Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, health care, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual well-being during all stages of their life.

The term can also be further defined more broadly within the framework of the World Health Organization's (WHO) definition of health―as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity"― to denote sexual wellbeing, encompassing the ability of an individual to have responsible, satisfying and safe sex and the freedom to decide if, when and how often to do so. UN agencies in particular define sexual and reproductive health as including both physical and psychological well-being vis-à-vis sexuality. A further interpretation includes access to sex education, access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of birth control, as well as access to appropriate health care services, as the ability of women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth could provide couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant.

Individuals face inequalities in reproductive health services. Inequalities vary based on socioeconomic status, education level, age, ethnicity, religion, and resources available in their environment. Low income individuals may lack access to appropriate health services and/or knowledge of how to maintain reproductive health. Additionally, many approaches involving women, families, and local communities as active stakeholders in interventions and strategies to improve reproductive health.

Overview
The WHO assessed in 2008 that "Reproductive and sexual ill-health accounts for 20% of the global burden of ill-health for women, and 14% for men." Reproductive health is a part of sexual and reproductive health and rights. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), unmet needs for sexual and reproductive health deprive women of the right to make "crucial choices about their own bodies and futures", affecting family welfare. Women bear and usually nurture children, so their reproductive health is inseparable from gender equality. Denial of such rights also worsens poverty.

Adolescent health

Adolescent health creates a major global burden and has a great deal of additional and diverse complications compared to adult reproductive health such as early pregnancy and parenting issues, difficulties accessing contraception and safe abortions, lack of healthcare access, and high rates of HIV, sexually transmitted infections and mental health issues. Each of those can be affected by outside political, economic and socio-cultural influences. For most adolescent females, they have yet to complete their body growth trajectories, therefore adding a pregnancy exposes them to a predisposition to complications. These complications range from anemia, malaria, HIV and other STIs, postpartum bleeding and other postpartum complications, mental health disorders such as depression and suicidal thoughts or attempts. In 2016, adolescent birth rates between the ages of 15-19 was 45 per 1000. In 2014, 1 in 3 experienced sexual violence, and there more than 1.2 million deaths. The top three leading causes of death in females between the ages of 15-19 are maternal conditions 10.1%, self-harm 9.6%, and road conditions 6.1%.

The causes of teenage pregnancy are vast and diverse. In developing countries, young women are pressured to marry for different reasons. One reason is to bear children to help with work, another on a dowry system to increase the families income, another is due to prearranged marriages. These reasons tie back to the financial needs of girls' families, cultural norms, religious beliefs, and external conflicts.

Adolescent pregnancy, especially in developing countries, carries increased health risks, and contributes to maintaining the cycle of poverty. The availability and type of sex education for teenagers varies in different parts of the world. Teens that are sel-identified as non-heterosexual may develop additional problems if they live in places where homosexual activity is socially disapproved or even illegal; in extreme cases, there can be depression, social isolation, and even suicide among LGBT youth.

Maternal health

95% of maternal deaths occur in developing countries, and in 25 years, the maternal mortality globally dropped to 44%. Statistically, a woman's chance of survival during childbirth is closely tied to her social-economic status, access to healthcare, where she lives geographically, and cultural norms. To compare, a woman dies of complications from childbirth every minute in developing countries versus a total of 1% of total maternal mortality deaths in developed countries. Women in developing countries have little access to family planning services, different cultural practices, lack of information, birthing attendants, prenatal care, birth control, postnatal care, lack of access to health care, and are typically in poverty. In 2015, those in low-income countries had access to antenatal care visits averaged 40% and were preventable. All these reasons led to an increase in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR).

One of the international Sustainable Development Goals developed by United Nations is to improve maternal health by a targeted 70 deaths per 100,000 live births by 2030. Most models of maternal health encompass family planning, preconception, prenatal, and postnatal care. All care after childbirth recovery is typically excluded, which includes pre-menopause and aging into old age.  During childbirth, women typically die from severe bleeding, infections, high blood pressure during pregnancy, delivery complications, or an unsafe abortion. Other reasons can be regional such as complications related to diseases such as malaria and AIDS during pregnancy.  The younger the woman is when she gives birth, the more at risk she and her baby are for complications and possible mortality.

There is a significant relationship between the quality of maternal services made available and the greater financial standings of a country. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia exemplify this as these regions are significantly deprived of medical staff and affordable health
opportunities. Most countries provide for their health services through a combination of funding from government tax revenue and local households. Poorer nations or regions with extremely concentrated wealth can leave citizens on the margins uncared for or overlooked.
However, the lack of proper leadership can result in a nation's public sectors being mishandled or poorly performing despite said nation's resources and standing. In addition, poorer nations funding their medical services through taxes places a greater financial burden on the public and effectively the mothers themselves.
Responsibility and accountability on the part of mental health sectors are strongly emphasized as to what will remedy the poor quality of maternal health globally. The impact of different maternal health interventions across the globe stagger variously and are vastly uneven. This is the result of a lack of political and financial commitment to the issue as most safe motherhood programs internationally have to compete for significant funding. Some resolve that if global survival initiatives were promoted and properly funded it would prove to be mutually beneficial for the international community. Investing in maternal health would ultimately advance several issues such as gender inequality, poverty, and general global health standards. As it currently stands, pregnant women are subjugated to high financial costs throughout the duration of their term internationally which is highly taxing and strenuous.

In addition, if either parent has a genetic disease, there is risk of these being passed on to the children. Birth control or technical solutions (assisted reproductive technology) can be an option then.

LGBT+ sexual and reproductive health
The sexual and reproductive health of LGBT+ people face challenges through issues like the ongoing HIV pandemic, binary organization of "men" and "women"'s reproductive health, alongside stigma and repression that limit LGBT+ people from accessing the healthcare they need. Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental, and social well-being in relation to sexuality. It is important to not only consider the sexual/physical health of an individual but also the cultural and contextual factors that influence an individual's well-being. The lack of competent providers and stigma attached to homosexuality have a great impact on the sexual health of the LGBTQ+ population. The LGBTQ+ population faces a number of obstacles in terms of sexual and reproductive health. The different stigmas and biases that come with these barriers make receiving proper care difficult. Some of these stigmas that follow those in the LGBTQ+ population in terms of their sexual and reproductive health are associating certain diseases, and other illnesses with this community. This leaves those in the LGBTQ+ population in a position that makes them vulnerable, as well as victims of a number of health disparities. The overall health of those in the LGBTQ+ population is determinant on sexual and reproductive health as these all make up the health of these individuals. Those in the LGBTQ+ community face also face discrimination from providers and insurance companies, on top of all of the other barriers and limits on access to care that they endure. All of these factors have led to those in the LGBTQ+ population having worse health outcomes.

Contraception
Access to reproductive health services is very poor in many countries. Women are often unable to access maternal health services due to a lack of knowledge about the existence of such services or lack of freedom of movement. Some women are subjected to forced pregnancy and banned from leaving the home. In many countries, women are not allowed to leave home without a male relative or husband, and therefore their ability to access medical services is limited. Therefore, increasing women's autonomy is needed in order to improve reproductive health, however, doing so may require a cultural shift. According to the WHO, "All women need access to antenatal care in pregnancy, skilled care during childbirth, and care and support in the weeks after childbirth".

The fact that the law allows certain reproductive health services, does not necessarily ensure that such services are actually in use by the people. The availability of contraception, sterilization, and abortion is dependent on laws, as well as social, cultural, and religious norms. Some countries have liberal laws regarding these issues, but in practice, it is very difficult to access such services due to doctors, pharmacists, and other social and medical workers being conscientious objectors.

In developing regions of the world, there are about 214 million women who want to avoid pregnancy but are unable to use safe and effective family planning methods. When taken correctly, the combined oral contraceptive pill is over 99% effective at preventing pregnancy. However, it does not protect from sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Some methods, such as using condoms, achieve both protection from STIs and unwanted pregnancies. There are also natural family planning methods, which may be preferred by religious people, but some very conservative religious groups, such as the Quiverfull movement, oppose these methods too because they advocate the maximization of procreation. One of the oldest ways to reduce unwanted pregnancy is coitus interruptus - still widely used in the developing world.

There are many types of contraceptives. One type of contraceptive includes barrier methods. One barrier method includes condoms for males and females. Both types stop sperm from entering the woman's uterus, thereby preventing pregnancy from occurring. Another type of contraception is the birth control pill, which stops ovulation from occurring by combining the chemicals progestin and estrogen. Many women use this method of contraception, however, they discontinue using it equally as much as they use it. One reason for this is because of the side effects that may occur from using the pill, and because some health care providers do not take women's concerns about negative side effects seriously. The use of the birth control pill is common in western countries, and two forms of combined oral contraceptives are on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.

There are many objections to the use of birth control, both historically and in the present day. One argument against birth control usage states that there is no need for birth control, to begin with. This argument was levied in 1968 when Richard Nixon was elected president, and the argument stated that since birth rates were at their lowest point since World War II ended, birth control was not necessary. Demographic planning arguments were also the basis of the population policy of Nicolae Ceaușescu in communist Romania, who adopted a very aggressive natalist policy which included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people. Such policies consider that coercion is an acceptable means of reaching demographic targets. Religious objections are based on the view that premarital sex should not happen, while married couples should have as many children as possible. As such, the Catholic Church encourages premarital abstinence from sex. This argument was written out in Humanae Vitae, a papal encyclical released in 1968. The Catholic Church bases its argument against birth control pills on the basis that birth control pills undermine the natural law of God. The Catholic Church also argues against birth control on the basis of family size, with Cardinal Mercier of Belgium arguing,  "...the duties of conscience are above worldly considerations, and besides, it is the large families who are the best" (Reiterman, 216). Another argument states that women should use natural methods of contraception in place of artificial ones, such as having sexual intercourse when one is infertile.

