The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW), or the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, is the first legally binding international agreement to comprehensively prohibit nuclear weapons with the ultimate goal being their total elimination. It was adopted on 7 July 2017, opened for signature on 20 September 2017, and entered into force on 22 January 2021.

For those nations that are party to it, the treaty prohibits the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance and encouragement to the prohibited activities. For nuclear armed states joining the treaty, it provides for a time-bound framework for negotiations leading to the verified and irreversible elimination of its nuclear weapons programme.

A mandate adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 23 December 2016 scheduled two sessions for negotiations: 27 to 31 March and 15 June to 7 July 2017. The treaty passed on schedule on 7 July with 122 in favour, 1 against (Netherlands), and 1 official abstention (Singapore). Sixty-nine nations did not vote, among them all of the nuclear weapon states and all NATO members except the Netherlands.

Concept
According to its proponents, the nuclear-weapon-ban treaty will constitute an "unambiguous political commitment" to achieve and maintain a nuclear-weapon-free world. However, unlike a comprehensive nuclear weapons convention, it was not intended to contain all of the legal and technical measures required to reach the point of elimination. Such provisions will instead be the subject of subsequent negotiations, allowing the initial agreement to be concluded relatively quickly and, if necessary, without the involvement of nuclear-armed nations.

Proponents of the ban treaty believe that it will help "stigmatize" nuclear weapons, and serve as a "catalyst" for elimination. Around two-thirds of the world's nations have pledged to work together "to fill the legal gap" in the existing international regime governing nuclear weapons, and view a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty as one option for achieving this objective.

Nuclear weapons – unlike chemical weapons, biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster munitions – are not prohibited in a comprehensive and universal manner. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 contains only partial prohibitions, and nuclear-weapon-free zone treaties prohibit nuclear weapons only within certain geographical regions.

Overview of provisions
The preamble of the treaty explains the motivation by the "catastrophic consequences" of a use of nuclear weapons, by the risk of their sheer existence, by the suffering of the hibakusha (the surviving victims of the 1945 atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki) and the victims of nuclear tests, by "the slow pace of nuclear disarmament" and by "the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts" like deterrence. It recognizes "the disproportionate impact of nuclear-weapon activities on indigenous peoples". It expresses compliance with existing law: the UN charter, international humanitarian law, international human rights law, the very first UN resolution adopted on 24 January 1946, the NPT, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and its verification regime, as well as nuclear-weapon-free zones. Furthermore, the "inalienable right" of peaceful use of nuclear energy is emphasized. Finally, social factors for peace and disarmament are recognized: participation of both women and men, education, public conscience, "international and regional organizations, non-governmental organizations, religious leaders, parliamentarians, academics and the hibakusha".

Article 1 contains prohibitions against the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as against assistance and encouragement to the prohibited activities. Finally, any direct or indirect "control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices" is forbidden.

Article 2 requires each party to declare whether it had nuclear weapons of their own or deployed on its territory, including the elimination or conversion of related facilities.

Article 3 requires parties that do not possess nuclear weapons to maintain their existing IAEA safeguards and, if they have not already done so, to accept safeguards based on the model for non-nuclear-weapon states under the NPT.

Article 4 sets out general procedures for negotiations with an individual nuclear-armed state becoming party to the treaty, including time limits and responsibilities. If that state has eliminated its nuclear weapons before becoming a party to the treaty, it mandates verification of that elimination by an unspecified "competent international authority", and the state must also conclude a safeguards agreement with the IAEA to provide credible assurance that it has not diverted nuclear material and has no undeclared nuclear material or activities. If that state has not yet destroyed its arsenal, it must negotiate with the "competent international authority" a time-bound plan for the verified and irreversible elimination of its nuclear weapons programme, which it will submit to the next meeting of signing states or to the next review conference, whichever comes first.

Article 5 is about national implementation. Article 6 requires environmental remediation and assistance for the victims of the use and testing of nuclear weapons. According to Article 7, states should assist each other to fulfil these purposes, with special responsibility of the nuclear powers. More generally, all state parties shall cooperate to facilitate the implementation of the treaty. Article 8 fixes meetings of states parties, the costs of which are shared by the states according to the UN scale of assessment (Article 9). Articles 10–12 are about the possibility of amendments, the settlement of disputes and the "goal of universal adherence of all States to the Treaty".

According to Articles 13–15, the treaty was open for signature from 20 September 2017 at the UN headquarters in New York. The "Treaty shall enter into force 90 days after the fiftieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession".
Article 16 states that the Treaty "shall not be subject to reservations".
Articles 17–20  regulate Withdrawal, Relationship with other agreements, the equality of treatment for every official translation of the Treaty, and all the other formalities that the Treaty required.

History, intentions, and impact

Preparations, 2010–2016

Proposals for a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty first emerged following a review conference of the NPT in 2010, at which the five officially recognized nuclear-armed state parties – the United States, Russia, Britain, France and China – rejected calls for the start of negotiations on a comprehensive nuclear weapons convention. Disarmament advocates first considered starting this process without the opposed states as a "path forward". Subsequently, a less technical treaty concentrated on the ban of nuclear weapons appeared to be a more realistic goal.

Three major intergovernmental conferences in 2013 and 2014 on the "humanitarian impact of nuclear weapons", in Norway, Mexico and Austria, strengthened the international resolve to outlaw nuclear weapons. The second such conference, in Mexico in February 2014, concluded that the prohibition of a certain type of weapon typically precedes, and stimulates, its elimination.

In 2014, a group of non-nuclear-armed nations known as the New Agenda Coalition (NAC) presented the idea of a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty to NPT states parties as a possible "effective measure" to implement Article VI of the NPT, which requires all states parties to pursue negotiations in good faith for nuclear disarmament. The NAC argued that a ban treaty would operate "alongside" and "in support of" the NPT.

In 2015, the UN General Assembly established a working group with a mandate to address "concrete effective legal measures, legal provisions and norms" for attaining and maintaining a nuclear-weapon-free world. In August 2016, it adopted a report recommending negotiations in 2017 on a "legally binding instrument to prohibit nuclear weapons, leading towards their total elimination".

In October 2016, the First Committee of the UN General Assembly acted upon this recommendation by adopting a resolution that establishes a mandate for nuclear-weapon-ban treaty negotiations in 2017 (with 123 states voting in favour and 38 against, and 16 abstaining). North Korea was the only country possessing nuclear weapons that voted for this resolution, though it did not take part in negotiations.

A second, confirmatory vote then took place in a plenary session of the General Assembly in December 2016.

First negotiations and draft, March 2017
From 27 to 31 March 2017, convened as the United Nations Conference to Negotiate a Legally Binding Instrument to Prohibit Nuclear Weapons, Leading Towards their Total Elimination, a first round of negotiations was held at UN headquarters in New York, with the participation of 132 nations. At the end, the president of the negotiating conference, Elayne Whyte Gómez, permanent representative of Costa Rica to the UN in Geneva, called the adoption of a treaty by 7 July "an achievable goal". They agreed that the week's debates had set the stage well for the negotiations in June and July.

Summarizing the discussions, a first ban treaty draft was presented on 22 May by Elayne Whyte Gómez. The German section of the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) highlighted Article 1, 2a  prohibiting any stationing of nuclear weapons on their own territory. Hence, several NATO states – Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Turkey – would have to end contracts on nuclear sharing with the USA before they could sign the negotiated ban treaty. Already in 2010, the German Bundestag had decided by a large majority to withdraw nuclear bombs from Germany, but this decision was never implemented. By contrast, in June 2017 foreign minister Sigmar Gabriel again confirmed nuclear stationing in Germany as well as the principle of equilibrium nuclear deterrence against Russia. He stated that consequently Germany could not support the ban process.
The only NATO member participating in the treaty negotiations was the Netherlands.

Article 1, 1c (in extension of Article 1, 2a) prohibits direct or indirect control of nuclear weapons. Accepting this provision would preclude a common European nuclear force or German financing of and limited decision on the French force de frappe; both options are sometimes discussed.

Second session, June–July 2017
A second conference started on 15 June and was scheduled to conclude on 7 July 2017. 121 out of 193 UN members participated in the negotiations.

During the discussions about Article 1, several states pleaded for an explicit prohibition of nuclear military planning, others of financial assistance to development and production of nuclear weapons. Finally, these additions were rejected, but remained implicitly included in Article 1 (d) - (e).

On 27 June, a second draft was published. It now offered a precise "join and destroy" option for nuclear armed states: States joining the treaty "shall submit, no later than sixty days after the submission of its declaration, a time-bound plan for the verified and irreversible destruction of its nuclear weapons programme to be negotiated with the States Parties" (Article 4, 1). A second "destroy and join" option (Article 4, 5) only provides for cooperation with the IAEA in order to verify the correctness and completeness of the inventory of nuclear material, no verification of the elimination. This has been changed in the final text. A further discussed topic was the explicit acceptance of the "use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination". The respective affirmation remained part of the final preamble.

A third draft was presented on 3 July 2017. A last obstacle for agreement was the condition of the withdrawal clause, meaning that a state party "in exercising its national sovereignty, [...] decides that extraordinary events related to the subject matter of the Treaty have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country". The majority perspective was that this condition is subjective, and no security interests can justify genocide, nor can mass destruction contribute to security. However, as also a neutral withdrawal clause not giving reasons was not accepted by the minority, the respective Article 17 was accepted as a compromise. Safeguards against arbitrary use are the withdrawal period of twelve months and the prohibition of withdrawal during an armed conflict.

Vote

The vote on the final draft took place on 7 July 2017, with 122 countries in favour, 1 opposed (Netherlands), and 1 abstention (Singapore).

