A transistor is a semiconductor device with at least three terminals for connection to an electric circuit. In the common case, the third terminal controls the flow of current between the other two terminals. This can be used for amplification, as in the case of a radio receiver, or for rapid switching, as in the case of digital circuits. The transistor replaced the vacuum-tube triode, also called a (thermionic) valve, which was much larger in size and used significantly more power to operate. The first transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947, at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. Bell Labs was the research arm of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The three individuals credited with the invention of the transistor were William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. The introduction of the transistor is often considered one of the most important inventions in history.

Transistors are broadly classified into two categories: bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistor (FET).

The principle of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley invented the first working transistors at Bell Labs, the point-contact transistor in 1947. Shockley introduced the improved bipolar junction transistor in 1948, which entered production in the early 1950s and led to the first widespread use of transistors.

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. MOSFETs use even less power, which led to the mass-production of MOS transistors for a wide range of uses. The MOSFET has since become the most widely manufactured device in history.

Origins of transistor concept

The first patent for the field-effect transistor principle was filed in Canada by Austrian-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld on October 22, 1925, but Lilienfeld published no research articles about his devices, and his work was ignored by industry. In 1934 German physicist Dr. Oskar Heil patented another field-effect transistor. There is no direct evidence that these devices were built, but later work in the 1990s show that one of Lilienfeld's designs worked as described and gave substantial gain. Legal papers from the Bell Labs patent show that William Shockley and a co-worker at Bell Labs, Gerald Pearson, had built operational versions from Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers or historical articles.

The Bell Lab's work on the transistor emerged from war-time efforts to produce extremely pure germanium "crystal" mixer diodes, used in radar units as a frequency mixer element in microwave radar receivers. UK researchers had produced models using a tungsten filament on a germanium disk, but these were difficult to manufacture and not particularly robust. Bell's version was a single-crystal design that was both smaller and completely solid. A parallel project on germanium diodes at Purdue University succeeded in producing the good-quality germanium semiconducting crystals that were used at Bell Labs. Early tube-based circuits did not switch fast enough for this role, leading the Bell team to use solid-state diodes instead.

After the war, Shockley decided to attempt the building of a triode-like semiconductor device. He secured funding and lab space, and went to work on the problem with Bardeen and Brattain. John Bardeen eventually developed a new branch of quantum mechanics known as surface physics to account for the "odd" behavior they saw, and Bardeen and Walter Brattain eventually succeeded in building a working device.

The key to the development of the transistor was the further understanding of the process of the electron mobility in a semiconductor. It was realized that if there was some way to control the flow of the electrons from the emitter to the collector of this newly discovered diode (discovered 1874; patented 1906), one could build an amplifier. For instance, if one placed contacts on either side of a single type of crystal, the current would not flow through it. However, if a third contact could then "inject" electrons or holes into the material, the current would flow.

Actually doing this appeared to be very difficult. If the crystal were of any reasonable size, the number of electrons (or holes) required to be injected would have to be very large, making it less useful as an amplifier because it would require a large injection current to start with. That said, the whole idea of the crystal diode was that the crystal itself could provide the electrons over a very small distance, the depletion region. The key appeared to be to place the input and output contacts very close together on the surface of the crystal on either side of this region.

Brattain started working on building such a device, and tantalizing hints of amplification continued to appear as the team worked on the problem. Sometimes the system would work, but then stop working unexpectedly. In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges. Electrons in the emitters, or the "holes" in the collectors, would cluster at the surface of the crystal, where they could find their opposite charge "floating around" in the air (or water). Yet they could be pushed away from the surface with the application of a small amount of charge from any other location on the crystal. Instead of needing a large supply of injected electrons, a very small number in the right place on the crystal would accomplish the same thing.

Their understanding solved the problem of needing a very small control area to some degree. Instead of needing two separate semiconductors connected by a common, but tiny, region, a single larger surface would serve. The emitter and collector leads would both be placed very close together on the top, with the control lead placed on the base of the crystal. When current was applied to the "base" lead, the electrons or holes would be pushed out, across the block of semiconductor, and collect on the far surface. As long as the emitter and collector were very close together, this should allow enough electrons or holes between them to allow conduction to start.

An early witness of the phenomenon was Ralph Bray, a young graduate student. He joined the germanium effort at Purdue University in November 1943 and was given the tricky task of measuring the spreading resistance at the metal–semiconductor contact. Bray found a great many anomalies, such as internal high-resistivity barriers in some samples of germanium. The most curious phenomenon was the exceptionally low resistance observed when voltage pulses were applied. This effect remained a mystery because nobody realised, until 1948, that Bray had observed minority-carrier injection the effect that was identified by William Shockley at Bell Labs and made the transistor a reality.

Bray wrote: "That was the one aspect that we missed, but even had we understood the idea of minority carrier injection... we would have said, 'Oh, this explains our effects.' We might not necessarily have gone ahead and said, 'Let's start making transistors,' open up a factory and sell them... At that time the important device was the high back voltage rectifier".

Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a working FET, this led them to instead inventing the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors.

First working transistor

The Bell team made many attempts to build such a system with various tools, but generally failed. Setups where the contacts were close enough were invariably as fragile as the original cat's whisker detectors had been, and would work briefly, if at all. Eventually they had a practical breakthrough. A piece of gold foil was glued to the edge of a triangular plastic wedge, and then the foil was sliced with a razor at the tip of the triangle. The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the plastic was pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage applied to the other side (on the base of the crystal), current started to flow from one contact to the other as the base voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented.

On 15 December 1947, "When the points were very close together got voltage amp about 2 but not power amp. This voltage amplification was independent of frequency 10 to 10,000 cycles".

On 16 December 1947, "Using this double point contact, contact was made to a germanium surface that had been anodized to 90 volts, electrolyte washed off in H2O and then had some gold spots evaporated on it. The gold contacts were pressed down on the bare surface. Both gold contacts to the surface rectified nicely... The separation between points was about 4x10−3 cm. One point was used as a grid and the other point as a plate. The bias (D.C.) on the grid had to be positive to get amplification... power gain 1.3 voltage gain 15 on a plate bias of about 15 volts".

Brattain and H. R. Moore made a demonstration to several of their colleagues and managers at Bell Labs on the afternoon of 23 December 1947, often given as the birth date of the transistor. The "PNP point-contact germanium transistor" operated as a speech amplifier with a power gain of 18 in that trial. In 1956 John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Bradford Shockley were honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".

Twelve people are mentioned as directly involved in the invention of the transistor in the Bell Laboratory.

At the same time some European scientists were led by the idea of solid-state amplifiers. The German physicist Herbert F. Mataré (1912–2011) had conducted experiments at Telefunken with what he called "" (double diode) from 1942, when he first observed transconductance effects with silicon diodes manufactured for German radar equipment for WWII. Finally on 13 August 1948, Mataré and Heinrich Welker (1912–1981), working at Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse in Aulnay-sous-Bois, France applied for a patent on an amplifier based on the minority carrier injection process which they called the "Transistron". The device was shown publicly on 18 May 1949. Transistrons were commercially manufactured for the French telephone company and military, and in 1953 a solid-state radio receiver with four transistrons was demonstrated at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair.

As Bell Labs did not make a public announcement of their transistor before June 1948, the transistron was an independent parallel discovery and development.

Etymology
Bell Telephone Laboratories needed a generic name for the new invention: "Semiconductor Triode", "Surface States Triode", "Crystal Triode", "Solid Triode" and "Iotatron" were all considered, but "Transistor," coined by John R. Pierce, was the clear winner of an internal ballot (owing in part to the affinity that Bell engineers had developed for the suffix "-istor"). The rationale for the name is described in the following extract from the company's Technical Memorandum calling for votes:

Pierce recalled the naming somewhat differently:

The Nobel Foundation states that the term is a combination of the words "transfer" and "resistor".

Early conflict
Shockley was upset about the device being credited to Brattain and Bardeen, who he felt had built it "behind his back" to take the glory.  Matters became worse when Bell Labs lawyers found that some of Shockley's own writings on the transistor were close enough to those of an earlier 1925 patent by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld that they thought it best that his name be left off the patent application.

Improvements in transistor design

Switch to silicon
Germanium was difficult to purify and had a limited operational temperature range. Scientists theorized that silicon would be easier to fabricate, but few bothered to investigate this possibility. Morris Tanenbaum et al. at Bell Laboratories were the first to develop a working silicon transistor on January 26, 1954. A few months later, Gordon Teal, working independently at Texas Instruments, developed a similar device. Both of these devices were made by controlling the doping of single silicon crystals while they were grown from molten silicon. A superior method was developed by Morris Tanenbaum and Calvin S. Fuller at Bell Laboratories in early 1955 by the gaseous diffusion of donor and acceptor impurities into single crystal silicon chips.

Up until the late 1950s, however, germanium remained the dominant semiconductor material for transistors and other semiconductor devices. Germanium was initially considered the more effective semiconductor material, as it was able to demonstrate better performance due to higher carrier mobility. The relative lack of performance in early silicon semiconductors was due to electrical conductivity being limited by unstable quantum surface states, preventing electricity from reliably penetrating the surface to reach the semiconducting silicon layer.

Silicon surface passivation

In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick at Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) accidentally discovered that silicon dioxide (SiO2) could be grown on silicon. They showed that oxide layer prevented certain dopants into the silicon wafer, while allowing for others, thus discovering the passivating effect of oxidation on the semiconductor surface. In the 1950s, Mohamed Atalla, picked up Frosch's work on oxidation, investigated the surface properties of silicon semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he proposed a new method of semiconductor device fabrication, coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the semiconductor industry as it later made possible the mass-production of silicon integrated circuits. He presented his findings in 1957. He studied the passivation of p-n junctions by oxide, and published his experimental results in 1957 BTL memos. Atalla's surface passivation method was later the basis for two inventions in 1959: the MOS transistor by Atalla and Dawon Kahng, and the planar process by Jean Hoerni.

