Roger Montgomery (1925–2003) was an American architect, and Professor at Washington University in St. Louis and University of California, Berkeley.

Early life and education
Roger Montgomery was born in New York City to parents Graham Livingston Montgomery and Anne Cook and lived in Greenwich Village until 1930, when he moved to Port Washington, Long Island. In 1945, he was accepted into the United States Army, where he served in an intelligence unit in occupied Germany as a radio operator.

He attended a John Dewey-influenced grade school in Port Washington. In high school he was voted 'Most Likely to Succeed' and 'The Great Orator'. He was excused from military service in 1941 because of a punctured eardrum and subsequently enrolled in Oberlin College, but was dismissed from the college in 1945. Montgomery began his architectural work in 1948 as an apprentice in Springfield, Ohio and was soon successful, in part because of a shortage of architects and large post-war boom in construction. From 1955 to 1956, he attended the Harvard Graduate School of Design where he received a Masters of Architecture degree under professors Josep Lluís Sert and Sigfried Giedion, while studying with classmates Fumihiko Maki and Ben Weese.

Career
1957: Began position as professor of architecture at Washington University in St. Louis. Also named founding Director (1957–1963) of the Landmarks Association of St. Louis, one of the nation's first building and neighborhood preservation groups.
1960: Started the architectural practice of Schnebli, Anselevicius, and Montgomery (SAM) that designed the Washington University Law School Building in 1972. Founded the Urban Design Program at Washington University with Fumihiko Maki
1961: Worked for the Kennedy Administration as the first Urban Design Officer in the Federal Housing and Home Finance Agency (later HUD).
1964: Named founding Director of Washington University's Urban Renewal Design Center and planned and designed 'Towne South', a community outside of St. Louis
1965: Named founding Director of the Urban Housing Foundation, Inc. (1965–1967).
1967: Hired as a professor with joint appointment in both the departments of City & Regional Planning, and of Architecture, at the University of California, Berkeley.
1968: Named a juror from the Progressive Architecture P/A Design Awards.
1967-72: Served as west coast editor for Architecture Forum magazine.
1973: Published Housing in America (co-authored with Daniel Mandelker), a survey of housing economics, race, and land use issues. Also published A Guide to Architecture in San Francisco and Northern California (co-authored with David Gebhard and Sally Woodbridge).
1977: Published a guide to the architecture and vernacular buildings of Washington State, titled A guide to architecture in Washington State: an environmental perspective.
1980s: During this period Montgomery served as President of the California Council of Architectural Education, and the National Board of Architects, Designers and Planners for Social Responsibility. Additionally, he served on boards for a number of voluntary organizations related to the design professions including Planners for Equal Opportunity, Planners Network and Northern California Non-Profit Housing Coalition. In the Bay Area, Montgomery advised City and County boards in Berkeley, Alameda County, Santa Clara and San Francisco. Montgomery was also named Associate Dean for Undergraduate Affairs and later Acting Dean.
May 1, 1989: Named Dean of the College of Environmental Design, University of California, Berkeley, a position he holds until January 1996. During 1989, Montgomery was named to the Board of Trustees of the Berkeley Art Museum, a position he holds until 2002.

Personal life
Montgomery married Oberlin College graduate Mary Hoyt. They had four sons, Richard, Thomas, John and Peter.

He died of cancer on October 25, 2003.

Notes

External links
 Roger Montgomery obituary in the San Francisco Chronicle
 Press Release from University of California, Berkeley
 In Memorium - Roger Montgomery from University of California

1925 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American architects
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
Oberlin College alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni
UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design faculty
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
People from Greenwich Village
People from Port Washington, New York
American expatriates in Germany

Roger Montgomery


Sandra Jacqueline Denton (born 9 November 1966 or 1969), better known by her stage name Pepa or Pep, is a Jamaican-American rapper, best known for her work as a member of the female rap trio Salt-N-Pepa. Denton starred in The Salt-N-Pepa Show, a reality TV series focusing on reforming the group which aired on the VH1 network in 2008. Since January 2016, Denton has appeared as a supporting cast member on the music reality television show Growing Up Hip Hop which airs on We TV.

Early life
Sandra Jacqueline Denton was born in Kingston, Jamaica to Charles and Enid Denton (née Hyacinth), the youngest of eight children. Denton lived on a farm in Jamaica with her grandmother until she was six years old. Denton's family moved to Queens, New York, when she was three; and she later joined them. Denton has been a performer since childhood. Denton was molested as a child. Denton released a book about her life in 2008 entitled Let's Talk About Pep in which she talked about being molested, her many abusive relationships, and how Salt-N-Pepa formed.

In 1979, 15-year-old Denton was sent to live with her elder sister Patsy in Logan, Utah, when her family home in Queens caught fire and so she could have a better life. According to Denton, she was the only Black student attending Logan High School during that time. Denton became inspired by rock music; citing AC/DC and Led Zeppelin as her inspirations during her time in Utah. After a year in Utah, Denton returned to New York, later graduating from Springfield Gardens High School.

Denton worked as telephone solicitors at a Sears in College Point. She met Cheryl James in the Sears lunchroom. They both were also enrolled as nursing students at Queensborough Community College.

Career
With the production by Hurby "Luv Bug" Azor whom she and James met while working as customer service representatives at Sears, James and Denton released a single called "The Showstopper" which became a moderate R&B hit in late 1985. They were joined with Latoya Hanson who was the original DJ of the group. Shortly after in 1986, Deidra "Spinderella" Roper joined as the group's DJ as a full-length debut album, Hot, Cool & Vicious, was being released. The trio released a total of five studio albums: Hot, Cool, and Vicious (1986), A Salt with a Deadly Pepa (1988), Blacks' Magic (1990), Very Necessary (1993), and Brand New (1997), plus several greatest hits albums. Salt-N-Pepa disbanded in 2002, several months after their Brand New album was released on Red Ant Records. Denton's co-group member Cheryl James had stated she was ready to leave the music industry. The trio reunited for a performance on VH1's Hip Hop Honors program on 22 September 2005. In 2005, Denton was a cast member of VH1's The Surreal Life (season 5).

Denton's acting credits also include the motion picture Joe's Apartment, an appearance in the HBO movie First Time Felon, and a stint as Officer Andrea Phelan on the HBO drama, Oz. She starred on The Surreal Life: Fame Games. Salt-N-Pepa reformed in 2008, and are still in the process of releasing an album since reforming as they work out past issues. Denton teamed up with James for VH1's The Salt-N-Pepa Show. She starred in her own reality show on the network entitled Let's Talk About Pep, word-play on the group's hit song "Let's Talk About Sex". She can be heard speaking Jamaican Patois in the song "Need U Bad" by Jazmine Sullivan. In August 2008, Denton released her autobiography, which was also entitled Let's Talk About Pep. It was co-written by Karen Hunter, and it offered a look behind the fame, family, failures, and successes of her life in one of hip-hop's most successful groups. It features an introduction by Queen Latifah, and an epilogue by Missy Elliott. To accommodate the book, Pepa launched her own social network for her fans. On 23 October 2008, Salt-N-Pepa performed at the BET Hip Hop Awards. In January 2011, Denton appeared in an episode of the TBS sitcom Are We There Yet? as Tammy, a woman who falls for the Terry Crews character of Nick. Denton joined the reality television show Growing Up Hip Hop as a supporting cast member in January 2016 along with her daughter Egypt (a main cast member) and niece Tahira Francis.

Personal life
Denton once dated and was engaged to rapper Prince Markie Dee sometime during the mid-1980s. She also dated fellow rapper and actor Will Smith. On 6 July 1990, Denton gave birth to her first child, a son she had with New York rapper Tyran "Tah-Tah" Moore whom she named Tyran Denton Jr. She made a guest appearance on Ricki Lake in 1994, teaching teenage girls the responsibilities of being a mother. Denton was the owner of HollyHood, a retail clothing store in the Buckhead section of Atlanta, Georgia, which opened in November 1995. On 2 April 1999, Denton married Treach (whose real name is Anthony Criss) of the rap group Naughty by Nature at a Kansas City tattoo parlor after dating on and off for seven years. Their wedding ceremony was held at their home in Morristown, New Jersey, on 24 July 1999. Denton and Treach had one daughter, Egypt Jahnari Criss (born 2 September 1998). After allegations of physical abuse inflicted by Treach, they divorced in 2001.

Discography

Studio albums
 Hot, Cool & Vicious (1986)
 A Salt with a Deadly Pepa (1988)
 Blacks' Magic (1990)
 Very Necessary (1993)
 Brand New (1997)

Filmography

References

External links
Official website

1960s births
Age controversies
American rappers of Jamaican descent
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
Jamaican rappers
Rappers from Queens, New York
Jamaican emigrants to the United States
Living people
East Coast hip hop musicians
Queensborough Community College alumni
American women rappers
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American women musicians
21st-century women rappers

Pepa (rapper)


The Avro Shackleton is a four-engine British military aircraft. Its first flight was in March 1949. The Royal Air Force started using it in 1951. It was out of service from 1991. It was also used by the South African Air Force. It was originally designed and built as an ocean and sea reconnaissance aircraft. It was also used as an electronic warfare plane. There were 185 of these built.

Royal Air Force aircraft

Avro Shackleton


John Tinsley Oden (December 25, 1936 – August 27, 2023) was an American engineer. He was the Associate Vice President for Research, the Cockrell Family Regents' Chair in Engineering #2, the Peter O'Donnell, Jr. Centennial Chair in Computing Systems, a Professor of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, a Professor of Mathematics, and a Professor of Computer Science at The University of Texas at Austin. Oden has been listed as an ISI Highly Cited Author in Engineering by the ISI Web of Knowledge, Thomson Scientific Company.