Among the countries voting for the treaty's adoption were South Africa and Kazakhstan, both of which formerly possessed nuclear weapons and gave them up voluntarily. Iran and Saudi Arabia also voted in favour of the agreement. There are indications that Saudi Arabia has financially contributed to Pakistan's atomic bomb projects and in return has the option to buy a small nuclear arsenal, an option that would be realized in the event that Iran obtains nuclear warheads.

Membership

A total of 197 states may become parties to the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, including all 193 United Nations member states, the Cook Islands, the Holy See, the State of Palestine and Niue. As of 19 September 2023, 69 states have ratified or acceded to the treaty, most recently Sri Lanka.

Positions

UN member states
According to the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), a coalition of non-governmental organizations, leading proponents of a nuclear-weapon-ban treaty include Ireland, Austria, Brazil, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa and Thailand. All 54 nations of Africa (all but one of which have either signed or ratified the 1996 Treaty of Pelindaba establishing a nuclear-weapon-free-zone in the continent) and all 33 nations of Latin America and the Caribbean (already in a nuclear-weapon-free-zone under the 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco) had subscribed to common regional positions supporting a ban treaty. The 10 nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which concluded the Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty, participated in the negotiations, but Singapore abstained from the vote. Many Pacific island nations are also supportive. New Zealand is a signatory to the Treaty and in 2022, Phil Twyford, Minister of Disarmament and Arms Control, noted that the strength of Treaty [is that it] "leaves no grey area for parties to declare their opposition to nuclear weapons and then continue to possess or rely on them. And it provides a powerful tool to build public and political pressure on the nuclear weapon states and their allies to join the rest of humanity and prohibit nuclear weapons."  He also confirmed that New Zealand would continue in its role as the co-chair of the workstream on nuclear disarmament verification, in particular addressing "nuclear legacy issues in the Pacific."

No nuclear-armed nation has expressed support for a ban treaty; indeed, a number of them, including the United States and Russia, have expressed explicit opposition. North Korea was the only nuclear state to vote for initiating ban negotiations.

Many of the non-nuclear-armed members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), along with Australia and Japan, are also resistant to a ban treaty, as they believe that US nuclear weapons enhance their security. A statement was put forward by several NATO members (not including France, the United States, nor the United Kingdom, the nuclear weapon states within NATO), claiming that the treaty will be 'ineffective in eliminating nuclear weapons' and instead calling for advanced implementation of Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty.

Following the treaty's adoption, the permanent missions of the United States, the United Kingdom and France issued a joint statement indicating that they did not intend "to sign, ratify or ever become party to it". After stating that the instrument clearly disregarded the realities of the international security environment, they said accession to it was "incompatible with the policy of nuclear deterrence, which has been essential to keeping the peace in Europe and North Asia for over 70 years".

Contrary to government position in a number of nations, several recent opinion polls – including Australia, and Norway – have shown strong public support for negotiating an international ban on nuclear weapons. The Netherlands voted against adoption of the treaty, while Germany did not participate, despite opinion polls against the presence of nuclear weapons in both countries.

Civil society
ICAN has been the main civil society actor working alongside governments to achieve a strong and effective ban treaty.  In 2017 it received the Nobel Peace Prize for its work.  The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement has also championed an agreement to prohibit and eliminate nuclear weapons, describing the UN working group recommendation to negotiate a ban in 2017 as "potentially historic". Thousands of scientists from around the world signed an open letter in support of the negotiations.

In a July 2017 public statement endorsed by over 40 Buddhist, Christian, Jewish and Muslim leaders and groups, "Faith Communities Concerned about Nuclear Weapons" called for universal adoption of the treaty. At a high-profile Vatican conference in November 2017, the first major international disarmament gathering following the treaty's adoption in July, Pope Francis took a stance further than his papal predecessors to condemn the possession of nuclear weapons and warn that nuclear deterrence policies offer a "false sense of security."

Xanthe Hall (IPPNW and ICAN) said she regretted the boycott of the treaty by all nuclear powers and their allies.  She recalled that the Mine Ban Treaty and the Convention on Cluster Munitions were concluded without the states possessing such weapons, but finally were signed by most states.  She argued that nuclear-weapon states were blocking multilateral disarmament negotiations and instead were modernizing their nuclear forces and abdicating their responsibility under Article VI of the NPT.  This could reduce the commitment of other states to non-proliferation.  By contrast, the TPNW aimed at a new disarmament dynamics that would reinforce the NPT.

In NATO Review, Rühle indicated that according to proponents, it was intended to strengthen Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which requires good faith efforts to negotiate effective measures on nuclear disarmament. Sceptics have argued that the Ban Treaty would harm the NPT.

Former US Secretary of Defense William Perry has endorsed the TPNW.

Parliamentarians

Political parties supporting the government in NATO member states often share the rejection of the nuclear ban negotiations and treaty by their governments, but this is not universal.

Netherlands

In May 2015, the Dutch House of Representatives adopted a non-binding motion asking the Dutch government to participate substantively in international discussions on a treaty banning nuclear weapons without prejudice on the final outcome. Roughly a year later, in May 2016, the Dutch House of Representatives adopted a similar motion urging the government to work for "an international ban on nuclear weapons".  These motions were supported in part by at least one citizens' initiative. These pieces of legislation made it politically unacceptable for the Dutch government to officially avoid participating in the TPNW negotiations and avoid voting as did the rest of NATO and the world's nuclear-weapon states.

Late in 2018 the Dutch parliament passed a motion asking the government determine whether the TPNW was compatible with existing Dutch law. On 30 January 2019, the government responded saying that the Netherlands could become a party to the TPNW without other changes to existing law.  Implementation would require additional legislation, however.

Norway and Germany

In 2010, the German Bundestag voted for nuclear disengagement by a large majority. In 2016, a majority of Norwegian parliamentarians signaled their support for a ban. Nevertheless, Norway and Germany joined the nuclear-weapon states and the rest of NATO, except for the Netherlands, in officially avoiding participation in the negotiations.

Elsewhere

In response to an appeal made by ICAN, over eight hundred parliamentarians around the world pledged their support for a ban treaty, calling upon "all national governments to negotiate a treaty banning nuclear weapons and leading to their complete eradication" and describing it as "necessary, feasible and increasingly urgent". The countries they represent included members of both the world's existing nuclear-weapon-free zones as well as NATO states. Of the five nuclear-armed permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, the United Kingdom was the only one to have elected representatives lend their support to the initiative.

Implementation
Article 8 of the treaty stipulates that following entry into effect, the States Parties to the treaty shall hold meetings to promote collective actions on their part to achieve the treaty's objectives. It also stipulates that the first such conference is to take place within a year from its entry into effect. Accordingly, the first Meeting of States Parties was initially scheduled for by January 2022, following Austria's offer to host, but the meeting was subsequently rescheduled for 22–24 March 2022, and then postponed again until sometime between May and July 2022. The scheduled meeting was eventually opened in Vienna on June 21, 2022, and ended on June 23. It adopted a declaration and a plan of action to facilitate greater disarmament. The plan of action called for joint efforts to be done with the Red Cross and NGOs to lead as many governments as possible to accede to the treaty or to other treaties relating to disarmament or banning nuclear tests.

See also
 Anti-nuclear movement
 Humanitarian Initiative
 List of weapons of mass destruction treaties
 Nuclear weapons convention
 Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)

References

External links

 UN website of the conference
 International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons page on the treaty negotiations
 Campaign page for a nuclear ban treaty, with live blog of the conference

2017 in the United Nations
Arms control treaties
Nuclear weapons policy
Nuclear technology treaties
Treaties concluded in 2017
United Nations treaties
Treaties of the State of Palestine
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of the Cook Islands
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Cuba
Treaties of Guyana
Treaties of the Holy See
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of New Zealand
Treaties of Nicaragua
Treaties of Palau
Treaties of Thailand
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties of Venezuela
Treaties of Vietnam
Treaties extended to Tokelau
Treaties of Bangladesh
Treaties of Cambodia
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of Peru
Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago
Treaties of Tuvalu
Treaties of South Africa
Treaties of Nigeria
Treaties of Malaysia
Treaties of Jamaica
Treaties of Namibia
Treaties of Laos
Treaties of Kazakhstan
Treaties of Ireland
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of Lesotho
Treaties of Botswana
Treaties of Malta


John Bowers (born 1928) is an American writer.

Bowers was raised in Johnson City, Tennessee, during the Great Depression and World War II era. He graduated from Science Hill High School in 1946 and from the University of Tennessee in 1951. From there, he attended the Handy Writers Colony in Marshall, Illinois, founded by Lowney Turner Handy and her husband, Harry Handy, along with her student, the best-selling novelist James Jones. An autobiographical account of this adventure is Bowers's first major book, the memoir The Colony, published in 1971.

During the 1960s, Bowers published numerous interviews and articles in major magazines, including The New York Times, Playboy, Sports Illustrated, New York, Cosmopolitan, and Harper's, some of which were collected in paperback under the title The Golden Bowers in the early 1970s. His first novel, No More Reunions (1973), about his teen years in Johnson City, was optioned for film but the movie was never made. A second novel of that period, Helene (1976), is a Lolita-like tale set in 1950s America with college-age males and a young teenage girl.

In the Land of Nyx: Night and Its Inhabitants (1984), Bowers's next novel, was a study of the subculture of people who live their lives at night rather than during the daylight. Probably inspired by his father, who was night manager at the local railroad station during John's childhood, this book is difficult to classify in any standard genre, and languished somewhat after its release because bookstores and libraries did not know quite what to do with it.

Turning his attention to historical examination of the Civil War, Bowers wrote Stonewall Jackson: Portrait of a Soldier (1990) and Chickamauga and Chattanooga: The Battles That Doomed the Confederacy (2000), which mix fact, fiction, and anecdotes.

