949-52) banned
 The Grays – Gray Panther (Die grauen Panther - GRAUE)
 Communist Party of Germany (Red Dawn)
 Projekt Partei Project Party
 Law and Order Offensive Party (Partei rechtsstaatlicher Offensive - Offensive D)

Parties in (former) East Germany

As a socialist state
 Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 Liberal Democratic Party of Germany (LDPD)
 Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany (DBD)
 National Democratic Party of Germany (NDPD)
 Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED)

During transition
 Alliance 90
 Alliance for Germany
 Association of Free Democrats
 Democracy Now
 Democratic Awakening
 East German Green Party
 Free Democratic Party
 German Forum Party
 German Social Union
 Initiative for Peace and Human Rights
 New Forum

Other websites
 Political Parties (Germany) - List of German political parties since 1949
 Election Posters from German political parties since 1918 (German)

Germany-related lists
Germany

List of political parties in Germany


The 1995 Russell Hill subway accident was a deadly train crash that occurred in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, on Line 1 Yonge–University of the Toronto subway on August 11, 1995. Three people were killed and 30 were taken to hospital with injuries when one train rear-ended another train. The subway line was shut down for five days following the incident. Investigations found that human error and a design flaw in the mechanical safety devices caused this accident. It remains the deadliest accident in a rapid transit system in Canadian history.

Overview
At 6:02 p.m. on Friday, August 11, 1995, a subway train running southbound on Line 1 Yonge–University ran into the rear of a stationary train halfway between St. Clair West and Dupont stations. There were between 200 and 300 passengers on the two trains, of whom three (Christina Munar Reyes, 33; Kinga Szabo, 43; and Xian Hui Lin, 23) were killed and 30 taken to hospital with injuries; about 100 more later filed injury claims against the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). Many of the seriously injured were extracted from the twisted remains of the most damaged subway cars by rescue workers who worked through the evening under extremely hot and humid conditions. Of the four crew members, three were taken to hospital with injuries.

Direct causes
The accident had two direct causes: first the inexperienced driver, Robert Jeffrey, who mistook the signals; and the train stop which failed to protect the train due to a design error.

Signals

At the time of the accident, the TTC subway used conventional wayside signals without cab signalling.  Thus drivers were expected to remember each signal aspect and act accordingly until they receive new information from the following signal. As of 2019, the TTC has converted some sections of the line, including the Russell Hill portion, to more modern automatic train control. The following description is limited to aspects relevant to the accident.

Some signals are "automatic" and have a single head that shows one of the three basic colours.  Red means stop and stay (until presented with a less restrictive signal aspect), yellow means that the next signal is red and the driver should prepare to stop, and green means that the next signal is not red and it is safe to proceed at normal speed.

"Interlocking" or "home" signals have a double head and show two coloured lights.  The top light has the same meaning as that of an automatic signal. The second light is red if the top light is red; otherwise it shows yellow if the switches are set for a secondary route, and green for the main route or if no relevant switches exist. Thus the combination yellow over green means the same as a single yellow.

At locations such as downgrades, curves, and switches, the same signals additionally serve to enforce speed limits.  A system called "grade timing" regulates speeds, and is indicated by an additional "lunar white" light below the one or two coloured lights previously mentioned. The white light means that the next signal is red (or double red) only because of grade timing, and if the train approaches at the proper speed, the signal will clear to a less restrictive aspect before the train gets there. If the train goes too fast, it will pass the red signal and be stopped by the train stop.

In 1995 the second signal did not provide any confirmation that it was about to change and the operator was expected to remember the previous signal aspect correctly.  With the tolerant attitudes of management, it had become common practice for operators to travel at the fastest speed that the system allowed, passing the signals at the same instant they were clearing.

A long downgrade would therefore have several consecutive grade-timing sections. If all the signals were automatic and no trains were present, the first signal would be yellow over white, followed by a series of red over whites, and finally a red.  When the train approaches each red over white signal, it would clear to yellow over white and the train stop would be lowered; and the final red signal would clear to green.  Interlocking signals can also take part in grade timing, with aspects such as yellow over green over white (meaning the same as yellow over white).

From St. Clair West to Dupont the subway runs continuously downhill and grade timing is used.  The signal at the end of St. Clair West station, SP77/X38, is an interlocking signal and therefore shows yellow over green over white whenever there is nothing to delay a train.  As Jeffrey's train passed the signal, however, it was showing yellow over green.  He should have stopped at the following signal, SP71, which was red because another train was occupying the block ahead.

After the accident Jeffrey said he remembered SP77/X38 as yellow over white (actually an impossible aspect for that signal) therefore he must have either "misremembered" it at the time, or else have been fooled by some reflection off the signal head into thinking he had seen the usual yellow over green over white.  In any case, he believed that grade timing was in use and so approached signal SP71 at the same speed as he would normally drive on this section.

After this Jeffrey did not remember what he had seen, but it is easy to reconstruct the events.  When the train passed SP71 without him seeing it change, he must have assumed that he had passed it just as it cleared. He continued coasting downhill, still thinking that he was under grade timing and violated the signal, without realizing that if this was true, the signal would have shown red over white as he approached.

He must therefore have expected the third signal, the SP65, to clear in the same way.  Again it was showing red, not red over white, but Jeffrey repeated his mistake and violated the signal. He braked only when he actually saw the train just ahead (it was stopped at the next signal, SP53); by then, a collision was unavoidable.

News media accounts of the accident often say that Jeffrey "passed three red lights."  This count includes the repeater signal provided in advance of SP65 because a curve in the tunnel interferes with sighting. Drivers are not expected to stop at the repeater even if it is red.