Oden was the founding director of the Oden Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences, which was started in January 2003 as an expansion of the Texas Institute for Computational and Applied Mathematics (TICAM), also directed by Oden for over a decade. The Oden Institute, formerly known as ICES, was named in his honor in 2019.

Oden earned a B.S. degree in civil engineering from LSU in 1959. Oden earned a PhD in engineering mechanics from Oklahoma State University in 1962. He taught at OSU and The University of Alabama in Huntsville, where he was the head of the Department of Engineering Mechanics prior to going to Texas in 1973. He has held visiting professor positions at other universities in the United States, England, and Brazil.

An author of over 500 scientific publications: books, book chapters, conference papers, and monographs, he is an editor of the series, Finite Elements in Flow Problems and of Computational Methods in Nonlinear Mechanics. He has published extensively in this field and in related areas over the last three decades.

Oden died on August 27, 2023, at the age of 86.

Honors and awards
Oden was an Honorary Member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and was a Fellow of six international scientific/technical societies: IACM, AAM, ASME, ASCE, SES, and BMIA. He was a Fellow, founding member, and first President of the U.S. Association for Computational Mechanics and the International Association for Computational Mechanics. He was a Fellow and past President of both the American Academy of Mechanics and the Society of Engineering Science. Oden was awarded the A. Cemal Eringen Medal in 1989, the Worcester Reed Warner Medal, the Lohmann Medal, the Theodore von Karman Medal, the John von Neumann medal, the Newton/Gauss Congress Medal, and the Stephan P. Timoshenko Medal. He was also knighted as "Chevalier des Palmes Academiques" by the French government and he held four honorary doctorates, honoris causa, from universities in Portugal (Technical University of Lisbon), Belgium (Faculte Polytechnique), Poland (Cracow University of Technology), and the United States (Presidential Citation, The University of Texas at Austin). Oden was also elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering in 1988 for pioneering work in computational mechanics, which significantly advanced the transformation of nonlinear continuum mechanics into a powerful and widely used engineering tool.

Books
Finite Elements of Nonlinear Continua, Dover Publications, 2006.
An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Finite Elements, with J. N. Reddy, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1976.
Applied Functional Analysis, Prentice Hall, 1979.
Mechanics of Elastic Structures, 2nd ed., with E. A. Ripperger, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1981.
Finite Elements an Introduction, volume 1, with E. B. Becker and G. F. Carey, 1981.
Finite Elements in Fluids, volume 2, with O. C. Zienkiewicz, R. H. Gallagher, and C. Taylor, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976.
Finite Elements in Fluids, volume 4 with R. H. Gallagher, D. N. Norrie, and O. C. Zienkiewicz, Wiley, Chichester, 1982.
Finite Elements in Fluids, volume 6, with R. H. Gallagher, G. F. Carey, and O.C. Zienkiewicz, Wiley, Chichester, 1985.
State of the Art Survey in Computational Fluid Mechanics, with A. K. Noor, ASME, 1988.
Computational Methods in Nonlinear Mechanics, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1980.

References

External links

1936 births
2023 deaths
People from Alexandria, Louisiana
21st-century American engineers
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
University of Texas at Austin faculty
Oklahoma State University faculty
University of Alabama in Huntsville faculty
Oklahoma State University alumni
Louisiana State University alumni
Fellows of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
Fellows of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques

J. Tinsley Oden


In 1968 and 1969, student protests at several Japanese universities ultimately forced the closure of campuses nationwide. Known as daigaku funsō (,  'university troubles') or  daigaku tōsō (, 'university struggles'), the protests were part of the worldwide protest cycle in 1968 and the late-1960s Japanese protest cycle, including the Anpo protests of 1970 and the struggle against the construction of Narita Airport. Students demonstrated initially against practical issues in universities and eventually formed the Zenkyōtō in mid-1968 to organize themselves. The Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management allowed for the dispersal of protesters in 1969.

The demonstrations were organized to protest against unpaid internships at the University of Tokyo Medical School. Building on years of student organization and protest, New Left student organizations began occupying buildings around campus. The other main campus where the protests originated was Nihon University. They began with student discontent over alleged corruption in the university board of directors. At Nihon, protests were driven less by ideology and more by pragmatism because of the university's traditional and conservative nature. The movement spread to other Japanese universities, escalating into violence both on campus and in the streets. In late 1968, at the zenith of the movement, thousands of students entered Shinjuku Station and rioted. Factional infighting (uchi-geba, ) was rampant among these students. In January 1969, the police besieged the University of Tokyo and ended the protests there, leading to renewed fervor from students at other universities, where protests continued. However, as public opinion of the students fell, and the police increased their efforts to stop the protests, the student movement waned. The passage of the 1969 Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management gave police the legal basis to apply more force when dispersing the bulk of the movement, although splinter groups of the New Left groups, such as the United Red Army, continued their violence into the 1970s.

The students drew ideological inspiration from the works of Marxist theorists like Karl Marx and Leon Trotsky, French existentialist philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, and the homegrown philosophy of the Japanese poet and critic Takaaki Yoshimoto. Yoshimoto's interpretation of "autonomy" (jiritsusei) and "subjectivity" (shutaisei) were based on his critique of the progressive liberal interpretations of these ideas by other Japanese intellectuals such as Masao Maruyama, whom he denounced as hypocritical. The students' devotion to shutaisei in particular would lead ultimately to the disintegration of their movement, as they focused increasingly on "self-negation" (jiko hitei) and "self-criticism" (hansei).

The university troubles helped in the emergence of Mitsu Tanaka's Women's Liberation (Ūman Ribu) movement. While most things had settled down by the 1970s and many of the students had reintegrated into Japanese society, the protests found their way into the cultural sphere, inspiring writers like Haruki Murakami and Ryū Murakami. The students' political demands moved education reform to the top of the agenda for the Japanese government, which it tried to address through organizations such as the Central Council for Education. The protests have been the subject of modern popular media, such as Kōji Wakamatsu's 2007 film United Red Army.

Origins of student activism

The Allied Occupation of Japan from the end of the Second World War to 1952 brought significant changes to Japanese politics. The occupation authorities repealed the Peace Preservation Law, which had been enacted before the war to target left-wing groups specifically and arrest their members. Left-wing prisoners incarcerated under this law were released. The Japanese Communist Party (JCP) and the Japanese Socialist Party (JSP) were legalized and became influential within Japanese politics. The JCP focused on increasing their support among students, which led to the association of students with left-wing activism. The occupation authorities promulgated the post-war Constitution of Japan, which gave political organizations the right to exist and workers the right to organize. Left-wing groups supported the Constitution and students sought to protect it and defend themselves against actions by the Japanese state they viewed as unconstitutional.

Occupation authorities restructured the Japanese education system by repealing the Imperial Rescript on Education, decentralizing the administration of the education system, and introducing the American-based 6-3-3-4 school system (six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education), making at least nine years of education mandatory. High school admission continued to be rare and competitive. The 1949 National School Establishment Law expanded the higher education system, leading to local higher education institutions being consolidated into national universities, ensuring the existence of state-supported universities in every prefecture. This standardization later resulted in an increasing number of students ready to go on to high school, which led to the creation of more private high schools by the Ministry of Education (MoE). The number of high school graduates grew to 90% of students by the 1960s, putting pressure on higher education institutions to expand, and for secondary education institutions to extend into tertiary education.

The rise of left-wing sympathies among students led to the creation of the Zengakuren, a socialist student organization formed in 1948. Zengakuren grew out of a 1947–48 protest against an increase in university fees led by student supporters of the JCP. With Zengakuren, the student movement had a banner to rally under. In the 1950s, New Left movements that had evolved from Zengakuren, which were unaffiliated with the JCP, sprang up within the student movement. Some of Zengakuren's student leaders, for example, split from the JCP to form the Communist League, a Leninist group known as the "Bund" which took their name from the German name of the Communist League of Karl Marx's time. Groups that followed the theory of Leon Trotsky came together to form the Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Kakukyōdō), and less radical Zengakuren leaders within the Bund led the Student Socialist League (Shakai Gakusei Dōmei, shortened to Shagakudō). These factions wrested control of Zengakuren from the JCP for the New Left.

In 1960, a broad coalition of left-wing groups including the JCP, the JSP, Zengakuren, and the Sōhyō trade federation representing Japanese trade unions carried out massive protests against renewal of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States and Japan (known commonly as Anpo). For Zengakuren, Anpo marked a renewal and strengthening of their political program and the eclipsing of the Old Left by the New Left. During the Anpo protests of 1960, a split occurred between two leading left-wing intellectuals – Masao Maruyama and Takaaki Yoshimoto. Maruyama saw the protest as an example of the enacting of the concept of shutaisei (subjectivity), or the idea of the autonomy of society from the state and the self, and as a shining beacon of democratic ideals. Yoshimoto saw the protest as a reaction against capitalist alienation, not as an act of protecting democracy. Yoshimoto accused Maruyama and his supporters of being duplicitous, hypocritical, and going against shutaisei by deceiving themselves into believing they were against the war and the heralds of popular democracy. The New Left, especially the Bund, took up Yoshimoto's ideas and his critique of Maruyama and Japanese progressivism. Zengakuren attacked the JCP, the progressives, and anything else they deemed as the "Establishment" as organizations that threatened shutaisei by destroying the autonomy of the self and replacing it with a vanguard. This marked the turn of the Japanese New Left against mainstream progressivism and orthodox Stalinism.