For over two decades he has been an associate professor in the Writing Program at Columbia University. His play Remembrance of Things Present has been produced twice Off-Broadway.

References

Living people
American male biographers
1928 births
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
Columbia University faculty
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
American historical novelists
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American biographers
American male novelists
American male dramatists and playwrights
Novelists from New York (state)
People from Lenoir City, Tennessee
People from Johnson City, Tennessee
University of Tennessee alumni
American male non-fiction writers

John Bowers (writer)


Kennon Caithness Whittle (October 12, 1891 – November 10, 1967) was a Virginia lawyer and judge who served as president of the Virginia Bar Association and was elected to the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals.

Biography

Whittle was born in Martinsville, Virginia, the son of Stafford G. Whittle, a lawyer who served on the Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals from 1901 to 1919.  Kennon Whittle attended elementary school in Martinsville and received an LL. B. from Washington and Lee University in 1914.  Following his graduation Whittle was admitted to the bar and began practice in Martinsville.  Whittle was president of The Virginia Bar Association for 1940–41. In 1944, he was appointed judge of the Seventh Judicial Circuit and, in 1951, was elected to the Supreme Court of Appeals.  He served on the Supreme Court until he retired on February 1, 1965.  He received an honorary LL. D. from Washington and Lee in 1950 and he was a member of Phi Delta Phi.

Judge Whittle drew controversy when he oversaw the trial of the "Martinsville Seven," a group of seven black men accused of raping a white woman in January 1949. Ruby Floyd had accused the seven men of raping her. Subsequently, all seven were arrested, and confessed both after arrest and in their trials; their guilt was never in question.  In short order, the seven men were found guilty and were sentenced to death—the sentence under Virginia law at the time.

Alerted to the case and its growing controversy, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) campaigned against the verdicts, arguing that the sentences violated the equal-protection provisions of the U.S. Constitution (no white man had ever been sentenced to death in Virginia for rape). But Judge Whittle ruled that because of the brutality of the crime and the findings of guilt that the men's sentences were appropriate. The seven were ultimately executed in 1951.  In denying the appeal of one of the 'Martinsville Seven,' Justice Edward W. Hudgins of Virginia's Supreme Court of Appeals ruled that the death penalty "does not depend upon the race of the accused, but on the circumstances, aggravation and enormity of the crime...the law applies to all alike regardless of race or creed."

In the rape of Mrs. Floyd, he said, the severity of the crime demonstrated that the accused showed no mercy. "Francis Grayson, a man of 37 years of age, saw the four men attacking Mrs. Floyd," Judge Hudgins wrote of the appellant. "Instead of helping her, he left the scene, informed two others of what was taking place, the three went to the scene, and each in return, ravished Mrs. Floyd. One can hardly conceive of a more atrocious, a more beastly crime."'

Justice Kennon Whittle was married to the former Mary Holt Spencer, whose sister Blanche married Julian Robertson Sr. of Salisbury, North Carolina. Robertson was a prominent textile company executive, private investor and philanthropist. A third Spencer sister, Margaret, married Dr. John Armstrong Shackelford, chief surgeon of Martinsville's Shackelford Hospital. For much of his life, Justice Whittle lived at Belleview, listed on the National Register of Historic Places and built by Major John Redd of the Continental Army, an ancestor of both Whittle and his wife.

References

External links
 Photograph of the Whittle family, ca. 1905

Justices of the Supreme Court of Virginia
Washington and Lee University School of Law alumni
People from Martinsville, Virginia
Virginia lawyers
1891 births
1967 deaths
Virginia circuit court judges

Kennon C. Whittle


Dana–Farber Cancer Institute is a comprehensive cancer treatment and research institution in Boston, Massachusetts. Dana–Farber is the founding member of Dana–Farber/Harvard Cancer Center, Harvard's Comprehensive Cancer Center designated by the National Cancer Institute, and one of the 15 clinical affiliates and research institutes of Harvard Medical School.

As of 2023, Dana–Farber is ranked the #4 cancer hospital in the world. Two Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine are among its past and present faculty. Dana–Farber's research discoveries include the development of the highly successful Gleevec to treat chronic myeloid leukemia.

Overview
Dana–Farber employs more than 4,855 full-time and part-time workers, 529 faculty, and has annual gross revenues of about $1,733,386,000. All faculty and postdoctoral research fellows at Dana–Farber hold the equivalent academic positions concurrently at Harvard University. There are more than 523,425 adult and pediatric patient visits (combined exam and office visits) a year, and it is involved in more than 1,000 clinical trials. It is internationally known for its research and clinical excellence. Expertscape ranks its programs in aplastic anemia and multiple myeloma as best in the world. It has been also ranked overall the fifth best cancer hospital in the United States by U.S. News & World Report. Dana–Farber is a member of the Multiple Myeloma Research Consortium.

In addition to being a principal teaching affiliate of Harvard Medical School, Dana–Farber is also a federally designated Center for AIDS Research, and a founding member of the Dana–Farber/Harvard Cancer Center (DF/HCC), a federally designated Comprehensive Cancer Center. Providing advanced training in cancer treatment and research for an international faculty, Dana–Farber conducts community-based programs in cancer prevention, detection, and control in New England, and maintains joint programs with other Boston institutions, including St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital, and Massachusetts General Hospital.

Dana–Farber is supported by the National Cancer Institute, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, and private foundations and individuals contributions. The Jimmy Fund is the principal charity of the Institute named for one of its child patients. The Boston Red Sox adopted the Jimmy Fund as its official charity in 1953 and continues to prominently sponsor the charity.

Laurie Glimcher is President/CEO of Dana–Farber Cancer Institute/Jimmy Fund. In 2015, Forbes listed the charity as the 37th biggest in the U.S.

History
 1947: Sidney Farber, MD, founded the Children's Cancer Research Foundation.
 1969: The Institute officially expanded its programs to include patients of all ages.
 1974: It became known as the Sidney Farber Cancer Institute in honor of its founder.
 1983: The support of the Charles A. Dana Foundation was acknowledged by incorporating Dana's name.

In August 2018, Dana–Farber Cancer Institute launched a Chinese language section to the hospital website. The new pages are intended to reach Chinese-speaking people both in the United States and abroad who are seeking cancer-related information. The hospital also has a Spanish language site.

In February 2020, Dana–Farber Cancer Institute inked an investing collaboration deal with MPM Capital. The deal combines MPM's venture capital investment fundraising with Dana–Farber's fundraising for cancer research.

Breakthroughs
Dana–Farber has a long history of breakthrough discoveries in cancer care and research.
 1947: Sidney Farber leads a team of researchers who are the first in the world to attain temporary remissions of acute lymphocytic leukemia, the most common cancer in children, using aminopterin. This, and another antifolate drug, methotrexate used by Dr. Farber, were discovered and supplied by Dr. Yellapragada Subba Rao, Director, Research at Lederle Co. at Pearl River, NY.
 1954: Farber and his colleagues achieve the first remissions of Wilms' tumor, a common form of childhood cancer, and boost cure rates from 40 percent to 85 percent.
 1976: Researchers at the Sidney Farber Cancer Center (now Dana–Farber) develop a new treatment for acute myelogenous leukemia that produces the first complete remissions of the disease in up to half of all patients.
 1978: Institute investigators develop combination chemotherapy for soft-tissue sarcomas resulting in a 50-percent response rate.
 1980: Dana–Farber president Baruj Benacerraf receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the major histocompatibility complex, which enables the immune system to recognize antigens.
 1982: Dana–Farber researchers develop and apply the CA-125 blood test for ovarian cancer. They also are among the first to suspect a relationship between the retrovirus that causes human T-cell leukemia (HTLV-1) and that which causes AIDS (HIV-1).
 1991: Dana–Farber investigators help introduce the use of naturally occurring growth hormones following high-dose chemotherapy, making bone marrow transplantation safer and more effective.
 1993: Dana–Farber investigators discover the gene that increases the risk for a common type of colon cancer. The MSH2 gene and later the MLH1 gene (also by DFCI investigators) are linked to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC).
 1996: Institute researchers dramatically advance the understanding of how HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, replicates and infects healthy cells. Science magazine heralds this discovery as its "Breakthrough of the Year".
 1998: A drug called imatinib (Gleevec), the early work for which was done at Dana–Farber, achieves striking success in many patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia.
 1999: Working with colleagues at other hospitals, Dana–Farber scientists begin the first human studies of endostatin, one of a new generation of compounds that arrest or shrink tumors by shutting off their blood supply.
 2002: Dana–Farber researchers find that Gleevec, a targeted therapy that achieved striking success against chronic myelogenous leukemia, can shrink and even eliminate tumors in some patients with a rare and otherwise incurable digestive-tract cancer called gastrointestinal stromal tumor.
 2003: Scientists at Dana–Farber and the Whitehead Institute find a gene "signature" in several types of tumors that suggests they are likely to spread to other parts of the body, potentially leading to tests for determining whether tumors have the potential to metastasize.
 2005: Dana–Farber scientists report that the drug gefitinib (Iressa) produces dramatic benefits in non-small cell lung cancer patients who carry an abnormal version of a key protein, a potentially life-saving discovery for tens of thousands of patients around the world every year.
 2019: Dana–Farber physician and researcher William Kaelin Jr. receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "discoveries of how cells sense and adapt to oxygen availability."

Patient care
Dana–Farber/St. Elizabeth's Cancer Center (DF/SEMC) and Dana–Farber/Brigham and Women's Cancer Center (DF/BWCC) are collaborations between Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, St. Elizabeth's Medical Center, and Brigham and Women's Hospital to care for adults with cancer. Dana–Farber provides outpatient services, while inpatient care is provided by St. Elizabeth's Medical Center and Brigham and Women's Hospital. DF/SEMC and DF/BWCC care for adult patients in more than a dozen specialized treatment centers.