Planar process

At a 1958 Electrochemical Society meeting, Atalla presented a paper about the surface passivation of PN junctions by oxide (based on his 1957 BTL memos), and demonstrated silicon dioxide's passivating effect on a silicon surface. Jean Hoerni attended the same meeting, and was intrigued by Atalla's presentation. Hoerni came up with a "planar idea" one morning while thinking about Atalla's device. Taking advantage of silicon dioxide's passivating effect on the silicon surface, Hoerni proposed to make transistors that were protected by a layer of silicon dioxide.

The planar process was developed by Jean Hoerni while working at Fairchild Semiconductor, with a first patent issued in 1959. The planar process used to make these transistors made mass-produced monolithic silicon integrated circuits possible.

MOSFET

In 1959, the MOSFET was introduced and in 2020 it was still the dominant transistor type in use, with  an estimated total of 13sextillion () MOSFETs manufactured between 1960 and 2018. The key advantages of a MOSFET transistors over BJTs are that they consume no current except when switching states and they have faster switching speed (ideal for digital signals).

Early commercialization
The world's first commercial transistor production line was at the Western Electric plant on Union Boulevard in Allentown, Pennsylvania. Production began on Oct. 1, 1951 with the point contact germanium transistor.

The first commercial application of transistors in telecommunication was in the Fall of 1952 in tone generators for multifrequency signaling of the No. 5 Crossbar switching system in the Englewood, NJ installation, used for the first field trial of direct distance dialing (DDD).

By 1953, the transistor was being used in some products, such as hearing aids and telephone exchanges, but there were still significant issues preventing its broader application, such as sensitivity to moisture and the fragility of the wires attached to germanium crystals. Donald G. Fink, Philco's director of research, summarized the status of the transistor's commercial potential with an analogy:  "Is it a pimpled adolescent, now awkward, but promising future vigor? Or has it arrived at maturity, full of languor, surrounded by disappointments?"

Semiconductor companies initially focused on junction transistors in the early years of the semiconductor industry. However, the junction transistor was a relatively bulky device that was difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited it to a number of specialised applications.

Transistor radios

Prototypes of all-transistor AM radio receivers were demonstrated, but were really only laboratory curiosities. However, in 1950 Shockley developed a radically different type of solid-state amplifier which became known as the bipolar junction transistor, which works on a completely different principle than the point-contact transistor. Morgan Sparks made the bipolar junction transistor into a practical device. These were also licensed to a number of other electronics companies, including Texas Instruments, who produced a limited run of transistor radios as a sales tool. Early transistors were chemically unstable and only suitable for low-power, low-frequency applications, but as transistor design developed, these problems were slowly overcome.

There are numerous claimants to the title of the first company to produce practical transistor radios. Texas Instruments had demonstrated all-transistor AM radios as early as 1952, but their performance was well below that of equivalent vacuum tube models. A workable all-transistor radio was demonstrated in August 1953 at the Düsseldorf Radio Fair by the German firm Intermetall. It was built with four of Intermetall's hand-made transistors, based upon the 1948 invention of Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker. However, as with the early Texas units (and others) only prototypes were ever built; it was never put into commercial production.

The first transistor radio is often incorrectly attributed to Sony (originally Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo), which released the TR-55 in 1955. However, it was predated by the Regency TR-1, made by the Regency Division of I.D.E.A. (Industrial Development Engineering Associates) of Indianapolis, Indiana, which was the first practical transistor radio. The TR-1 was announced on October 18, 1954, and put on sale in November 1954 for US$49.95 (the equivalent of about US$500 in year-2020 dollars) and sold about 150,000 units.

The TR-1 used four Texas NPN transistors and had to be powered by a 22.5-volt battery, since the only way to get adequate radio frequency performance out of early transistors was to run them close to their collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage. This made the TR-1 very expensive to run, and it was far more popular for its novelty or status value than its actual performance, rather in the fashion of the first MP3 players.

Still, aside from its indifferent performance, the TR-1 was a very advanced product for its time, using printed circuit boards, and what were then considered micro-miniature components.

Masaru Ibuka, co-founder of the Japanese firm Sony, was visiting the United States when Bell Labs announced the availability of manufacturing licenses, including detailed instructions on how to manufacture junction transistors. Ibuka obtained special permission from the Japanese Ministry of Finance to pay the $50,000 license fee, and in 1955 the company introduced their own five-transistor "coatpocket" radio, the TR-55, under the new brand name Sony. This product was soon followed by more ambitious designs, but it is generally regarded as marking the commencement of Sony's growth into a manufacturing superpower.

The TR-55 was quite similar to the Regency TR-1 in many ways, being powered by the same sort of 22.5-volt battery, and was not much more practical. Note: according to the schematic, the TR-55 used a 6 volt supply. Very few were distributed outside Japan. It was not until 1957 that Sony produced their ground-breaking "TR-63" shirt pocket radio, a much more advanced design that ran on a standard 9-volt battery and could compete favorably with vacuum tube portables. The TR-63 was also the first transistor radio to use all miniature components. (The term "pocket" was a matter of some interpretation, as Sony allegedly had special shirts made with oversized pockets for their salesmen.)

In the April 28th 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal, Chrysler and Philco announced that they had developed and produced the world's first all-transistor car radio. Chrysler made the all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, available as an "option" in Fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, which hit the showroom floor on October 21, 1955. The all-transistor car radio was a $150 option.

The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market penetration of transistor radios. The TR-63 went on to sell seven million units worldwide by the mid-1960s.  With the visible success of the TR-63, Japanese competitors such as Toshiba and Sharp Corporation  joined the market. Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s.

Hobby use
The  first low-cost junction transistor available to the general public was the CK722, a PNP germanium small signal unit introduced by Raytheon in early 1953 for $7.60 each. In the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of hobbyist electronics projects based around the CK722 transistor were published in popular books and magazines. Raytheon also participated in expanding the role of the CK722 as a hobbyist electronics device by publishing "Transistor Applications" and "Transistor Applications- Volume 2" during the mid-1950s.

Transistor computers

The world's first transistor computer was built at the University of Manchester in November 1953. The computer was built by Richard Grimsdale, then a research student in the Department of Electrical Engineering and later a professor of Electronic Engineering at Sussex University. The machine used point-contact transistors, made in small quantities by STC and Mullard. These consisted of a single crystal of germanium with two fine wires, resembling the crystal and cat's whisker of the 1920s. These transistors had the useful property that a single transistor could possess two stable states. ... The development of the machine was severely hampered by the unreliability of the transistors. It consumed 150 watts.

Metropolitan Vickers Ltd rebuilt the full 200 transistor (& 1300 diode) design in 1956 using junction transistors (for internal use).

The IBM 7070 (1958), IBM 7090 (1959), and CDC 1604 (1960) were the first computers (as products for sale) based on transistors.

MOSFET (MOS transistor)

Building on his silicon surface passivation method, Mohamed Atalla developed the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) process in the late 1950s. He proposed the MOS process could be used to build the first working silicon field-effect transistor (FET), which he began working on building with the help of Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was invented by Atalla and Kahng at Bell Labs. They fabricated the device in November 1959, and presented it as the "silicon-silicon dioxide field induced surface device" in early 1960. With its high scalability, and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits (ICs), allowing the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC.

The first gallium-arsenide Schottky-gate field-effect transistor (MESFET) was made by Carver Mead and reported in 1966. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967.

The MOSFET has since become the most widely manufactured device in history.  As of 2018, an estimated total of 13sextillion MOS transistors have been manufactured.

PMOS and NMOS
There were originally two types of MOSFET logic, PMOS (p-type MOS) and NMOS (n-type MOS). Both types were developed by Atalla and Kahng when they originally invented the MOSFET, fabricating both PMOS and NMOS devices with a 20µm process.

CMOS

A new type of MOSFET logic, CMOS (complementary MOS), was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor, and in February 1963 they published the invention in a research paper.

Self-aligned gate
The self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET transistor was invented by Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967. Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein later used self-aligned gate MOSFETs to develop the first silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit.

MOSFET commercialization

The MOSFET, also known as the MOS transistor, was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. It revolutionized the wider electronics industry, including power electronics, consumer electronics, control systems, and computers. The MOSFET has since become the most common type of transistor in the world, with uses including computers, electronics, and communications technology (such as smartphones). The MOS transistor has been described as the "workhorse of the electronics industry" due to being the building block of every microprocessor, memory chip and telecommunication circuit in use. Billions of MOS transistors are manufactured every day, as of 2013.

Integrated circuits
General Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuits in 1964, consisting of 120 p-channel transistors. It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman and Frank Wanlass. In 1967, Bell Labs researchers Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace developed the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor, which Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein used to develop the first silicon-gate MOS IC.

By 1972, MOS LSI (large-scale integration) circuits were commercialized for numerous applications, including automobiles, trucks, home appliances, business machines, electronic musical instruments, computer peripherals, cash registers, calculators, data transmission and telecommunication equipment.

Semiconductor memory

The first modern memory cells were introduced in 1965, when John Schmidt designed the first 64-bit MOS SRAM (static RAM). In 1967, Robert H. Dennard of IBM filed a patent for a single-transistor DRAM (dynamic RAM) memory cell, using a MOSFET.

The earliest practical application of floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) was floating-gate memory cells, which Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze proposed could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory). Floating-gate memory cells later became the basis for non-volatile memory (NVM) technologies including EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) and flash memory.