By the late 1960s, the number of university students and universities reached an all-time high, with 52 universities in Tokyo providing a haven for New Left radicals. The lack of post-war publication censorship, the printing of affordable Marxist texts and the abundance of free time at university led to the radicalization of many more students. The generation born in the postwar baby boom had reached university and universities had accommodated this change by opening up thousands of additional spaces. Tensions had already risen, and the student movement had been mostly dormant since the Anpo protests. The situation in the universities had become increasingly unstable, leading to the 1968 protests.

Initial skirmishes

Student unrest reemerged with protests at Keio University in 1965 and Waseda University in 1966 being the first to use the name "All-Campus Joint Struggle Committees" (Zenkyōtō) to refer to the student organizations coordinating the protests. The Waseda disturbances lasted 150 days, ending when student activism calmed down nationwide. A controversial reform made by the University of Tokyo in late 1967 regarding medical internship, seen as six years of free labor by medical students, led to a student strike at the university in early 1968. A fight on February 19 between a tutor and students caused by the controversy over internship reform led to the punishment of 17 students and the expulsion of four. Medical students, who disrupted graduation ceremonies at the university in March, deemed some of the punishment as absurd, as one of the students was not in Tokyo at the day of the fight but in Kyushu. As riot police were called in to protect these ceremonies, the students moved to occupy Yasuda Hall in June. The University of Tokyo decided to take measures to take back Yasuda Hall from student occupation and clear its barricades. However, this led to outrage amongst the student population, which re-occupied the hall and called a general strike.

The protests by the University of Tokyo medical students spilled over to other universities. One of the first was Nihon University (known commonly as Nichidai), which saw 10,000 of its 86,000 students demonstrating in May 1968 over the suspicious use of two billion yen of funds by the university's board of directors. Students accused the board of "money-making" in a "mass-production university". Although the political ideologies of the universities were different, the University of Tokyo was an elite school whose students had left-wing sympathies, while Nihon University was more conservative and repressive. The protests used similar tactics, such as the occupation of important university buildings, whose use later allowed for the formation of Zenkyōtō groups in different universities.

Zenkyōtō and spread of the movement

In July 1968, the University of Tokyo Zenkyōtō, or All-Campus Joint Struggle Committee was formed to coordinate protests at different universities across the country. Non-sectarian postgraduate student Yoshitaka Yamamoto was elected leader of this Zenkyōtō. Although it had previously existed, the University of Tokyo popularized the Zenkyōtō model. This served as the mainstream interpretation of the model after this point. The Zenkyōtō brought the actions of non-sectarian activists – people who did not follow any set path to revolution and were unaffiliated with either Zengakuren or the JCP – to light. This contrasted with the pre-Zenkyōtō situation, where activists were split into 39 groups affiliated with Zengakuren and opposed to the JCP and one group that was pro-JCP. The Zenkyōtō helped to expand the scope of protestors. Whereas only undergraduate students protested against Anpo in 1960, the Zenkyōtō included graduate students and some members of staff. The Zenkyōtō at Nihon University helped students push back against conservative influence on the student movement.

In July 1968, the Zenkyōtō at the University of Tokyo demanded that all senior medical staff at the university resign. This led to the resignations of the director of the University of Tokyo Hospital and the dean of the Faculty of Medicine on August 10. In the same month, talks broke down, violence reemerged on campus, and the Zenkyōtō slowly lost control to different organizations. In November, members of the Kakumaru-ha, a breakaway organization of the Trotskyist Japan Revolutionary Communist League, took nine professors as hostages, including Literature Faculty Dean Kentarō Hayashi. Discussing the protests, Hayashi described how many professors like him were interrogated ruthlessly for days and verbally abused by students. The Shaseidō Kaihō-ha, another Zengakuren organization, and the Minsei Dōmei, a Zengakuren clique aligned with the JCP, became involved. These factions brought factionalist divisions onto campus, leading to fights where non-sectarian students intervened to either break them up or provide first aid. This three-way internal conflict took place mostly at the Komaba campus of the University of Tokyo. In December, a fight between the Shaseidō Kaihō-ha and the Kakumaru-ha at Waseda University that started over an accusation of the theft of papers spilled over to the University of Tokyo, where the factions occupied different buildings belonging to the University's Literature Department and built barricades. This dispute lasted three weeks, leading to the withdrawal of the Kakumaru-ha from the Zenkyōtō. Different Zengakuren factions controlled different buildings from then on.

In the meantime, protests spread across many universities in Japan. Students at different universities protested different things. At Kansei Gakuin University and Tōhoku University, students protested rising tuition costs. They called for university democratization at Kanagawa University and Beppu University. At Doshisha University and Waseda University, the protest's primary focus was giving the students a role in electing the university rector, and students aimed to gain control of student association buildings at Nagasaki University and Hanazono University. Sophia University shut down its campus for six months. An American jet crashed into the computer center at Kyushu University, sparking anti-American protests aimed at shutting down Brady Air Base. By the end of 1968, students had seized control of 67 campuses, with hundreds of campuses subject to significant student unrest. Protests also occurred outside of university campuses. Thousands of students entered Shinjuku Station on October 21 (International Anti-War Day) and rioted, leading the police to invoke the Riotous Assembly Crime Act. The scale of the riot provoked public backlash that increased public support for the police, which led them to use more force when assaulting occupied campuses. The Sophia University occupation, for example, collapsed in December 1968 after a police siege of the campus.

Violence escalated in the autumn of 1968. Until then, police viewed students as part of the widespread anti-Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) movement that included opposition parties and labor unions. However, increasing violence, which resulted in less public support for the students, led the police to single out student radicals. The students fought with staves made of wood or bamboo known as Gewalt Staves, or gebaruto-bō in Japanese (abbreviated as geba-bō). The word Gewalt means "violence" or "force" in German, to students a valid means towards achieving political goals.

Decline and fall

At the beginning of 1969, the students were hopeful they would hold out against the police. As violence continued, the government canceled the spring 1969 university entrance exams. The situation was hectic on the University of Tokyo campus. Minsei, the pro-JCP clique of Zengakuren, was winning, which pressured the University of Tokyo Zenkyōtō to call in student reinforcements from Nihon University and Chuo University. The students became disillusioned, resulting in many of them voting to stop the strikes at the University of Tokyo. The hardliners, however, holed up in buildings like Yasuda Hall, readied themselves for a siege.

On 18 January 1969, thousands of police moved onto the University of Tokyo campus. Nationalist writer Yukio Mishima was so alarmed by the siege that he contacted the police to tell them to be careful. Conflict continued among the disparate Zengakuren cliques and Zenkyōtō, although their power had been greatly reduced. Despite the conviction  of the groups in Yasuda Hall that they would win the conflict, the weekend ended with police in control of the roof of Yasuda Hall, the final holdout of the University of Tokyo student movement. This fight was a low point for the student movement – the number of occupied university campuses had declined to 33. Following the siege, Mishima addressed the students, criticizing them for not believing strongly enough to die for their cause. The television broadcasts of the fighting in Yasuda Hall only increased the fervor of student activists elsewhere.

The explosion of student unrest following the Yasuda Hall siege led to the number of occupied campuses skyrocketing from 33 to 77 by March and 111 by April. However, the government paid close attention to the protests, and police strengthened their stance against them. In February, the barricades at Nihon University were dismantled, and the university reopened its classes. Its entrance exams were held under heavy police guard. Attention shifted to Kyoto University, where the Kyoto Zenkyōtō and the local Minsei chapter, supported by the Kyoto University authorities, had been fighting viciously. Following a fight that ended at Nihon University, Zenkyōtō students declared central Kyoto a "liberated area", and riot police were called in to deal with the students. Entrance exams were held in March in emergency centers in Kyoto under police protection, following which the protests at Kyoto University fizzled out. On Okinawa Day, students clashed with police in central Tokyo against the background of a much larger protest against the American occupation of Okinawa. Student activity spiked again in June, as they allied with other left-wing groups to protest against the Vietnam War.

In late 1968, Prime Minister Eisaku Sato appointed educationist Michita Sakata, who previously called for a special investigation into university deficiencies in 1968, as Minister of Education. Sakata, now tasked with trying to deal with calls for government intervention in the universities, did so by promulgating the Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management in May 1969. The government rushed it through the National Diet and implemented it as law in August. The law called for the creation of the Extra Council on University Disputes and made it possible for university authorities to call in riot police to resolve disputes with students. This legislation served as a heavy blow for the already declining student groups and was one of the key factors in their demise.

By the end of 1969, the students had been broken. Many barricades had been dismantled, and violence slowly dissipated. The National Zenkyōtō, formed in 1969, whose activity peaked in September with a rally held in Hibiya Park, fractured from infighting. Movements became isolated. Despite the destruction of any unity between Zenkyōtō, students continued to riot in the streets, with their more of their attention turned to concerns like the war in Vietnam and the upcoming renewal of the Anpo treaty. In 1970, the situation on campuses returned to normal.

Factions
Infighting between Anti-Yoyogi (anti-JCP) groups, Minsei, and others plagued the university struggles. The Chūkaku-ha and Kakumaru-ha were the two main factions of the Trotskyist Kakukyōdō. The Chūkaku-ha agreed with the Bund and posited that the institution of the university had been brought under capitalism from its previously free status, and that the struggles represented the contradictions within capitalism. The Kakumaru-ha believed  because of the imperialistic nature of the university, students could never influence society by entering its administration. (They were also anti-Zenkyōtō, having fought against them at Waseda University in late 1969). Both also disagreed politically – although they were both Marxist. Kakumaru-ha advocated for a focus on the creation of an anti-Stalinist party, while the Chūkaku-ha focused more on class war and the mobilization of the proletariat. The Chūkaku-ha criticized Kakumaru-ha as being petite bourgeois. The Shaseidō Kaihō-ha believed that the problem with the university was its educational ideology of preparing students to become "slaves" in industry. The Bund was much more hierarchical compared to other student groups. Ideologically, they focused on the defense of Japanese democracy from fascism instead of destroying the university. Minsei, as a more reformist faction aligned with the JCP, believed that compromise was possible with professors and that their ultimate opponent was the oppressive force of the Ministry of Education. Minsei was important in working against Zenkyōtō, opposing their occupations of campuses.