Dana–Farber/Boston Children's Cancer and Blood Disorders Center is a more than 70-year-old partnership between Boston Children's Hospital and Dana–Farber Cancer Institute that delivers comprehensive care to children with and survivors of all types of childhood cancers.

They also work with several other local New England organizations that share a similar vision, such as Take a Swing at Cancer, Angel's Hope, Childhood Cancer Lifeline of New Hampshire and Andrew's Helpful Hands.

Dana–Farber/Harvard Cancer Center
The Dana–Farber/Harvard Cancer Center is the largest National Cancer Institute (NCI) designated Comprehensive Cancer Center in the nation. Founded in 1997, DF/HCC is an inter-institutional research enterprise that unites all of the cancer research efforts of the Harvard affiliated community. The primary goal of the Cancer Center is to encourage and promote collaborative interactions and translational research that will lead to new approaches to cancer prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

DF/HCC is one of just 39 NCI designated Comprehensive Cancer Centers. Its members hail from the following institutions: Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital, Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health, Massachusetts General Hospital, and St. Elizabeth's Medical Center.

References

Cancer research organizations
Cancer organizations based in the United States
NCI-designated cancer centers
Medical research institutes in Massachusetts
Teaching hospitals in Massachusetts
Hospitals in Boston
Harvard Medical School
Hospitals established in 1947
Hospital buildings completed in 1947

Dana–Farber Cancer Institute


Edward Winslow (1595 – May 8, 1655) traveled on the Mayflower in 1620 so he could practice his own religion which was not allowed in England.  Winslow helped to organize the voyage to the New World and was a leader at Plymouth Colony.  He signed the Mayflower Compact

Early life
Edward Winslow was born in Droitwich, Worcestershire England. His parents were Edward and Magdalene Winslow. In 1613 Winslow was apprenticed to a London printer.  Winslow became a Separatist which was a religion that did not believe in the Church of England.

It was illegal to be a Separatist in England, so in 1617 Edward Winslow moved to Leiden, Netherlands where he worked with William Brewster. They started to print religious booklets which were critical of the English king and his bishops. The English King ordered Brewster's arrest, and he was forced to hide.

The Separatists were planning to move to America and they need leaders to plan the voyage.  Thomas Weston helped them by providing the ship Mayflower for their journey. Winslow's brother Gilbert and family servant George Soule and a youth, Elias Story went with him. Elinor (Ellen) More, a girl of eight years, also went with them Elinor died in the winter of 1620 with only one brother Richard More surviving.

Mayflower Voyage
Edward Winslow left Plymouth, England on 16 September 1620. There were 102 passengers and 30–40 crew. On 19 November 1620, the Mayflower spotted land at Cape Cod hook. They landed on November 21. They wrote the Mayflower Compact, which made rules on how they would live and treat each other.  Winslow signed the Mayflower Compact. The Mayflower was supposed to land in Virginia Colony, but the ship was too damaged and they were forced to land at Cape Cod now called Provincetown Harbor.

In Plymouth Colony

The men went to land to explore a place where they all could live.  One of the missions included William Bradford, John Carver, Myles Standish, Edward Winslow, John Howland, Richard Warren, Stephen Hopkins and Edwary Doty.  Bradford wrote that they set off in freezing weather and many of the men were ill.  He said  that "when the set sail the salt spray froze on their coats, as
if they had been glazed".  Of this group Hopkins was the most experienced, having seen Native Americans during his time at Jamestown.  During their trip they saw Native Americans who were cutting up a large whale.  When the Indians saw the men they ran away.

Plymouth Colony lost over half of its population because of sickness, lack of proper food and the cold winter. With the help of friendly Native Americans, they learned to grow food. In 1621, Winslow and the others attended what would have the first Thanksgiving.
The next year they were able to load the ship Fortune with furs and other supplies.  This was to pay the men would helped pay for the trip to the New World.  On the return trip, the Mayflower was attacked by the French and all the cargo was taken.

On February 21, 1621, William White died leaving a widow, Susanna, and two sons, Resolved and Peregrine. Edward Winslow had lost his wife Elizabeth on March 24, 1621. In 1621, Edward Winslow and Susanna White became the first couple to marry in Plymouth Colony.  They had 5 children: A (child) who died young, Edward Winslow, Josiah Winslow and Elizabeth.  Josiah became the 13th Governor of Plymouth Colony.

Winslow had a friendship with native leader Massasoit.  These Native Americans were friendly and helped the Pilgrims. In January 1629 a fishing and trading post opened up on the Kennebec River near Plymouth Colony.  Isaac Allerton also opened his own trading post there and this caused problems between the two men.

In 1632, Winslow explored the Connecticut River.

Winslow was a diplomat and a spokesperson for the Pilgrims with English officials.  Winslow was a governor in 1634, 1636 and 1644 and was a member of the United Colonies of New England.  This was a military group which protected the pilgrims against unfriendly Native Americans.

England had a civil war in the 1640s. Some pilgrims returned to fight against the King. In 1646, Winslow began working for Oliver Cromwell. Winslow never returned to Plymouth Colony.

In 1654, Winslow fought against the Spanish in the West Indies. They won the battle but Winslow became ill and died from yellow fever. He was buried at sea. Winslow Cemetery in Marshfield, Massachusetts has a stone monument which lists the names of the Winslow family. There is another memorial stone w/plaque stating "Edward Winslow, Founder of Marshfield".  Edward Winslow's first wife Elizabeth Barker Winslow was buried in 1621 in the Cole's Hill Burial Ground, Plymouth, Massachusetts.<ref>Memorial for Edward Winslow [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?GRid=15048246&page=gr]</ref>

 References

 Further reading
 Reprint of the original version.
J. D. Bangs's 'Pilgrim Edward Winslow: New England's First International Diplomat (Boston, 2004);

Plymouth Archaeological Rediscovery Project "Archaeology of the Edward Winslow Site" www.plymoutharch.com
Also see a paper by W. C. Winslow, Governor Edward Winslow, his Place and Part in Plymouth Colony, in the Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1895'' (Washington, 1896)
See Egerton Ryerson's The Loyalists of America and Their Times for evidence of the differences between the Pilgrim Fathers (Plymouth Rock) and the Puritan Fathers (Massachusetts Bay) with respect to loyalty to the Crown, tolerance of other religions, and treatment of the Native Peoples, and how this schism continued right up to and during the American Revolution.

Sources
 The Mayflower Society

Other websites

Mayflower passengers
1595 births
1655 deaths

Edward Winslow


Alfred Lemmnitz (27 June 1905 – 23 September 1994) was an East German politician. He served as Minister for National Education from 1958 to 1963.

Lemmnitz was born in Taucha, Saxony and completed training as a typesetter and studies in economics at the University of Leipzig. From 1927 to 1931, he was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and youth leader of the Socialist Worker Youth in Moers. In 1931, he switched to the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and joined the Communist Youth League of Germany (Kommunistischer Jugendverband Deutschlands; KJVD), becoming leader of the KJVD subdistrict of Duisburg-Hamborn.

In 1933, after the Nazis had seized power, he was working illegally for the KPD and ended up in "protective custody" many times. From October 1933 until 1936, he was at Börgermoor and Esterwegen concentration camps, and until 1937 in pre-trial custody in Duisburg. He was sentenced by the Volksgerichtshof to one year and nine months in prison, released from custody, and banished from the Ruhr area.

In April, Lemmnitz emigrated to the Netherlands, where he became a member of the KPD leadership in Amsterdam. After the Wehrmacht marched into the Netherlands, he was once again arrested and then sentenced by the Volksgerichtshof to ten years in labour prison (Zuchthaus). Until 1945, he was an inmate at the labour prison in Brandenburg-Görden.

In 1946, Lemmnitz joined the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), took his studies up once again, graduating from the University of Leipzig in 1948. From 1948 to 1953, he held the chair for political economy at the Party College, and then until 1955, he was Professor of Political Economy and Dean of the Faculty of Economics at the University of Rostock. Until 1956, he was Rector of the College for Financial Science in Potsdam-Babelsberg, and until 1958, he held the same position at the Berlin College for Economics.

In December 1958, he succeeded Fritz Lange as Minister for National Education, thereby also becoming a member of the Council of Ministers of the GDR and the Ideological Commission at the SED Central Committee's Politburo. In November 1963, he was succeeded by Margot Honecker, who would hold the post until 1989. From 1963 to 1965, he was a scientific associate at the Economic Institute of the Academy of Sciences, until 1971, Acting Director of the German Economic Institute, and finally Associate of the Institute for International Politics and Science.

Lemmnitz received in 1958 the Medal for Fighters against Fascism, in 1959 the National Prize of East Germany, in 1959 and 1970, the Fatherland Order of Merit, in 1975 the Clasp of Honour on the Patriotic Order of Merit, in 1980 the Order of Karl Marx, and in 1985 the Star of People's Friendship.

External links

1905 births
1994 deaths
People from Taucha
People from the Kingdom of Saxony
Social Democratic Party of Germany politicians
Communist Party of Germany politicians
Socialist Unity Party of Germany politicians
Government ministers of East Germany
Esterwegen concentration camp survivors
Börgermoor concentration camp survivors
People convicted of treason against Nazi Germany
Recipients of the National Prize of East Germany
Recipients of the Order of Karl Marx
Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit (honor clasp)

Alfred Lemmnitz


Milan Radenkovich (December 15, 1941 – March 14, 1971), who was always credited mononymously as Milan, was an American record producer, songwriter and recording artist on numerous songs made throughout the 1960s, mostly though not exclusively in the garage rock genre.   He released an LP and numerous singles for seven different national record labels and other independent labels (a total of more than 30 songs) under a variety of names, including  Milan with His Orchestra, Milan, The World of Milan, Milan (The Leather Boy), and The Leather Boy,  and also worked under the name Rick Rodell.  As a producer, arranger and/or songwriter, Milan oversaw many other releases by a variety of artists ranging from the pop singer Lou Christie to the psychedelic rock band the Head Shop.

