Pace Airlines was an American charter airline based in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. It operated executive passenger and sports flight charters. Its main base was Smith Reynolds Airport, Winston-Salem.

History
The airline was established in January 1996 and named Pace Airlines after Jerome Pace, Inc was granted Federal Aviation Administration and United States Department of Transportation approval on March 26, 1996.

The first General Manager of Pace was Jerry Angel, formerly of Piedmont Airlines (1948–1989) and later Leisure Air.  The first aircraft on its Air Carrier Certificate was N487GS, a Boeing 737-200 previously of Western Airlines and Viscount, owned by the NBA Charlotte Hornets.  The initial business model for the company was as an executive charter service for sports teams, entertainers, and corporations in an all first-class configuration (44 seats).  Quickly 3 more aircraft were added to the certificate, N9075U, N159PL, and N37NY.

Piedmont Aviation Services merged with Hawthorne Aviation in July 1998 and became Piedmont Hawthorne Aviation.  PHA was owned by the Carlyle Group located in Washington, DC.  In January 2000 Mr. Darrell Richardson was recruited as the new President of Pace Airlines.  Mr. Richardson had been Chief Operating Officer of Mesaba Airlines since 1995.  Immediately, Mr. Richardson began to grow the airline.  This saw the first major contract for the company, with Vacation Express out of Atlanta, GA.  The agreement called for Pace to operate six Boeing 737-300s on a 'scheduled charter' operation for leisure and vacation travelers.  Flights operated out of Baltimore/Washington (BWI), Washington Dulles (IAD), Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky (CVG), Indianapolis (IND), Louisville (SDF), Charlotte/Douglas (CLT) and Atlanta/Hartsfield (ATL) to a hub in Orlando/Sanford (SFB), where they continued on to Saint Marteen (SXM), Punta Cana (PUJ), Cancun (CUN), Liberia Costa Rica (LIR), and Montego Bay (MBJ).  These flights operated every day except Tuesday and Wednesday. The first flights for Vacation Express by Pace were launched on Thanksgiving Day, 2001.
Pace Airlines, Inc. was sold to Pace Airlines, LLC & Pace Airlines II, LLC in December 2002, which became the parent company of Pace Airlines, Inc.

Additional aircraft were added over time, mainly Boeing 737-200s and a handful of 757-200s.  At one time Pace operated 21 aircraft.  Contracts came for such city pairs as JFK-POS (752) and MBS-LBX (732).  In late December 2002, the owner of Hooters, Robert H. Brooks, agreed to become the owner of Pace Airlines.  Hooters Air was born.

Hooters Air

Robert H. Brooks began looking for an airline to buy in 2002.  He first approached bankrupt Vanguard Airlines of Kansas City, MO.  They rebuffed his offer to buy their assets, so he turned his eye toward Winston-Salem and Pace Airlines.  He purchased the company in late December 2002, and began laying the groundwork to bring a new airline to Myrtle Beach, SC.  With a former executive of Vanguard, he formed Hooters Air, using the Hooters identity as the draw to attract passengers.  Hooters Air offices were headquartered in Myrtle Beach, while the operations/maintenance/flight personnel directly controlled by Pace Airlines remained largely based in Winston-Salem in the former Piedmont/USAirways Tom Davis Training Center.

Hooters Air began service in April 2003 with daily flights between ATL-MYR and BWI-MYR utilizing B737-200s.  Gradually EWR, LCK, GYY, PIT, RSW, and NAS (Nassau) were added.  Service to Gary, IN (GYY) operated as direct service from MYR with a stopover in Columbus, OH (LCK).  Gary was marketed as service to Chicago, as the drive time to downtown Chicago was quicker than from ORD. The aircraft utilized for Hooters were N250TR (B732), N252TR (B732), N371PA (B733), N370WL (B733), N380WL (B733), and N750WL (B752).

In 2003, Vacation Express was acquired by a parent company that at the same time acquired SunTrips, a vacation package operator out of the Bay Area. The fall of 2004 at Pace Airlines was spent preparing the airline for 180 minute ETOPS with the 757-200.  Plans were to possibly run vacation charters to Hawaii from the West Coast for the new partner, Suntrips.  Proving flights were operated between OAK-HNL.  Authorization from the Federal Aviation Administration for 180min ETOPS was granted in late 2004, but this expensive exemption was never utilized, as there were never flights operated between the West Coast and Hawaii for the rest of Pace's existence.

In February 2005, a decision was made to inaugurate Hooters Air service from Rockford, IL (RFD) to Denver (DEN) and Las Vegas (LAS).  The flights from RFD were guaranteed to operate at a profit from the local Airport Authority by way of route subsidies. Non-stop service between Myrtle-Las Vegas utilizing the 737-300 was studied several times, but never started.  For a period of time in 2005, there were also RFD-ATL nonstop flights.  The summer of 2005 saw a huge spike in oil prices, a direct result of speculation in the run-up and aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.  This upward surge in jet fuel prices, combined with competition from United Airlines (also given subsidies) resulted in the termination of service to Rockford in December 2005.

In August 2005, Hooters Air also began non-stop service between Allentown (ABE) and St Petersburg/Clearwater, FL (PIE), and also Ft. Lauderdale (FLL).  These flights only lasted a few months as the carrier ran into difficult times. Mr. Brooks was later sued by two college students who had originally brought the idea of a "Hooters" Airline to him.