This chart shows the relationships between various factions within the Japanese New Left. However, it is an oversimplification of these relations, with many details not shown. Factions colored yellow were the members of the Sanpa Zengakuren, an anti-JCP alliance. The two splinter factions of Kakukyōdō also had their own factions of Marugakudō, Kakukyōdō's Zengakuren student arm.

Philosophy

Their interpretation of the idea of shutaisei greatly influenced the students. Once started, the protests became a way for students to oppose the progressives for abandoning shutaisei during the Anpo Protests of 1960. The students wished to have a sense of personal self-hood or agency and wanted to join with other people looking for shutaisei to affirm this through fighting.

Japanese New Left scholar William Andrews likens the students' interpretation of shutaisei to Jean-Paul Sartre's theory of good and bad faith – it was personal conviction and student agency that the students thought would bring about change, not following any party line. This led to an emphasis on self-criticism and self-negation (jikohihan) as a way of becoming more revolutionary.

When University of Tokyo students were asked what they were fighting for, most of them claimed they were fighting either for "asserting the self" or "self-transformation". The students rejected anything they deemed "reformism", such as concrete reform goals. Their goals overall were very vague; one Zenkyōtō member claimed to be fighting "for the battle itself" and some students simply wanted to join in on the fighting. The students, especially those within the Bund, interpreted shutaisei through Takaaki Yoshimoto's simplified interpretation. Their idea of shutaisei led to their demise – they wanted to have the agency to negate their own selves.

Critics of this interpretation like then-dean of the Literature Facility of the University of Tokyo, Kentaro Hayashi, who had been taken hostage by the students during the protests, denounced the students' ideas as "the hypocrisy of self-denigration" – despite all of their talk about denying "the University of Tokyo within us", the students were hypocritically keeping their privileges as University of Tokyo students. Yoshimoto himself, seen as a "prophet" by the students, was critical of them for being wrapped up in a "communal illusion". Some of the most popular books within the student population of Japan at the time were existentialist works such as Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov and Camus's The Stranger.

Legacy
The late-1960s protest cycle caused the Japanese left to lose public support – in the 1969 Japanese general election, the JSP lost 51 seats. The waning influence, power and public image of the left, as well as increased police scrutiny, led to the failure of the 1970 Anpo protests.

Within the psyche of the 1968 generation, the defeat of the protests generated an identity crisis. This lack of understanding towards the self was one of the main inspirations for writer Haruki Murakami – some of his books deal directly with the aftermath of the protests in the 1970s, like Hear the Wind Sing. Other famous books inspired by the protests include the 1977 Zenkyōtō novel Boku tte nani by Masahiro Mita (ja), and 69 by Ryū Murakami (further adapted into a 2004 film). The events at Yasuda Hall eventually led to the creation of a new genre of literature named Zenkyōtō bungaku (Zenkyōtō literature), which comprises books published in the 1970s and 1980s that are set during the protests. These works include intense imagery of strong emotions, disappointment, confusion, and failure. Philosopher and semiotician Roland Barthes even dedicated a section of his book Empire of Signs to the Zengakuren students.

The student protests did not spawn any reformist political movements, like the Green Party in Germany. Oguma identifies three reasons for this – the students' rejection of any concrete goals and their own moralistic goals, continuing economic growth in Japan leading to the employment of former activists within traditional Japanese society, and the rigid structure and Marxist nature of the sects. However, some militant students created their own new movements, such as the Rengo Sekigun (United Red Army) or the Nihon Sekigun (Japanese Red Army). For these students, the student protests were just a step in the right direction, and not the end of their military struggle. Sekigun and other remnant groups of the student groups that participated in the protests were responsible for such incidents as the Yodogō Hijacking Incident and the Asama-Sansō incident. The evolution of these groups from the protests is the subject of Kōji Wakamatsu's 2007 film United Red Army.

The aftermath of the protests also led to the rise of Japanese feminism. Women were constrained in their ability to protest during the movement, especially in Japanese society, where women's roles were more traditional. Importantly, female students were given an opportunity and agency for public action. The failure of female students to be treated equally during the protests led to a greater awareness among women of gender inequality on campus. This new awareness led feminist intellectual Mitsu Tanaka to write her 1970 work No More Toilets, a seminal work in the Ūman ribu movement. Tanaka criticized the infighting within the New Left groups as overly masculine and capitalistic.

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

Books

Journal articles

Further reading
  Writer Manabu Miyazaki's autobiography; he participated in the protests at the University of Tokyo and describes them in detail.
  Sociologist Eiji Oguma's account of the university struggles.

External links
 The Todai Riots: 1968–69 at The Japan Times
 1968: The year Japan truly raised its voice at The Japan Times

1968 in Japan
1968 in Japanese politics
1969 in Japan
1969 in Japanese politics
1968 riots
1969 riots
Counterculture of the 1960s
1968 protests
1969 protests
Anarchism in Japan
New Left
Far-left politics in Japan
Rebellions in Japan
History of socialism
History of anarchism
Protests in Japan
Riots and civil disorder in Japan
Socialism in Japan
Student protests in Japan
Student strikes
Trotskyism in Asia
Cold War history of Japan

1968–1969 Japanese university protests


Pauline Scanlon (born in Dingle, County Kerry, Ireland) is a singer of contemporary and traditional Irish music.

Dingle is in the Corca Dhuibhne Gaeltacht, which is an area where the population's first language is Irish. Scanlon has been singing professionally since she was 15 years old.

Scanlon has toured extensively worldwide with Sharon Shannon and has been featured on RTÉ's The Late Late Show. She featured on Sharon Shannon's Libertango album (2003), singing "A Case of You", originally by Joni Mitchell.

Her first solo album, Red Colour Sun, was released on the Daisy Label in 2004. (Compass Records in the US) It blended traditional sounds with modern influences. In January 2006, she completed a new project with Donough Hennessy (formerly the guitar player for the Irish band Lunasa) along with Darrell Scott, Kenny Malone, Stuart Duncan and other musicians. The album Hush was released on 15 August 2006 on Compass Records.

Scanlon sang backing vocals for Belinda Carlisle on her 2007 release Voila and for Gaelic Americana artist Kyle Carey on her albums Monongah and North Star.

In early 2009, she joined with Éilís Kennedy to form a band initially under the name of the Dingle White Females, later changed to Lumiere. Lumiere released their debut album (self-titled) on 11 September 2009 on the Sony Ireland label. It was followed by a second album in March 2013, called My Dearest Dear. Scanlon released the album Gossamer in May 2016.

In 2022 she released the album The Unquiet to represent the life of her late mother.

References

External links
 Pauline Scanlon Official Website
 Lumiere

Irish folk singers
Irish women singers
Musicians from County Kerry
Living people
People from Dingle
Year of birth missing (living people)

Pauline Scanlon


In Georgian historiography, the Great Turkish Invasion, also translated as the Great Turkish Troubles (), refers to the continuous attacks and settlement of the Seljuq-led Turkic tribes in the Georgian lands during the reign of George II in the 1080s. The term has its origin in the 12th-century Georgian chronicle and is accepted in the modern scholarship of Georgia. The Seljuq invasions resulted in a severe crisis in the kingdom of Georgia, leaving several of its provinces depopulated and weakening the royal authority, until the tide was reversed by the military victories of King David IV (r. 1089–1125).

Background
The Seljuqs made their first appearances in Georgia in the 1060s, when the Sultan Alp Arslan laid waste to the south-western provinces of the Georgian kingdom and reduced Kakheti. These intruders were part of the same wave of the Turkish movement which inflicted a crushing defeat on the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071. Although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion, the Byzantine withdrawal from Anatolia brought them in more direct contact with the Seljuqs. In the 1070s, Georgia was twice attacked by the Sultan Malik Shah I, but the Georgian King George II was still able to fight back at times.

Invasion

In 1080, George II was surprised, in the vicinity of Queli, by a large Turkish force led by Aḥmad, probably of the Mamlān dynasty, whom the Georgian chronicle calls "a powerful emir and strong archer". George was put to flight, through Adjara, to Abkhazia. The Turks conquered Kars from the Georgians and returned to their bases laden with wealth  This was soon followed by even larger inroads, led by Yaʿqub and ʿIsā-Böri. On June 24, 1080, the half-nomadic Turks began to arrive en masse in the southern provinces of Georgia, quickly moving deeper into the country and overrunning Asispori, Klarjeti, Shavsheti, Adjara, Samtskhe, Kartli, Argueti, Samokalako, and Chqondidi. The key towns of Kutaisi and Artanuji and the vibrant Christian hermitages of Klarjeti were all burnt down. Those who survived the fighting had to flee to the mountains, where many of them found their death of cold and starvation.

Watching his kingdom being destroyed, George II, in despair, repaired to Isfahan, to Malik Shah, who treated the Georgian monarch with much consideration and promised security from the nomads in exchange of a tribute (kharaj).