Support for contraception is based on views such as reproductive rights, women's rights, and the necessity to prevent child abandonment and child poverty. The World Health Organization states that "By preventing unintended pregnancy, family planning /contraception prevents deaths of mothers and children".

Sexually transmitted infection

A sexually transmitted infection (STI) --previously known as a sexually transmitted disease (STD) or venereal disease (VD)-- is an infection that has a significant likelihood of transmission between humans by means of sexual activity. The CDC analyses the eight most common STIs: chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepatitis B virus (HBV), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human papillomavirus (HPV), syphilis, and trichomoniasis.

There are more than 600 million cases of STIs worldwide and more than 20 million new cases within the United States. Numbers of such high magnitude weigh a heavy burden on the local and global economy. A study conducted at Oxford University in 2015 concluded that despite giving participants early antiviral medications (ART), they still cost an estimated $256 billion over 2 decades. HIV testing done at modest rates could reduce HIV infections by 21%, HIV retention by 54%, and HIV mortality rates by 64%, with a cost-effectiveness ratio of $45,300 per quality-adjusted life year. However, the study concluded that the United States has led to an excess in infections, treatment costs, and deaths, even when interventions do not improve overall survival rates.

There is a profound reduction in STI rates once those who are sexually active are educated about transmissions, condom promotion, interventions targeted at key and vulnerable populations through comprehensive sex education courses or programs. South Africa's policy addresses the needs of women at risk for HIV and who are HIV positive as well as their partners and children. The policy also promotes screening activities related to sexual health such as HIV counseling and testing as well as testing for other STIs, tuberculosis, cervical cancer, and breast cancer.

The CDC stated that the rate of sexually transmitted infections is higher among minorities compared to white people. These minorities are currently being affected by different factors including health literacy, socioeconomic status, access to health services, and fear of discrimination by health providers. The rates of infection are five to eight times higher in the Black community compared to non-Hispanic White people.

Young African American women are at a higher risk for STIs, including HIV. A recent study published outside of Atlanta, Georgia collected data (demographic, psychological, and behavioral measures) with a vaginal swab to confirm the presence of STIs. They found a profound difference that those women who had graduated from college were far less likely to have STIs, potentially be benefiting from a reduction in vulnerability to acquiring STIs/HIV as they gain in education status and potentially move up in demographic areas and/or status.

Abortion
Globally, an estimated 25 million unsafe abortions occur each year. The vast majority of such unsafe abortions occur in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

The abortion debate is the ongoing controversy surrounding the moral, legal, and religious status of induced abortion. The sides involved in the debate are the self-described "pro-choice" and "pro-life" movements. "Pro-choice" emphasizes the right of women to decide whether to terminate a pregnancy. "Pro-life" emphasizes the right of the embryo or fetus to gestate to term and be born. Both terms are considered loaded in mainstream media, where terms such as "abortion rights" or "anti-abortion" are generally preferred. Each movement has, with varying results, sought to influence public opinion and to attain legal support for its position, with small numbers of radical activists using violence, such as murder and arson.

Articles from the World Health Organization call legal abortion a fundamental right of women regardless of where they live, and argue that unsafe abortion is a silent pandemic. In 2005, it was estimated that 19-20 million abortions had complications, some complications are permanent, while another estimated 68,000 women died from unsafe abortions.  Having access to safe abortion can have positive impacts on women's health and life, and vice versa. "Legislation of abortion on request is necessary but an insufficient step towards improving women's health. In some countries where it abortion is legal and has been for decades, there has been no improvement in access to adequate services making abortion unsafe due to lack of healthcare services. It is hard to get an abortion due to legal and policy barriers, social and cultural barriers (gender discrimination, poverty, religious restrictions, lack of support), health system barriers (lack of facilities or trained personnel). However, safe abortions with trained personnel, good social support, and access to facilities, can improve maternal health and increase reproductive health later in life.

The Maputo Protocol, which was adopted by the African Union in the form of a protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, states at Article 14 (Health and Reproductive Rights) that: "(2). States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to: [...] c) protect the reproductive rights of women by authorising medical abortion in cases of sexual assault, rape, incest, and where the continued pregnancy endangers the mental and physical health of the mother or the life of the mother or the foetus." The Maputo Protocol is the first international treaty to recognize abortion, under certain conditions, as a woman's human right.

The General comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life, adopted by the Human Rights Committee in 2018, defines, for the first time ever, a human right to abortion - in certain circumstances (however these UN general comments are considered soft law, and, as such, not legally binding).

When negotiating the Cairo Programme of Action at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), the issue was so contentious that delegates eventually decided to omit any recommendation to legalize abortion, instead advising governments to provide proper post-abortion care and to invest in programs that will decrease the number of unwanted pregnancies.

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women considers the criminalization of abortion a "violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights" and a form of "gender based violence"; paragraph 18 of its General recommendation No. 35 on gender based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19 states that: "Violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights, such as forced sterilizations, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, criminalisation of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and post abortion care, forced continuation of pregnancy, abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, are forms of gender based violence that, depending on the circumstances, may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment." The same General Recommendation also urges countries at paragraph 31 to [...] In particular, repeal:
a) Provisions that allow, tolerate or condone forms of gender based violence against women, including [...] legislation that criminalises abortion".

In 2008, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, a group comprising members from 47 European countries, has adopted a resolution calling for the decriminalization of abortion within reasonable gestational limits and guaranteed access to safe abortion procedures. The nonbinding resolution was passed on April 16 by a vote of 102 to 69.

Accesses to abortion is not only a question of legality but also an issue of overcoming de facto barriers, such as conscientious objections from medical staff, high prices, lack of knowledge about the law, lack of access to medical care (especially in rural areas). The de facto inability of women to access abortion even in countries where it is legal is highly controversial because it results in a situation where women have rights only on paper, not in practice; the UN in its 2017 resolution on Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: domestic violence urged states to guarantee access to "safe abortion where such services are permitted by national law".

There are two primary arguments for maintaining legalized abortion today in the U.S. The first is recognizing the full citizenship of women. The Roe v. Wade court case on abortion compared the citizenship of women and fetuses  Because the Constitution defines born people as citizens, Justice Harry Blackmun ruled that fetuses were not citizens. The citizenship of women is emphasized because fetuses are not individual entities that can exist without the woman. Another reason why the full citizenship of women is defined by advocates for abortion is that it recognizes the right of women to manage their own bodies. Fertility affects women's bodies. The argument for abortion prevents others from making decisions that alter a woman's body. Pro-choice advocates also attempt to confirm that state-mandated education or other outside biases do not attempt to influence these decisions. Feminists argue that women throughout history have had to justify their citizenship politically and socially. The right to manage one's own body is a matter of health, safety, and respect. The citizenship of women and the right to manage their own bodies is a societal confirmation that feminists highlight as a pro-choice justification.

The second primary argument to uphold legalized abortion and creating better access to it is the necessity of abortion and the health and safety of pregnant women. There are two events that largely changed the course of public opinion about abortion in the U.S. The first is Sherry Finkbine, who was denied access to an abortion by the board of obstetrician-gynecologists at her local hospital. Although she was privileged enough to afford the trip, Finkbine was forced to travel to Sweden for an abortion to avoid caring for a damaged fetus in addition to four children. The other event that changed public opinion was the outbreak of rubella in the 1950s and 60s. Because rubella disrupted the growth of fetuses and caused deformities during pregnancy, the California Therapeutic Abortion Act was signed in 1967, permitting doctors to legally abort pregnancies that pose a risk to a pregnant woman's physical or mental health. These two events are commonly used to show how the health and safety of pregnant women are contingent upon abortions as well as the ability to give birth to and adequately take care of a child. Another argument in favor of legalized abortion to service necessity are the reasons why an abortion might be necessary. Nearly half of all pregnancies in the United States are unintended, and over half of all unintended pregnancies in the United States are met with abortion. Unintended pregnancy can lead to serious harm to women and children for reasons such as not being able to afford to raise a baby, inaccessibility to time off of work, difficulties facing single motherhood, difficult socio-economic conditions for women. Unintended pregnancies also have a greater potential for putting women of color at risk due to systematically produced environmental hazards from proximity to pollution, access to livable income, and affordable healthy food. These factors as threats to the health and safety of pregnant women run parallel to data that shows the number of abortions in the United States did not decline while laws restricting legal access to abortion were implemented.

At a global level, the region with the strictest abortion laws is considered to be Latin America (see Reproductive rights in Latin America), a region strongly influenced by the Catholic Church in Latin America.

Female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital circumcision or cutting, is the traditional, non-medical practice of altering or injuring the female reproductive organs, often by removing all or parts of the external genitalia. It is mostly practiced in 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, and affects over 200 million women and girls worldwide. More severe forms of FGM are highly concentrated in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan.

The WHO categorizes FGM into four types:

 Type I (Clitoridectomy) is the removal of all or part of the clitoris. This may or may not include removing the prepuce along with the clitoral glans.
 Type II (Excision) is the removal of the clitoris along with all or part of the labia minora. This may or may not include removing all or part of the labia majora.
 Type III (Infibulation) is the act of removing the inner or outer labia and sealing the wound, leaving only a narrow opening.
 Type IV refers to "all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes (piercing, scraping, cauterizing of the genital area)."