Fleet
Pace Airlines flew the following aircraft:
Boeing 737-200
Boeing 737-300
Boeing 737-400
Boeing 757-200
Boeing 767-200

See also
 List of defunct airlines of the United States

References

External links

Airlines established in 1996
Defunct airlines of the United States
Defunct companies based in North Carolina
Airlines disestablished in 2009

Pace Airlines


Tiruppur District  is a district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, formed in February 2009. The district is well-developed and industrialized.The city of Tiruppur is the administrative headquarters for the district. As of 2011, the district had a population of 2,479,052 with a sex-ratio of 989 females for every 1,000 males.

Economy
The city of Tiruppur, at the heart of the district, is a textile center. The Tiruppur banian industry, the cotton market, and the Kangeyam bull provide a vibrant economy.

References

Tiruppur district

Tiruppur district


Gauss's Theorema Egregium (Latin for "Remarkable Theorem") is a major result of differential geometry proved by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The theorem is about the curvature of surfaces.  The theorem states that  curvature can be determined by measuring angles, distances and their rates on a surface alone. There is no need to talk about the particular manner in which the surface is embedded in the surrounding three-dimensional Euclidean space.  In other words, the Gaussian curvature of a surface does not change if one bends the surface without stretching it.

Gauss presented the theorem in this manner (translated from Latin):

For this reason the formula of the preceding article leads itself to the remarkable Theorem. If a curved surface is developed on any other surface whatever, the measure of curvature in each point remains unchanged.

The theorem is "remarkable" because the starting definition of Gaussian curvature makes direct use of the  position of the surface in space. So it is quite surprising that the result does not depend on its embedding in spite of all bending and twisting deformations undergone.

Related pages
Map projection

Theorems in geometry
Differential geometry

Theorema egregium


The Book of Revelation, also erroneously called the Book of Revelations, is the final book of the New Testament (and therefore the final book of the Christian Bible). Written in Koine Greek, its title is derived from the first word of the text: , meaning 'unveiling' or 'revelation'. The Book of Revelation is the only apocalyptic book in the New Testament canon. It occupies a central place in Christian eschatology.

The author names himself as simply "John" in the text, but his precise identity remains a point of academic debate. Second-century Christian writers such as Papias of Hierapolis, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Melito of Sardis, Clement of Alexandria, and the author of the Muratorian fragment identify John the Apostle as the "John" of Revelation. Modern scholarship generally takes a different view, with many considering that nothing can be known about the author except that he was a Christian prophet. Modern theological scholars characterize the Book of Revelation's author as "John of Patmos". The bulk of traditional sources date the book to the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian (AD 81–96), which evidence tends to confirm.

The book spans three literary genres: the epistolary, the apocalyptic, and the prophetic. It begins with John, on the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea, addressing letters to the "Seven Churches of Asia". He then describes a series of prophetic visions, including figures such as the Seven-Headed Dragon, the Serpent, and the Beast, which culminate in the Second Coming of Jesus.

The obscure and extravagant imagery has led to a wide variety of Christian interpretations. Historicist interpretations see Revelation as containing a broad view of history while preterist interpretations treat Revelation as mostly referring to the events of the Apostolic Age (1st century), or, at the latest, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Futurists, meanwhile, believe that Revelation describes future events with the seven churches growing into the body of believers throughout the age, and a reemergence or continuous rule of a Greco-Roman system with modern capabilities described by John in ways familiar to him; and idealist or symbolic interpretations consider that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.

Composition and setting

Title, authorship, and date

The name Revelation comes from the first word of the book in Koine Greek:  (), which means 'unveiling' or 'revelation'. The author names himself as "John", but modern scholars consider it unlikely that the author of Revelation also wrote the Gospel of John. He was a Jewish Christian prophet, probably belonging to a group of such prophets, and was accepted by the congregations to whom he addresses his letter.

The book is commonly dated to about AD 95, as suggested by clues in the visions pointing to the reign of the emperor Domitian. The beast with seven heads and the number 666 seem to allude directly to the emperor Nero (reigned AD 54–68), but this does not require that Revelation was written in the 60s, as there was a widespread belief in later decades that Nero would return.

Genre
Revelation is an apocalyptic prophecy with an epistolary introduction addressed to seven churches in the Roman province of Asia, in what is now western Turkey. The seven cities where churches were located are close together, and the Island of Patmos is near the western coast of Turkey. The term apocalypse means the revealing of divine mysteries; John is to write down what is revealed (what he sees in his vision) and send it to the seven churches. The entire book constitutes the prophecy—the letters to the seven individual churches are introductions to the rest of the book, which is addressed to all seven. While the dominant genre is apocalyptic, the author sees himself as a Christian prophet: Revelation uses the word in various forms 21 times, more than any other New Testament book.

Sources
The predominant view is that Revelation alludes to the Old Testament, although it is difficult among scholars to agree on the exact number of allusions or the allusions themselves. Revelation rarely quotes directly from the Old Testament, yet almost every verse alludes to or echoes ideas of older scriptures. Over half of the references stem from Daniel, Ezekiel, Psalms, and Isaiah, with Daniel providing the largest number in proportion to length and Ezekiel standing out as the most influential. Because these references appear as allusions rather than as quotes, it is difficult to know whether the author used the Hebrew or the Greek version of the Hebrew scriptures, but he was often influenced by the Greek.