Results

George's acceptance of the Seljuq suzerainty did not bring a real peace for Georgia. The Turks continued their seasonal movement into the Georgian territory to make use of the rich herbage of the Kura valley and the Seljuq garrisons occupied the key fortresses in Georgia's south. These inroads and settlements had a ruinous effect on Georgia's economic and political order. Cultivated lands were turned into pastures for the nomads and peasant farmers were compelled to seek safety in the mountains. The contemporary Georgian chronicler laments that "in those times there was neither sowing nor harvest. The land was ruined and turned into forest; in place of men beasts and animals of the field made their dwelling there. Insufferable oppression fell on all the inhabitants of the land; it was unparalleled and far worse than all ravages heard of or experienced." A similar situation was found in neighboring Armenia as related in Aristakes Lastivertsi's chronicle. To make the things worse, a severe earthquake struck the southern provinces of Georgia, devastating Tmogvi and the surrounding area on April 16, 1088.

The great nobles of Georgia capitalized on weakening of the royal power to promote their autonomy. George II attempted to make use of Malik Shah's favor to bend Aghsartan I, the recalcitrant king of Kakheti in eastern Georgia, into submission, but failed to achieve any result due largely to his contradictory actions. Aghsartan was able to outplay him by offering submission to Malik Shah and buy security by converting to Islam.

Aftermath

Such was the situation in Georgia, when, in 1089, George II chose to put the crown—or was forced to do so by his nobles—on the head of his 16-year-old son David IV. This energetic young ruler was able to capitalize on the disorder in the Seljuq empire following Malik Shah's death in 1092 and the arrival of the First Crusade in the Middle East in 1096 and embarked on a systematic campaign aimed at curbing the aristocratic opposition and expelling the Seljuqs from his kingdom. By 1099, the year when Jerusalem fell to the Crusaders, David felt strong enough to withhold annual tribute paid to the Seljuqs. A string of military successes over the regional successors of the Seljuq empire was concluded by a major victory over the Muslim armies at Didgori in 1121, which made the Georgian kingdom a formidable power in the Caucasus and East Anatolia.

References

Bibliography

Wars involving the Kingdom of Georgia
Seljuk Empire
1080s conflicts
1080s in Asia
1080s in Europe
11th century in the Kingdom of Georgia
Georgian–Seljuk wars

Great Turkish Invasion


Juan Silvano Godoi (November 12, 1850 – January 1926) was a librarian and intellectual at the time of the Paraguayan national reconstruction.

Childhood and studies

He was born in Asuncion on November 12, 1850. He was the son of the Colonel Juan Vicente Godoy and Petrona Echagüe. Narciso Echagüe y Andía, his mother's father, was one of the leaders of the national independence. He was imprisoned during Francia's dictatorship, and shot after twenty years in jail.

Juan Silvano studied in the Jesuit College of the Inmaculate Conception in the city of Santa Fe, Argentina. There, he was condisciple of José Zorrilla de San Martín. In the holydays of 1864, he spent some time in Asunción. Due to his short age and good luck, Francisco Solano López authorized him to continue his education in Argentina. This way, he escaped along with two of his brothers, the foulness of a war in which sixteen of the Echagüe family died. Some of the deceased were meritorious soldiers.

He entered the Buenos Aires School of Law, and stayed there during the whole war. In January 1869, once Asuncion was occupied, he interrupted his studies to move back to their land with a group of young fellow patriots. This was done as an attempt to help reconstruct the nation. In spite of his religious formation, Godoi had become a mason and a freethinker.

The post-war

As a youngster Juan Silvano had begun replacing the "y" in his original surname (Godoy) for an "I".

He was lucky enough to live through the dark postwar years in Paraguay. His strong and idealist personality forced him to get involved in the corrupt national politics. He did everything he could to help reconstruct a shattered country, but the politics scene was full of power disputes. Shortly he was known as one of the main politicians in the scene. Many politicians were killed or exiled in their attempt to establish a national order.

During the time he spent in Paraguay after his return he knew many young national leaders. He was a co-founder of the Great Club of the People (a precursor of the along with José Segundo Decoud, Facundo Machaín, Juan José Decoud, Cayo Miltos and Miguel Palacios. He witnessed how many of his previously mentioned fellows vanished.

He was elected as a conventional in the district of the Cathedral. He was a member of the commission that was in charge of redacting the Constitution of 1870. In the chaotic environment of post-war Paraguayan politics, he and his family soon found themselves opposed to powerful people.

After the killing of his brother Marcos, Juan Silvano declared himself an opponent of J. B. Gill, who had been president since 1874. Afterwards, he became a part of a conspiracy to murder of Gill. The assassination occurred in the middle of the street, April 12, 1877, and was headed by another of his brothers, Nicanor.

Exile and return

After the murder, Godoi lived a long exile of eighteen years in Buenos Aires. His enormous cultural background and well-known education, led him to meet most of the intellectuals of Argentina, like Aristóbulo Del Valle, Ramón Cárcano, Guido Spano, Mariano Pelliza and others.
During the government of Colonel Escurra, in 1895, he returned to Paraguay. He took his library of twenty thousand volumes along with him. He also took many of his famous paintings. In addition to this he offered the country two books of his own, as a display of patriotism in spite of his long absence.

In 1901, he became general director of the National Library, Museum and Archives.
He represented Paraguay in 1910, the century of Argentina's independence, in the America's Congress.

His books

He wrote many books, and was a polemic journalist. In the writings he left, there is a very valuable legacy like:

 "Monografías históricas" (1893)
 "Operaciones de Guerra del general José Eduvigis Díaz" (1897)
 "El concepto de patria" (1998)
 "El coronel Juan Antonio Escurra" (1903)
 "La muerte del Mariscal López" (1905)
 "El Barón de Río Branco" (1913)
 "El asalto a los acorazados" (1919)

Godoi died in January 1926, in Asunción. The mother of his children was Bienvenida Rivarola.

References

 "Cien vidas paraguayas". Carlos Zubizarreta
 "El solar guaraní". Justo Pastor Benítez
 "Historia de las letras paraguayas". Carlos R. Centurión
 "Historia contemporánea del Paraguay". Gómez Freire Estéves

External links
 List of famous paraguayans
 Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes de Asunción
 Calisphere: Juan Silvano Godoi papers (digitized documents)

1850 births
1926 deaths
People from Asunción
Paraguayan people of Spanish descent
Paraguayan non-fiction writers
Paraguayan male writers
Male non-fiction writers
University of Buenos Aires alumni

Juan Silvano Godoi


Sir George Bell KCB (17 March 1794 – 10 July 1877) was an officer in the British Army. He served during the Peninsular War in the Napoleonic Wars, the First Anglo-Burmese War, the Rebellions of 1837 in Canada, and the Crimean War. During the Crimean War he saw action at the battles of Alma and Inkerman, and at the Siege of Sevastopol.

Early life and the Peninsula War
Bell was the son of George Bell, of Belle Vue, on Lough Erne, Fermanagh, by Catherine, daughter of Dominick Nugent, M.P., was born at Belle Vue, 17 March 1794, and whilst yet at school in Dublin was gazetted an ensign in the 34th Regiment of Foot on 11 March 1811.

Bell went to Portugal with his regiment to fight under the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula War. He carried the colours of his regiment for the first time in the action of Arroyo-de-Molinos; was present at the second and final Siege of Badajoz, and in the majority of the celebrated actions which intervened between that time and the Battle of Toulouse. On being gazetted to the 45th Regiment of Foot in 1825 he proceeded to India, and was present in Ava during the First Anglo-Burmese War.

Canada
Bell was promoted to captain in 1828, and in 1836 was in Canada, where he was actively employed during the rebellion of 1837-1838. He commanded the fort and garrison of Coteau-du-Lac, an important position on the Saint Lawrence River, and received the thanks of the commander of the forces and his brevet-majority, 29 March 1839, for his exertions in recovering the guns of the fort, which had been sunk in the river, unspiking and mounting them in position, when it had been reported to be impossible to do so. The guns were 24-pounders, sixteen of which, with 4,000 round shot, he recovered from the deep in the middle of a Canadian winter.

Crimea
On becoming lieutenant-colonel of the 1st Foot, known as the Royal Regiment, 5 December 1843, Bell next served in Gibraltar, Nova Scotia, the West Indies, the Mediterranean, and Turkey, after which he landed with the allied armies during the Crimea War, and was present at the battles of Alma and Inkerman, and in the Siege of Sevastopol, where he was wounded and honourably mentioned in a despatch from Lord Raglan, who appointed him to the command of a brigade.

Later life

On his return to England Bell was made a Companion of the Bath on 5 July 1855, and took up his residence at Liverpool as inspecting field officer until 1859, when he became a major-general in the army. He was in the Royal Regiment for the long period of thirty years. From this time onwards he never obtained any further employment, the reason being, as he fully believed, a letter which he wrote to The Times on 12 December 1854, complaining of the deficiencies of the commissariat in the siege of Sevastopol, and soliciting help from the people of England. On 23 October 1863 he was appointed colonel of the 104th Foot; he became colonel of the 32nd Foot on 2 February 1867, and colonel of the 1st Foot on 3 August 1868.

Bell was created a Knight Commander of the Bath on 13 March 1867; a lieutenant-general on 28 January 1868; and a general on 8 March 1873. He died at 156 Westbourne Terrace, London on 10 July 1877 and is buried at Kensal Green Cemetery in London. The grave lies on the main east west path to the west of the central building structure.

Works
Bell's work, in two volumes, entitled Rough Notes by an Old Soldier: During Fifty Years' Service, From Ensign G. B. To Major-General C. B., a gossiping and amusing account of his life and services, was published early in 1867.

Family
Bell had been twice married, the first time to Alicia, daughter and heiress of James Scott, of Ecclesjohn and Commiston, N.B., and secondly, in 1820, to Margaret Addison Dougal (1800-1888), a daughter of Thomas Dougal, of Scotland, banker. His brother was Henry Nugent Bell.