Microprocessors
The MOSFET is the basis of every microprocessor. The earliest microprocessors were all MOS microprocessors, built with MOS LSI circuits. The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first commercial single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer Masatoshi Shima. With the arrival of CMOS microprocessors in 1975, the term "MOS microprocessors" began to refer to chips fabricated entirely from PMOS logic or fabricated entirely from NMOS logic, contrasted with "CMOS microprocessors" and "bipolar bit-slice processors".

Pocket calculators
One of the earliest influential consumer electronic products enabled by MOS transistors was the electronic pocket calculator. In 1965, the Victor 3900 desktop calculator was the first MOS LSI calculator, with 29 MOS LSI chips. In 1967 the Texas Instruments Cal-Tech was the first prototype electronic handheld calculator, with three MOS LSI chips, and it was later released as the Canon Pocketronic in 1970. The Sharp QT-8D desktop calculator was the first mass-produced LSI MOS calculator in 1969, and the Sharp EL-8 which used four MOS LSI chips was the first commercial electronic handheld calculator in 1970. The first true electronic pocket calculator was the Busicom LE-120A HANDY LE, which used a single MOS LSI calculator-on-a-chip from Mostek, and was released in 1971.

Personal computers
In the 1970s, the MOS microprocessor was the basis for home computers, microcomputers (micros) and personal computers (PCs). This led to the start of what is known as the personal computer revolution or microcomputer revolution.

Power electronics
The power MOSFET is the most widely used power device in the world. Advantages over bipolar junction transistors in power electronics include MOSFETs not requiring a continuous flow of drive current to remain in the ON state, offering higher switching speeds, lower switching power losses, lower on-resistances, and reduced susceptibility to thermal runaway. The power MOSFET had an impact on power supplies, enabling higher operating frequencies, size and weight reduction, and increased volume production.

The power MOSFET, which is commonly used in power electronics, was developed in the early 1970s. The power MOSFET enables low gate drive power, fast switching speed, and advanced paralleling capability.

Sustainable transistors
In late April 2023, researchers at Linköping University and KTH Royal Institute of Technology successfully developed the world's first wooden transistor, potentially paving the way for more sustainable electronics and even the control of electronic plants, according to an article on Hackster.io. The team created a functional transistor to switch electronic signals using cellulose-based electrolyte and lignin-derived organic semiconductors. This breakthrough could lead to further research in creating environmentally friendly electronic devices and exploring the possibility of integrating electronics into living plants for monitoring and control purposes.

Patents

References

Books and literature
  A history of Bell Laboratories and its technological innovations
  The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age

 Out of the Crystal Maze Chapters from The History of Solid State Physics (728s)
 Electronic Genie: THE TANGLED HISTORY OF SILICON (304s)
 The INVENTION THAT CHANGED THE WORLD: HOW A SMALL GROUP OF RADAR PIONEERS WON THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND LAUNCHED A TECH (576s)

External links

 The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors.
 IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics. All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits.
 Transistorized''. Historical and technical information from the Public Broadcasting Service
 This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor. From the American Physical Society
 50 Years of the Transistor. From Science Friday, December 12, 1997
 Jack Ganssle "The transistor: 60 years old and still switching". EEtimes article, November 28, 2007
 John Markoff "Parallel Inventor of the Transistor Has His Moment." New York Times, 24 February 2003
 Michael Riordan "How Europe Missed The Transistor". IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 42, Issue 11 S. 52 - 57 November 2005
 Armand Van Dormael " The 'French' Transistor".
 Mark P D Burgess (2008) "Semiconductor History: Faraday to Shockley"

Transistors
Transistor
Transistor

History of the transistor


The Malmö shootings were a string of attacks by Peter Mangs, a serial shooter lone wolf terrorist, also known as the Laser Man II, in the southern Swedish city of Malmö between December 2009 and October 2010. The shooter apparently targeted people with dark skin and non-Swedish appearance. As of 23 October 2010, as many as 15 shootings were linked to the same suspect.

Shootings
The attacks, carried out with a 9mm Glock 19 handgun, started as early as in December 2009. At the same time, the fatal shooting of a 20-year-old woman in October 2009 has also been linked to the same perpetrator. The woman was the only ethnically Swedish victim, who was in the company of a friend of immigrant origin. This murder has been linked to the other shootings through forensic evidence, showing that the weapon used was the same gun as the one used in several of the other attacks.

The attacks soon spread fear among the substantial immigrant population of Malmö. "Many people are frightened at the moment", said  Tahmoures Yassami, the leader of the Iranian-Swedish Association in Malmö, "especially families who have children." The local police warned against panic, pointing out that the risk for any individual of being shot was very low. At the same time, they cautioned people of ethnic minorities to avoid secluded areas after dark, which was when the attacks had been taking place.

Perpetrator
The shooter was compared to the likes of John Ausonius, dubbed the "Laser man", who committed similar crimes in 1991–92, targeting eleven men of immigrant origin in the Stockholm and Uppsala area, killing one.

On 6 November 2010, Swedish police announced that they had arrested a man they suspected was the shooter. According to Malmö police he was under suspicion of one murder and seven murder attempts. The man arrested was a 38-year-old Swedish man, Peter Mangs. He expressed strong anti-immigrant sentiments and admiration for John Ausonius. Just like Ausonius, Mangs had an immigrant background himself via a father born in Närpes, Finland. Mangs professed to feel alienated and frustrated with society. His lawyers argued that he had Asperger syndrome. Mangs suspected that he had the disorder since at least 2005, when he joined an association for people with Asperger syndrome, and was formally diagnosed in May 2009. He had a very high score of 19 on the Autistic Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS).

Mangs was found guilty on two counts of murder and four counts of attempted murder, and given a life sentence. The Scania and Blekinge Court of Appeal denied an attempt by Mangs to overturn his sentence, convicting him of an additional three attempted murders, on 25 April 2013. A further request for appeal was denied by the Supreme Court in June of the same year.

List of suspected shootings
The following shootings have been connected to the same suspect:
2003 - Mangs shot dead an Iranian man in his apartment.
10 October 2009 – 20-year-old Trez West Persson is shot and killed while sitting in a car in Västra Skrävlinge Kyrkoväg, near Malmö Mosque. Her 21-year-old friend, who is dark-skinned, is seriously injured.
23 October 2009 – Several shots are fired against an apartment in Hyacintgatan.
31 December 2009 – Shots are fired against the Malmö Mosque on Jägersrovägen. No one is hit, but an imam is injured in the neck by broken glass.
25 January 2010 – A 17-year-old boy is shot in the chest and a 36-year-old man in the leg outside a store in Rasmusgatan. Police suspect the 17-year-old was the target, while the 36-year-old was shot by accident.
12 March 2010 – Shots are fired against a house in Hårds väg. The target is probably the 22-year-old who escaped the attack on 10 October.
16 March 2010 – A 21-year-old and a 22-year-old are attacked at close range while sitting in a car in Professorsgatan. The 22-year-old is hit several times, while the 21-year-old escapes unscathed.
19 June 2010 – Three African men are shot at while exiting a taxi in Regementsgatan. One is hit, but receives only a burn wound.
26 June 2010 – A 30-year-old man is shot through the window of a gym in Vendelfridsgatan. He is hit twice in the back.
27 June 2010 – Only 40 minutes after the previous shooting, a 29-year-old is shot in the shoulder while sitting in a car in Munkhättegatan.
24 August 2010 – A fast food restaurant in Köpenhamnsvägen is shot at. The bullet goes straight through the building and hits a car at the other side, but no one is hit. The owner claims to have seen a laser light immediately before the shot was fired.
25 September 2010 – A 31-year-old man receives a flesh wound to the head when he is shot outside of the university hospital.
10 October 2010 – A 47-year-old man is shot in the stomach at the bus stop by the intersection of Lönngatan and Norra Grängesbergsgatan. The bullet goes through his body, the injuries were serious.
19 October 2010 – In an incident similar to the one of 10 October, a 28-year-old man is shot in the back at close range while waiting for the bus by Eriksfältsgatan. The bullet pierces the victim's lung, leaving serious damage.
21 October 2010 – A 16-year-old boy is fired at by Hermodalstorget, but he is not hit.
21 October 2010 – On the same night, two women are shot through a window in Kroksbäck.

See also
Malmö school stabbing

References

Literature

External links

Skjutningarna i Malmö, archive copy of site by the Swedish police (in Swedish).
Map of recent shootings in Malmö, created by Sydsvenska Dagbladet (in Swedish).

Anti-Muslim violence in Europe
2009 murders in Sweden
2010 murders in Sweden
2000s in Malmö
2010s in Malmö
Deaths by firearm in Sweden
Hate crimes
Murder in Sweden
Racism in Sweden
Spree shootings in Sweden
Criminal snipers

sv:Peter Mangs

2009–10 Malmö shootings


Epigeal, epigean, epigeic and epigeous are biological terms describing an organism's activity above the soil surface.

In botany, a seed is described as showing epigeal germination when the cotyledons of the germinating seed expand, throw off the seed shell and become photosynthetic above the ground. The opposite kind, where the cotyledons remain non-photosynthetic, inside the seed shell, and below ground, is hypogeal germination.

The terms epigean, epigeic or epigeous are used for organisms that crawl (epigean), creep like a vine (epigeal), or grow (epigeous) on the soil surface: they are also used more generally for animals that neither burrow nor swim nor fly. The opposite terms are hypogean, hypogeic and hypogeous.

An epigeal nest is a term used for a termite mound, the above ground nest of a colony of termites.