FGM often takes the form of a traditional celebration conducted by an elder or community leader. The age that women undergo the procedure varies depending on the culture, although it is most commonly performed on prepubescent girls. Certain cultures value FGM as a coming of age ritual for girls and use it to preserve a woman's virginity and faithfulness to the husband after marriage. It is also closely connected with some traditional ideals of female beauty and hygiene. FGM may or may not have religious connotations depending on the circumstances.

There are no health benefits of FGM, as it interferes with the natural functions of a woman's and girls' bodies, such as causing severe pain, shock, hemorrhage, tetanus or sepsis (bacterial infection), urine retention, open sores in the genital region and injury to nearby genital tissue, recurrent bladder and urinary tract infections, cysts, increased risk of infertility, childbirth complications and newborn deaths. Sexual problems are 1.5 more likely to occur in women who have undergone FGM, they may experience painful intercourse, have less sexual satisfaction, and be two times more likely to report a lack of sexual desire. In addition, the maternal and fetal death rate is significantly higher due to childbirth complications.

FGM can have severe negative psychological effects on women, both during and after the procedure. These can include long-term symptoms of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and low self-esteem. Some women report that the procedure was carried out without their consent and knowledge, and describe feelings of fear and helplessness while it was taking place. A 2018 study found that larger quantities of the hormone cortisol were secreted in women who had undergone FGM, especially those who had experienced more severe forms of the procedure and at an early age. This marks the body's chemical response to trauma and stress and can indicate a greater risk for developing symptoms of PTSD and other trauma disorders, although there are limited studies showing a direct correlation.

The Istanbul Convention prohibits FGM (Article 38). Legislation has been introduced in certain countries to prevent FGM. A 2016 survey of 30 countries showed 24 had policies to manage and prevent FGM, although the process to provide funding, education, and resources were often inconsistent and lacking. Some countries have seen a slight decline in FGM rates, while others show little to no change.

Child and forced marriage

The practice of forcing young girls into early marriage, common in many parts of the world, is threatening their reproductive health. According to the World Health Organization:

Niger has the highest prevalence of child marriage under 18 in the world, while Bangladesh has the highest rate of marriage of girls under age 15. Practices such as bride price and dowry can contribute to child and forced marriages.

International Conference on Population and Development, 1994
The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo, Egypt, from 5 to 13 September 1994. Delegations from 179 States took part in negotiations to finalize a Programme of Action on population and development for the next 20 years. Some 20,000 delegates from various governments, UN agencies, NGOs, and the media gathered for a discussion of a variety of population issues, including immigration, infant mortality, birth control, family planning, and the education of women.

In the ICPD Program of Action, 'reproductive health' is defined as:

This definition of the term is also echoed in the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, or the so-called Beijing Declaration of 1995. However, the ICPD Program of Action, even though it received the support of a large majority of UN Member States, does not enjoy the status of an international legal instrument; it is therefore not legally binding.

The Program of Action endorses a new strategy which emphasizes the numerous linkages between population and development and focuses on meeting the needs of individual women and men rather than on achieving demographic targets. The ICPD achieved consensus on four qualitative and quantitative goals for the international community, the final two of which have particular relevance for reproductive health:

 Reduction of maternal mortality: A reduction of maternal mortality rates and a narrowing of disparities in maternal mortality within countries and between geographical regions, socio-economic and ethnic groups.
 Access to reproductive and sexual health services including family planning: Family planning counseling, pre-natal care, safe delivery and post-natal care, prevention and appropriate treatment of infertility, prevention of abortion and the management of the consequences of abortion, treatment of reproductive tract infections, sexually transmitted diseases and other reproductive health conditions; and education, counseling, as appropriate, on human sexuality, reproductive health, and responsible parenthood. Services regarding HIV/AIDS, breast cancer, infertility, delivery, hormone therapy, sex reassignment therapy, and abortion should be made available. Active discouragement of female genital mutilation (FGM).

The keys to this new approach are empowering women, providing them with more choices through expanded access to education and health services, and promoting skill development and employment. The programme advocates making family planning universally available by 2015 or sooner, as part of a broadened approach to reproductive health and rights, provides estimates of the levels of national resources and international assistance that will be required, and calls on governments to make these resources available.

Sustainable Development Goals
Half of the development goals put on by the United Nations started in 2000 to 2015 with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Reproductive health was Goal 5 out of 8. To monitor the progress, the UN agreed to four indicators:

Contraceptive prevalence rates
Adolescent birth rate
Antenatal care coverage
Unmet need for family planning

Progress was slow, and according to the WHO in 2005, about 55% of women did not have sufficient antenatal care and 24% had no access to family planning services. The MDGs expired in 2015 and were replaced with a more comprehensive set of goals to cover a span of 2016–2030 with a total of 17 goals, called the Sustainable Development Goals. All 17 goals are comprehensive in nature and build off one another, but goal 3 is "To ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages". Specific targets are to reduce global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births, end preventable deaths of newborns and children, reduce the number by 50% of accidental deaths globally, strengthen the treatment and prevention programs of substance abuse and alcohol. Goal 4 emphasizes the fact that no one should be left out in providing quality education. Target 4 specifically mentions the inclusion of persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations. In addition, one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goal 5 is to ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health.

By region

North America
The CDC estimated that one in five people in the US had a sexually transmitted infection (STI) totalling near about 68 Million infections in 2018. 26 Million new STI in 2018. Almost half of new STI were among youth aged 15 to 24 in the US. New STI's total $ 16 Billion in direct medical costs.

Engaging in oral sex can carry the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Africa

HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS in Africa is a major public health problem. The population of Sub-Saharan Africa is the worst affected region with the disease especially affecting the young female population. According to the National Library of Medicine, "Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) is occupied by 12% of the global population, but disproportionately has more than 90% of children younger than 15 years of age and 68% of adults that are living with HIV2." In Nigeria in specific, "There is early sexual maturity and considerable sexual activity between 9 and 15 years of age." HIV is also transmissible through breast milk, which proves that women infected with HIV/AIDS have to deal with more health consequences. South of the Sahara, the AIDS epidemic is the leading cause of death.

The reasons for the high spread of HIV/AIDS can be broken down into 7 main subsections: poverty, inadequate medical care, lack of prevention and education, taboo and stigma, sexual behavior, prostitution, and sexual violence against women. With a high population of individuals living in extreme poverty, condoms, HIV tests, and other forms of screening are not prioritized, leaving many individuals lacking the necessities to protect themselves from the disease. According to the International Finance Corporation, "Health care in Sub-Saharan Africa remains the worst in the world, with few countries able to spend the $34 to $40 a year per person that the World Health Organization considers the minimum for basic health care." Notably, though widespread poverty, "an astonishing 50 percent of the region's health expenditure is financed by out-of-pocket payments from individuals." This represents the lack of both affordability and accessibility surrounding the health care system in Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the United Nation, Sub-Saharan Africa struggles with the highest rate of education exclusion in the world; 60% of youth ages 15 to 17 are not in school. With this lack of education, information regarding HIV/AIDS and prevention practices are not transmitted to a number of individuals, leading to more citizens being unaware of the severity of the disease. Stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS further contributes to the high infection rate. In African villages, an individual's life is closely intertwined with their friends, families, and neighbors around them. Individuals who have HIV/AIDS are motivated to keep it a secret in fear of isolation and alienation. The extremity of this stigma is conveyed by some of the dialogue, people living with HIV are often ridiculed as "a walking corpse", referred to as "an HIV" and even called in Tanzania, "nyambizi", or submarine, which implies that an HIV-positive person is "menacing and deadly." Sexual behavior and prostitution also play a part in the increased rate of transmission of HIV/AIDS in Africa. Due to the high rates of poverty, prostitution is widespread, and sexual partners are often changing, increasing the likelihood of transmission. Africa has one of the highest rates of rape in the world, with many women getting AIDS due to raped and sexual violence by an HIV-infected offender. Similarly, gender roles within many African countries contribute to this, as "in much of sub-Saharan Africa, women are a subordinate group who are expected to become pregnant, bear children, and fulfill the sexual desires of their husbands without hesitation".

Fertility Rates and Contraceptives
In most African countries, the total fertility rate is very high often due to a lack of access to contraception, family planning, and practices such as forced child marriage. For instance, Niger, Angola, Mali, Burundi, Somalia and Uganda have very high fertility rates. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, "Africa has the lowest rate of contraceptive use (33%) and the highest rate of unmet need for contraceptives (22%)."   In Mozambique, despite efforts in improving access to modern contraceptive methods, the general fertility rate is "still high at 5.3 and the unmet need for contraceptives is also high at 26%." Among young women, the fertility rate has dramatically increased from 167 births per 1000 aged between (15–19 years) in 2011 to 194 in 2015 with a large increase in rural areas from 183 to 230. Contraceptive prevalence among (15–19 years) remains low at 14% in 2015 when compared to the national prevalence among the reproductive age group (15–49 years) at 25% in the same year.