Greg Shaw placed Milan's song "I'm a Leather Boy" as the opening track on two different albums in the Pebbles series:  the Pebbles, Volume 10 CD and the earlier Pebbles, Volume 11 LP (which was also the first album to be released on his AIP record label).  He has written of Milan as being "a cryptic artist who made a series of high image records offering himself as some leather-clad, bike-riding rebel, but so stylized he might've been imagined by Andy Warhol. . . . The only name to be found on these records is Milan, a name that also shows up as writer/producer on a big pile of records, from the early 60s right thru the end of the decade. . . . But who was he?  No further clue has ever emerged.  This is one guy whose story really cries out to be told."

In the promotional material for the 2009 retrospective album Hell Bent for Leather, Milan was described in this way: "From his earliest incarnation in the record industry as a Xmas twister, the enigmatic Milan has changed his name and re-invented himself several times: a teen idol with a cute hairdo and a preppy look, a garage gonzo savage, an all dressed-in-black biker stud, a psychedelic screamer in love with satellite sounds, and other characters known or waiting to be discovered. One thing is for sure:  Few people can claim so many identities in less than a decade."

Identity and background
Milan was born Milan Radenković, anglicized as Milan Radenkovich, though the surname is rarely if ever shown on records attributed to him. However, he changed his name to Richard (Rick) Rodell while he was still in high school in Florida, and was often known by that name in the recording industry.   Milan's father performed as Rasha (or Rascha) Rodell, and was a folk singer and guitarist who performed in the late 1950s at the Eden Roc Hotel in Miami Beach, Florida.  Milan's older brother, Petar Radenković, is a former Yugoslavian-Serbian goalkeeper with the football (soccer) team, TSV 1860 München  of Munich, who won the German Bundesliga title in 1966 and the German Cup in 1964.

Album, I Am What I Am

After a couple of early singles, Milan released an LP on 20th Century Fox in 1964, named I Am What I Am, along with two associated singles, "I Am What I Am" b/w "Over and Over Again" and later "Runnin' Wild" b/w "Angel's Lullaby".  The front cover (pictured) also includes "presenting a bright new star".  The album's liner notes describe Milan as "a darkly handsome, six foot, 160 lb. twenty year old" with a "European musical background" and continue: "Milan is popular music . . . he lives it, loves it and understands it and refuses to allow the tendency to copy whatever happens to be in the top ten at the present time to influence his work" (ellipses in the original).

The album is in the style of early 1960s orchestral pop music records, instead of the garage rock and psychedelic rock recordings for which he is better known. However, some of the songs on the album, including "Runnin' Wild" and "Spellbound" have the flavor of his later garage-rock classics.

Later recording career

As far as his persona is concerned, the moniker "Leather Boy" is certainly appropriate, since he is shown in several photographs in a leather jacket.  Anticipating his pose on the single "I'm a Leather Boy", he is shown on the back cover of his earlier album holding a guitar and dressed in what appears to be a faux leather smock emblazoned with "Milan" in stylized lettering. (This lettering was later incorporated into the design of the cover of the 2009 Hell Bent for Leather album).

Producer, arranger and songwriting credits
For the most part, the name "Milan" was used in his many appearances on disc as songwriter, arranger or producer; but there are many exceptions.  On his first single, the songwriter of "Santa's Doin' the Twist" and "Swing a Little Harder" is given as "Rick Rodell". On his 1964 album, the songwriter is listed as "M. Rodell", and on the first of the two associated singles, the songwriter is "Milan Rodelle" (with the surname misspelled in that case). "M. Rodell" is also listed as the songwriter and arranger on the Licorice Schtik song "The Kissin' Game".

He also was the producer for both sides of a 1967 single "Bongo Bongo" b/w "Free as a Bird" on MGM – MGM also released some of his own singles – for an obscure girl group called The Chanters.  He was also listed as the songwriter of "Bongo Bongo".  According to the programmer of the compilation albums Look What I Found, Volume 12 and Look What I Found, Volume 21 – which each included a re-release of one side of this single – "'Bongo Bongo' sounds like [Milan's] 'On the Go'. . .  The Chanters have remained a mystery band as I've never seen this 45 on any compilation." A song by the Downtown Collection called "Washington Square" was included on Volume 42 of the same series; Milan was the producer on this record.

In a foray into yet another style of music, Milan wrote and arranged both sides of a single on Capitol for a bubblegum pop band called Ice Cream that was released in 1968.

Reissues and other sources

In 1983, Milan was re-introduced to the world in Pebbles, Volume 11 of the LPs in the Pebbles series. This was actually the first album in the series to be officially released by Bomp! and was the initial LP on their AIP label.  This particular compilation album starts off with both sides of a 1967 single by The Leather Boy, "I'm a Leather Boy" and "Shadows", while "You Gotta Have Soul" closes the album.  The former cut is an exuberant garage rock track that features actual sounds of motorcycles in the background that even Steppenwolf eschewed, while the latter is a passionate romp that has a similar gritty feel.  "Shadows" – a thoughtful meditation on the remains of a failed romance – is a marvelous psychedelic rock masterwork that appears on the Pebbles box sets called Pebbles Box and Trash Box but is not otherwise available in the Pebbles series on CD.  However, "On the Go" appears on the Pebbles, Volume 10 CD (this song also reprises the motorcycle sounds from "I'm a Leather Boy").

Greg Shaw expressed hope that an album could be collected of his work some day  — which finally occurred in 2009 when Hell Bent for Leather was released — adding that "what he did with Donovan songs has to be heard to be believed!".  The latter is a reference to the Leather Boy cover of Donovan's song "Jersey Thursday" on one of the rarest of Milan's singles.  However, in addition to those in the Pebbles series, Milan's recordings have been collected on several other garage-rock and psychedelic-rock collections.

While not reaching the stratospheric level of artists like the Human Expression and the Outcasts (from Texas), the original Milan 45s sell on a regular basis for elevated prices.  For instance, between 2004 and 2006, the "I'm a Leather Boy" single sold at auction on eBay for $68, £15 and £27.

Death
Milan died on March 14, 1971, aged 29, in New York, possibly from brain cancer.

Discography

Singles

As a recording artist
As Milan with His Orchestra:
 "Santa's Doin' the Twist" b/w "Swing a Little Longer"; Migon (#1962-A/B) – 1962

As Milan:
 "Innocence" b/w "Winter Time"; End (#1123) – 1963
 "I Am What I Am" b/w "Over and Over Again"; 20th Century Fox (#487) – 1964
 "Runnin' Wild" b/w "Angel's Lullaby"; 20th Century Fox (#552) – 1964

As The World of Milan:
 "Cry, Lonely Boy" b/w "Luva-Luva"; ABC-Paramount (#10718) – 1965
 "Follow the Sun" b/w "I'm Cryin' in the Rain"; Brunswick (#55292) – 1966
 "One Track Mind" b/w "Shades of Blue"; Brunswick (#55298) – 1966

As Milan (The Leather Boy):
 "You Gotta Have Soul" b/w "My Prayer"; Flower (#100) – 1967

As The Leather Boy:
 "I'm a Leather Boy" b/w "Shadows"; MGM (#K-13724) – April 1967
 "On the Go" b/w "Soulin'"; MGM (#K-13790) – August 1967
 "Jersey Thursday" b/w "Black Friday"; Parkway (#125) – 1967

As a producer, arranger and/or songwriter
Lou Christie:
 "How Many Teardrops" b/w "You and I (Have a Right to Cry)"; Roulette #R-4504 – 1963

The American Beetles:
 "Don't Be Unkind" b/w "You Did It To Me"; Roulette (#4550) – 1964

The Chanters:
 "Bongo Bongo" b/w "Free as a Bird"; MGM (#K13750) – 1967

The Unclaimed:
 "Memories of Green Eyes" b/w/ "Jingle Jangle"; Philips (#30430) – 1967

The Licorice Schtik:
 "The Kissin' Game" b/w "Flowers Flowers"; Dot (#17131) – 1968

Albums

Studio albums

As a recording artist
 I Am What I Am; 20th Century Fox (#TFM 3149/#TFS 4149) — 1964

As a producer, arranger and/or songwriter
 The Head Shop; Epic (#BN 26476) – 1969

Retrospective album
 Hell Bent for Leather; LS (#LS-001LP) – 2009 (vinyl only)

Compilation albums

I'm a Leather Boy
 Pebbles, Volume 11 (LP)
 Pebbles, Volume 10 (CD)
 Pebbles, Volume 3 (CD – ESD Release)
 Mayhem and Psychosis, Volume 1 (LP)
 Mayhem and Psychosis, Volume 1 (CD)

Shadows
 Pebbles, Volume 11 (LP)
 Pebbles Box (LP Box Set)
 Trash Box (CD Box Set)

You Gotta Have Soul
 Pebbles, Volume 11 (LP)

On the Go
 Pebbles, Volume 10 (CD)
 A Journey to Tyme, Volume 5 (LP)
 Garagelands, Volume 1 (LP)
 Garagelands, Volume 1 (CD)
 Wavy Gravy series

Soulin'
 A Journey to Tyme, Volume 5 (LP)
 Garagelands, Volume 1 (LP)
 Garagelands, Volume 1 (CD)

One Track Mind
 Winning Sides, Volume 2 (LP)
 Quagmires, Volume 3 (CD)

References

External links
  Martin Winfree, "Milan", Issuu.com

1941 births
1971 deaths
Garage rock musicians
American male pop singers
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
American male singer-songwriters
American people of Serbian descent
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Psychedelic rock musicians
20th-century American singer-songwriters
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from New York (state)
20th-century American male singers

Milan the Leather Boy


The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam is a book by Barbara W. Tuchman, an American historian and author. It was published on March 19, 1984, by Knopf in New York.