See also
 List of plant morphology terms

References

Ecology
Plant reproduction
Plant morphology

Epigeal


Jerimoth (, sometimes spelled Jeremoth) in the Hebrew Bible is the name of eight men:

In 1 Chronicles 7:7, Jerimoth is a son of Bela.
In 1 Chronicles 7:8, Jerimoth is a son of Becher.
In 1 Chronicles 12:5, Jerimoth is a Benjamite and one of David's Mighty Warriors.
In 1 Chronicles 23:23, 24:30 Jerimoth is a Levite of the family of Merari.
In 1 Chronicles 25:4,22 Jerimoth is a descendant of Heman.
In 1 Chronicles 27:19 Jerimoth is a ruler of the tribe of Naphtali.
In 2 Chronicles 11:18 Jerimoth is a son of King David.
In 2 Chronicles 31:13 Jerimoth is a Levite and an overseer in the Temple of Jerusalem in the reign of King Hezekiah.

Set index articles on Hebrew Bible people
Children of David
Books of Chronicles people

Jerimoth


The Museo Teatrale alla Scala is a theatrical museum and library attached to the Teatro alla Scala in Milan, Italy. Although it has a particular focus on the history of opera and of that opera house, its scope extends to Italian theatrical history in general, and includes displays relating, for example, to the commedia dell'arte and to the famous stage actress Eleonora Duse.

The museum, which is adjacent to the opera house in the Piazza della Scala, was opened on 8 March 1913 and was based on a large private collection which had been purchased at auction two years earlier, with funds raised both from government and private sources. The displays include costumes, set designs, autograph scores, and musical instruments of historical interest as well as paintings of musicians and actors, and a range of related paraphernalia including precious ceramic figures portraying characters from the commedia dell'arte, and board games which used to be played in the theatre's foyer.

The Biblioteca Livia Simoni, the museum's library, is situated on the II floor of the museum. It was formed in 1952 with 40,000 volumes donated by author and Corriere della Sera critic Renato Simoni; it is named in honour of his mother. Today it holds some 140,000 works related to theatre history, opera and ballet including librettos, periodicals and the correspondence of musicians, actors and dancers, as well as books.

See also
 List of music museums

External links

 Website:

Museums established in 1913
Museums in Milan
Music museums in Italy
Opera museums
Libraries in Milan
Theatre in Italy
Music in Milan
1913 establishments in Italy
La Scala
Theatre museums
Library buildings completed in 1913
Tourist attractions in Milan
Opera in Milan

Museo Teatrale alla Scala


Neo-psychedelia is a diverse genre of psychedelic music that draws inspiration from the sounds of 1960s psychedelia, either updating or copying the approaches from that era. Originating in the 1970s, it has occasionally seen mainstream pop success but is typically explored within alternative rock scenes. It initially developed as an outgrowth of the British post-punk scene, where it was also known as acid punk. After post-punk, neo-psychedelia flourished into a more widespread and international movement of artists who applied the spirit of psychedelic rock to new sounds and techniques.

Neo-psychedelia may also include forays into psychedelic pop and psychedelic rock, jangly guitar rock, heavily distorted free-form jams, or recording experiments. A wave of British alternative rock in the 1980s spawned the subgenres of dream pop and shoegazing.

Characteristics

Neo-psychedelic acts borrowed a variety of elements from 1960s psychedelic music. Some emulated the psychedelic pop and psychedelic rock of bands like the Beatles and early Pink Floyd, others adopted Byrds-influenced guitar rock, or distorted free-form jams and sonic experimentalism of the 1960s. Some neo-psychedelia has been explicitly focused on drug use and experiences, and like acid house of the same age, projects transitory, ephemeral, and trance-like experiences. Other bands have used neo-psychedelia to accompany surreal or political lyrics.

In the view of author Erik Morse: "The distinctions between British and American neo-psychedelia were best described as the differences between primitivism and primalism. The sounds of American neo-psychedelia emphasized the cryptic margins of avant-rock, incorporating evanescent textures over an immutable bassline, producing a 'heavy' metallic ambience, contra-distinct to the sing-song filigree of British psychedelia".

History

1970s–80s: Post-punk

Psychedelic rock declined towards the end of the 1960s, as bands broke up or moved into new forms of music, including heavy metal music and progressive rock. Like the psychedelic developments of the late 1960s, punk rock and new wave in the 1970s challenged the rock music establishment. At the time, "new wave" was a term used interchangeably with the nascent punk rock explosion. In 1978, journalist Greg Shaw categorized a subset of new wave music as "neo-psychedelia", citing Devo, "to an extent ... [its] first major indication ... [they are] the new darling of the new wave press and opinion-makers, yet nothing about it is remotely 'punk'". Shaw wrote that in England, neo-psychedelia was known as "acid punk", noting "self-advertised 'psychedelic punk' band, the Soft Boys, [are] being hotly pursued by several major labels." The San Francisco band Chrome labelled themselves "acid punk" during this era. According to Chrome member Helios Creed, music journalists at the time considered about ten bands – including Chrome, Devo, and Pere Ubu – to be acid punk groups: "They didn't want to call it psychedelia, it was New Wave psychedelia".

By 1978–79, new wave was considered independent from punk and post-punk (the latter was initially known as "new musick"). Author Clinton Heylin marks the second half of year 1977 and the first half of year 1978 as the "true starting-point for English post-punk". Some of the scene's bands, including the Soft Boys, the Teardrop Explodes, Wah!, and Echo & the Bunnymen, became major figures of neo-psychedelia. In the early 1980s, Siouxsie and the Banshees crafted a "exotic neo-psychedelic pop" with the arrival of guitarist John McGeoch. The early 1980s Paisley Underground movement followed neo-psychedelia. Originating in Los Angeles, the movement saw a number of young bands who were influenced by the psychedelia of the late 1960s and all took different elements of it. The term "Paisley Underground" was later expanded to include others from outside the city.

1980s–present

In the 1980s and 1990s there were occasional mainstream acts that dabbled in neo-psychedelia, including Prince's mid-1980s work and some of Lenny Kravitz's 1990s output, but neo-psychedelia has mainly been the domain of alternative and indie rock bands.  The late 1980s would see the birth of shoegazing, which, among other influences, took inspiration from 1960s psychedelia. Reynolds referred to this movement as "a rash of blurry, neo-psychedelic bands" in a 1992 article in The Observer.

AllMusic states: "Aside from the early-'80s Paisley Underground movement and the Elephant 6 collective of the late 1990s, most subsequent neo-psychedelia came from isolated eccentrics and revivalists, not cohesive scenes." They go on to cite what they consider some of the more prominent artists: the Church, Nick Saloman's Bevis Frond, Spacemen 3, Robyn Hitchcock, Mercury Rev, the Flaming Lips, and Super Furry Animals. According to Treblezines Jeff Telrich: "Primal Scream made [neo-psychedelia] dancefloor ready. The Flaming Lips and Spiritualized took it to orchestral realms. And Animal Collective—well, they kinda did their own thing."

List of artists

See also
 Madchester

Notes

References

Bibliography

Alternative rock genres
American rock music genres
American styles of music
British styles of music
British rock music genres
Psychedelic music

Neo-psychedelia


Skydiving is parachuting (jumping)  from an airplane for fun.  Skydiving can be done individually and with groups of people.  Training is required.  Unlike most paratroopers, skydivers often wait until they are low, before opening the parachute.  The jump can also be made from a helicopter or a balloon that is high enough in the sky.  Skydiving can be an exciting sport.

Skydiving includes free falling (usually from an airplane) through the air prior to opening a parachute.   Typically skydives are carried out from around 4,000m (or 12,500ft) offering 40 to 50 seconds of freefall time.  Longer free fall times can be achieved by exiting an aircraft at altitudes much higher than 4,000m, but very high jumps require pressurized air within the aircraft, and bottled oxygen for the diver.

During a skydive, total freedom and control of the air can be enjoyed as well as many complex and spectacular maneuvers including flat turns, somersaults and formation skydiving.  Skydiving can be enjoyed either as an individual - doing solo(alone) jumps - or as part of a team carrying out formation skydiving. Usually the term 'skydive' refers to the time spent in freefall from exiting an aircraft to deploying a parachute, but skydiving also includes disciplines such as accuracy landings and canopy formation flying, which concentrate on the time spent after a canopy has been deployed

Notable skydives

 Captain Joseph Kittinger recorded the highest skydive from a height of almost 102,800 feet (31.3 km) in 1960.
 The youngest to accomplish the feat of skydiving was four years old.
 On 6th of February 2004, a group of 357 skydivers joined hands and stayed in that formation for 6 seconds in Takhli, Thailand.
 The oldest person to skydive till date was Kathryn "Kitty" Hodges, 103 years and 129 days old.

Related pages
 BASE jumping
 Hang gliding

Sports

Skydiving


The New Agenda Coalition (NAC), composed of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand and South Africa, is a geographically dispersed group of middle power countries seeking to build an international consensus to make progress on nuclear disarmament, as legally called for in the nuclear NPT.

Founding
The group was formed in response to the North-South divide that stymied talks on nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation within the framework of the NPT.  Non-nuclear weapon states believed not enough progress was being made on disarmament to have warranted the indefinite extension of the treaty in 1995, and that nuclear weapons states were not fulfilling their legal responsibilities towards disarmament, as outlined by Article VI of the NPT.

The NAC was officially launched in Dublin in June 1998, with a Joint Declaration by the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, and Slovenia, the latter two of which subsequently left the Coalition.

On June 9, 1998, an 18-point declaration entitled "A Nuclear-Weapons-Free World: The Need for a New Agenda" was signed by the governments of the eight nations of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Slovenia, South Africa, and Sweden to shape foreign policy around the goal of "the elimination of nuclear weapons and assurance that they will never be produced again." Of particular concern to the signatories are the states who have refused to sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The Nuclear Free World Policy is considered by many to be a "fundamental and requisite step" following from the treaty. New Zealand's stand on nuclear issues was a step on the way towards the Nuclear Free World Policy.