Types of Contraceptives
The copper IUD has been provided less frequently than other contraceptive methods but there have been signs of an increase in most reported provinces. The most frequently provided methods are implants and injectable progesterone, which is not as ideal as condom usage, which is still required with this method to decrease the risk of HIV. In Nigeria, specifically, people who have multiple partners are often unwilling to protect themselves with condoms. "In a study conducted in a rural community in South West Nigeria in 1993, it was found that although 94.7% of 302 candidates aged between 20 and 54 years admitted hearing about the condom, only 51.3% admitted ever using it." According to the International Family Planning Perspective, "these injectable progesterone products made up 49% of South Africa's contraceptive use and up to 90% in some provinces." Though contraceptive use is rising in African countries, discontinuation rates are also high. Weak health systems challenge Sub-Saharan African countries in expanding contraceptive outreach, promotions and service.

Contraceptive Accessibility
The updated contraceptive guidelines in South Africa attempt to improve accessibility by providing special service delivery and prompting awareness for adolescents, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex people, disabled people, chronically ill people, women who are perimenopausal, sex workers, migrants and males. They also aim to increase access to long-acting contraceptive methods such as the copper IUD, the single rod progestogen implant combined with estrogen and progesterone injectables. Tanzanian provider perspectives also realized the biggest obstacle in maintaining healthy contraceptive care in their communities: lack of consistency. Contraceptive dispensaries found that the capability of providing service to patients was inconsistent and substandard. This resulted in unsatisfied reproductive goals, low educational attainment, miseducation about the side effects of certain contraceptives.

Accessibility has also been hindered as a result of inadequate quantities of properly trained medical personnel. According to the African Journal of Reproductive Health, "Shortage of the medical attendant...is a challenge, we are not able to attend to a big number of clients, also we do not have enough education which makes us unable to provide women with the methods they want". The majority of medical centers are staffed by people without medical training and few doctors and nurses, despite federal regulations, due to lack of resources. One center had only one person who was able to insert and remove implants, and without her, they were unable to service people who required this method of contraceptive care. Another dispensary which carried two methods of birth control shared that they sometimes run out of both materials at the same time which makes it difficult to keep up with the supply and demand chain.

Social Factors Effect on Contraceptives
Unbalanced gender dynamics, spousal dynamics, economic conditions, religious norms, cultural norms, and constraints in supply chains all contribute to contraceptive rates and usage. One instance of this is a provider who referenced harmful propaganda about the side effects of contraceptive usage. The spread of this propaganda is one of the many examples of influential people in the community, such as elders and religious leaders, discouraging proper contraceptive care/health. In some cases, influential members of the community often convince others that condoms and contraceptive pills contain microorganisms that cause cancer.

In regards to spousal and gendered dynamics, many women often have faced pressure from their spouse or family members to use avoid birth control which resulted in them using it secretly. This is also one of the many reasons women frequently preferred undetectable contraceptive methods which can lead to less effective contraceptives.

Other Common Sexually Transmitted diseases in sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa ranks first in STD yearly incidence compared to other world regions, reiterating the major problem that public health is in African countries.  In sub-Saharan Africa, STDs are the most common reasons that individuals seek medical care. According to the World Health Organization, every year in Africa "there are 3.5 million cases of syphilis, 15 million cases of chlamydial disease, 16 million cases of gonorrhea, and 30 million cases of trichomoniasis."

Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections and Women

The majority of HIV infections, risks, and other sexually transmitted diseases in sub-Saharan Africa disproportionately impact women. Women, particularly under the age of 30, account for more than half of new infections on the African continent, employing incidence rates that are often double that of their male counterparts. Not only do women contain more risk of infection, but the consequences of these diseases are often significantly worse for women, as they can affect reproductive health as well. Some consequences of bacterial STIs include "pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic pelvic pain, tubal infertility, pregnancy complications, fetal and neonatal death." HIV infection is less unbalanced in gender infections, but other STDs disproportionately affect women, "who bear 80 percent of the disability." Previously stated, women are also more susceptible to infection due to social stigma and gendered expectations. "Most women with STDs will not seek medical care at all, or will only present late for treatment, when complications have already developed, complications that have devastating physical, psychological, and social consequences, particularly for women and their children." Women of lower-income status are often the least likely subgroup to receive any sort of medical attention.

More on Transsexual/LGBTQ+ Health

Individuals who identify as transgender often yield significantly higher rates of HIV in comparison to other subgroups. African politics and government are silent on LGBTQ+ issues in the political sphere, which translates in part to their accessibility and prioritization in healthcare. "It is possible that the invisibility of transgender people in epidemiological data from Africa is related to the criminalization of same-sex behaviour in many countries," representative of how traditional attitudes shape one's ability to participate similarly in society. Further research conducted among transgender women in South Africa shows more "health disparities and poor access to appropriate mental, sexual and reproductive health services." Still, however, there is limited data concerning transgender individuals within African countries.

Individuals identifying as part of the LGBTQ+ community, in a study conducted by BMC International Health and Human Rights, resulted all in facing some sort of discrimination by healthcare providers based on their sexual orientation and/or gender identity. Violations took four distinct forms: availability, accessibility, acceptability, and quality. Facilities in South Africa lack services for specific LGBT concerns, providers refuse to care for patients identifying within the community, and if did, articulate moral disapproval. Finally, the lack of quality and knowledge about LGBTQ+ identities and health needs contributes to disproportionate negative harms, avoiding or delaying seeking healthcare with these implications.

The Workplace and Reproductive Health
Reproductive health can be impacted by exposures in the workplace. Both women and men who work during their reproductive years can be exposed to a variety of chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards at work that can impact their fertility. Many women continue to work while pregnant, thus increasing the likelihood that both mother and baby could be exposed.

Routes of Exposure
Harmful substances can enter a woman's body through breathing in (inhalation), contact with the skin, or swallowing (ingestion). Pregnant workers and those planning to become pregnant should be especially concerned about exposure to reproductive hazards. Some chemicals (such as alcohol) can circulate in the mother's blood, pass through the placenta, and reach the developing fetus. Other hazardous agents can affect the overall health of the woman and reduce the delivery of nutrients to the fetus. Radiation can pass directly through the mother's body to harm her eggs or the fetus. Some drugs and chemicals can also pass through a mother's body into the nursing baby through the breast milk.

Reproductive hazards do not affect every woman or every pregnancy. Whether a woman or her baby is harmed depends on how much of the hazard they are exposed to, when they are exposed, how long they are exposed, how they are exposed, and personal factors like age, stage of menstrual cycle, stage of pregnancy or when exposure occurs. For example, exposure to a hazard could block ovulation and pregnancy only at specific times of the menstrual cycle. Exposure during the first 3 months of pregnancy might cause a birth defect or a miscarriage. Exposure during the last 6 months of pregnancy could slow the baby's growth, affect its brain development, or cause premature labor.

Workplace substances that affect female workers and their pregnancies can also harm their families. Without knowing it, workers can bring home harmful substances that can affect the health of other family members—both adults and children. For example, lead brought home from the workplace on a worker's skin, hair, clothes, shoes, tool box, or car can cause lead poisoning in family members, especially young children.

Occupational Reproductive Hazards
A number of occupational hazards can impact reproductive health and subsequently reproductive outcomes including chemical, physical, and psychosocial hazards. Although more than 1,000 workplace chemicals have been shown to have reproductive effects on animals, most have not been studied in humans. In addition, most of the 4 million other chemical mixtures in commercial use remain untested.

Some reproductive hazards include:

 Anesthetic gases
 Antineoplastic (cancer treatment drugs)
 Chemical disinfectants and sterilants
 Certain ethylene glycol ethers such as 2-ethoxyethanol (2EE) and 2-methoxyethanol (2ME)
 Carbon disulfide (CS2)
 Epoxies and resins
 Ethylene Oxide
 Formaldehyde
 Heat
 Infectious agents
 Lead and other heavy metals
 Noise
 Pesticides
 Ionizing radiation
 Non-ionizing radiation
 Secondhand smoke
 Smoke and by-products of burning
 Solvents
 Shift work and long working hours
 Strenuous physical demands (e.g. prolonged standing, heavy lifting, bending)

Many chemicals are not evaluated for reproductive toxicity and occupational exposure limits are developed based on nonpregnant adults. Exposure levels considered safe for an adult may, or may not be safe for a fetus.

Reproductive health problems that might be caused by workplace exposures
Workplace hazards can lead to certain reproductive health problems, such as:

 Reduced fertility or infertility
 Erectile dysfunction
 Menstrual cycle and ovulatory disorders
 Women's health problems linked to sex hormone imbalance
 Miscarriage
 Stillbirth
 Babies born too soon or too small
 Birth defects
 Child developmental disorders
 Childhood cancers

Occupational hazards and female reproductive health
Some workplace hazards can affect reproductive health, the ability to become pregnant, and the health of unborn children. Most women can safely keep working in their job during their pregnancy. But some jobs involve exposures that are harmful to pregnant or breastfeeding women. Some female health problems that may be caused by workplace reproductive hazards include the following:

Disruption of the menstrual cycle and hormone production
High levels of physical or emotional stress or exposure to chemicals such as pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organic solvents and carbon disulfide, may disrupt the balance between the brain, pituitary gland, and ovaries. This disruption can result in an imbalance of estrogen and progesterone, and lead to changes in menstrual cycle length and regularity and ovulation. Because these sex hormones have effects throughout a woman's body, severe or long-lasting hormone imbalances may affect a woman's overall health.