Setting
Conventional understanding has been that the Book of Revelation was written to comfort beleaguered Christians as they underwent persecution at the hands of an emperor. This is, however, not the only interpretation; Domitian may not have been a despot imposing an imperial cult, and there may not have been any systematic empire-wide persecution of Christians in his time. Revelation may instead have been composed in the context of a conflict within the Christian community of Asia Minor over whether to engage with, or withdraw from, the far larger non-Christian community: Author Mark B. Stephens posed the Revelation chastised those Christians who wanted to reach an accommodation with the Roman cult of empire. This is not to say that Christians in Roman Asia were not suffering for withdrawal from, and defiance against, the wider Roman society, which imposed very real penalties; Revelation offered a victory over this reality by offering an apocalyptic hope. In the words of professor Adela Collins, "What ought to be was experienced as a present reality." There is also theological interpretation that the book mainly prophesies the end of Old Covenant order, the Jewish temple and religious economy.

Canonical history

Revelation was among the last books accepted into the Christian biblical canon, and to the present day some churches that derive from the Church of the East reject it. Eastern Christians became skeptical of the book as doubts concerning its authorship and unusual style were reinforced by aversion to its acceptance by Montanists and other groups considered to be heretical. This distrust of the Book of Revelation persisted in the East through the 15th century.

Dionysius (AD 248), bishop of Alexandria and disciple of Origen, wrote that the Book of Revelation could have been written by Cerinthus although he himself did not adopt the view that Cerinthus was the writer. He regarded the Apocalypse as the work of an inspired man but not of an Apostle (Eusebius, Church History VII.25).

Eusebius, in his Church History (), mentioned that the Apocalypse of John was accepted as a canonical book and rejected at the same time:

The Apocalypse of John is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp. Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. The disputation can perhaps be attributed to Origen. Origen seems to have accepted it in his writings.

Cyril of Jerusalem (AD 348) does not name it among the canonical books (Catechesis IV.33–36).

Athanasius (AD 367) in his Letter 39, Augustine of Hippo () in his book On Christian Doctrine (Book II, Chapter 8), Tyrannius Rufinus () in his Commentary on the Apostles' Creed, Pope Innocent I (AD 405) in a letter to the bishop of Toulouse and John of Damascus (about AD 730) in his work An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (Book IV:7) listed "the Revelation of John the Evangelist" as a canonical book.

Synods
The Council of Laodicea (AD 363) omits it as a canonical book.

The , which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, contains a list of books of scripture presented as having been reckoned as canonical by the Council of Rome (AD 382). This list mentions it as a part of the New Testament canon.

The Synod of Hippo (in AD 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397), the Council of Carthage (419), the Council of Florence (1442) and the Council of Trent (1546) classified it as a canonical book.

The Apostolic Canons, approved by the Eastern Orthodox Council in Trullo in 692, but rejected by Pope Sergius I, omit it.

Protestant Reformation
Doubts resurfaced during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther called Revelation "neither apostolic nor prophetic" in the 1522 preface to his translation of the New Testament (he revised his position with a much more favorable assessment in 1530), Huldrych Zwingli labelled it "not a book of the Bible", and it was the only New Testament book on which John Calvin did not write a commentary.  Revelation remains the only New Testament book not read in the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church, though Catholic and Protestant liturgies include it.

Texts and manuscripts
There are fewer manuscripts of Revelation than of any other part of the New Testament. As of 2020, in total, there are 310 manuscripts of Revelation. This number includes 7 papyri, 12 majuscules, and 291 minuscules. But, in fact, not all of them are available for research. Some of them have burned down, vanished, or been categorized wrongly. While it is not extant in the  (4th century), it is extant in the other great uncial codices: the  (4th century), the  (5th century), and the  (5th century). In addition, there are numerous papyri, especially  and  (both 3rd century); minuscules (8th to 10th century); and fragmentary quotations in the Church fathers of the 2nd to 5th centuries and the 6th-century Greek commentary on Revelation by Andreas.

Structure and content

Literary structure
Divisions in the book seem to be marked by the repetition of key phrases, by the arrangement of subject matter into blocks, and associated with its Christological passages, and much use is made of significant numbers, especially the number seven, which represented perfection according to ancient numerology. Nevertheless, there is a "complete lack of consensus" among scholars about the structure of Revelation. The following is therefore an outline of the book's contents rather than of its structure.