Summary
The book is about "one of the most compelling paradoxes of history: the pursuit by governments of policies contrary to their own interests". It details four major instances of government folly in human history: the Trojans' decision to move the Greek horse into their city, the failure of the Renaissance popes to address the factors that would lead to the Protestant Reformation in the early sixteenth century, England's policies relating to American colonies under King George III, and the United States' mishandling of the conflict in Vietnam. More than half of the book deals with US intervention in the Vietnam War, while the other three case studies are shorter.

Critical reception

The book was described by Foreign Affairs as "in the Tuchman tradition: readable, entertaining, intelligent. It should lead a wide audience to think usefully about "the persistence of error.""

The New York Review of Books reacted favorably to the book, stating: "Systems and theories therefore should not be imposed on the past. The facts of the past should be allowed to speak for themselves. Why did history have to teach lessons anyway? "Why," she asked with some exasperation, "cannot history be studied and written and read for its own sake, as the record of human behavior…?" History is not a science, it is an art. History needs writers, or artists, who can communicate the past to readers, and that has been Tuchman's calling." Kirkus Reviews wrote in a Feb 15, 1984 review, "An exercise in historical interpretation such as this, tracing a single idea through a set of examples, is structured toward [Tuchman's] weaknesses; and they are only too apparent. Tuchman applies the concept of folly to 'historical mistakes' with certain features in common: the policy taken was contrary to self-interest; it was not that of an individual (attributable to the individual's character), but that of a group; it was not the only policy available; and it was pursued despite forebodings that it was mistaken. The only way to account for such self-destructive policies, in Tuchman's view, is to label them follies; but that, as she seems unaware, puts them beyond rational explanation."

In a May 1984 review in The New Criterion,  Paul Johnson criticized the book as having followed "the conventional, not to say threadbare, lines which the liberal media developed in the 1970s: that American involvement in Vietnam was, ab initio, an error which compounded itself as it increased and was certain to fail all along. [Tuchman] thereby falls into a trap which a historian who seeks to draw lessons from the past should be particularly careful to avoid: to assume that what in the end did happen, had to happen."

In The New York Times, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt wrote, "[A]ny way one approaches The March of Folly, it is unsatisfying, to say the least. Better books have been written about Vietnam, the American Revolution, the Renaissance Popes and the Trojan Horse." He concluded, "Not only has [Tuchman] confined herself to the shallower wellsprings of history, she has committed the further sin of treating them superficially."

The book was also reviewed by History Today''.

References

Comparative historical research
American history books
Vietnam War books
1984 non-fiction books
Alfred A. Knopf books

The March of Folly


The first John Adams was originally built in 1799 as a frigate for the United States Navy, converted to a corvette in 1809, and later converted back to a frigate in 1830. Named for American Founding Father and president John Adams, she fought in the Quasi-War, the First and Second Barbary Wars, the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War.

At the end of her career, she participated in the Union blockade of South Carolina's ports. She then participated in the raid on Combahee Ferry that Harriet Tubman, the former slave and Union operative, organized with Union colonel Montgomery. John Adams led three steam-powered gunboats up the Harbor River to Port Royal. The squadron relied on local black mariners to guide it past mines and fortifications. The squadron freed 750+ slaves and unsettled the Confederacy. Tubman was the first woman in U.S. history to plan and execute an armed expedition.

Origin
John Adams was built for the United States by the people of Charleston, South Carolina, under contract to Paul Pritchard and launched in the latter's shipyard some  from Charleston 5 June 1799.

Quasi-War
Captain George Cross sailed John Adams on or about 1 October for Cayenne, French Guiana, to operate against French privateers based at that port. By the time she arrived off South America, the British had captured Surinam, which made the French base in Guiana unsafe for privateers. Captain Cross therefore decided to sail her on to Guadeloupe to join her squadron.

Early in January 1800, she began operations against the French, taking an unidentified lugger off San Juan, Puerto Rico and recapturing brig Dolphin. She then retook the brigs Hannibal on 22 March and Atlantic the next day, both prizes of the French privateer President Tout. The French privateer schooner Jason surrendered to her 3 April, and in May she retook schooners Dispatch and William. Sometime in the late spring or summer she recaptured the American brig Olive, and on 13 June she took French schooner Decade. These victories punctuated and highlighted the day-to-day duty of patrolling the West Indies. She continued to protect American shipping through the late summer and fall.

John Adams left on 5 December escorting a convoy to the United States. She was placed in ordinary in Charleston in mid-January 1801, and then in late June she sailed to Washington, D.C. where she was laid up.

As the Quasi-War with France drew to a close, President Adams could report to Congress:

The present Navy of the United States, called suddenly into existence by a great national emergency, has raised us in our own esteem; and by the protection afforded to our commerce has effected to the extent of our expectations the objects for which it was created.

First Barbary War
Peace with France freed the Navy for operations against Barbary corsairs who had been preying on American shipping in the Mediterranean. A small squadron under Commodore Richard Dale, sent out in 1801 for operations against Tripoli, was followed in 1802 by a much stronger force under Commodore Richard Valentine Morris. On 22 October John Adams, under the command of Captain John Rodgers, sailed from Hampton Roads to join Commodore Morris. After escorting vessels from Gibraltar to Málaga and Menorca, she finally caught up with Commodore Morris at Malta on 5 January 1803. She then operated with the squadron until 3 May when she received orders to cruise independently off Tripoli. Upon arriving off Tripoli, John Adams, still under the command of Rodgers, boldly attacked the forts and the gunboats anchored under their protection. Several days later she captured 28-gun Tripolitan cruiser Meshuda. After  and  joined her, John Adams engaged a flotilla of enemy gunboats off Tripoli on 22 May sending them scurrying back into the harbor to safety. Five days later—with the added support of , a sister frigate also named for President John Adams—the squadron again bested a group of pirate gunboats.

One of the most important victories of the war came on 21 June when John Adams and Enterprise captured a 22-gun vessel belonging to Tripoli, thus weakening that state sufficiently to allow the squadron to turn its attention to Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, which were threatening U.S. commerce in the Western Mediterranean. Throughout the summer and early fall John Adams operated in that quarter before returning home with New York.

Meanwhile, Commodore Edward Preble, who had led a powerful fleet to the Mediterranean, vigorously pressed the fight. In August and September 1804 he made a series of major attacks on Tripoli. As the second of these blows was being delivered 7 August, John Adams, now under Captain Isaac Chauncey, arrived on the scene deeply laden with stores. Her boats participated in a reconnaissance patrol on the night of 18 August, and 6 days later she slipped in close to the city for an intensive 4-hour bombardment. Two nights later during a similar attack, an enemy shot sank one of John Adamss boats, killing three men and wounding a fourth, as the American Squadron severely punished Tripoli with over 700 well-directed rounds which took effect within the city. After a fifth attack had been successfully completed 3 September, bad weather interrupted operations and John Adams sailed to Syracuse with other ships of the squadron.

Three months later she sailed for New York with Commodore Preble, arriving 26 February 1805. On 6 March 1805 Secretary of the Navy Robert Smith wrote to Captain  Isaac Chauncey regarding recruitment of seamen for the frigate's third voyage to the Mediterranean,he emphasized, the Navy wanted,"active men who can fight."   It is my wish to send to the Mediterranean as many men in the John Adams as she can conveniently carry thither.  I want to send out 500  Men, of which number at least 200 must be Able Seamen. You will begin to recruit as soon as you conveniently can. Enter the men to serve 2 years (although it is probable they will not be kept in the Mediterranean for 2 years) allow Able Seamen $ 12 per month, Ordinary Seamen $ 8, Boys $ 6. Engage healthy, active men who can fight. Allow 2 to 4 months advance on customary security.

After a third Mediterranean cruise from May to November, she was laid up in ordinary. In service she had been considered a poor sailor; between 1807 and 1809 her forecastle and quarterdeck were removed and she was re-rated as (depending on the source) either a corvette or a sloop-of-war.

War of 1812
The outbreak of the War of 1812 found her undergoing repairs at Boston whence she was hurried to New York to have the work completed. There the British blockade and a critical shortage of seamen kept her in a laid-up status until early 1814. She finally sailed under a flag of truce carrying peace commissioners Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell to Europe and arrived Wargo Island, Norway, 14 April. She returned to the United States 5 September bringing dispatches from the American commissioners the Treaty of Ghent that would end the war towards the end of the year.

Second Barbary War
Meanwhile, the Barbary pirates, taking advantage of the American Navy's preoccupation with the British fleet during the War of 1812, had resumed operations against American merchantmen in the Mediterranean. Fortunately the treaty of peace signed on Christmas Eve 1814 freed United States men-of-war for renewed attention to this chronic trouble spot. In the autumn of 1815 John Adams  arrived in the Mediterranean to assist frigates  and  and sloops  and  in maintaining peace and order in the area after strong squadrons under Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge had induced the Barbary princes to honor their treaty commitments. Early in 1816 she returned home with dispatches, and with marble from Naples for refurbishing the Capitol at Washington.

West Indies
Pirates were also active in the West Indies at this time. Taking advantage of the chaos attendant upon the dissolution of Spain's American empire, lawless vessels from many nations preyed on neutral as well as Spanish commerce in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and along the storied Spanish Main. For the next few years John Adams was busy fighting buccaneers. On 22 December 1817 she demanded and received the surrender of Amelia Island, off the east coast of Florida, the base from which corsairs of Commodore Louis-Michel Aury pounced upon merchantmen of all nations.