Hazards that can disrupt the menstrual cycle and/or sex hormone production include:

 a variety of pesticides
 carbon disulfide (CS2)
 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
 organic solvents
 jet fuel
 shift work

Infertility and Subfertility
About 10% to 15% of all couples are infertile or have subfertility, which means that they are unable to conceive a child after 1 year of trying to become pregnant. Many factors can affect fertility, and these factors can affect one or both partners. Damage to the woman's eggs or the man's sperm, or a change in the hormones needed to regulate the normal menstrual cycle are just a few things that can cause problems with fertility. More common causes of infertility include:

 Damage to the woman's eggs
 Damage to the man's sperm

Infertility can be caused by change in the hormones needed to regulate the normal menstrual cycle and uterine growth. Hazards that can reduce fertility in women include:

 cancer treatment drugs, including antineoplastic drugs
 lead
 ionizing radiation, including x-rays and gamma rays
 nitrous oxide (N2O)

Miscarriages and Stillbirths
About 1 in every 6 pregnancies ends in a miscarriage—the unplanned termination of a pregnancy. Miscarriages can occur very early in pregnancy, even before the woman knows she is pregnant. Miscarriages and stillbirths occur for many reasons, such as the following:

 The egg or sperm may be damaged so that the egg cannot be fertilized or cannot survive after fertilization.
 A problem may exist in the hormone system needed to maintain the pregnancy.
 The fetus may not have developed normally.
 Physical problems may exist with the uterus or cervix.

Birth Defects
A birth defect is a physical abnormality present at birth, though it may not be detected until later. About 2% to 3% of babies are born with a major birth defect. In most cases, the cause of the birth defect is unknown. The first 3 months of the pregnancy is a very sensitive time of development because the internal organs and limbs are formed during this period. Many women are not aware that they are pregnant during much of this critical period.

Low Birth Weight and Premature Birth
About 7% of babies born in the United States are born underweight or prematurely. Poor maternal nutrition, smoking, and alcohol use during pregnancy are believed to be responsible for most of these cases. Although better medical care has helped many underweight or premature babies to develop and grow normally, they are more likely than other babies to become ill or even die during their first year of life.

Developmental Disorders
Sometimes the brain of the fetus does not develop normally, which leads to developmental delays or learning disabilities later in life. About 10% of children in the United States have some form of developmental disability. Such problems are often not noticeable at birth. They can be difficult to measure, may be temporary or permanent, and range from mild to severe. Developmental problems may appear as hyperactivity, short attention span, reduced learning ability, or (in severe cases) intellectual disability.

Other Health Problems
Even if a woman is not trying to become pregnant, her general health can be harmed by reproductive hazards that alter the production of sex hormones. Sex hormones have effects throughout a woman's body. Some workplace exposures can cause an imbalance of estrogen and progesterone levels in the blood. This disruption can increase vulnerability to:

 Some cancers, such as endometrial or breast cancer
 Osteoporosis
 Heart disease
 Tissue loss or weakening
 Effects on the brain and spinal cord, including symptoms of menopause

Occupational hazards and male reproductive health
A number of workplace substances have been identified as reproductive hazards for men such as:

 Lead
 Dibromochloropropane
 Carbaryl (Sevin )
 Toluenediamine and Dinitrotoluene
 Ethylene Dibromide
 Plastic Production (styrene and acetone)
 Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether
 Welding
 Perchloroethylene
 Mercury Vapor
 Heat
 Military Radar
 High levels of Kepone
 High levels of Bromine Vapor
 High levels of radiation
 Carbon disulfide
 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid (2,4-D)

Exposure to occupational hazards can impact:

 Number of Sperm. Some reproductive hazards can stop or slow the actual production of sperm. This means that there will be fewer sperm present to fertilize an egg; if no sperm are produced, the man is sterile. If the hazard prevents sperm from being made, sterility is permanent.
 Sperm Shape. Reproductive hazards may cause the shape of sperm cells to be different. These sperm often have trouble swimming or lack the ability to fertilize the egg.
 Sperm Transfer. Hazardous chemicals may collect in the epididymis, seminal vesicles, or prostate. These chemicals may kill the sperm, change the way in which they swim, or attach to the sperm and be carried to the egg or the unborn child.
 Sexual Performance. Changes in amounts of hormones can affect sexual performance. Some chemicals, like alcohol, may also affect the ability to achieve erections, whereas others may affect the sex drive. Several drugs (both legal and illegal) have effects on sexual performance, but little is known about the effects of workplace hazards.
 Sperm Chromosomes. Reproductive hazards can affect the chromosomes found in sperm. The sperm and egg each contribute 23 chromosomes at fertilization. The DNA stored in these chromosomes determines what someone will look like and their our bodies will function. Radiation or chemicals may cause changes or breaks in the DNA. If the sperm's DNA is damaged, it may not be able to fertilize an egg; or if it does fertilize an egg, it may affect the development of the fetus. Some cancer treatment drugs are known to cause such damage. However, little is known about the effects of workplace hazards on sperm chromosomes.
 Pregnancy. If a damaged sperm does fertilize an egg, the egg might not develop properly, causing a miscarriage or a possible health problem in the baby. If a reproductive hazard is carried in the semen, the fetus might be exposed within the uterus, possibly leading to problems with the pregnancy or with the health of the baby after it is born.

See also

 Sexual intercourse#Health effects
 Abortion debate
 Demography
 List of bacterial vaginosis microbiota
 POPLINE: world's largest reproductive health database
 The INFO Project
 Reproductive justice
 Reproductive rights
 Obstetric transition
 Comprehensive sex education (CSE)
 Health education
 Organizations:
 Association of Reproductive Health Professionals
 EngenderHealth
 Guttmacher Institute
 German Foundation for World Population
 International Planned Parenthood Federation
 Marie Stopes International
 Pacific Society for Reproductive Health Trust
 Reproductive Health Supplies Coalition
 United Nations Population Fund
 MEASURE Evaluation

References

External links

 CDC Division of Reproductive Health
 WHO Reproductive health and research
MEASURE Evaluation Family Planning and Reproductive Health Indicators Database

Population

Midwifery

Sexual and reproductive health


In mathematics, Euler-Mascheroni constant is a number that appears in analysis and number theory. It first appeared in the work of Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in the early 18th century. It is usually represented with the Greek letter  (gamma), although Euler used the letters C and O instead.

It is not known yet whether the number is irrational (that is, cannot be written as a fraction with an integer numerator and denominator) or transcendental (that is, cannot be the solution of a polynomial with integer coefficients). The numerical value of  is about . Italian mathematician Lorenzo Mascheroni also worked with the number, and tried unsuccessfully to approximate the number to 32 decimal places, making mistakes on five digits.

It is significant because it links the divergent harmonic series with the natural logarithm. It is given by the limiting difference between the natural logarithm and the harmonic series:

It can also be written as an improper integral involving the floor function, a function which outputs the greatest integer less than or equal to a given number.

The gamma constant is closely linked to the Gamma function, specifically its logarithmic derivative, the digamma function, which is defined as

For , this gives

Using properties of the digamma function,  can also be written as a limit.

References

Mathematical constants

Euler–Mascheroni constant


Certification is part of testing, inspection and certification and the provision by an independent body of written assurance (a certificate) that the product, service or system in question meets specific requirements. It is the formal attestation or confirmation of certain characteristics of an object, person, or organization. This confirmation is often, but not always, provided by some form of external review, education, assessment, or audit. Accreditation is a specific organization's process of certification. According to the U.S. National Council on Measurement in Education, a certification test is a credentialing test used to determine whether individuals are knowledgeable enough in a given occupational area to be labeled "competent to practice" in that area.

Types

One of the most common types of certification in modern society is professional certification, where a person is certified as being able to competently complete a job or task, usually by the passing of an examination and/or the completion of a program of study.  Some professional certifications also require that one obtain work experience in a related field before the certification can be awarded. Some professional certifications are valid for a lifetime upon completing all certification requirements. Others expire after a certain period of time and have to be maintained with further education and/or testing.

Certifications can differ within a profession by the level or specific area of expertise to which they refer. For example, in the IT Industry there are different certifications available for software tester, project manager, and developer. Also, the Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology offers three certifications in the same profession, but with increasing complexity.

Certification does not designate that a person has sufficient knowledge in a subject area, only that they passed the test. This of course apples only to exam-based certifications. Education-based certifications, require that a person completes a course of study that satisfies certain body of knowledge claims to demonstrate that the person has sufficient knowledge in the subject area.

Certification does not refer to the state of legally being able to practice or work in a profession. That is licensure. Usually, licensure is administered by a governmental entity for public protection purposes and a professional association administers certification. Licensure and certification are similar in that they both require the demonstration of a certain level of knowledge or ability.

Another common type of certification in modern society is product certification. This refers to processes intended to determine if a product meets minimum standards, similar to quality assurance. Different certification systems exist in each country. For example, in Russia it is the GOST R Rostest.

Other types include:

 A type certificate is issued to signify the airworthiness of an aircraft manufacturing design
 Academic degrees
 Cyber security certification
 Digital signatures in public-key cryptography
 Digital certification
 Diving certification
 Environmental certification
 Film certification, also known as the motion picture rating system
 Food safety certification
 Music recording sales certification, such as "Gold" or "Platinum"
 Nursing credentials and certifications
 Professional certification (computer technology)
 Sustainability certification
 Testing, inspection and certification

Standards and Certification

Certification is dependent on meeting specific requirements that are defined in a technical standard. This is either an international standard or a private standard. ISEAL Alliance and Global Food Safety Initiative are examples of private organizations who represent the private sector. Promoting certification in supply chains of private corporations by recognizing scheme owners who adopt private standards. In comparison, the public sector and Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) recommend international standards. Scheme owners using private standards require scheme fees, which is typically an annual payment for issuing a certificate. Whereas international standards do not allow scheme ownership and do not require fees to issue a certificate. Further differences between international standards and private standards are explained in a paper from ISO.