Outline

Outline of the book of Revelation:
The Revelation of Jesus Christ
The Revelation of Jesus Christ is communicated to John through prophetic visions. (1:1–9)
John is instructed by the "one like a son of man" to write all that he hears and sees, from the prophetic visions, to Seven Churches of Asia. (1:10–13)
The appearance of the "one like a son of man" is given, and he reveals what the seven stars and seven lampstands represent. (1:14–20)
 Messages for seven churches of Asia
Ephesus: From this church, he "who overcomes is granted to eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the Paradise of God." (2:1–7)
 Praised for not bearing those who are evil, testing those who say they are apostles and are not, and finding them to be liars; hating the deeds of the Nicolaitans; having persevered and possessing patience.
 Admonished to "do the first works" and to repent for having left their "first love."
Smyrna: From this church, those who are faithful until death, will be given "the crown of life." He who overcomes shall not be hurt by the second death. (2:8–11)
 Praised for being "rich" while impoverished and in tribulation.
 Admonished not to fear the "synagogue of Satan", nor fear a ten-day tribulation of being thrown into prison.
Pergamum: From this church, he who overcomes will be given the hidden manna to eat and a white stone with a secret name on it." (2:12–17)
 Praised for holding "fast to My name", not denying "My faith" even in the days of Antipas, "My faithful martyr."
 Admonished to repent for having held the doctrine of Balaam, who taught Balak to put a stumbling block before the children of Israel; eating things sacrificed to idols, committing sexual immorality, and holding the "doctrine of the Nicolaitans."
 Thyatira: From this church, he who overcomes until the end, will be given power over the nations in order to dash them to pieces with a rod of iron; he will also be given the "morning star." (2:18–29)
 Praised for their works, love, service, faith, and patience.
 Admonished to repent for allowing a "prophetess" to promote sexual immorality and to eat things sacrificed to idols.
Sardis: From this church, he who overcomes will be clothed in white garments, and his name will not be blotted out from the Book of Life; his name will also be confessed before the Father and his angels. (3:1–6)
Admonished to be watchful and to strengthen since their works have not been perfect before God.
Philadelphia: From this church, he who overcomes will be made a pillar in the temple of God having the name of God, the name of the city of God, "New Jerusalem", and the Son of God's new name. (3:7–13)
 Praised for having some strength, keeping "My word", and having not denied "My name."
 Reminded to hold fast what they have, that no one may take their crown.
Laodicea: From this church, he who overcomes will be granted the opportunity to sit with the Son of God on his throne. (3:14–22)
 Admonished to be zealous and repent from being "lukewarm"; they are instructed to buy the "gold refined in the fire", that they may be rich; to buy "white garments", that they may be clothed, so that the shame of their nakedness would not be revealed; to anoint their eyes with eye salve, that they may see.
Before the Throne of God
 The Throne of God appears, surrounded by twenty four thrones with twenty-four elders seated in them. (4:1–5)
 The four living creatures are introduced. (4:6–11)
 A scroll, with seven seals, is presented and it is declared that the Lion of the tribe of Judah, from the "Root of David", is the only one worthy to open this scroll. (5:1–5)
 When the "Lamb having seven horns and seven eyes" took the scroll, the creatures of heaven fell down before the Lamb to give him praise, joined by myriads of angels and the creatures of the earth. (5:6–14)
Seven Seals are opened
First Seal: A white horse appears, whose crowned rider has a bow with which to conquer. (6:1–2)
Second Seal: A red horse appears, whose rider is granted a "great sword" to take peace from the earth. (6:3–4)
Third Seal: A black horse appears, whose rider has "a pair of balances in his hand", where a voice then says, "A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny; and [see] thou hurt not the oil and the wine." (6:5–6)
Fourth Seal: A pale horse appears, whose rider is Death, and Hades follows him. Death is granted a fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, with hunger, with death, and with the beasts of the earth. (6:7–8)
Fifth Seal: "Under the altar", appeared the souls of martyrs for the "word of God", who cry out for vengeance. They are given white robes and told to rest until the martyrdom of their brothers is completed. (6:9–11)
Sixth Seal: (6:12–17)
 There occurs a great earthquake where "the sun becomes black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon like blood" (6:12).
 The stars of heaven fall to the earth and the sky recedes like a scroll being rolled up (6:13–14).
 Every mountain and island is moved out of place (6:14).
 The people of earth retreat to caves in the mountains (6:15).
 The survivors call upon the mountains and the rocks to fall on them, so as to hide them from the "wrath of the Lamb" (6:16).
Interlude: The 144,000 Hebrews are sealed.
144,000 from the Twelve Tribes of Israel are sealed as servants of God on their foreheads (7:1–8)
A great multitude stand before the Throne of God, who come out of the Great Tribulation, clothed with robes made "white in the blood of the Lamb" and having palm branches in their hands. (7:9–17)
Seventh Seal: Introduces the seven trumpets (8:1–5)
"Silence in heaven for about half an hour" (8:1).
Seven angels are each given trumpets (8:2).
An eighth angel takes a "golden censer", filled with fire from the heavenly altar, and throws it to the earth (8:3–5). What follows are "peals of thunder, rumblings, flashes of lightning, and an earthquake" (8:5).
After the eighth angel has devastated the earth, the seven angels introduced in verse 2 prepare to sound their trumpets (8:6).
Seven trumpets are sounded (Seen in Chapters 8, 9, and 12).
First Trumpet: Hail and fire, mingled with blood, are thrown to the earth burning up a third of the trees and green grass. (8:6–7)
Second Trumpet: Something that resembles a great mountain, burning with fire, falls from the sky and lands in the ocean. It kills a third of the sea creatures and destroys a third of the ships at sea. (8:8–9)
Third Trumpet: A great star, named Wormwood, falls from heaven and poisons a third of the rivers and springs of water. (8:10–11)
Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sun, the moon, and the stars are darkened creating complete darkness for a third of the day and the night. (8:12–13)
Fifth Trumpet: The First Woe (9:1–12)
 A "star" falls from the sky (9:1).
 This "star" is given "the key to the bottomless pit" (9:1).
 The "star" then opens the bottomless pit. When this happens, "smoke [rises] from [the Abyss] like smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun and sky [are] darkened by the smoke from the Abyss" (9:2).