The declaration begins:
"1. We, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs of Brazil, Egypt, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Slovenia, South Africa and Sweden have considered the continued threat to humanity represented by the perspective of the indefinite possession of nuclear weapons by the nuclear-weapon states as well as by those three nuclear-weapons-capable states that have not acceded to the Non-Proliferation Treaty, and the attendant possibility of use or threat of use of nuclear weapons. The seriousness of this predicament has been further underscored by the recent nuclear tests conducted by India and Pakistan."

Members

History

In 2000, the New Agenda Coalition was instrumental in crafting a breakthrough in the NPT Review Conference.  While prospects at the outset of the conference initially seemed bleak, the New Agenda Coalition put together a historic agreement outlined in the 13 Steps, in which the nuclear weapons states affirmed, in accordance with Article VI of the NPT, that nuclear disarmament can and should proceed independently of general disarmament, that the nuclear powers have a responsibility to work together on "an unequivocal undertaking" to eliminate their arsenals, and that 13 relatively simple steps could help rid the world of nuclear weapons quickly, verifiably, and irreversibly.

Since the 2000 Review conference, the New Agenda Coalition has submitted annual resolutions to the UN First Committee on Disarmament and International Security.  Each of the Coalition's resolutions has been approved by the committee with overwhelming support.  They also continue to advance position papers at the NPT review meetings and their preparatory meetings.

All current members of the New Agenda Coalition have joined the Humanitarian Initiative, which was founded in 2013 also in the context of the NPT.

Notes

External links
 Acronym Institute for Disarmament Policy
 Middle Powers Initiative
 Reaching Critical Will
 NAC's 2007 UN First Committee Resolution (PDF)

Anti–nuclear weapons movement
Organizations established in 1998
20th-century diplomatic conferences
21st-century diplomatic conferences
1998 in international relations
United Nations coalitions and unofficial groups

New Agenda Coalition


Ivy Queen (born Martha Ivelisse Pesante on March 4, 1972 in Añasco, Puerto Rico) is a composer and singer known as "The Queen of Reggaeton".

Early Life
At a young age Ivy's parents moved to New York where she was raised.  When she was in her teens, her parents returned to their hometown, Añasco.  Ivy went to school and graduated from high school.

When Ivy was 18, she moved to San Juan and met rapper and producer, DJ Negro.  DJ Negro helped her and introduced her to a group called "Noise".  With "Noise" she wrote and performed her first song "Somos Rapperos Pero No Delincuentes" (We're Rappers, Not Delincuents).  Soon, DJ Negro convinced Ivy to go "solo" and in 1997, she made her debut with the recording of the album "En Mi Imperio" (In My Empire) for the Sony International Records label which sold over 100,000 copies.  In the same year, Ivy traveled to Panama where she represented Puerto Rico in "The Battle of Rap".  She also did some presentations in the Dominican Republic, which were all "sold out" and later that year, she participated in "The First National Festival of Rap and Reggae".  There, Ivy was proclaimed the "Rap Singer of the Year".  Also, in 1997, Ivy was awarded the "Artista '97" award, naming her "The Peoples Favorite Rap Singer", by Artista magazine.

In 1998, Ivy recorded her second album, for the Sony Label, titled "Original Rude Girl" which carried the following hit songs "Interlude in the Zone", "Sabes Que Tu" (What Do You Know?) and "The King and The Queen".  It sold more than her first album and was highly acclaimed by her growing fan base.

Ivy's third album "Diva", was released in 2003.  The songs were originally written by her and performed with the participation of various artists.

Ivy Queen's style does not include the crude language so common in that genre.  Instead she focuses on her lyrics which contain positive messages for her generation.  Ivy usually speaks in her songs about Puerto Rico and about the abuse that many women suffer.

1972 births
Living people
Puerto Rican singers
Puerto Rican rappers
Puerto Rican composers

Ivy Queen


Static electricity means the increase of electric charge on the surface of objects. This electric charge remains on an object until it either flows into the ground, or loses its charge quickly by a discharge. Charge exchange can happen in conditions like when different objects are rubbed and separated. A static charge will only remain when one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electrical flow. The effects of static electricity are familiar to most people because they can see, feel and even hear the spark. This spark happens when the excess charge is neutralized. This neutralization occurs when excess charge flows into an electrical conductor (for example a path to ground). Other charge flow occurs when a charged object is near a region with an excess charge of the opposite polarity (positive or negative). The familiar phenomenon of a static 'shock' is caused by the neutralization of charge.

History
In Greek age, Thales found static electricity when he was cleaning his amber. But at that time, they did not pay attention to this and research it. They just knew that rubbing something made a pulling force. Earnest research into static electricity was started in the 17th century, when Otto Von Guericke made the first friction generator. And in the 18th century, Coulomb started research into a fixed quantity of static electricity.  Benjamin Franklin associated static electricity with storms. In 1832 Michael Faraday published the results of his experiment on the identity of electricity. This report proved that the electricity made by using a magnet, voltaic electricity produced by a battery, and static electricity are all the same. Since Faraday's result, the history of static electricity can be thought as the study of electricity in general.

Charge
Many situations can cause static electricity.
 Contact makes charge separation:
Most materials have a unique chemical attraction for electrons. Because of this, rubbing different materials can cause charge separation. The material will have a positive charge if it has a lower attraction for electrons than the other material.Sometimes, by walking across a carpet then touching a metal item (e.g. doorknob) can cause a static electricity shock.
Pressure makes charge separation:
Strong enough pressure make a separation of charge in certain types of materials, like crystals and ceramics molecules.
Heat makes charge separation:
Heating certain materials can give electrons power. By this power electrons break free from atoms. The atoms losing electrons become a positive charge.
Charge makes charge separation:
A charged object can make a neutral object have charge separation. Charges of the same sign (negative to negative or positive with positive) repel each other, and charges of the opposite sign attract each other. This force  the part of the neutral object that is near the charged object have opposite charge of the charged object. This force rapidly weakens if the two objects move away from each other. The effect occurs most when the neutral object has a charge which can move freely.

Static electricity can cause a mild shock.

Discharge
Static discharge is excess charge that is neutralized by a flow of charges from or to the surroundings. Positive charges get
electrons from the surroundings, and negative charges lose their electrons to the surroundings.

The feeling of a static electric shock is caused by the stimulation of nerves as the neutralizing current flows through the human body. Due to the presence of much water in the body, the charge is generally not enough to cause a dangerously high current. Lightning is also an example of static discharge. A cloud gets a very huge charge by clashing with other clouds. It gives off the excess charge to the ground. But this huge charge never occurs in the human's surroundings naturally, unless he is struck by the lightning.

Despite the apparently harmless nature of static electricity, there can be significant risks in research, because a large charge can break down the equipment.

Electricity

Static electricity


Joseph Burr Tiffany (February 13, 1856 - April 3, 1917) was an American interior designer of the late 19th century, today best known for his 1889 decoration of the first floor of Wilderstein, the Rhinebeck, New York home of the Suckley family. His firm, J.B. Tiffany and Co., was active from 1888-1891.

Around 1897 Tiffany became associated with Steinway pianos, and was manager of that company's Art Piano Department until his retirement in 1912. In that capacity, he supervised the design and execution of the first Steinway piano presented to the White House, during the administration of Theodore Roosevelt. That 1903 piano, decorated by Thomas Wilmer Dewing and Maria Oakey Dewing, remained in the White House until 1938, when it was replaced by another Steinway and retired to the Smithsonian.

In the early years of the 20th century, century Tiffany became involved with George Ashdown Audsley in the Art Organ Company, which set out to provide "artistic" organs suitable for residences.

Tiffany died at his home in Yonkers, N.Y. on April 3, 1917.

Joseph Burr Tiffany was a cousin of Louis Comfort Tiffany, the businessman/artist who created Tiffany stained-glass and lamps; Louis Comfort Tiffany was the son of Charles Lewis Tiffany, the founder of New York jewelers Tiffany & Co.

References

1856 births
1917 deaths
American interior designers

Joseph Burr Tiffany


The Supremes at the Copa is a live album by Motown singing group the Supremes, recorded during their debut engagement at the prestigious Copacabana nightclub in New York City. Released in the late fall of 1965, At the Copa was the first live album issued by the Supremes, and the only live album issued by the group's best-known lineup of Diana Ross, Florence Ballard and Mary Wilson.

History

Background
The Supremes were following Ella Fitzgerald, Lena Horne,  Sammy Davis Jr., Sarah Vaughan, Nat King Cole and Sam Cooke, among the first African-American entertainers to appear at the Copa, and playing the club was seen by Motown CEO Berry Gordy as an in-roads into the conservative white middle-America market. Gordy and the Motown staff, including vocal director Maurice King and choreographer Cholly Atkins, invested significant amounts of time and money into preparing the Supremes for their Copa debut.

Tensions ran high at several points during the preparation stages. Florence Ballard was angered that her only solo number, "People", was dropped from the show while Ross herself complained about the group's staging and bristled under Gordy's criticisms of their performances. Nevertheless, the Copa engagement was a success, paving the way for several other Motown stars, including The Temptations, Marvin Gaye, Martha & the Vandellas and Smokey Robinson & the Miracles to secure play dates at the Copa.

After the success of their initial Copa engagement, Mary Wilson noted that the Supremes were "welcome to play any club in the world" The group would play engagements at the Copa for the next seven years, and eventually earned $20,000 a week for these performances, fees on the level of popular performers such as Sammy Davis Jr. and Dean Martin. Incidentally, Davis wrote the liner notes for this album.

Album release information
The Supremes at the Copa LP was issued by Motown on November 1, 1965; Motown also released the Supremes' Merry Christmas LP on the same date. At the Copa peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Top LPs albums chart, and at number six on the Billboard R&B Albums chart.