Attestations of conformity

Attestations of conformity can be made:

 First-party attestations of conformity, an individual or organization providing the good or service offers assurance that it meets certain claims.
 Second-party attestations of conformity, an association to which the individual or organization belongs provides the assurance.
 Third-party attestations of conformity, also referred to as third party certification, involves an independent and impartial assessment performed by a certification body, also referred to as conformity assessment body, declaring that specified requirements pertaining to a product, person, process, or management system have been met.

In the European Union, a notified Body is an organization accredited by an accreditation body for the purpose of providing third-party certification and testing services of the standards and regulations within the purview of the accreditation body. This serves to enforce regulatory compliance with these codes, and gives providers of goods and services a means of demonstrating compliance by way of an official certification mark or a declaration of conformity.

In software testing Certifications

For software testing, the certifications can be grouped into exam-based and education-based. For exam-based certifications the candidate must pass an exam, which can also be learned by self-study. For example, for International Software Testing Qualifications Board Certified Tester by the International Software Testing Qualifications Board or Certified Software Tester by QAI or Certified Software Quality Engineer by American Society for Quality. Education-based certifications are the instructor-led sessions, where each course has to be passed. The Certified Software Test Professional (CSTP), the Certified Agile Software Test Professional (CASTP), the Certified Test Manager (CTM) and other certifications by Institute for Software Testing are such examples. It is common for people who require certifications to undergo paid structured learning to help them achieve their goals.

References

Professional titles and certifications

Certification


Keith Moseley (born February 5, 1965) is an American musician and songwriter, who plays bass guitar among other instruments for The String Cheese Incident, a jamband from Boulder, Colorado, of which he is a founding member.

He has written and provides vocals for a number of songs for the band, including "Resume Man", "Joyful Sound" and "Sometimes a River". Before forming The String Cheese Incident, Moseley  played guitar in the band Whiskey Creek Warriors, which played around the Colorado ski scene.

Equipment

Moseley primarily plays a Lakland 55-94 that he got in 1999. However, he also plays a variety of Fender Precision Basses. For amplification, Moseley uses Aguilar. He currently uses a pair of Aguilar DB751 heads and a pair of DB412 speaker cabinets. He occasionally will perform solo acts, playing acoustic versions of String Cheese Incident songs, and covers. He plays a Martin Dreadnaught acoustic while playing these gigs.

Side projects
In February 2006, Moseley recorded Rex (Live at the Fillmore), a live album under the band name Grateful Grass, featuring fellow musicians Keller Williams and Jeff Austin (Yonder Mountain String Band). Available only for digital download, the album featured non-traditional bluegrass versions of songs by the Grateful Dead, with 100% of the proceeds going to the Rex Foundation. In 2007 he joined Keller Williams' for a project called The WMD's, or Keller Williams with Moseley, Droll and Sipe. In 2010 Keith released a record with The Contribution, a band whose collaborators include Tim Carbone of Railroad Earth as well as members of New Monsoon.

References

External links
String Cheese Incident official website
Keith Moseley interview from 2006

1965 births
Living people
Songwriters from Oklahoma
20th-century American bass guitarists
The String Cheese Incident members
American rock bass guitarists

Keith Moseley


George Robert Hightower was born at Smith's Mills, in Grenada County, Mississippi, October 15, 1865, a son of George Hightower, Jr., and Fannie (Kirby) Hightower.

He began his education in the public schools in Grenada County, Mississippi, and later attended Normal College at Buena Vista, Mississippi, for three years, graduating in 1889. He became a teacher, first in Grenada County, then in the Abbeville Normal School in Abbeville, Mississippi, for three years. He next spent a year as instructor in the Grenada Female College at Grenada, Mississippi, and subsequently accepted a teaching position in the public schools of New Albany, Mississippi, where he was later made principal. In 1895 he retired from teaching to engage in farming in Lafayette County, Mississippi; and while residing there he was elected county superintendent of education in 1898 for a four- year term.

He was elected to the state legislature in 1904 and after serving for one term as a member of the Mississippi House of Representatives, he was elected to represent Lafayette County in the state Senate in 1906, followed by reelection. While Mr. Hightower was a member of the state legislature he was active in having a state department of agriculture created and in securing the passage of a bill reducing the legal rate of interest from ten to eight per cent per annum.

After serving a part of his second term in the legislature, however, he resigned to become state president of the Farmers Educational and Cooperative Union, a national farmers' organization, which position he occupied until 1912.  In 1908 he was appointed a delegate to the International Cotton Conference held in Barcelona, Spain, which he attended in company with Harvey Jordan of Georgia, representative of the National Cotton Association of the United States and James H. Brooks, who represented the United States Department of State.

He became president of the Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College at Starkville in 1912, now Mississippi State University, and remained at the head of that institution from  until 1916.   While serving as its president, he inaugurated a department of markets, which was the first of the kind to be established in any similar institution in the United States. The department of business of the college was also inaugurated during Mr. Hightower's administration as president. He was also instrumental in beautifying the college campus and planting the water oaks and elms.

In January, 1924, he was appointed as state tax commissioner by Governor H. L. Whitfield. Mr. Hightower served under Governor Whitfield's administration and also under Governor Murphree, who became governor of the state upon the death of Governor Whitfield March 18, 1927.

After many years devoted to public service, Mr. Hightower concentrated on the cultivation of more than  of land in Washington, Mississippi, near Natchez.  He died February 19, 1958, and is buried in the Natchez City Cemetery.  Hightower Hall at Mississippi State was named in his honor but has since been demolished.

References

External links
Mississippi State University General Information
Gallery of the Presidents

Presidents of Mississippi State University
1958 deaths
People from Grenada County, Mississippi
1865 births
Members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Mississippi state senators

George Robert Hightower


The Gikondo massacre was the mass murder of about 110 people of Tutsi identity, including children, who sheltered in a Polish Pallottine mission church in , Kigali. The massacre took place on April 9, 1994 and was executed by Interahamwe militia under supervision of the Hutu presidential guard. The massacre was the first absolute proof of a genocide discovered by UNAMIR during the Rwandan genocide in 1994.

Prelude

The Rwandan genocide began on April 6, 1994, after the plane carrying Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira, the president of Burundi on board was shot down while approaching the runway of Kigali International Airport, which is considered to have been the direct signal to start the actions planned beforehand. Both men were Hutus. Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi militia began systematic, house-by-house searches for persons bearing Tutsi identity, who were then subsequently murdered using clubs and machetes. People living in the Gikondo neighborhood had fled to the Pallottine church in the hopes of finding shelter and to sit out the turmoil.

The massacre

On the morning of April 9, 1994, two presidential guard soldiers and two gendarmes entered the church and began checking identity cards of the people gathered in the church. They ordered the few persons of Hutu identity to leave the church. One of the priests protested claiming that all of the people inside were Christian worshippers and the members of the Pallottine congregation, but was told by the gendarmes that "the church was harbouring inyenzi [cockroaches]" and the gendarmes continued to examine identity cards. A presidential guard officer entered the church, telling soldiers not to waste their bullets since the Interahamwe would soon come with machetes.

Shortly after, about 100 Interahamwe militiamen came into the church and began to kill people, striking with their clubs and slashing with their machetes, hacking arms, legs, genitals and the faces of the terrified people who tried to protect the children under the pews. Some people were dragged outside the church and attacked in the courtyard. The identity cards of the murdered ones were burned. The killing continued for two hours after which the whole compound was searched. The militia then left the church compound.

There were unarmed Polish UN observers in the church: Major Jerzy Mączka and Major Ryszard Chudy, who were supervising the implementation of the Arusha accords signed on August 4, 1993 on behalf of the UNAMIR. When the attack on the church began, Major Jerzy Mączka was in a garden near the church and tried to contact the UNAMIR headquarters in Kigali in order to direct some Belgian or Bangladeshi operational units to the church. Initially, all Motorola system channels were jammed with other calls for help. Eventually he managed to pass the report about the ongoing murders to UNAMIR duty officer, captain Godson Zowonogo. However the captain's response was negative – he argued that he had been informed about many similar events in the capital and that direct intervention of UNAMIR soldiers in all of these places was impossible. Major Mączka also tried to contact a duty officer of the predominantly Tutsi Rwandan Patriotic Front who was stationed in Kigali.

Aftermath

The two Polish army officers along with the Pallottine priests and nuns began immediate first-aid dressing of the heavily wounded, separating them from the dead, who were dragged into two mass graves dug by trusted Pallottine workers. The job was very urgent due to the heat which would have accelerated the process of decomposition of the corpses. The wounded were carried back to the church, where Pallottine nuns provided them, in as far as possible, with water. On Major Mączka's directive, priests collected part of the half-burned identity cards of the dead so that they may be used to identify the buried corpses. Major Mączka also took pictures documenting the massacre.

In the afternoon of April 9, two International Red Cross ambulances with French medical teams and the chief ICRC delegate in Rwanda, Swiss Philippe Gaillard arrived. At the request of the two Polish army officers, two gravely wounded Rwandans were taken to hospital. They are believed to be the only persons who survived the massacre.

That same afternoon an UNAMIR armoured carrier arrived with Canadian Major Brent Beardsley and two other Polish army officers Major Marek Pazik and Major Stefan Stec, who filmed the aftermath of the massacre.