 From out of the smoke, locusts who are "given power like that of scorpions of the earth" (9:3), who are commanded not to harm anyone or anything except for people who were not given the "seal of God" on their foreheads (from chapter 7) (9:4).
 The "locusts" are described as having a human appearance (faces and hair) but with lion's teeth, and wearing "breastplates of iron"; the sound of their wings resembles "the thundering of many horses and chariots rushing into battle" (9:7–9).
Sixth Trumpet: The Second Woe (9:13–21)
The four angels bound to the great river Euphrates are released to prepare two hundred million horsemen.
 These armies kill a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone.
 Interlude: The little scroll. (10:1–11)
An angel appears, with one foot on the sea and one foot on the land, having an opened little book in his hand.
Upon the cry of the angel, seven thunders utter mysteries and secrets that are not to be written down by John.
John is instructed to eat the little scroll that happens to be sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach, and to prophesy.
John is given a measuring rod to measure the temple of God, the altar, and those who worship there.
Outside the temple, at the court of the holy city, it is trod by the nations for forty-two months ( years).
Two witnesses prophesy for 1,260 days, clothed in sackcloth. (11:1–14)
Seventh Trumpet: The Third Woe that leads into the seven bowls (11:15–19)
The temple of God opens in heaven, where the ark of his covenant can be seen. There are lightnings, noises, thunderings, an earthquake, and great hail.
The Seven Spiritual Figures. (Events leading into the Third Woe)
A Woman "clothed with a white robe, with the sun at her back, with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" is in pregnancy with a male child. (12:1–2)
A great Dragon (with seven heads, ten horns, and seven crowns on his heads) drags a third of the stars of Heaven with his tail, and throws them to the Earth. (12:3–4). The Dragon waits for the birth of the child so he can devour it. However, sometime after the child is born, he is caught up to God's throne while the Woman flees into the wilderness into her place prepared of God that they should feed her there for 1,260 days ( years). (12:5–6). War breaks out in heaven between Michael and the Dragon, identified as that old Serpent, the Devil, or Satan (12:9). After a great fight, the Dragon and his angels are cast out of Heaven for good, followed by praises of victory for God's kingdom. (12:7–12). The Dragon engages to persecute the Woman, but she is given aid to evade him. Her evasiveness enrages the Dragon, prompting him to wage war against the rest of her offspring, who keep the commandments of God and have the testimony of Jesus Christ. (12:13–17)
A Beast (with seven heads, ten horns, and ten crowns on his horns and on his heads names of blasphemy) emerges from the Sea, having one mortally wounded head that is then healed. The people of the world wonder and follow the Beast. The Dragon grants him power and authority for forty-two months. (13:1–5)
The Beast of the Sea blasphemes God's name (along with God's tabernacle and his kingdom and all who dwell in Heaven), wages war against the Saints, and overcomes them. (13:6–10)
Then, a Beast emerges from the Earth having two horns like a lamb, speaking like a dragon. He directs people to make an image of the Beast of the Sea who was wounded yet lives, breathing life into it, and forcing all people to bear "the mark of the Beast". The number of the beast the Bible says is "666". Events leading into the Third Woe:
The Lamb stands on Mount Zion with the 144,000 "first fruits" who are redeemed from Earth and victorious over the Beast and his mark and image. (14:1–5)
The proclamations of three angels. (14:6–13)
One like the Son of Man reaps the earth. (14:14–16)
A second angel reaps "the vine of the Earth" and throws it into "the great winepress of the wrath of God... and blood came out of the winepress... up to one thousand six hundred stadia." (14:17–20)
The temple of the tabernacle, in Heaven, is opened (15:1–5), beginning the "Seven Bowls" revelation.
Seven angels are given a golden bowl, from the Four Living Creatures, that contains the seven last plagues bearing the wrath of God. (15:6–8)
Seven bowls are poured onto Earth:
First Bowl: A "foul and malignant sore" afflicts the followers of the Beast. (16:1–2)
Second Bowl: The Sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4–7)
Fourth Bowl: The Sun scorches the Earth with intense heat and even burns some people with fire. (16:8–9)
Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain in the Beast's kingdom. (16:10–11)
Sixth Bowl: The Great River Euphrates is dried up and preparations are made for the kings of the East and the final battle at Armageddon between the forces of good and evil. (16:12–16)
Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake and heavy hailstorm: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17–21)
Aftermath: Vision of John given by "an angel who had the seven bowls"
The great Harlot who sits on a scarlet Beast (with seven heads and ten horns and names of blasphemy all over its body) and by many waters: Babylon the Great. The angel showing John the vision of the Harlot and the scarlet Beast reveals their identities and fates (17:1–18)
 New Babylon is destroyed. (18:1–8)
The people of the Earth (the kings, merchants, sailors, etc.) mourn New Babylon's destruction. (18:9–19)
The permanence of New Babylon's destruction. (18:20–24)
The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
A great multitude praises God. (19:1–6)
The marriage Supper of the Lamb. (19:7–10)
The Judgment of the two Beasts, the Dragon, and the Dead (19:11–20:15)
The Beast and the False Prophet are cast into the Lake of Fire. (19:11–21)
 The Dragon is imprisoned in the Bottomless Pit for a thousand years. (20:1–3)
The resurrected martyrs live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4–6)
After the Thousand Years
The Dragon is released and goes out to deceive the nations in the four corners of the Earth—Gog and Magog—and gathers them for battle at the holy city. The Dragon makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7–9)
The Dragon is cast into the Lake of Fire with the Beast and the False Prophet. (20:10)
The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with Death and Hades, are cast into the Lake of Fire, which is the second death. (20:11–15)
The New Heaven and Earth, and New Jerusalem
A "new heaven" and "new earth" replace the old heaven and old earth. There is no more suffering or death. (21:1–8)
God comes to dwell with humanity in the New Jerusalem. (21:2–8)
Description of the New Jerusalem. (21:9–27)
The River of Life and the Tree of Life appear for the healing of the nations and peoples. The curse of sin is ended. (22:1–5)
Conclusion
Christ's reassurance that his coming is imminent. Final admonitions. (22:6–21)