The performances included on the LP include several pop standards, four of the Supremes' number-one hit singles and a medley of songs by late soul star Sam Cooke. Berry Gordy and Motown's head engineer Lawrence Horn are credited as the producers, and the orchestra was arranged and conducted by Gil Askey. The release of The Supremes at the Copa led Motown to shelve a studio-record album of pop covers, There's a Place for Us, which featured many of the same songs as Copa, with the same arrangements.

The Supremes at the Copa does not include the group's entire set: for example, "From This Moment On" was the opening number in their Copa set, not "Put on a Happy Face".  When the tapes were brought back to Detroit following the Copa engagement, it was discovered the recording quality did not come up to Motown quality standards as the acoustics at the Copa were not congenial to recording. Gordy had Ross re-record her vocals live in Motown's Hitsville U.S.A. studio. Reportedly, Ross did the studio vocals in one long take, doing the whole show as she would have at the Copa.

Track listing

Side one
Opening Introduction
"Put On A Happy Face" (Lee Adams, Charles Strouse)
"I Am Woman, You Are Man" (Jule Styne, Bob Merrill)
"Baby Love" (Holland–Dozier–Holland)
"Stop! In the Name of Love" (Holland-Dozier-Holland)
"The Boy from Ipanema" (Antônio Carlos Jobim, Vinicius de Moraes, Norman Gimbel).
"Make Someone Happy" (Styne, Betty Comden, Adolph Green)
"Come See About Me" (Holland-Dozier-Holland)
"Rock-a-Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody" (Sam M. Lewis, Jean Schwartz, Joe Young)

Side two
"Queen of the House" (Roger Miller, Mary Taylor)
Group Introduction
"Somewhere" (Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim)
"Back in My Arms Again" (Holland-Dozier-Holland)
Sam Cooke Medley (Sam Cooke)
"You Send Me"
"Cupid"
"Chain Gang"
"Bring It On Home To Me"
"Shake"
"(I Love You) For Sentimental Reasons"
"You're Nobody till Somebody Loves You" (James Cavanaugh, Russ Morgan, Larry Stock)

Expanded Edition

On May 12, 2012, Universal Music Group released At the Copa: Expanded Edition,  a two-disc limited edition re-release. Disc one contains the digitally remastered original stereo album – an album that, owing to then-insurmountable technical problems, used lead vocals overdubbed by Diana Ross in the studio. Also on disc one are 10 specially selected, previously unreleased original mono reference mixes, with Ross's original live vocals. Disc two features the full Copa show, as the audience would have experienced it in 1965, in a brand-new mix that compiles the best performances from six recorded shows. Technology allowed the producers to overcome issues that vexed their 1960s counterparts, resulting not only in the use of the original lead vocals but the inclusion of songs cut from the original release: the opening number "From This Moment On," their hits "Where Did Our Love Go" and "Nothing But Heartaches," and classic show tunes including "Tonight/The Way You Look Tonight," and "Enjoy Yourself (It's Later than You Think)."

Personnel
 Diana Ross - lead vocals
 Florence Ballard - background vocals
 Mary Wilson - background vocals and co-lead vocals in "Enjoy Yourself (It's Later Than You Think)."
 Berry Gordy and Lawrence Horn - producers
 Gil Askey - bandleader, arranger, conductor

Chart history

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Notes

References
 Wilson, Mary and Romanowski, Patricia (1986, 1990, 2000). Dreamgirl & Supreme Faith: My Life as a Supreme. New York: Cooper Square Publishers. .

Albums produced by Berry Gordy
Albums produced by Lawrence Horn
1965 live albums
The Supremes live albums
Motown live albums
Albums recorded at Hitsville U.S.A.

The Supremes at the Copa


The International Business Times (IBT), or simply the IBTimes, is an American online news publication. It publishes seven national editions in four languages. It offers news, opinion and editorial commentary on business and commerce. IBT is one of the world's largest online news sources, having forty million unique visitors each month. It was launched in 2005. It was founded by Etienne Uzac and Johnathan Davis. Its headquarter is in New York City.The current editor is Peter.S. Goodman.

History
In late 2005, Uzac and Davis, in New York, launched the IBT website.On August 4, 2013, IBT Media purchased "Newsweek " another news site. Peter S. Goodman, news editor of The Huffington Post, became editor in 2014. Goodman left the company in 2016. IBT Media later renamed as Newsweek Media Group.In September 2018, Newsweek Media Group once again became IBT Media with "Newsweek" became an independent company.

News and Content
In 2016, IBT hired John Crowley, the Wall Street Journal'''s digital editor, as its UK editor-in-chief. According to The Guardian, "Crowley said his focus would be on helping the site break exclusives, in-depth storytelling and new forms of digital journalism". In 2017, International Business Times UK joined a partnership with  Bloomberg, Channel 4 and the BBC to work together to combat the spread of fake news. Consequently. In June 2017, Jason Murdock — who covers cyber security for the International Business Times UK'' — won Digital Writer of the year at the Drum Online Media Awards.

References

Other websites

2005 establishments in New York (state)
American websites
News websites

International Business Times


Gn15 is a rail modelling scale, using G scale 1:22.5 scale trains running on H0/00 gauge () track, representing minimum gauge and miniature railways. Typical models built are between 1:20.3 and 1:24, or up to 1:29.

 NEM 010 specification defines IIp for modelling  gauge.

History
Gn15 modeling is a relatively new phenomenon in the model railroading world.  While the idea of this scale has existed for some time, as evidenced by the early efforts of Marc Horovitz, editor of Garden Railways magazine, Gn15 did not gain any measure of popularity until the Sidelines range of models.  Following the advent of these kits, a few other lines of kits became available.

Initial community development took place on Yahoo email groups, but these have been superseded by the forums at Gn15.info as the primary form of communication between the far flung practitioners of this scale.

09, GNine and related scales
Alongside Gn15 other modeling scales have developed to cover both the modelling of minimum gauge lines in scales smaller than G, and 'miniature' lines (less than ) in G scale.

O9 or On15 is the use of N gauge track in 7mm scale to represent a  'minimum gauge' line. In comparison, GNine is the use of 9mm track to represent 'miniature' lines. GNine is a 'flexible' term for scale, referring to modelling using garden railway scales and N gauge track.  GNine models can be built to scales between 7/8" and 1:35 representing anything between  gauge and  miniature railways.

References

External links

Forums
Gn15.info - The center of the Gn15 internet community
The Gnatterbox - Gn15.info's very active forum

Gn15 Suppliers
Pepper7 - Home to the Sidelines range or locos, cars, and details
Schomberg Scale Models - Has a line of Gn15 items based on 'Winky', a peat hauling line in Canada
Tom Yorke Studios - producing a number of Gn15 models
Smallbrook Studio - produces a range of GN15 models based on both Sir Arthur Heywood prototypes and Rowland Emett cartoons
Scott Buschlen (Ontario) now has Listers available via Gn15.info.

Trackplans
Micro Layouts for Model Railroads - Dedicated to layout planning in less , many of the plans here are in Gn15

Model railroad scales
Scale model scales
Narrow gauge railway modelling

Gn15


John Franks (April 21, 1925 - December 31, 2003) was an American businessman and a Thoroughbred racehorse owner and breeder. A native of Haughton, Louisiana, he earned a degree in geology from Louisiana State University. In 1957, he founded the highly successful Franks Petroleum Inc. and later invested in real estate with Franks Realty LLC. In 1989 he sold his petroleum company to Sonat Inc.

Thoroughbred racing
In 1976, Franks became involved in the horse racing business and would become a leading North American stable owner with a horse farm in Shreveport, Louisiana plus his own breeding operation in Ocala, Florida.

Franks success in Thoroughbred racing saw him become the leading owner at Louisiana Downs in Bossier City, Louisiana for eighteen consecutive years from 1982 through 1999. Nationally, he earned the American Eclipse Award for Outstanding Owner in 1983, 1984, 1993, and 1994. As at 2007, his four wins remain the most of any owner. In 1993 and 1994 he led all American owners in earnings from racing. Seven times he was the leading owner in races won, taking the title in 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989,  and 1994.

Franks was the owner and/or breeder of more than a dozen horses which earned more than $1 million in their racing careers including Answer Lively, winner of the 1998 Breeders' Cup Juvenile who was voted American Champion Two-Year-Old Colt. His other horses of note included Royal Anthem, Sharp Cat, Heatherten and Kissin Kris. In poor health, in 2002 the seventy-seven-year-old Franks undertook a liquidation of his horse racing and breeding operations. He died on December 31, 2003, at the WK Pierremont Health Center in Shreveport, Louisiana. In his memory, three racetracks have named races for him.

In 1992, Franks was inducted into the Fair Grounds Racing Hall of Fame.

References

1925 births
2003 deaths
American businesspeople in the oil industry
20th-century American geologists
American racehorse owners and breeders
Eclipse Award winners
Louisiana State University alumni
People from Haughton, Louisiana

John A. Franks


The Armenian Highland (also known as the Armenian Upland or Armenian Plateau) is part of the Transcaucasian Highland and constitutes the continuation of the Caucasus mountains, also referred as eastern Armenia.

The apricot is native to China and spread to Europe through the Armenia Highlands. It came to be known throughout the ancient world as the Armenian fruit. Its botanical name Prunus armeniaca, derives from the Latin vernacular for apricot, armeniacum, which some scholars have linked to its Akkadian name .

Many scholars place the Indo-European homeland in the Armenian Highlands and the plateau of Asia Minor to the southwest.
Others believe that it was in Eastern Europe or southern Russia.

Some scholars believe, for example, that the earliest mention of the Armenians is in the Akkadian inscriptions dating to the 28th-27th centuries BC, in which the Armenians are referred to as the sons of Haya, after the regional god of the Armenian Highlands.

Related pages
 Greater Armenia (political concept)
 Armenian Genocide

References

Other websites
 The Armenian empire
 History of Armenia

Geography of Armenia
Mountains of Asia
Mountains of Europe

Armenian highlands


Joshua Uzoigwe (1 July 1946 – 15 October 2005) was a Nigerian composer and ethnomusicologist. A member of the Igbo ethnic group, many of his works draw on the traditional music of that people.