Venezuela
In the spring of 1819 Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson selected Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry for the mission of establishing friendly relations with the government of newly independent Republic of Venezuela and Provinces United of Rio de La Plata and negotiating with the president Simon Bolivar to obtain restitution for United States schooners Tiger and Liberty that the Venezuelans patriots had illegally taken in the Orinoco river during the revolution. Perry boarded his flagship John Adams at Annapolis and sailed in company with schooner  on 7 June. A month later he reached the mouth of the Orinoco, which he ascended to Angostura in Nonsuch while John Adams sailed on to Trinidad to await his return at Port of Spain. After protracted negotiation, the Vice President of Venezuela Francisco Antonio Zea granted all the demands of the United States on 11 August. However, during the passage down the river, Perry was stricken with yellow fever and died on board the John Adams.

Commodore Charles Morris succeeded Perry in command of the squadron and John Adams accompanied his flagship Constellation on a voyage to the Plata River to continue the negotiations inaugurated by Perry to establish friendly relations with the new Latin American republics and to protect American commerce from South American privateers. After visiting Montevideo and Buenos Aires, both ships returned to the United States, arriving Hampton Roads on 24 April 1820.

1821–1845
In spite of these successes, piracy remained rampant in the West Indies, and John Adams was part of a strong West Indies Squadron created in 1821 to cope with the problem. Nicholas Biddle's ships labored with zeal; but the task, entailing careful searches by small-boat expeditions of innumerable bays, lagoons, and inlets, seemed endless. Yellow fever took a much heavier toll than the enemy necessitating reinforcements which arrived 3 March 1823 when Commodore David Porter's "Mosquito Fleet" anchored off Saint Thomas. Porter, the squadron's new commander, selected John Adams as his flagship. When Porter was recalled, his successor, Commodore Lewis Warrington retained John Adams as his flagship until 1826. From time to time, thereafter, the frigate returned to the West Indies for operations against pirates until 1829 when she was laid up and almost entirely rebuilt at the Navy Yard in Gosport, Virginia.

John Adams joined the Mediterranean Squadron in 1831 as a frigate. One of her first duties was to take her former commander, ex-Commodore Porter, to Constantinople where he became the U.S.'s first chargé d'affaires. The ship was granted the rare privilege of passing through the Dardanelles with guns mounted. Thereafter, she convoyed ships in the Mediterranean and in 1833 visited Liberia.

After extensive repairs in the United States, John Adams sailed from Hampton Roads on 5 May 1838, accompanied by , on a cruise around the world. Particular stress was placed upon showing the flag in the East Indies where the United States enjoyed a prosperous and growing trade. Both ships arrived Rio de Janeiro 10 July but departed separately, John Adams sailing on 25 July. She stopped at Zanzibar en route to Bombay, where she rejoined Columbia before sailing on to Goa and Colombo, Ceylon.

At Colombo the ships learned that natives at Susoh (currently in Southwest Aceh Regency, Aceh, Indonesia) had attacked the American ship Eclipse. The squadron immediately sailed to the scene of the incident and bombarded the forts at Kuala Batee to induce the Rajahs of Sumatra to agree to offer assistance and protection to American vessels. They then landed over 300 marines and sailors to attack the village of Muckie, which they destroyed (Second Sumatran Expedition). Before returning to Rio de Janeiro on 23 April 1840, the squadron called at Singapore, Macau, Honolulu, Valparaíso, and Cape Horn.

Mexican-American and Civil Wars
John Adams finally arrived Boston about the middle of June where she was laid up until 1842. After duty on the Brazil Station, she went into ordinary where she remained until recommissioned at the beginning of the Mexican-U.S. War.

She was anchored off the bar at Santiago 8 May 1846 during the Battle of Palo Alto. She then maintained a blockading station off the east coast of Mexico for the remainder of the war. The prolonged period of time the John Adams spent on station off the Mexican coast in support of American military operations, may account for the increase in flogging as reflected in the surviving disciplinary reports for years, 1846–1847.

John Adams returned to Boston in September 1848 and received extensive repairs before joining the Royal Navy for action against the slave trade around Africa. Rear Admiral Barrington Reynolds was the British Commander-in-Chief, Cape of Good Hope Station at the time. She returned from this difficult duty in July 1853. Thereafter, with the exception of periods at home for repairs, John Adams operated in the Pacific and the Far East until after the outbreak of the Civil War. She sailed for home from Siam 6 July 1861 and reached New York 11 January 1862, bringing a box containing two letters from the King of Siam to President Lincoln, along with a sword and a pair of ivory tusks.

John Adams was sent to Newport, Rhode Island, the wartime location of the Naval Academy, to act as training ship for midshipmen. In the summer of 1863 she joined the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and took station off Morris Island inside Charleston Bar. There she served as flagship of the inner blockade until she sailed into the harbor after the evacuation of Charleston in February 1865.

One of her crew, Coxswain Oliver O'Brien, received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the 1864 capture of a blockade runner. Another member of her crew, Acting Ensign Pierre d'Orléans, was a member of the Orleansist branch of the French royal family.

Fate
Late in the summer of 1865 she sailed to Boston where she was decommissioned in September. She was one of the oldest vessels in the US Navy at the time of her decommissioning.

John Adams was sold 5 October 1867 for $1500 to the British government to use as quarters for the Hong Kong police. She was taken to Hong Kong where her hulk was commissioned in 1868 for use as Water Police Headquarters. In February 1884 the hulk John Adams caught fire and was lost.  later torpedoed and sank the burnt-out hulk.

See also

 List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy
 Bibliography of early United States naval history

References

Further reading
 Coker, P.C. III (1987) Charleston's Maritime Heritage 1670–1865.

External links

Ships built in Charleston, South Carolina
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Corvettes of the United States Navy
Barbary Wars American ships
War of 1812 ships of the United States
Mexican–American War ships of the United States
Ships of the Union Navy
American Civil War patrol vessels of the United States
Quasi-War ships of the United States
1799 ships

USS John Adams (1799)


Pauropods are a type of myriapod. They form the only order in the class Pauropoda. About 500 species in four families are found worldwide, living in soil and leaf mold.

Description
Pauropoda are tiny soil myriapods, 0.5-1.5mm in length, with 8-11 body segments. The body appears to have fewer segments when viewed from above, because the dorsal shields (tergites) are fused in pairs. The true segments can be seen from the ventral side, each segment bearing a single pair of walking legs. A characteristic feature of pauropods is their branched antennae.

Myriapods

Pauropod


Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is the fourth book in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. It was published on 8 July 2000. The original United Kingdom edition has 636 pages, and the US version has 734. It was made into a movie that was released in 2005.

Plot

Plot introduction
Throughout the three previous novels in the Harry Potter series, the main character, Harry Potter, who is James and Lily Potter's only son, has struggled with the difficulties of growing up and the added challenge of being a famous wizard. When Harry was a baby, Lord Voldemort, the most powerful dark wizard in history, had Harry's parents killed and betrayed, but was mysteriously defeated after unsuccessfully trying to kill Harry, though his attempt left a lightning-shaped scar on Harry's forehead. This results in Harry's immediate fame and his being placed in the care of his abusive Muggle (non-magical) aunt and uncle, Vernon and Petunia Dursley, who have a son named Dudley.

On Harry's eleventh birthday, he learns he is a wizard from Rubeus Hagrid and enrols in Hogwarts, a school for witches and wizards. He befriends Ron Weasley, Arthur and Molly Weasley's youngest son and Hermione Granger and confronts Lord Voldemort, who is trying to regain power. In Harry's first year, he has to protect the Philosopher's Stone from Voldemort and one of his faithful followers at Hogwarts. After returning to school after summer break, students at Hogwarts are attacked by the legendary monster of the Chamber of Secrets after the Chamber is opened. Harry ends the attacks by killing a Basilisk and thwarting another attempt by Lord Voldemort to return to full strength. The following year, Harry hears he has been targeted by escaped mass murderer Sirius Black. Despite stringent security measures at Hogwarts, Harry encounters Black at the end of his third year and learns Black was framed and is actually Harry's godfather. He also learns that it was his father's old school friend Peter Pettigrew who betrayed his parents.

Plot summary
The Weasleys invite Harry Potter, James and Lily Potter's only son and Hermione Granger to the Quidditch World Cup, to which they travel using a Portkey, meeting Cedric Diggory, a Hufflepuff sixth-year, on the way. In the match, Ireland triumph over Bulgaria, despite the skill of Bulgaria's star seeker, Viktor Krum. After the match, men wearing the masks of Death Eaters, followers of Voldemort, attack the camp site, causing terror and abusing the Muggle campsite owners. The Dark Mark is fired into the sky, causing mass panic.

At Hogwarts, Professor Dumbledore announces that Alastor "Mad-Eye" Moody will be the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher for the year. Dumbledore also announces that Hogwarts will host a revival of the Triwizard Tournament, in which a champion of Hogwarts will compete against champions from two other European wizarding schools: Beauxbatons Academy, and Durmstrang Institute. The champions are chosen by the Goblet of Fire from names dropped into it. Because Harry is under 17 (the age of majority in the wizarding world), he is disallowed from entering.

At Halloween, the Goblet of Fire picks Fleur Delacour from Beauxbatons Academy, Viktor Krum, the Bulgarian seeker that played at the Quidditch World Cup, from Durmstrang Institute, and Cedric Diggory, Amos Diggory's only son from Hogwarts to compete in the tournament. Unexpectedly, however, it also chooses Harry as a fourth champion. Harry's being chosen magically binds him to compete, forcing him to be an unwilling participant in the Tournament. Very few people believe Harry's protests that he did not put his own name in.