Notes

References

British Army generals
British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
British military personnel of the First Anglo-Burmese War
British Army personnel of the Crimean War
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
32nd Regiment of Foot officers
34th Regiment of Foot officers
Royal Scots officers
Royal Munster Fusiliers officers
Sherwood Foresters officers
Military personnel from County Fermanagh
1794 births
1877 deaths
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery

George Bell (British Army officer)


The New Hampshire Farm Museum is a farm museum on White Mountain Highway (New Hampshire Route 125) in Milton, New Hampshire, United States.  Three centuries of New Hampshire rural life are presented in the historic farmhouse. The museum includes a  three-story great barn with collection of agricultural machinery, farm tools, sleighs and wagons. There are also live farm animals, a nature trail and a museum shop.  The museum is located on the former Plumer-Jones Farm, a traditional series of connected buildings with farmhouse dating to the late 18th century and barns dating to the mid 19th century, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.

Setting
The New Hampshire Farm Museum is set on over  of land between New Hampshire Route 125 to the east, and the Spaulding Turnpike to the west. This land is a subset of land settled in the 1780s by Joseph and Beard Plumer, two of the area's early settlers. The land they worked has been reduced by the construction of the turnpike.  Most of the farm property consists of wood lots; about  is open fields, used by the museum as a working demonstration farm.

The focal point of the museum is the connected 19th-century farmstead, a series of structures beginning with a small barn near the road, and ending with the Great Barn, one of the largest barns in southeastern New Hampshire. The farmstead includes as one of its intermediate ells the 1782 house of Joseph Plumer, quite possibly one of the first wood-frame structures built in this part of Milton. The main block of the farmstead, located near its center, was built about 1810, and served as a local tavern.

The museum also owns the Plummer Homestead adjacent to the south; it was built by Beard Plumer.

Features
The museum functions as a working demonstration farm.  The Great Barn houses three floors of exhibits of farm implements and machinery.  The main farmhouse and the Plummer farmhouse are open to guided tours; the sections of the Jones house are each decorated in the style of a different era.  Also on the property are a blacksmith's shop, with demonstrations on weekends, and a cider mill barn, which is used as an education venue.  Walking trails wind their way through the wood lots at the back of the property.

Museum history
After its acquisition by the Plumers (later spelled "Plummer") in the 18th century, it was farmed by generations of Joneses and Plummers.  The Jones heirs donated more than  to the University of New Hampshire, and the core of the farmstead to the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests in 1973. It was acquired by the museum as its permanent home in 1979.

See also
Open-air museum
National Register of Historic Places listings in Strafford County, New Hampshire

References

External links
 New Hampshire Farm Museum website

Farm museums in the United States
Agriculture in New Hampshire
Historic house museums in New Hampshire
Museums in Strafford County, New Hampshire
Farms on the National Register of Historic Places in New Hampshire
National Register of Historic Places in Strafford County, New Hampshire
Milton, New Hampshire

New Hampshire Farm Museum


Bildts () is a conservative Hollandic dialect spoken in the largest part of the former municipality het Bildt in the Dutch province of Friesland. The dialect retains features from around 1505, when the area was reclaimed from the sea as ordered by George, Duke of Saxony. In order to achieve this task, workers from Holland, Zeeland, and Brabant moved to Friesland. The apparent similarity to present-day Frisian is due to the evolution of Frisian from the sixteenth century into the present.

Bildts is spoken in the towns of Sint Annaparochie (Bildts: Sint-Anne), Sint Jacobiparochie (Sint-Jabik), Vrouwenparochie (Froubuurt), Oudebildtzijl (Ouwe-Syl), Westhoek (De Westhoek) and Nij Altoenae. The inhabitants of Minnertsga, a village located outside the polder area of the former Middelzee and included in the municipality in 1984, do not speak Bildts but West Frisian instead.

References

Dutch dialects
Waadhoeke
Culture of Friesland

fy:Bildts

Bildts


The Three Forms of Unity is the name that is given to the Belgic Confession, the Canons of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism. These three works are about the doctrinal concerns of Continental Calvinism. They are considered official statements of Church doctrine by many of the Reformed churches.

History
From 1618 to 1619, the Dutch government, acting for the Dutch Reformed Church, called a series of meetings that would come to be called the Synod of Dort. Members from the Netherlands and twenty-seven members from eight other countries met at this Synod to discuss and come to an agreement on their views. This agreement is known as the "Canons of Dort."

This meeting then added the Canons of Dort to two other documents, the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism. Those were both commonly used by the Dutch Church at this time.

The reasons that they chose to do this were:
 to put in writing their understanding of the biblical teachings on the Trinity, the incarnation of Jesus, predestination, justification, and the Church,
 to let members get together in unity around shared beliefs that are important to the faith,
 to decide on certain ideas that are not essential (such as politics, education, etc.) in the hopes of stopping the churches from splitting over things that are more minor.

The different forms each serve different things:
the Heidelberg Catechism is written in a question-and-answer format so that it can easily explain different teachings in the Bible to children and those who are new to Christianity;
the Belgic Confession of Faith talks about different teachings in the Bible;
the Canons of Dort are a series of very technical responses to very specific arguments raised about God by the Dutch Remonstrants.

References

Other websites
 Text and description of the Three Forms from Philip Schaff's book Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library:
Belgic Confession (in the original French with a translation into English)
Heidelberg Catechism (in the original German with a translation into English)
Canons of Dort (in the original Latin with a translation into English)
 Audio Recordings of the Three Forms of Unity in MP3 form

Calvinism
Christian texts
Protestant theology

Three Forms of Unity


(), usually translated as "parish" or "civil parish", is the third-level administrative subdivision of Portugal, as defined by the 1976 Constitution. It is also the designation for local government jurisdictions in the former Portuguese overseas territories of Cape Verde and Macau (until 2001). In the past, was also an administrative division of the other Portuguese overseas territories. The  in the Spanish autonomous communities of Galicia and Asturias is similar to a .

A  is a subdivision of a município (city), which is a cluster of municipalities, like a US county.  Most often, a parish takes the name of its seat, which is usually the most important (or the single) human agglomeration within its area, which can be a neighbourhood or city district, a group of hamlets, a village, a town or an entire city. In cases where the seat is itself divided into more than one parish, each one takes the name of a landmark within its area or of the patron saint from the usually coterminous Catholic parish ( in Portuguese). Be it a city district or village, the civil parish is often based on an ecclesiastical parish.

Since the creation of a democratic local administration, in 1976, the Portuguese parishes have been ruled by a system composed by an executive body (the junta de freguesia, "parish board/council") and a deliberative body (the assembleia de freguesia, "parish assembly"). The members of the assembleia de freguesia are publicly elected every four years. The presidents of the parish boards are also members of the municipal assembly.

History
The parish, in contrast with the municipalities, had their base in the ecclesiastical divisions that "had its origin in the fact that neighbours professed the same religion and professed their faith and divinity in the same temple". , the traditional Portuguese word for parish, had its beginning in the filius ecclesiae (child of the church) and filius gregis (child of the shepherds's flock), the collectivity of the religious faithful, with similar aspirations and interests. Between 1216 and 1223, Afonso II of Portugal began a process of legitimizing the Portuguese territory by conferring charters to nobles, clergy and municipal chambers (which would not be completed until after 1249, under Afonso III of Portugal), making the parish the smallest division. But, the power of the clergy built these areas, accumulating immense wealth and power. The liberal government of Mouzinho da Silveira abolished the parishes in 1832, but the government of Manuel da Silva Passos restored them in 1836. The  began to refer to the civil/administrative entity, while the paróquia () became affiliated with the religious entity.

Present situation

Portugal

Before the 2013 local government reforms, the 308 municipalities were subdivided into 4,259 civil parishes. In 2011, after more than two weeks of bailout negotiations in light of the sovereign debt crisis with the International Monetary Fund, the European Central Bank and the European Commission, the Portuguese government was obliged to reduce the number of municipal and parish local governments after July 2012. The government of Pedro Passos Coelho introduced a plan to reform the administrative divisions, claiming it would create efficiencies and save money. The plan envisioned the reform of the management, territorial geography and political form of how Portugal functioned at the local level, including specifically at the  and concelho levels. It was determined that these changes would then be formalized before the 2013 local government elections, as part of a process to reduce expenditures, a condition of the $110 Billion accord. In addition to the reduction of the number of representatives in the local boards, the plan also established criteria for the reduction, amalgamation or extinction of various civil parishes.

The reform was implemented according to Law 11-A/2013 of 28 January 2013, which defined the reorganization of the civil parishes. This way, the number of parishes was reduced from 4,259 to 3,091.

Municipalities in Portugal are usually divided into multiple freguesias, but seven municipalities are not: Alpiarça, Barrancos, Castanheira de Pera, Porto Santo, São Brás de Alportel and São João da Madeira all consist of a single civil parish, and Corvo is a special case of a municipality without civil parishes, where all usual parish duties and functions are performed by the municipality directly. Barcelos is the municipality with the most civil parishes (61, since 2013).

Portugal has no unincorporated areas; all the national territory (apart from the above-mentioned example of Corvo) belongs to a civil parish, including uninhabited islands: Selvagens Islands to Sé, and Berlengas to Peniche, Desertas Islands to Santa Cruz, and Formigas Islets to Vila do Porto, in the municipalities with the same name (except for Sé, which belongs to Funchal).

Cape Verde
Of Cape Verde's 22 municipalities, which form the highest level of sub-national government in the small African state, some but not all are subdivided into parishes. There are 32 parishes in the country.

Macau
Macau is an autonomous Special administrative region in Southern China that was historically a part of the Portuguese Empire until the Handover of Macao in 1999. During the period of Portuguese rule it was divided into two municipalities which were subdivided into a total of seven parishes. In 2001 the municipalities were dissolved and their administrative functions transferred to the Municipal Affairs Bureau. The parishes were legally retained but no longer serve an administrative function.