Early life and education
Uzoigwe was born in Umuahia, Abia State (formerly Imo State), Nigeria.  He began his education at the village primary school in Umuagu.  Most of his early life was spent with his older brother, Sunday Uzoigwe, who was then employed at the University of Ibadan.  For his secondary education, Joshua attended King's College, Lagos before going on to International School Ibadan to study for his Advanced Level Certificate.

From 1970 to 1973, he was at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he began his studies in music. He completed his undergraduate degree (1973–77) at the Guildhall College of Music, London, and from 1977 to 1981 he attended Queen's University Belfast, attaining both an M.A. and a Ph.D. in ethnomusicology.

Career
Uzoigwe lectured in Music at three universities in Nigeria, starting from the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife, then University of Nigeria Nsukka and finally University of Uyo in Akwa Ibom State. He got very lucky with a breakthrough when he was 21.

Music
Uzoigwe's best-known compositions include:
"Day is passing"

An accomplished pianist, Joshua accompanied many other musicians in live performances, including Ori Enyi Okoro and Joyce Akinwumi.  He performed many concerts during the Biafran Civil War and was a member of the Odunke Community of Artists, which strove to sustain cultural life during that civil war and to foster Igbo culture in all its dimensions from its base at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Poetry and other publications
Three of Uzoigwe's poems, "On the fading shadows", "Transition" and "Drying Lake, Rising Spring" taken from Nsukka Harvest: Poetry from Nsukka, 1966–72 (ed. Chukwuma Azuonye, Nsukka: Odunke Publications, 1972, pp. 13–15), appear on http://www.sentinelpoetry.org.uk/magonline1105/Joshua_Uzoigwe.htm

In 1993, he published his study on Akin Euba ()

Personal life
Joshua Uzoigwe married Joanne McGuckin in Nigeria in 1981.  They had met while he was studying at Queen's University Belfast.  Joanne was a lecturer at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, and was completing her postgraduate studies when she died in 1990.  They had three children, Uzoma, Ejike and Nneka.

Joyce Adewumi, founder of the New York African Chorus Ensemble (http://www.nyafricanensemble.com/) and a close friend and former colleague of Uzoigwe's, writes that her "work at the New York African Chorus Ensemble is dedicated to Joshua and it couldn't have been possible without his influence in my life".

Essays about Joshua Uzoigwe
Sadoh, Godwin. "Creativity and Dance in Joshua Uzoigwe's Music." ComposerUSA 9, No. 2 (2003): 4-5.
_. "Intercultural Creativity in Joshua Uzoigwe's Music." Africa 74, No. 4 (December 2004): 633-661.
_. "The Creative Experience of a Contemporary Nigerian Composer." Living Music 20, No. 1 (Spring 2005): 6-9.
_. "Hybrid Composition: An Introduction to the Age of Atonality in Nigeria." The Diapason 97, No. 11 (November 2006): 22-25.
_. "Twentieth Century Nigerian Composers." NTAMA, 10 January 2007.

References

Sadoh, Godwin (1998). "Joshua Uzoigwe: An Introduction to the Life and Music of a Nigerian Composer."  M.A. thesis.  Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania:  University of Pittsburgh.
Sadoh, Godwin (2007). Joshua Uzoigwe: Memoirs of a Nigerian Composer-Ethnomusicologist. New York: iUniverse Publishing.

External links

https://web.archive.org/web/20040808103033/http://people.africadatabase.org/en/person/16551.html
Article

20th-century classical composers
Musicians from Umuahia
Igbo composers
Nigerian male musicians
Nigerian composers
1946 births
2005 deaths
University of Nigeria alumni
Nigerian ethnomusicologists
International School, Ibadan alumni
King's College, Lagos alumni
Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
Academic staff of Obafemi Awolowo University
Academic staff of the University of Nigeria
20th-century Nigerian musicians
Male classical composers
Academic staff of the University of Uyo
Igbo academics
People of the Nigerian Civil War
20th-century musicologists
20th-century male musicians

Joshua Uzoigwe


A Wrinkle in Time is a science fiction and fantasy novel by Madeleine L'Engle. It was first published in 1962. The book won the 1963 Newbery Medal and the 1965 Sequoyah Book Award. It also won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1964.

A live-action movie by Disney based on the book will be released in 2018.

Summary
A Wrinkle in Time is the story of Meg Murry, a high-school-aged girl who is transported on an adventure through time and space with her younger brother Charles Wallace and her friend Calvin O'Keefe to rescue her father, a gifted scientist, from the evil forces that hold him prisoner on another planet. At the beginning of the book, Meg is a homely, awkward, but loving girl, troubled by personal insecurities and her concern for her father, who has been missing for over a year. The plot begins with the arrival of Mrs. Whatsit at the Murry house on a dark and stormy evening. Although she looks like an eccentric tramp, she is actually a celestial creature with the ability to read Meg's thoughts. she loves me so much  the way, they meet Calvin O'Keefe, a popular boy in Meg's school whom Charles considers a kindred spirit. The three children learn from Mrs. Whatsit and her friends Mrs. Who and Mrs. Which that the universe is threatened by a great evil called the Dark Thing and taking the form of a giant cloud, engulfing the stars around it. Several planets have already succumbed to this evil force, including Camazotz, the planet on which Mr. Murry is imprisoned.

The three Mrs. W's transport the children to Camazotz and instruct them to remain always in each other's company while on their quest for Mr. Murry. On Camazotz, all objects and places appear exactly alike because the whole planet must conform to the terrifying rhythmic pulsation of IT, a giant disembodied brain. Charles Wallace tries to fight IT with his exceptional intelligence but is overpowered by the evil and becomes a robot-like creature mouthing the words with which IT infuses him. Under the control of IT, Charles leads Meg and Calvin to Mr. Murry and together they confront IT. However, they, too, are unable to withstand IT's power; they escape only at the last minute, when Mr. Murry appears and seizes Meg and Calvin, "tessering" away with them (traveling via another tesseract) to a gray planet called Ixchel inhabited by tall, furry beasts who care for the travelers. Charles Wallace remains possessed by IT, a prisoner of Camazotz.

On Planet Ixchel the three Mrs. W's appear once again, and Meg realizes that she must travel alone back to Camazotz to rescue her brother. Mrs. Which tells her that she has one thing that IT does not have, and this will be her weapon against the evil. However, Meg must discover this weapon for herself. When standing in the presence of IT, Meg realizes what this is: her ability to love. Thus, by concentrating on her love for Charles Wallace, she is able to restore him to his true identity. Meg releases Charles from IT's clutches and tessers with him through time and space, landing in her twin brothers' vegetable garden on Earth, where her father and Calvin stand waiting. The family joyously reunites, and the Mrs. W's visit the happy scene en route to further travels.

Main Characters
Meg Murry -  The book's heroine and protagonist, a homely, awkward, but loving high school student who is sent on an adventure through time and space with her brother and her friend Calvin to rescue her father from the evil force that is attempting to take over the universe. Meg's greatest faults are her anger, impatience, and lack of self-confidence, but she channels and overcomes them, ultimately emerging victorious.

Charles Wallace Murry  -  Meg's extraordinarily intelligent five-year-old younger brother who is capable of reading minds and understanding other creatures in a way that none of the other Murry children can.

Calvin O'Keefe -  A popular boy and talented athlete in Meg's high school who accompanies the Murry children on their adventure. Calvin comes from a large family that does not really care about him, but he nonetheless demonstrates a strong capacity for love and affection, and shows a burgeoning romantic interest in Meg.

IT -  The disembodied brain that controls all the inhabitants of Camazotz with its revolting, pulsing rhythm. IT, identified with the Black Thing, is the embodiment of evil on this planet.

The Black Thing  -  A cold and dark shadow that symbolizes the evil forces that Meg, Calvin, and Charles Wallace must fight against in order to rescue their father.

Mrs. Whatsit -  The youngest of the three celestial beings who accompany the children on their adventure. Meg initially comes to know Mrs. Whatsit as the tramp who stole bed-sheets from their neighbors and then sought shelter from a storm in the Murrys' warm kitchen. She later learns that Mrs. Whatsit gave up her existence as a star in order to fight the Dark Thing.

Mrs. Which -  The oldest of the three celestial beings who accompany the children on their adventure. Mrs. Which has difficulty materializing and is usually just a shimmering gleam. Her unconventional speech is usually rendered in capitalized words, with the first consonants repeated several times.

Mrs. Who -  The second of the three celestial beings who accompany the children on their adventure. She usually speaks in quotations from famous thinkers and writers because she finds it too difficult to craft her own sentences. When the children first meet Mrs. Who, she is sewing sheets in the haunted house in their neighborhood.

Mr. Murry  -  Meg's father and a physicist who works for a top-secret government agency on experiments with travel through space-time in the fifth dimension. In trying to tesser to Mars (i.e., travel through a tesseract, or wrinkle in time), he is captured and imprisoned on the dark planet of Camazotz. When the plot begins, no one on Earth has heard from him for over a year.

Aunt Beast -  This tall, furry, many-tentacled inhabitant of the planet Ixchel cares lovingly for Meg after she is nearly destroyed by the Black Thing. Aunt Beast, like all the creatures on Ixchel, lacks eyes and has no concept of light or vision.

Happy Medium -  A jolly, clairvoyant woman in a silk turban and satin gown who shows the children a vision of Earth through her crystal ball. The Medium is reluctant to show them anything unpleasant, but the Mrs. W's insist that they see what they are up against.