Despite chamions not being allowed to know, Hagrid covertly reveals to Harry that the first task is to get past a dragon. Harry struggles to think of a way past a dragon, until Moody suggests flying. Hermione helps him to perfect a Summoning Charm, which he uses to summon his Firebolt broomstick and fly past the dragon to retrieve a golden egg, receiving high marks from the judges. Harry's egg is supposed to contain a clue to the next task, but when opened it merely shrieks loudly. Later, Cedric tells Harry to take the egg into the bath in the prefects' bathroom to work out the clue.

The trio secretly meet Sirius Black at Hogsmeade, who tells them that Barty Crouch was fanatical about catching dark wizards, often stooping to the same level to punish them. This culminated in Crouch sending his own son to Azkaban. His son later died there. Sirius suspects that someone is attempting to attack Harry through the Tournament and make it look like an accident. He suspects Karkaroff, who is a former Death Eater who walked free.

Finally acting on Cedric's tip, Harry takes the egg to the prefects' bathroom and listens to the it underwater. There, the shrieks become the words of a song, which tells Harry that the task is to recover something dear to him from Merpeople at the bottom of the lake in the grounds.

Harry, Ron, and Hermione are unable to find a way to survive underwater for the second task. On the morning of the task, Dobby gives him some Gillyweed that he heard Moody and Professor Sprout talking about. The Gillyweed gives Harry flippers and gills and allows him to find Ron, the thing that is dear to him, at the bottom of the lake.

Harry prepares for the final task, a hedge maze filled with dangerous creatures and obstacles, the goal being to reach the Triwizard Cup at the centre. Helping each other, Harry and Cedric reach the Cup. They agree to touch it at the same time and become joint winners.

However, on touching it they discover that it is a Portkey that transports them to a graveyard. There, Wormtail appears, kills Cedric using Voldemort's wand, and ties up Harry. Wormtail uses Harry's blood, Tom Riddle Sr.'s bone, and his own hand to restore Lord Voldemort to a body. Harry escapes with Cedric's body to the Cup, which takes him back to Hogwarts.

Under the panic caused by his arrival, Moody takes a traumatised Harry to his office. He reveals himself to have been working with Voldemort the whole time as a 'faithful servant'. He explains that he put Harry's name into the Goblet of Fire and has been guiding him through the tournament to ensure he would touch the Cup first. As Moody prepares to kill Harry, Professors Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape intervene and stun Moody. Slowly, Moody changes appearance to become Barty Crouch Jr., the supposedly long-dead son of Barty Crouch Sr., who was using Polyjuice Potion to impersonate Moody.

Dumbledore announces Lord Voldemort's return to the school. However, many people, including Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, refuse to believe it. Dumbledore puts his own anti-Voldemort plans into action.

Not wanting his tournament winnings, Harry gives all one thousand Galleons to Ron's older twin brothers, Fred and George to start their joke shop, and returns home with the Dursleys.

2000 books
Harry Potter books

Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire


The Rio Negro is a river which flows through the Amazon rainforest in north-western Brazil, in the state of Amazonas.

It is the largest blackwater river in the world. It is called Negro (Spanish and Portuguese for "black") because its waters are colored by particles of humus, which make them look much like tea.

The Rio Negro is the largest tributary of the Amazon on the left-hand side (as it goes towards the sea). It starts in Colombia and ends in the Amazon basin.

Rio Negro has a very high species richness. About 700 fish species have been documented in the river basin, and it is estimated that the total is 800–900 fish species, including almost 100 endemics and several undescribed species. Among these are many that are important in the aquarium trade, including the cardinal tetra.

References

Rivers of Brazil
Rivers of Venezuela
Rivers of Colombia

Rio Negro (Amazon)


The Stoney Creek Falls is a cascade waterfall on the Stoney Creek located where the river descends from the Atherton Tablelands to the Cairns coastal plain, in Queensland, Australia.

Location and features
Protected within the Barron Gorge National Park, the falls are formed where Stoney Creek starts to descend in steps from the shoulders of the gorge. The falls are best known for the curved lattice railway bridge that passes in front of them. This gives passengers aboard the Kuranda Scenic Railway and The Savannahlander an excellent view of the falls as their train crosses the creek.

See also

 List of waterfalls of Queensland

References

External links

Waterfalls of Far North Queensland
Cascade waterfalls

Stoney Creek Falls


Immunology is the study of the immune system. The immune system is the parts of the body which work against infection and parasitism by other living things. Immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system.

An immune system is present in all plants and animals. We know this because biologists have found genes coding for toll-like receptors in many different metazoans. These toll-like receptors can recognise bacteria as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. The type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. This is because it is entirely inherited in our genome, and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed.

Vertebrates, and only vertebrates, have a second type of immunity. This is called adaptive immunity, because it 'remembers' previous infections. Then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. This immunological memory "confers a tremendous survival advantage" and with it vertebrates "can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment".

Types of immunity in vertebrates

Innate immune response

The innate immune system is usually means all of the cells and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular pathogen before they can work.

Innate immunity starts with the skin, which is an excellent barrier to infection.

Adaptive immune response

The adaptive immune system includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. It explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections.  This immunological memory is due to the biology of T-cells and B-cells.

Other aspects of immunity
Vaccines boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. The system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. If the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection.

The distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to vaccination and medicine in general.  The intersection of this with the spread of disease (as studied in epidemiology) is part of the field of public health.

Errors and weaknesses
Errors of the immune system may cause damage. In autoimmune diseases, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. Some kinds of arthritis are caused this way.

Sometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. That is how viruses work. Once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. Infections like HIV get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. Artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an HIV-challenged body, and prevent the onset of AIDS.  This is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system.  This research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the human body.

History of immunology

Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides (460–395 BC) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.

In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity led to Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) developing vaccination and the germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs Robert Koch (1843–1910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the yellow fever virus was discovered by Walter Reed (1851–1902).

Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, Ilya Mechnikov (1845–1916).

The simplest form of immunity is the DNA restriction system in bacteria that prevents infection by bacteriophages.

References

Related pages
 Lymphatic system
 White blood cell

Immunology


Naomi Hirahara (, born 1962) is an American writer and journalist. She edited the largest Japanese-American daily newspaper, The Rafu Shimpo for several years. She is currently a writer of both fiction and non-fiction works and the Edgar Award-winning Mas Arai mystery series.

Biography
Naomi Hirahara was born in 1962 in Pasadena, California to Japanese parents, both of whom were survivors of the Hiroshima bombing.
She began writing when she was in elementary school in Altadena, California. She received her bachelor's degree from Stanford University in international relations with a focus on Africa and spent a summer during her studies volunteering with the YWCA in Ghana, West Africa. After her 1983 graduation, she furthered her education at the Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies in Tokyo.

After a brief job as an editorial assistant, Hirahara began working at the Rafu Shimpo newspaper in 1984 as writer about the city of Los Angeles. Three years later, she began working at a boutique public relations firm to allow more time for creative writing and taking classes at the UCLA extension. After three years, she was asked to come back as an editor at the Rafu Shimpo and began writing nonfiction books in the 1990s. In 1996, Hirahara quit her job, took a fellowship for creative writing with the Milton Center at Newman University in Wichita, Kansas and committed to working full-time as a creative writer. In 2001, she published a non-fiction work, Green Makers: Japanese American Gardeners in Southern California and later that year published An American Son: The Story of George Aratani, Founder of Mikasa and Kenwood. In 2002, Distinguished Asian American Business Leaders was released.

She sold her first fiction book, Summer of the Big Bachi in 2003, which received positive reviews in the Chicago Tribune, and later that same year was named by them as one of the "10 best mysteries and thrillers of 2004".  It was also selected by Publishers Weekly as a "Best Books of 2004". The book turned out to be the first of a series about an ageing Japanese-American gardener, Mas Arai, a survivor of the atomic bomb, but the character was American-born. Though he has a degree, prejudice keeps him from other work, and he becomes a gardener, mirroring Hirahara's father's experience. Mas Arai became the featured character in Gasa Gasa Girl, Snakeskin Shamishen, Blood Hina and Strawberry Yellow.  (Strawberry Yellow takes place in Watsonville, Ca and at the Redman Hirahara Farmstead.) In 2007, the third book in her series, Snakeskin Shamishen won the Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America. The following year, the series began being released in Japan.

In 2014, Hirahara began a new series, though Mas Arai's story has at least two more chapters. The new series features a young bicycle policewoman, Ellie Rush, who is the central character in Hirahara's seventh novel, Murder on Bamboo Lane. While the Arai series focuses on California centered around the World War II generation, the Rush series is contemporary and expands on Hirahara's desire to speak from a woman's point of view. Her first book in which the main character was a woman was a juvenile fiction work, 1001 Cranes, published in 2008. Her most recent book in the Ellie Rush series, Grave on Grand Avenue (2015) has received positive reviews, and has been featured as a "Best Book" by Publishers Weekly.

Selected works

Mas Arai series

Ellie Rush series

Leilani Santiago series

A Japantown Mystery series

Other fiction

South Central noir, Akashic Books 2022.

Non-fiction

Hirahara Naomi and Illi Ferandez. We Are Here : 30 Inspiring Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Who Have Shaped the United States. First ed. Running Press Kids 2022.

References

External links
 LARB Radio Hour featuring Naomi Hirahara, Critical Theory, and Literary Hub Released: May 28 2015

1962 births
Living people
American writers of Japanese descent
Stanford University alumni
20th-century American women journalists
American women journalists of Asian descent
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
American women novelists
American novelists of Asian descent
21st-century American novelists
American mystery writers
Women mystery writers
Writers from Pasadena, California
American crime fiction writers
Women crime fiction writers
Journalists from California
Edgar Award winners
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American women writers of Asian descent
20th-century American journalists

Naomi Hirahara