Interpretations
Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple historical interpretation, to a prophetic view on what will happen in the future by way of God's will and the Woman's (traditionally believed to be the Virgin Mary) victory over Satan ("symbolic interpretation"), to different end time scenarios ("futurist interpretation"), to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all, ascribing it to a human-inherited archetype.

Liturgical

Paschal liturgical
This interpretation, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly the Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse (new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd, an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn's The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple's destruction (AD 70) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean.

They believe the Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980). According to Pope Benedict XVI some of the images of Revelation should be understood in the context of the dramatic suffering and persecution of the churches of Asia in the 1st century.

Accordingly, they argue, the Book of Revelation should not be read as an enigmatic warning, but as an encouraging vision of Christ's definitive victory over evil.

Oriental Orthodox

In the Coptic Orthodox Church the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night after Good Friday.  Biblically Ugo Vanni and other biblical scholars have argued that the Book of Revelation was written with the intention to be read entirely in one liturgical setting with dialogue-elements between the reader (singular) and the hearers (plural) based on Rev 1:3 and Rev 1:10. Beniamin Zakhary has recently shown that the structure of the reading the Book of Revelation within the Coptic rite of Apocalypse Night (this is the only biblical reading in the Coptic church with a dialogue in it, where the reader stops many times and the people respond; additionally the entire book is read in a liturgical setting that culminates with the Eucharist) shows great support for this biblical hypothesis, albeit with some notable difference.

Additionally, the Book of Revelation permeates many liturgical prayers and iconography within the Coptic Church.

Eschatological
Most Christian interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories:
 Historicism, which sees in Revelation a broad view of history;
 Preterism, in which Revelation mostly refers to the events of the apostolic era (1st century) or, at the latest, the fall of Jerusalem or the Roman Empire;
 Futurism, which believes that Revelation describes future events (modern believers in this interpretation are often called "millennialists"); and
 Idealism/Allegoricalism, which holds that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.

Additionally, there are significant differences in interpretation of the thousand years (the "millennium") mentioned in Revelation 20:2.
 Premillennialism, which holds a literal interpretation of the "millennium" and generally prefers literal interpretations of the content of the book;
 Amillennialism, which rejects a literal interpretation of the "millennium" and generally prefers allegorical interpretations of the content of the book; and
 Postmillennialism, which includes both literal and allegorical interpretations of the "millennium" but views the Second Coming as following the conversion to Christianity of a gradually improving world.

Eastern Orthodox

Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events (events occurring at the same time) and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals.

Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Byzantine Rite Churches, although it is read in the Western Rite Orthodox Parishes, which are under the same bishops as the Byzantine Rite.

Protestant

Seventh-day Adventist

Similar to the early Protestants, Adventists maintain a historicist interpretation of the Bible's predictions of the apocalypse.

Seventh-day Adventists believe the Book of Revelation is especially relevant to believers in the days preceding the second coming of Jesus Christ. "The universal church is composed of all who truly believe in Christ, but in the last days, a time of widespread apostasy, a remnant has been called out to keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." "Here is the patience of the saints; here are those who keep the commandments of God and the faith of Jesus." As participatory agents in the work of salvation for all humankind, "This remnant announces the arrival of the judgment hour, proclaims salvation through Christ, and heralds the approach of His second advent." The three angels of Revelation 14 represent the people who accept the light of God's messages and go forth as his agents to sound the warning throughout the length and breadth of the earth.

Bahá'í Faith
By reasoning analogous with Millerite historicism, Bahá'u'lláh's doctrine of progressive revelation, a modified historicist method of interpreting prophecy, is identified in the teachings of the Bahá'í Faith.

ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the son and chosen successor of Bahá'u'lláh, has given some interpretations about the 11th and 12th chapters of Revelation in Some Answered Questions. The 1,260 days spoken of in the forms: one thousand two hundred and sixty days, forty-two months, refers to the 1,260 years in the Islamic Calendar (AH 1260 or AD 1844). The "two witnesses" spoken of are Muhammad and Ali. The red Dragon spoken of in Revelation 12:3 – "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" – are interpreted as symbolic of the seven provinces dominated by the Umayyads: Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxania. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik, Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III and the like, which were not counted for this interpretation.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Book of Mormon states that John the Apostle is the author of Revelation and that he was foreordained by God to write it.

Doctrine and Covenants, section 77, postulates answers to specific questions regarding the symbolism contained in the Book of Revelation. Topics include: the sea of glass, the four beasts and their appearance, the 24 elders, the book with seven seals, certain angels, the sealing of the 144,000, the little book eaten by John, and the two witnesses in Chapter 11.

Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that the warning contained in Revelation 22:18–19 does not refer to the biblical canon as a whole. Rather, an open and ongoing dialogue between God and the modern-day Prophet and Apostles of the LDS faith constitute an open canon of scripture.

Esoteric
Christian Gnostics are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the keynote of their doctrine and their practice."

James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the Chakra. He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy." Such diverse theories have failed to command widespread acceptance. However, Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view."

Radical discipleship
The radical discipleship interpretation asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i. e., how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this interpretation the primary agenda of the book is to expose as impostors the worldly powers that seek to oppose the ways of God and God's Kingdom. The chief temptation for Christians in the 1st century, and today, is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values – imperialism, nationalism, and civil religion being the most dangerous and insidious.