Man with the Red Eyes  -  A robot-like inhabitant of Camazotz who tries to hypnotize Meg, Charles Wallace, and Calvin in the CENTRAL Central Intelligence building. The Man, like all of Camazotz, is totally controlled by the power of IT.

Mrs. Murry  -  Meg's mother and an experimental biologist who works out of a lab in the Murry home. She is at once a brilliant scientist and a loving mother who cooks meals for her family on her Bunsen burner. She also writes loving letters to her absent husband every night.

Mr. Jenkins -  Meg's cold and unfeeling high-school principal who calls her "belligerent and uncooperative" and implies that her family is in denial about Mr. Murry's true whereabouts.

Mrs. Buncombe -  The wife of the constable in Meg's hometown, who has twelve bed-sheets stolen from her at the beginning of the novel.

Sandy and Dennys Murry  -  Meg's athletic and socially successful ten-year-old twin brothers who encourage her to let them fight off the bullies who make fun of Charles Wallace. The twins do not accompany Meg and Charles Wallace on their interplanetary adventure.

References

Other websites
 L'Engle's Official Site
 A Wrinkle in Time reviewed at The Open Critic

 Review of A Wrinkle in Time
 Official book site for the May 2007 release.
 A Wrinkle in Time study guide, themes, quotes, multimedia, & teacher guide

1962 books
American fantasy books
American young adult novels
Newbery Medal winning books

A Wrinkle in Time


Musuh bebuyutan adalah adu pendapat atau pertikaian jangka panjang, sering kali antara kelompok sosial masyarakat, khususnya keluarga atau klan. Musuh bebuyutan dimulai karena satu pihak (entah benar atau salah) dianggap menyerang, menghina atau melakukan perbuatan hal yang salah terhadap pihak lainnya.

Bacaan tambahan
 Grutzpalk, Jonas. "Blood Feud and Modernity. Max Weber's and Émile Durkheim's Theory." Journal of Classical Sociology 2 (2002); p. 115–134.
 Kreuzer, Peter. 2005. "Political Clans and Violence in the Southern Philippines." Frankfurt: Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. PDF
 Torres, Wilfredo M. (ed). 2007. Rido: Clan Feuding and Conflict Management in Mindanao. Makati: The Asia Foundation. PDF
 Torres, Wilfredo M. 2010. "Letting A Thousand Flowers Bloom: Clan Conflicts and their Management." Challenges to Human Security in Complex Situations: The Case of Conflict in the Southern Philippines. Kuala Lumpur: Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network (ADRRN). PDF
 Boehm, Christopher. 1984. Blood Revenge: The Anthropology of Feuding in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies. Lawrence: University of Kansas. at Google Books

Pranala luar

 BBC: "In pictures: Egypt vendetta ends" May, 2005. "One of the most enduring and bloody family feuds of modern times in Upper Egypt has ended with a tense ceremony of humiliation and forgiveness. [...] Police are edgy. After lengthy peace talks, no one knows if the penance — and a large payment of blood money — will end the vendetta which began in 1991 with a children's fight."
 15 clan feuds settled in Lanao; rido tops cause of evacuation more than war, from the MindaNews website. Posted on 13 July 2007.
 2 clans in Matanog settle rido, sign peace pact, from the MindaNews website. Posted on 30 January 2008.
 Albania: Feuding families…bitter lives
 Bedouin family feud
 Blood feud in Caucasus
 Blood feud in Medjugorje, 1991-1992
 Blood feuds blight Albanian lives
 Blood feuds tearing Gaza apart
 Blood in the Streets: Subculture of Violence
 Calabrian clan feud suspected in slayings
 Chad: Clan Feuds Creating Tinderbox of Conflict
 Children as teacher-facilitators for peace, from the Inquirer website. Posted on 29 September 2007.
 Crow Creek Massacre
 Family Feud in Ireland Involves 200 Rioters
 Gang mayhem grips LA
 Gangs clash in Nigerian oil city
 Iraq's death squads: On the brink of civil war
 Mafia feuds bring bloodshed to Naples' streets
 Maratabat and the Maranaos, from the blog of Datu Jamal Ashley Yahya Abbas, "Reflections on the Bangsa Moro." Posted on 1 May 2007.
 Mexico drugs cartels feud erupts
 NZ authorities fear retaliatory attacks between rival gangs
 Rido, from The Asia Foundation's Rido Map website.
 Rido and its Influence on the Academe, NGOs and the Military, an essay from the website of the Balay Mindanaw Foundation, Inc. Posted on 28 February 2007.
 'Rido' seen [as] major Mindanao security concern, from the Inquirer website. Posted on 18 November 2006.
 State Attorney: Problems Posed By Haitian Gangs Growing
 Thousands fear as blood feuds sweep Albania
 Tribal Warfare and Blood Revenge
 Tribal warfare kills nine in Indonesia's Papua
 Villages in "rido" area return home, from the MindaNews website. Posted on 1 November 2007.
 Violent ethnic war looms between Filipino and Vietnamese gangs
 A "Yakuza War" has started in Central Tokyo

Musuh bebuyutan


Rachel Livia Elizondo McLish (born 21 June 1955) is an American female bodybuilding champion, actress, and author.

Early life and education
McLish was born as Raquel Livia Elizondo in 1955 in Harlingen, Texas, the second-youngest daughter born. Her father Rafael was of Mexican ancestry and her mother is named Raquel Elizondo. She attended the Harlingen High School, where she was a cheerleader and twice-named Cardinal's Football Sweetheart. She graduated from high school in 1973. In 1978, she graduated from the Pan American University with a degree in physiology and health and nutrition.

Bodybuilding career

Amateur
While attending college, McLish worked at a health club in McAllen, Texas. When she graduated from college, she and the health club manager formed a partnership and founded the Sport Palace Association in Harlingen. With the success of the Sport Palace Association, she opened two more facilities in Corpus Christi and Brownsville in 1980. She was inspired to compete in bodybuilding thanks to Lisa Lyon and the club manager, Javier Gutierrez, who would show her magazines of female bodybuilders and encourage her to compete. She decided to compete because the opening of her new health club would coincide with a women's bodybuilding contest and bodybuilding would give her a platform to promote fitness to women.

Professional
McLish merits special historical significance in the sport of women's bodybuilding. In 1980, she won the inaugural United States Championships, as well as beating Auby Paulick to win that year's first-ever IFBB Ms. Olympia contest. After her 1980 Olympia win, no woman appeared on more magazine covers for the next five years. She got sponsored by Dynamics Health Equipment Manufacturing Corporation. These breakthrough victories, together with her visual appeal, brought women's bodybuilding a further rush of media attention, which had been jump-started into action by Lisa Lyon.

In a competitive career that spanned only four years, McLish proved a resilient force, never placing lower than third in any contest she entered. In 1981, she lost her Ms. Olympia title to Kike Elomaa, because her physique was not as defined as usual. At the 1982 Ms. Olympia, she beat Carla Dunlap to reclaim her title. Both Paulick and Dunlap brought more muscle than McLish in those respective contests, but neither could match McLish's overall appeal. Dunlap defeated her in the 1983 Caesar's World Cup contest. She finished a controversial second behind Cory Everson in the 1984 Ms. Olympia. As quoted by several magazines covering the event, some competitors expressed surprise at McLish's high placement because she didn't carry the muscle mass carried by many of the top women. Though Dunlap, who finished fifth, was the defending Ms. Olympia, the cover of the March 1985 Strength Training for Beauty's March 1985 cover declared "Cory dethrones Rachel."

Retirement
After finishing second at the 1984 IFBB Ms. Olympia, McLish retired from competitive bodybuilding.

Legacy
McLish was the first winner of the Ms. Olympia title. She is one of bodybuilding's most recognizable personalities. In January 1999, she was inducted into the IFBB Hall of Fame.

Contest history
 1980 US Bodybuilding Championship – 1st
 1980 Frank Zane Invitational – 2nd
 1980 IFBB Ms. Olympia – 1st
 1981 IFBB Ms. Olympia – 2nd
 1982 Pro World Championship – 1st
 1982 IFBB Ms. Olympia – 1st
 1983 Caesars World Cup – 3rd
 1984 IFBB Ms. Olympia – 2nd

Personal life
McLish is a Christian and describes herself as a compassionate conservative. While attending Pan American University, she met John P. McLish, whom she married on February 3, 1979. They later divorced. In 1990, she married film producer Ron Samuels. She and her husband lived in Rancho Mirage, California in 1996. In 2008, she sold her house for $3 million to Boston Red Sox player Coco Crisp.

Motion picture career
McLish was featured in the 1985 documentary Pumping Iron II: The Women which focused on her participation in the 1983 Caesar's World Cup. She also acted in the movies Getting Physical (1984), Aces: Iron Eagle III (1992) and Raven Hawk (1996). These involved her acting the part of a physically strong woman. She was one of the first women to take such a role. She was also a star in Herb Alpert's 'Red Hot' music video. She co-starred alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger in the fitness instructional video Shape Up (1982).

Author
McLish has authored two books on weight training for women that made the New York Times bestseller list – Flex Appeal, by Rachel, and Perfect Parts. She is now working on two books that focus on fitness and nutrition.

References

External links
IFBB Hall of Fame profile

Rachel McLish Gallery
Internet Pinball Database

| colspan = 3 align = center | Ms. Olympia
|-
| width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:-
| width = 40% align = center | First (1980)
| width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:Kike Elomaa
|-
| width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:Kike Elomaa
| width = 40% align = center | Second (1982)
| width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:Carla Dunlap

1955 births
Actresses from California
Actresses from Texas
American female bodybuilders
American sportspeople of Mexican descent
Living people
People from Harlingen, Texas
People from Rancho Mirage, California
Professional bodybuilders
Sportspeople from California
Sportspeople from Riverside County, California
Sportspeople from Texas
21st-century American women
American actresses of Mexican descent

Rachel McLish