Another massacre took place a few days later in a private Pallotine chapel neighboring the church. About eleven Tutsi Rwandans including children who managed to survive the first attack on the church took refuge in the chapel, where Polish Pallotine Father Zdzisław gave them supplies necessary to survive. When Interahamwe members discovered that there were still refugees in the chapel, they burned it after dousing it in gasoline. No one survived.

The Gikondo massacre is under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.

See also
List of massacres in Rwanda

References

Rwandan genocide
1994 in Christianity
1994 in Rwanda
Massacres in Rwanda
Mass murder in 1994
Massacres in 1994
Attacks on churches in Africa

Gikondo massacre


Léon Gimpel (13 May 1873 – 7 October 1948) was a French photographer.

Born in Strasbourg in 1873. He was the youngest son of four, born to a Jewish Alsacian family who fled to Paris after Germany took over Alsace in 1870. Gimpel worked for his family's fabric company, managed by his older brother Eugene. In 1897 his interest in photography was kindled when he acquired a Kodak detective camera, he soon swapped this for a Spido Gaumont which allowed him greater creative freedom. By 1900 he was working prodigiously, documenting the 1900 World's Fair in Paris. By 1904 his work was being published regularly in the magazines La Vie au Grand Air, La Vie Illustrée and  L'Illustration.

A restless and innovative photographer, Gimpel experimented with perspective, produced self-portraits using distorting mirrors and experimented with night time photography. At an air show at Béthény in August 1909, Gimpel ascended in an air ballon to photograph the crowds below, pioneering aerial photography. However it is his pioneering work in colour photography that he is most notable for. In 1904, Gimpel met Auguste and Louis Lumière, who had just displayed their invention the autochrome  to the Académie des Sciences. Limited by the long exposure time required, Gimpel used the process, to photograph still lifes and landscapes. Assisted by his colleague Fernand Monpillard, Gimpel modified the plates to produce "instant" colour pictures. Thanks to his works Gimpel was the only photographer who succeeded in capturing, in colour, scenes of everyday life during la Belle Époque.

On 10 June 1907 Gimpel was the  first photographer to have images published in color. A special edition of L'Illustration was published to demonstrate the new technology, it included an insert featuring four autochromes taken by Gimpel, a group of soldiers, two scenic views of Villefranche-sur-Mer and sunset at Lake Geneva. A few weeks later on 29 June 1907,  Gimpel published the first color news photographs when L'Illustration published his picture of Frederick VIII of Denmark and his wife Louise of Sweden, who were visiting France at the time.  Gimpel produced many works using the autochrome, arguably the most famous are the images known as The Grenata Street Army produced during the First World War. Gimpel befriended a group of children from the Grenata Street neighbourhood of Paris who had established their own 'army'.  Under his guidance he helped them build their tanks and aircraft, documenting their 'battles' against the 'boche'. On a more serious note Gimpel also recorded the French experience of the First World War visiting munitions factories and trenches on the Western Front.

Gimpel married Marguerite Bouillon in 1939 and settled in Béarn. He died in 1948 at Sévignacq-Meyracq.

Although largely forgotten, his work has experienced a revival recently. The band Beirut used one of his photographs as the inspiration behind their 2007 album The Flying Club Cup. A major respective took place at Musée d'Orsay in Paris in February 2008. His work helped influence the 2009 Spike Jonze film Where the Wild Things Are.

References

External links
 Portfolio of photographs by Léon Gimpel
 Images of the 'Grenata Street army'

1873 births
1948 deaths
French photographers
French photojournalists

Léon Gimpel


West Side Park is the name of a former baseball park in Chicago, Illinois. It was the home field of the Chicago Cubs baseball team from 1893 through 1915.

It was the Cubs' home ballpark when they won their only World Series championships, in 1907 and 1908, until their win in 2016. The team moved to Wrigley Field in 1916.

The park got its name from being located on the west side of Chicago. Where the ballpark once stood there is now a building in the University of Illinois Medical School.

Baseball stadiums
Sports buildings in Chicago
1893 establishments in the United States
1890s establishments in Illinois
1916 disestablishments
1910s disestablishments in the United States
20th-century disestablishments in Illinois

West Side Park


Kinetic energy is the energy that an object has because of its motion. This energy can be converted into other kinds, such as gravitational or electric potential energy, which is the energy that an object has because of its position in a gravitational or electric field.

Difference between Kinetic & Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy is the maximum amount of work a moving body due to its motion can do, whereas Potential energy is the maximum amount of work a body can do due to its configuration or position in a field force.  Kinetic Energy is valid for all sorts of forces as seen from this derivation.

but Potential Energy is not as can be seen here

which clearly suggests that only conservative forces can have potential energy associated with them; see conservation of energy.

Translational kinetic energy
The translational kinetic energy of an object is:

where
  is the mass (resistance to linear acceleration or deceleration);
  is the linear velocity.

Rotational kinetic energy
The rotational kinetic energy of an object is:

where
  is the moment of inertia (resistance to angular acceleration or deceleration, equal to the product of the mass and the square of its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation);
  is the angular velocity.

Energy
Mechanics
Basic physics ideas

Kinetic energy


The Orangutan Land Trust is a UK charity with the objective of providing sustainable solutions for the long-term survival of the orangutan in the wild by ensuring safe areas of forest for their continued existence. The organization's President and co-founder, Lone Drøscher Nielsen, is a prominent wildlife conservationist.

Projects under development

Salat Island
A major objective of Orangutan Land Trust is to secure the river island known as Salat Island in Central Kalimantan to provide a habitat in which orangutans undergoing the rehabilitation process can refine their skills before being released in the wild. Additionally, a part of this island can serve as a permanent sanctuary for those rescued orangutans who can never be released, such as those with chronic disease or disabilities.

East Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Concessions
Borneo Orangutan Survival is one of the Indonesian NGOs seeking ways of reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD). It has acquired from the Department of Forestry and Ecosystem Restoration Concession with the intention of using the forest area as a release site for rehabilitated orangutans from its Samboja Lestari and Wanariset projects in East Kalimantan (over 200 individuals). The concession is 86,000 hectares of the ex-PT Mugi Triman International (MGI) timber concession. Releases begin in May 2012.

Central Kalimantan Ecosystem Restoration Projects
Orangutan Land Trust are working with the Green Line Corporation in Indonesia to secure 80,000 hectares of mostly degraded and deforested peat forest in Central Kalimantan as an Ecosystem Restoration Concession, in order to provide sanctuary for at least 200 orangutans rescued and rehabilitated by the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation's Nyaru Menteng Project.

Sabah, Malaysia
The Malua Wildlife Habitat Conservation Bank (Malua BioBank) is located next to one of the last areas of virgin rainforest in Sabah, Malaysia, on the island of Borneo. The Malua BioBank will restore and protect  of critical orangutan habitat called the Malua Forest Reserve.

References

External links
 Orangutan Land Trust website
 savetheorangutan.org Borneo Orangutan Survival website
 Sabah Environmental Trust

Animal charities based in the United Kingdom
Balikpapan
Nature conservation in Indonesia
Nature conservation in Malaysia
Environmental charities based in the United Kingdom
Foreign charities operating in Malaysia
Foreign charities operating in the Philippines
Land trusts

Orangutan conservation
Primate sanctuaries

Orangutan Land Trust


James Vann (c. 1762–64 – February 19, 1809) was an influential Cherokee leader, one of the triumvirate with Major Ridge and Charles R. Hicks, who led the Upper Towns of East Tennessee and North Georgia as part of the ᎤᏪᏘ ᏣᎳᎩ ᎠᏰᎵ (Uwet Tsalag Ayetl or Old Cherokee Nation).  He was the son of ᏩᎵ (Wali) Vann and Indian trader Joseph John Vann. He was born into his mother's Clan, ᎠᏂᎪᏓᎨᏫ (Anigodagewi or Wild Potato Clan, also called Blind Savannah Clan).

Vann was among the younger leaders of the Old Cherokee Nation who thought its people needed to acculturate to deal with the European Americans and the United States government. He encouraged the Moravians to establish a mission school on Cherokee land, and became a wealthy plantation owner and slave owner.

Early life and education
James Vann was born the oldest of three children, most likely in South Carolina near his father-in-law's trading post on the Savannah River. By 1764 his family moved to the mouth of Little River, in Georgia. (Who is Wah-li? No context. Was that James's mother?)  Wah-li was the daughter of a Cherokee woman of the Anigategawi or Wild Potato People clan, later referred to as "Mrs. Roe." James had two younger sisters, Nancy and Jennie.

The children grew up within the Cherokee culture and clan of their mother. As the Cherokee had a matrilineal system of property and hereditary leadership, the children traditionally gained their status in the tribe from their mother's people. Their maternal uncles were more important to the rearing of the children, especially the boy James, within the Cherokee nation than was their father.

The Vann children were likely bilingual, learning some European-American culture from their father.  Wah-li later married Clement Vann (brother of Joseph), who acted as a stepfather to the children. (Sources disagree about the identity of Vann's biological father: Gary E. Moulton of the University of Nebraska, suggests Clement Vann. William H. Vann Jr. in his self-published genealogy book, Vann Generations with Cherokee Origins from John Joseph Vann & James Clement Vann I of NC, SC, TN, GA ca 1750-1989, identified Joseph Vann.  Virginia Vann Perry chooses another James Vann, and Belinda Pierce, a contemporary genealogy expert, thinks Joseph John Vann was the father. "According to the experts at the Vann House in Chatsworth, Georgia, Vann's father is unknown.")