See also

List of parishes of Portugal (freguesias)
Bairro
Civic and Municipal Affairs Bureau – replaced the former municipal councils during Portuguese rule of Macau, but retain the freguesias model

References

Bibliography

Local government in Portugal

.
Geography of Cape Verde
Geography of Macau
Politics of Portugal
Portugal
Civil parishes by country

Freguesia


Willem Benjamin Craan (Batavia, 23 August 1776 — Schaerbeek, 16 June 1848) was a Dutch (and later Belgian) surveyor and cartographer, who is best known for his 1816 map of the battlefield of the Battle of Waterloo in which he provided the initial dispositions of all armies concerned, based on information gleaned from many participants in the battle from all sides.

Biography

Early career
Craan was born in the Dutch East Indies, a colony of the Dutch East India Company in those days. He was the son of Jacobus Johannes Craan and Johanna Henriëtte Breekpot. His father was an opperkoopman (chief merchant), employed by the company. He married Joanna Frederika Hahn on 4 October 1795 in Hillegom. Craan studied at Leiden University and obtained a doctorate in law on 27 August 1795 (the Batavian Republic had just been established). He was not very interested in the law profession, however, dedicating himself in the next fifteen years to mathematical studies and music.

When he found himself in Aix-la-Chapelle in December, 1810, he was appointed by the local prefect to the position of cadastral surveyor for the département de la Roer (one of the départements of the First French Empire to which the Netherlands had by then been annexed). He performed so well in this function that the next year he was promoted and put in charge of the Cadastre of the département de la Lippe (in Germany).

The fall of the Empire in 1814 put him out of work, so he travelled to Brussels, then the capital of the former Austrian Netherlands, which now were about to become part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands (the future king William I of the Netherlands) appointed him as chief of the Cadastre of the department of the Dyle on 21 October 1814.

Map of the Battle of Waterloo
On 18 June 1815 the Battle of Waterloo was fought. As the battlefield was close to Brussels, and many wounded of all armies were taken to that  city, Craan was able to interview many prominent French and Allied wounded officers about their experiences during the battle. On the basis of information gained in this way he published a detailed map of the battle, with an explanatory note in September 1816, under the title Plan du champ de bataille de Waterloo, avec notice historique. In the explanatory note he mentions the names of generals Mouton, Lobau, Excelmans and Gérard on the French side. He also mentions a number of high British, Dutch-Belgian and Prussian officers, though he does not give their names. Colonel François Aimé Mellinet (chief-of-staff of the Young Guard Division) advised him on the map, as did "a number of Prussian generals" to whom he was introduced by Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. The Prince of Orange, who had commanded an army corps at the battle later viewed the map and approved of it (as did the Duke of Wellington). Finally, Emperor Alexander I of Russia was so enamored of the map that he presented Craan with a precious ring.

The map and explanatory note are still relevant, because they contradict a number of "facts" that have been assumed by many historians about the battle. For instance, though in many accounts of the battle the Dutch-Belgian Bijlandt brigade is assumed to have stood in front of a ridge (and so exposed to the opening bombardment of the French artillery), Craan's map shows the brigade behind the ridge (which is commensurate with the after-battle report of the chief-of-staff of the 2nd Netherlands Division, of which the Bijlandt brigade was a part).

Introduction of Lithography
Craan is also credited with having introduced the printing technique of Lithography in Belgium in 1817. A brother of the inventor of the technique, Alois Senefelder, visited Brussels in that year. He soon left for The Hague, but left his son-in-law and together with that gentleman Craan put the new print shop on a sure footing. This helped convince the minister of Public Education, Anton Reinhard Falck, of its value. Though Craan soon shifted his attention to other subjects, this early support helped to establish the technique in Belgium.

City plan of Brussels and other scientific contributions
In the 18th century the science of surveying made rapid advances, and many countries were completely overlaid with triangles, using the surveying method of triangulation. In the United Kingdom of the Netherlands such a survey was partially completed by general Krayenhoff, but the Belgian Revolution prevented its completion in Belgium. Craan helped to give new impetus to this effort. His main contribution was his Plan géométrique de la ville de Bruxelles avec ses faubourgs et communes limitrophes (in 4 folios, 1836). He had made the measurements for this city plan already in 1821.

Craan also helped establish the first series of meteorological measurements in Belgium by starting barometric soundings on the steeple of the Brussels city hall in 1825.

Craan died in 1848, survived by a wife and daughter: Virginie Frederique Wilhelmine Aspasia. The latter, known in Brussels as la belle hollandaise, was married to major-general Willem Frederik van Bylandt, the commander of the Bijlandt brigade at Waterloo.

References

Sources
  "Craan (Willem Benjamin)", in: Nouvelle biographie générale depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, avec les renseignements bibliographiques et l'indication des sources á consulter. Tomes 11-12 (1856), p. 327
   (1850) "Notice biographique sur Guillaume-Benjamin Craan, auteur du plan de la bataille de Waterloo, etc.", in: Bulletin du Bibliophile belge, série 1, tome 7, pp. 73–90

External links
 Craan's 1816 Map of the battlefield of Waterloo

1776 births
1848 deaths
Dutch people of the Napoleonic Wars
Dutch surveyors
Belgian surveyors
People from Batavia, Dutch East Indies

Willem Benjamin Craan


The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar sites (wetlands). It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was signed in 1971.

Every three years, representatives of the contracting parties meet as the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP), the policy-making organ of the convention which adopts decisions (site designations, resolutions and recommendations) to administer the work of the convention and improve the way in which the parties are able to implement its objectives. In 2022, COP14 was co-held in Wuhan, China, and Geneva, Switzerland.

List of wetlands of international importance

The list of wetlands of international importance included 2,331 Ramsar sites in May 2018 covering over . The countries with most sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142. The country with the greatest area of listed wetlands is Bolivia, with around .

The Ramsar Sites Information Service (RSIS) is a searchable database which provides information on each Ramsar site.

International cooperation

As of 2016 there are 18 transboundary Ramsar sites, and 15 Ramsar regional initiatives covering regions of the Mediterranean, Asia, Africa, and South America.

International organization partners
The Ramsar Convention works closely with six other organisations known as international organization partners (IOPs). These are:
 BirdLife International
 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
 International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
 Wetlands International
 WWF International
 Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
These organizations support the work of the convention by providing expert technical advice, helping implement field studies, and providing financial support. The IOPs also participate regularly as observers in all meetings of the conference of the parties and as full members of the Scientific and Technical Review Panel.

Other partners
The convention collaborates with a network of partners:
 Biodiversity-related conventions including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), the World Heritage Convention (WHC), and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES);
 Project funding bodies including global environmental funds, multilateral development banks and bilateral donors;
UN agencies such as UNEP, UNDP, UNESCO, and the UN Economic Commission for Europe, and specific programmes such as UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB);
 Non-governmental organizations including the Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, the Society of Wetland Scientists, the International Association for Impact Assessment, and many others;
 Since 1998 the convention has also benefited from a strong partnership with Danone including the Évian brand, and since 2007 from the Biosphere Connections partnership with the Star Alliance airline network.

Bodies established by the convention

Conference of the Contracting Parties
This is the convention's governing body consisting of all governments that have ratified the treaty. This ultimate authority reviews progress under the convention, identifies new priorities, and sets work plans for members. The COP can also make amendments to the convention, create expert advisory bodies, review progress reports by member nations, and collaborate with other international organizations and agreements.

The Standing Committee
The Standing Committee is the intersessional executive body which represents the COP between its triennial meetings, within the framework of the decisions made by the COP. The contracting parties that are members of the Standing Committee are elected by each meeting of the COP to serve for the three years.

The Scientific and Technical Review Panel
The Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP) provides scientific and technical guidance to the Conference of Contracting Parties, the Standing Committee, and the Ramsar Secretariat.

The Secretariat
The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day coordination of the convention's activities. It is based at the headquarters of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Gland, Switzerland.

The implementation of the Ramsar Convention is a continuing partnership between the Conference of Contracting Parties, the Standing Committee, and the Secretariat, with the advice of the subsidiary expert body, the Scientific and Technical Review Panel (STRP), and the support of the international organization partners (IOPs).

Musonda Mumba is the seventh secretary general of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

World Wetlands Day

February 2 is World Wetlands Day, marking the convention's adoption on 2 February 1971. Established to raise awareness about the value of wetlands for humanity and the planet, WWD was celebrated for the first time in 1997, and has grown since then. In 2015 World Wetlands Day was celebrated in 59 countries.

History
The convention was co-founded by Eskandar Firouz (former environment minister of Iran), Luc Hoffmann of Tour du Valat research station in the Camargue in France, and Geoffrey Matthews of the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust at Slimbridge in the late 1960s. The conference, which adopted the terms of the agreement, was held in the Iranian Caspian Sea resort of Ramsar on 2 February 1971. The convention turned 50 in 2021.

Implementation
Despite its quasi-universal application, the domestic response to this treaty is often half-hearted and inadequate. By way of example, Germany joined the Convention in 1976 and has, "to date, failed to give effect to the Ramsar Convention in the manner set out by the constitution of Germany."

See also
 Ramsar classification system
 Montreux Record – threat classification for wetlands
 Ramsar Wetland Conservation Award
 List of international environmental agreements
 World Heritage Site – international agreement on historic site recognition

References

External links

 World Wetlands Day

Environmental treaties
UNESCO treaties
Treaties concluded in 1971
Treaties entered into force in 1975
1971 in the environment
1975 in the environment
1971 in Iran
Wetland conservation
Wildlife law
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Ramsar Convention


Love Monkey is a comic novel by Kyle Smith published in 2004. It is the basis for the 2006 CBS television series of the same name. Love Monkey is Kyle Smith's first novel.  Smith is currently a film critic for the New York Post.