Train stop
The "trip" or "train stop" consists of a T-shaped arm placed just outside the right-hand rail near each signal (except a repeater). If the signal is red (or double red), with or without a lunar white, the trip arm rises enough for its crossbar to strike a "trip valve" or "tripcock" lever on the bottom of a train's first car as it passes; and by doing so triggers the emergency brakes of the train.

On the relevant class of trains, the trip valve is located near the centre of the right side of the leading bogie, where its position in relation to the rail is well controlled.

Wismer and Becker, Inc., the contractors who installed the signal system on the Spadina line portion of the subway, chose to use an Ericsson train stop that was designed to have the trip arm located in the middle of the track.  A subcontractor, Gayle Manufacturing, designed a mechanical extension that would allow the device to drive a trip arm in its actual position outside of the rail.

What was not realized was that the mechanism they designed (when the trip arm was raised) did not have the clearance specified for the train and therefore would not have the desired effect of activating the train's emergency braking system.

When both the trip arm and trip valve were new, this did not matter; the train did not fill its entire clearance envelope, and the trip arm would contact the trip valve normally.  However, with normal wear of the wheels and rails, and with the train rounding a curve at speed (and therefore riding off-centre) it was another matter. The first wheel on the right-hand side of the train hit a bolt in the mechanism attached to the trip arm and knocked the arm down. It would then rise again, but too late: with the train moving quickly, the trip valve, just a few feet behind the wheel, would already have gone past, thus making the train stop useless for ensuring signal compliance.

Inquest
The jury at the coroner's inquest produced 18 recommendations:

Reform of the Railways Act (1950) to provide oversight of the Toronto Transit Commission.
The TTC should submit to an independent safety audit every two years, beyond that done by APTA. This independent agency will be set up under the revised Railway Act.
Completion of the "Due Diligence Checklist" of deficiencies identified by the TTC.
The Province and Metro commit to a "State of Good Repair" funding policy; repair to take precedence over new works (see Line 4 Sheppard); future capital funding based on the State of Good Repair. The jury indicated that underfunding since the mid-1980s has contributed to the deterioration of the system and had jeopardized the safety of the Toronto Transit Commission.
Improvements to the Operations Training Centre starting with the hiring of an accredited adult training specialist. The updated training package should include at least: realistic pass / fail grading, annual refresher for all operators, emphasis on the meaning of the signal system, route supervisory accompaniment for at least one day of complete runs after training completion.
An updated Operations Training Centre to include a suitable subway simulator.
A comprehensive review of the signal system with emphasis in the following areas: Lunar Whites, removal of signal identification markers, consistent placement of signal aspects, progressive speed control, expansion of IPHC to identify headway and train separation, all trip valves activated and relocation of reset.
Elimination of auto key-by facility and implementation of raised trip arm immediately after train has passed.
Advanced implementation of the new subway communications system.
Improved communication within the organisation.
A new Transit Control Centre including the updating of the skills of TTC staff.
The current Transit Control Centre should only be responsible for Operations. Such things as intrusion alarms, facility maintenance, public information, media relations and other related concerns should be handled by an adjacent facility.
Emergency response exercise every five years with "everybody". Yearly reviews by the Safety department
Improved predictive and preventative maintenance with computer assist where applicable.
Review of equipment procurement with respect to quality control.  The procurement of cheap equipment (the Ericsson train stops) is a misuse of resources and a serious safety issue.
Traceable design criteria and standards for track, signal and subway cars.  No modifications without approval of design review authority.
Train operators and the TTC must identify signal malfunctions by signal identification numbers. Review of the discipline system to allow for signal malfunctions. Operators reporting for duty to meet an inspector so that "State of the road" information can be passed on.  Rookie operators not to be scheduled together.
The office of the Chief Coroner is to convene a press conference one year hence to provide all parties with an update on the implementation of these recommendations.

The 18 recommendations were taken by the TTC and turned into a 236-point "Due Diligence Checklist" of items to be addressed. Each year the Toronto Transit Commission receives a report on the outstanding items. By 2009, only 2 of the recommendations had yet to be completed. By 2015, all 236 recommendations had been implemented.

Aftermath

The TTC acted quickly following the accident to repair the defective modified Ericsson train stops.  They also began requiring drivers to traverse grade-timing sections at a speed that would allow them to actually see the red signal change before they left the section.

In 1997 and 1998, the behaviour of the signals themselves was changed. Now, when a signal is red (or double red) only because of grade timing, the (top) red light begins flashing once a train has passed the preceding signal that displayed the lunar white light. The trip arm remains up during this phase, but the flashing red confirms to the driver that there was a lunar white on entry to the section and that the signal can be expected to clear at any moment.  Jeffrey's mistaken interpretation of the red signal SP71 would no longer be possible.

See also

 List of rail accidents in Canada

References

External links

Terrible subway tragedy in Toronto (CBC Archives)

Toronto rapid transit
Russell Hill Subway Incident, 1995
Railway accidents in 1995
Railway accidents and incidents in Ontario
Railway accidents involving a signal passed at danger
1995 in Toronto
August 1995 events in Canada

1995 Russell Hill subway accident


Super Bowl XLV was an American football game between the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Pittsburgh Steelers and the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Green Bay Packers to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2010 season. The Packers defeated the Steelers by the score of 31–25. The game was played on February 6, 2011, at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, the first time the Super Bowl was played in the Dallas–Fort Worth area.

Sources

045
2011 in sports
Arlington, Texas
Sports in Texas
2011 in Texas
Pittsburgh Steelers
Green Bay Packers

Super Bowl XLV