Cherokee–American wars

A story was repeated about James Vann that indicates the violence of his times. As a young man, he helped lead the John Watts' 1793 offensive against the Holston River colonial settlements.  They originally planned an attack against White's Fort, then capital of the Southwest Territory (as Tennessee was known).  As the war party was traveling to the destination, Vann argued they should kill only men, against Doublehead's call to kill all the settlers. Not long after this, the war party of more than 1,000 Cherokee and Muscogee came upon a small settlement called Cavett's Station.  Bob Benge, a leading warrior, negotiated the settlers' surrender, saying no captives would be harmed. But, Doublehead's group and his Muscogee Creek allies attacked and began killing the captives, over the pleas of Benge and the others.  Vann managed to grab one small boy and pull him onto his saddle, only to have Doublehead smash the boy's skull with an axe. Another warrior saved another young boy, handing him to Vann, who put the boy behind him on his horse.  Later he gave him to three of the Muscogee for safe-keeping; a few days later, a Muscogee chief killed and scalped the boy.  Vann called Doublehead "Babykiller" for the remainder of his life.

The events were the start of a lengthy feud between the two men.  This contributed to the confrontational politics between their respective Upper and Lower Towns of the early 19th-century Cherokee Nation.

Career

Vann became the richest man in the Cherokee Nation, and possibly in the entire eastern U.S. at the time. As a result of his favorable negotiations for access and land when the US government built the Federal Road, Vann built his Diamond Hill mansion, a two-story house constructed of brick in 1804, with access to the road, near present-day Chatsworth, Georgia. He also had a store and other facilities there.  He donated land for the mission school of the Moravian Brethren, which he had encouraged the Cherokee National Council to permit. His father had earlier run a trading post on that site.

Vann created a ferry across the nearby Conasauga River, and built a tavern and store nearby to supply locals and travelers. He also owned Vann's ferry, which crossed the Chattahoochee River near present-day Atlanta on the road to the Lower Towns of the Muscogee (Creek). Later he opened up a trading post near present-day Huntsville, Alabama.

He held more than 100 slaves and hundreds of acres of plantation. He also owned land at the mouth of Ooltewah (Wolftever) Creek in present-day Hamilton County, Tennessee.  His Vann's Ferry landing in Tennessee was the basis for Vann's Town.  Later it became the county seat and was called Harrison.

A story was recounted about Vann's wealth. Return J. Meigs Sr., the US Indian agent to the Cherokee living at Cherokee Agency (now Calhoun, Tennessee), found the government had misrouted its annuity payment to the nation (for lands surrendered in treaty) to New Orleans. Meigs turned to Vann for help. Vann paid the annuity in full from his own funds and could wait for Meigs to pay him back after he had received the original annuity.

Politics
In national Cherokee politics, Vann led the so-called "young chiefs" of the Overhill Towns, who rebelled against the oligarchy of those, primarily from the Lower Towns, referred to as the "old chiefs," who were led by Doublehead.  The Lower Town chiefs followed more traditional practices.  Vann and Charles R. Hicks persuaded a reluctant National Council to permit the establishment of a school operated by the United Brethren (Moravians) of Winston-Salem, North Carolina.  Vann furnished the land and building for the Moravian school next to his home at Spring Place, Georgia.

His feud with Doublehead ended in 1807.  The Council ordered Doublehead executed for having secretly profited from the private sale of Cherokee land, a capital offense under tribal law.  The council appointed Major Ridge and Alexander Saunders from the Nation to carry out the sentence.  Vann was also appointed but was said to be too drunk to participate.

As part of changes in tribal practices, in 1808 Vann helped form the Cherokee Lighthorse Guard, a kind of police force to monitor the roads in the Nation to suppress horse stealing and other thefts. That same year, chiefs of the seven clans, plus Black Horse as chief and Pathkiller as his assistant, signed the Act of Oblivion on September 11, 1808, which ended the traditional clan blood law requiring vengeance killings.

While riding patrol, Vann was shot to death at Buffington's Tavern on February 19, 1809. Speculation was that his killer might have been someone related to someone he had wronged, or Alexander Saunders. Further speculation suggests his shooting was organized by his sister, who felt that his drunkenness threatened their family's safety.

Vann was buried in or near Blackburn cemetery, Forsyth County, Georgia. Charles Hicks replaced him on the council.

Legacy
Vann was a shrewd tribal leader and businessman. He owned taverns, ferry boats, grist mills, and livestock. His business activities included a cattle drive to Pennsylvania and a pack train of goods to South Carolina. Vann brought European-American education into the Cherokee Nation with his support of the Moravian mission school.  He urged adoption of European-style "civilization" for the positive aspects he observed.

He was noted as having problems with alcohol, which became increasingly severe.

Vann fought a notable duel with his brother-in-law John Falling, with both armed with muskets and on horseback (Falling died). Vann was generous with his money to those in need, but ruthless to those who crossed him.  He ordered a slave Isaac, caught stealing, to be burned alive. In the same incident, Vann had a teenaged girl slave hung by her thumbs to tell about the theft; the Moravian missionaries rescued her and tried to dissuade him from the murder of Isaac.

In his will, Vann left nearly all his property to Joseph Vann, his eldest son by Nannie Brown.  This followed European-American practice, but differed from the traditional Cherokee matrilineal system of having property passed on through the maternal line.  Joseph inherited the Spring Place plantation (Diamond Hill), and the property on the Tennessee River later known as Vann's Town. He became known as "Rich Joe" Vann. Because Vann had gone against tradition, the National Cherokee Council recognized the other children of Vann's nine wives or consorts as minor heirs, and they shared in the inheritance of lesser amounts of property.

His Nephew was David Vann (Cherokee leader) an ancestor of Will Rogers

Representation in other media
Dee Alexander Brown wrote a novel based on a fictionalized version of  Vann's life, called Creek Mary's Blood (1981).

Notes

References
"Colonial Records Relating to Indian Affairs, 1710–1765," South Carolina Archives, Charleston, SC.
Dews, Robert to Alexander Cameron (1779 letter), Southern Superintendency of Indian Affairs, British Colonial Office Records, National Archives of Great Britain, Kews, U.K. (Microfilm in Library of Congress).
Georgia Pioneers, Genealogical Magazine Vol. 6., Mary Carter, Albany, 1969.
Hawkins, Benjamin. Letters of Benjamin Hawkins, 1796–1806. Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, Vol. IX, Savannah, GA, 1916.
Hicks, Brian. "Toward the Setting Sun: John Ross, the Cherokees, and the Trail of Tears." New York: Atlantic Monthly Press,2011.
Maschke, Karen J., editor, Theda Perdue, "Cherokee Women and the Trail of Tears", in Women and the American Legal Order] (Gender and American Law: The Impact of the Law on the Lives of Women), London: Routledge, 1997. .
McClinton, Rowena. The Springplace Mission to the Cherokees, 1805–1821 (2 volumes). (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE, 2007).
McLoughlin, William G. Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
McLoughlin, William G. "James Vann: Intemperate Patriot, 1768–1809," in The Cherokee Ghost Dance; Essays on the Southeastern Indians, 1789–1861,  Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1984.
Miles, Tiya. The House on Diamond Hill: A Cherokee Plantation Story, University of North Carolina Press, 2010. .
The Payne-Butrick Papers, 2-volume set (Indians of the Southeast), edited by William L. Anderson, Anne F. Rogers, Jane L. Brown. University of Nebraska Press, 2010
Shadburn, Don L. Unhallowed Intrusion: A History of Cherokee Families in Forsyth County, GA, (W. H. Wolfe Associates, 1993).
Wilkins, Thurman. Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People.  (New York: Macmillan Company, 1970).

External links
 James Vann , About North Georgia

1768 births
1809 deaths
Cherokee slave owners
Native American leaders
Chickamauga Cherokee
Murdered Native American people
Cherokee Nation politicians (1794–1907)
American people of Scottish descent
People murdered in Georgia (U.S. state)
J
Deaths by firearm in Georgia (U.S. state)
18th-century Native Americans
1809 murders in the United States
Native American people from Georgia (U.S. state)

James Vann


The OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media functions as a watchdog on media developments in all 57 participating member states of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). He or she provides early warning on violations of freedom of expression and promotes full compliance with OSCE principles and commitments regarding freedom of expression and press freedom.

Mission
In cases where serious violations have occurred, the representative seeks direct contacts with the offending state and other parties involved, assesses the facts and assists in resolving problems. The representative collects and receives information on the situation of the media from a variety of sources, including participating OSCE States, non-governmental organizations and media organizations. The representative meets with member governments.

The office of the representative is based in Vienna, Austria, and has a staff of 15.

Each year, they issue a joint declaration calling attention to worldwide free expression concerns.

List
 Freimut Duve (Germany): 1998–2004
 Miklós Haraszti (Hungary): 2004–2010
 Dunja Mijatović (Bosnia and Herzegovina): 2010–2017
 Harlem Désir (France): 2017-2020
 Teresa Ribeiro (Portugal): since 2020

Other bodies
The OSCE Representative is one of the four international mechanisms for promoting freedom of expression. The others are:
 UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression
 OAS Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression
 African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression

References

External links

 Official website of the Representative on Freedom of the Media
 Mandate of OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media
 Follow the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media on Facebook
 Follow the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media on Twitter

Intergovernmental human rights organizations
Freedom of expression
Diplomacy
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
Journalism organizations in Europe