Plot summary
Tom Farrell is a man in his thirties who resides in New York City in 2001 (before, during and after the September 11 attacks). The novel is a slice of life story, briefly visiting several months of his life as he works as an editor of the weekend edition of the New York City newspaper, Tabloid. Although his friends and relatives advance in life (marriage, kids, etc.), Tom believes he is not. He makes around $86,000 a year, but the most expensive item he owns is a several thousand dollar couch (doesn't own a high priced item like a home or car, for example). The novel tracks Tom as he moves through his life, with each chapter being a day in his life during the year 2001 (not all days covered, and not all chapters start new days).

Throughout the book, Tom dates several women, including the woman he really fancies, Julia. Unfortunately for him, Julia is living with another man, and is ten years his junior in age. Julia also works at Tabloid, but while Tom is an editor, Julia is just starting out.

Tom's days are filled with drinking, watching TV (many cartoons), working at Tabloid, and trying to deal with his deep desire to be in a relationship with Julia, who seems somewhat determined to not have said relationship.

On his ride through 2001, Tom interacts with some of his friends, including Bran, Karen & Mike, Rollo, and Shooter (among others).

Characters
Tom Farrell: Narrator and star of the novel, Tom is a man of relatively average height who describes himself as having the shape of a bowling pin (pudgy, fat, overweight), who also happens to have long hair.  Tom works as the editor for the weekend edition of the NYC newspaper Tabloid.  Tom has worked the majority of his professional career at this newspaper. His friends include: his default date Bran, who is something of a female friend, though the relationship is undetermined; Karen & Mike, the married couple (and unlike in the TV series, Karen is not his sister); Shooter, the tall, powerful, rich, ladies man, who is black.  Tom is from Maryland, and his Missouri-bred mother still lives in Maryland as a dental hygienist.

Brandy 'Bran' Lowenstein:  Bran works as a producer for a television news program, is Jewish, and is the "default" date for Tom.  They tend to like each other, but not really in a romantic way.

Karen & Mike: Are Tom's married friends.

Katie/Kate/Katherine: Tom's law-student girlfriend, who is increasingly talking in lawyer speak, and whose personality shifts from tarot card reading Katie, to extremely serious Katherine as she moves through law-school.

Julia: Julia is the young new copygirl at Tabloid, and the woman that Tom cannot seem to get move past, or to get her to enter into a serious relationship with him.

Liesl: Another of Tom's girlfriend's, Liesl is of German descent and works for a legal organization that represents the high-profile terrorist, murder/serial killer type clients (like the terrorists who bombed the parking garage at the World Trade Center).

Shooter:  Shooter comes from a very wealthy family, and briefly worked for his father's company.  Due to some poor decisions, the father decided that it would be easier for all involved if Shooter would be given a sum of money and told to spend his life spending it.  Shooter has some very strong feelings about women, and never has a problem finding a woman to spend some time with.  There was one woman, though, that really got to him, and might have warped his mind.

Rollo: Respected veteran journalist, Rollo now spends his time as the movie reviewer at Tabloid, with Tom as his editor (and sometimes writer of the reviews).  Well, mostly he spends his time drifting around bars getting drunk.

Allusions and references

To other works
Several Bob Dylan songs, including "Idiot Wind", "If You See Her Say Hello", "Simple Twist of Fate", and "You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go", and numerous other musical works are mentioned in this book (including Train's "Drops of Jupiter (Tell Me)", and Pink Floyd's The Wall). Tom writes a review for David McCullough's book John Adams.

To actual history, geography and current science
The events that occurred during the attacks on September 11, 2001 are mentioned and witnessed by the characters in the book.

Literary significance & criticism

Reviews

Release details
2004, Hardcover, USA, William Morrow, February 2004,
2005, Paperback, USA, Harper Perennial, 1 February 2005,

2004 American novels
American comedy novels
Novels set in New York City
Fiction set in 2001
2004 debut novels
American novels adapted into television shows

Love Monkey (novel)


Eala Frya Fresena ( ) is the motto for the coat of arms of East Frisia in northern Germany. The motto is often mistranslated as "Hail, free Frisians!", but it was the reversal of the feudal prostration and is better translated as "Stand up, free Frisians!". According to 16th century sources, it was spoken at the Upstalsboom in Aurich where Frisian judges meet on Pentecost and it is traditionally answered with Lever dood as Slaav, or in English, rather dead than slaves.

The motto refers to the legendary "Frisian freedom," a right to accept no rule besides the Holy Roman Emperor and the Christian God. The right was in the Middle Ages supposed to have been granted by Charlemagne for Frisian support of Pope Leo IV (who was not contemporary with Charlemagne). It was said to have been renewed by Charles the Fat in 885 for saving him from Normans. The Frisian freedom basically meant a claim of freedom from tax and fief, to defend themselves against the Normans, Vikings and the northern sea. Friesland offered unclaimed land for everyone, however the unclaimed land of the country was under water half of the day. The daily fight against the northern sea ensured equality of the people who were living on warfs during this time. Tax and fief was therefore replaced by the duty to build dikes.

Motto
For the interjection eala compare Old English éala in Crist A (104),
éala éarendel engla beorhtast "hail Earendel, brightest of angels!"

History

The number of Frisian sealands grew from the original seven up to 27 at their height in the early 14th century. Each Frisian sealand sent two seajudges during Pentecost to an annual meeting at Upstalsboom, to discuss disputes between the tribes. Friesland had a nearly democratic government, unlike most of Europe during Middle Ages. While the seajudges had been delegated to rule legally, the hovedlinge had been self-elected by their wealth to rule the military. Several of them became known for supporting pirates to refinance their wealth. For example, the hoveling Keno ten Broke hosted the famous Klaus Störtebeker.

In the late Middle Ages, Friesland had no central government, but was ruled by either their local chieftains or changing foreign powers. The Frisians revolted often against the foreigners. The Stedinger revolt of 1233–34 caused Pope Gregory IX to call a crusade against them, marking the decline of Frisian freedom. Frisian freedom officially ended in 1498 when Emperor Maximilian I gave Friesland as a fief to Albert, Duke of Saxony to pay a 300,000-guilder debt, but Albert had to conquer Friesland himself first.

In popular culture
The band Eastfrisian Terror, from Emden, Germany, released their debut EP "Lever Dood As Slav", the third song of which was titled Eala Frya Fresena.

References

Additional links
Frisia

History of East Frisia

frr:Leewer duad üs Slaaw

Eala Frya Fresena


The Los Angeles Tennis Center is a tennis facility located on the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles in Westwood, Los Angeles, California.  The center opened May 20, 1984, and hosted the demonstration tennis event of the 1984 Summer Olympics.  The UCLA Bruins tennis teams moved to the facility in 1985 (men) and 1997 (women).  The NCAA Women's Tennis Championships were held at the LATC in 1984, 1987, and 1988, and the Men's Championships took place there in 1997.

The center hosted the Los Angeles Open, an ATP World Tour 250 event.  The main grandstand surrounds three courts, and has a capacity of 5800 spectators. There are eight lighted, hard-surface courts at the center, which can hold 10,000 spectators. The Straus Stadium was named for Leonard Straus, the former chairman of Thrifty Drugs; the Center court was called the Times-Mirror Center Court; the drawboard was named for Johnny Carson; and the scoreboard was named Union 76 Scoreboard.

The Center hosted for many years the annual "Spring Sing", UCLA's student talent show and the presentation of the George and Ira Gershwin Award. Winners included Angela Lansbury (1988), Ella Fitzgerald (1989), Ray Charles (1991), Debbie Allen (1992), Mel Torme (1994), Bernadette Peters (1995), Frank Sinatra (2000), Stevie Wonder (2002), k.d. lang (2003), James Taylor (2004), Burt Bacharach (2006), Quincy Jones (2007), Lionel Richie (2008), Julie Andrews (2009) and Brian Wilson (2011).

For many years, graduation ceremonies and celebrations were also held at the Los Angeles Tennis Center.

The Center hosted the 1997 Beach Volleyball World Championships, MTV Rock N' Jock, and the 2011 Coldplay concert. Presidential candidate Ron Paul spoke at the center before a large crowd on April 4, 2012. The 2015 JazzReggae Festival @ UCLA will be held at the Tennis Center on April 25, 2015.

The Southern California Tennis Association (SCTA) has offices at the Los Angeles Tennis Center.

Gallery

See also
 List of tennis stadiums by capacity

References

External links
UCLA Bruins.com
Los Angeles Tennis Center, imagine Olympic 1984

College tennis venues in the United States
Tennis venues in Los Angeles
UCLA Bruins tennis
Westwood, Los Angeles
Venues of the 1984 Summer Olympics
Olympic tennis venues

Los Angeles Tennis Center


Baptistin Baille was born as Jean-Baptiste Baille in France, in 1841 and he died in 1918. He was a professor of optics and acoustics at the École de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles in Paris and a close friend of Paul Cézanne, the impressionist artist, and of Émile Zola who would later become a writer.

"Les trois inséparables"
Together, they were known as "les trois inséparables" (the three inseparables). The three boys met when they were at school and often swam together at the River Arc. Cézanne produced numerous paintings of male bathers based on these experiences, which Zola also remembered in his novel, L'Œuvre,

Another friend and classmate was Louis Marguery, future lawyer and writer for vaudeville.

References

Sources
Brown, F. 1984. Zola and Cézanne: The early years. New Criterion 3:15–29.

19th-century French scientists
1841 births
1918 deaths
French academics

Baptistin Baille