This perspective (closely related to liberation theology) draws on the approach of Bible scholars such as Ched Myers, William Stringfellow, Richard Horsley, Daniel Berrigan, Wes Howard-Brook, and Joerg Rieger. Various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the State and political power as the Beast and the events described, being their doings and results, the aforementioned 'wrath'.

Aesthetic and literary

Literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of theories about the origins and purpose of the Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless, found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish Midrash. Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with Greek drama. In recent years, theories have arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and which are less interested in what the original author intended.

Charles Cutler Torrey taught Semitic languages at Yale University. His lasting contribution has been to show how prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are much more meaningful when treated as poets first and foremost. He thought this was a point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose. Poetry was also the reason John never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in Aramaic.

According to Torrey, "The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first century. It was written in Aramaic." Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued that until AD 80, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues, the Christian message was always first heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have had no hearing." Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and the Lamb and the chorus at 19: 6–8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda. Other dramatic moments in Revelation, such as 6:16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way. The surviving Greek translation was a literal translation that aimed to comply with the warning at Revelation 22:18 that the text must not be "corrupted" in any way.

Christina Rossetti was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its meaningful purpose in death and in God. Her The Face of the Deep is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her view, what Revelation has to teach is patience. Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition allows. Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like Revelation itself. The relevance of John's visions belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring ... – who can bear it?" She dealt deftly with the vengeful aspects of John's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged to show mercy." Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren" so they should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved."

Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza wrote Revelation: Vision of a Just World from the viewpoint of rhetoric. Accordingly, Revelation's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic.

Professor Schüssler Fiorenza believes that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged groups. John's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world-destruction. Her view that Revelation's message is not gender-based has caused dissent. She says humanity is to look behind the symbols rather than make a fetish out of them. In contrast, Tina Pippin states that John writes "horror literature" and "the misogyny which underlies the narrative is extreme."

D. H. Lawrence took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, Apocalypse. He saw the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a 'death-product'. Instead, he wanted to champion a public-spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an ill-defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the intellect" which he saw in a technology-based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity" and that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble ... to bring your enemies down to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in Revelation." Lawrence did not consider how these two types of Christianity (good and bad in his view) might be related other than as opposites. He noted the difference meant that the John who wrote a gospel could not be the same John who wrote Revelation.

His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases like "the wrath of the Lamb" were "ridiculous." He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first, there was a scheme of cosmic renewal in "great Chaldean sky-spaces", which he quite liked. After that, Lawrence thought, the book became preoccupied with the birth of the baby messiah and "flamboyant hate and simple lust ... for the end of the world." Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers" to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they knew their enemies were suffering in hell.

Academic

Modern biblical scholarship attempts to understand Revelation in its 1st-century historical context within the genre of Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature. This approach considers the text as an address to seven historical communities in Asia Minor. Under this interpretation, assertions that "the time is near" are to be taken literally by those communities. Consequently, the work is viewed as a warning to not conform to contemporary Greco-Roman society which John "unveils" as beastly, demonic, and subject to divine judgment.

New Testament narrative criticism also places Revelation in its first century historical context but approaches the book from a literary perspective. For example, narrative critics examine characters and characterization, literary devices, settings, plot, themes, point of view, implied reader, implied author, and other constitutive features of narratives in their analysis of the book.

Although the acceptance of Revelation into the canon has, from the beginning, been controversial, it has been essentially similar to the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox, and what was even heretical. Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial culture was John's central message. Thus, the letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature (its purpose is offering hope to the downtrodden), and the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary, and social context. Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the 1st century to make sense of what the author may have intended.

Scholar Barbara Whitlock pointed out a similarity between the consistent destruction of thirds depicted in the Book of Revelation (a third of mankind by plagues of fire, smoke, and brimstone, a third of the trees and green grass, a third of the sea creatures and a third of the ships at sea, etc.) and the Iranian mythology evil character Zahhak or Dahāg, depicted in the Avesta, the earliest religious texts of Zoroastrianism. Dahāg is mentioned as wreaking much evil in the world until at last chained up and imprisoned on the mythical Mt. Damāvand. The Middle Persian sources prophesy that at the end of the world, Dahāg will at last burst his bonds and ravage the world, consuming one in three humans and livestock, until the ancient hero Kirsāsp returns to life to kill Dahāg. Whitlock wrote: "Zoroastrianism, the state religion of the Roman Empire's main rival, was part of the intellectual environment in which Christianity came into being, just as were Judaism, the Greek-Roman religion, and the worship of Isis and Mithras. A Zoroastrian influence is completely plausible".

Old Testament origins
Much of Revelation employs ancient sources, primarily but not exclusively from the Old Testament. For example, Howard-Brook and Gwyther regard the Book of Enoch as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch's journey has no close parallel in the Hebrew scriptures."

Academics showed little interest in this topic until recently. An anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871 prefaces Revelation 4 with the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4:5 ("Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord") within Revelation 11 and writes Revelation 12:7 side by side with the role of "the Satan" in the Book of Job. The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed time.

Steve Moyise uses the index of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation contains more Old Testament allusions than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single quotation." Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation concentrates on Isaiah, Psalms, and Ezekiel, while neglecting, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch that are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers.

Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental. The author seems to be using his sources in a completely different way to the originals. For example, the author borrows the 'new temple' imagery of Ezekiel 40–48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs a temple because it is God's dwelling. Ian Boxall writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations (that is not John's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative." In trying to identify this "something new", Boxall argues that Ezekiel provides the 'backbone' for Revelation. He sets out a comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence and linking most of them to the structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.

Some commentators argue that it is these purposes – and not the structure – that really matter. G. K. Beale believes that, however much John makes use of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfillment of Daniel 7. Richard Bauckham has argued that John presents an early view of the Trinity through his descriptions of the visions and his identifying Jesus and the Holy Spirit with YHWH. Brandon Smith has expanded on both of their proposals while proposing a "trinitarian reading" of Revelation, arguing that John uses Old Testament language and allusions from various sources to describe a multiplicity of persons in YHWH without sacrificing monotheism, which would later be codified in the trinitarian doctrine of Nicene Christianity.

Olivet discourse
According to James Stuart Russell, the book is an exposition of Olivet Discourse found in the Synoptic Gospels in Matthew 24 and 25, Mark 13, and Luke 21. Russell suggests there are parallels between the prophecy told by Jesus to the disciples and the prophecy recorded in the Book of Revelation, such as wars, famines, pestilence, earthquakes, false prophets, the darkening of the sun and moon, and stars falling from heaven.

Figures in Revelation
In order of appearance:

 The author (see John the Apostle or John of Patmos)
 One like the Son of man who gives the revelation
 Antipas, the faithful martyr
 Nicolaitans
 Jezebel
 The One who sits on the throne (God)
 The four living creatures
 The twenty four elders
 The Lamb, with seven horns and seven eyes (Lion of Judah)
 Saints under the altar
 Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
 The souls of them that were slain for the word of God
 Four angels holding the four winds of the Earth
 The seal-bearer angel (144,000 of Israel sealed)
 A great multitude from every nation
 Seven angelic trumpeters
 The star called Wormwood
 Angel of Woe
 Scorpion-tailed Locusts
 The angel of the bottomless pit (Hebrew: Abaddon, Greek: Apollyon)
 Four angels bound to the great river Euphrates
 Two hundred million man cavalry
 The mighty angel with little book open and when he cried of seven thunders uttered their voices
 The Two Witnesses
 The Woman and her child
 The Dragon, fiery red with seven heads and ten horns (Satan)
 Saint Michael the Archangel
 The Beast, with seven heads and ten horns (Antichrist/Beast of the Sea)
 The False Prophet (Beast of the Earth)
 The three angels
 The angelic reapers and the grapes of wrath
 Voice from heaven
 Seven plague angels (Seven bowls of wrath)
 Angel of the waters
 The Whore of Babylon (Mother of harlots)
 Word of God/Rider on a white horse
 Angel binding Satan for one thousand years
 Those of the first resurrection
 Gog and Magog (after the one thousand years)
 Those of the second resurrection

See also

 Alpha and Omega
 The Apocalypse – 2000 film
 Apocalypse of John – dated astronomically
 Apocalypse of Peter
 Apocalypse of Zerubbabel
 Apocalypticism
 Arethas of Caesarea
 Biblical cosmology
 Biblical numerology
 Book of Ezekiel
 Christian eschatological differences
 Day-year principle
 English Apocalypse manuscripts
 Horae Apocalypticae
 Maccabees
 Masada
 The New Earth
 Number of the Beast
 Patmos
 Textual variants in the Book of Revelation
 Vespasian
 Woman of the Apocalypse

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Barr, David, L. (1998). Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation. Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, .
 Bass, Ralph E. Jr. (2004). Back to the Future: A Study in the Book of Revelation, Greenville, South Carolina: Living Hope Press, .

 Beale G.K. (1999). The Book of Revelation, NIGTC, Grand Rapids: Cambridge.

 Bousset W., Die Offenbarung Johannis, Göttingen 18965, 19066.
 Boxall, Ian, (2006). The Revelation of Saint John (Black's New Testament Commentary) London: Continuum, and Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson.  U.S. edition:
 Boxall, Ian (2002). Revelation: Vision and Insight – An Introduction to the Apocalypse, London: SPCK

 Ford, J. Massyngberde (1975). Revelation, The Anchor Bible, New York: Doubleday .
 Gentry, Kenneth L. Jr. (1998). Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation, Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, .
 Gentry, Kenneth L. Jr. (2002). The Beast of Revelation, Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, .
 Hahn, Scott (1999). The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth, Darton, Longman, Todd,

 Hernández, Juan (2006). Scribal habits and theological influences in the Apocalypse, Tübingen

 Hudson, Gary W. (2006). Revelation: Awakening The Christ Within, Vesica Press,
 Jennings, Charles A. (2001). The Book of Revelation From An Israelite and Historicist Interpretation, Truth in History Publications. .

 Kiddle M. (1941). The Revelation of St. John (The Moffat New Testament Commentary), New York – London
 Kirsch, Thomas (2006). A History of the End of the World: How the Most Controversial Book in the Bible Changed the Course of Western Civilization. New York: HarperOne

 Lohmeyer, Ernst (1953). Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Tübingen

 Muggleton, Lodowicke (2010). Works on the Book of Revelation London
 Müller, U.B. (1995). Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Güttersloh

 Pagels, Elaine (2012). Revelations: Visions, Prophecy, and Politics in the Book of Revelation, Viking Adult,
 Prigent P., L'Apocalypse, Paris 1981.

 Roloff J. (1987). Die Offenbarung des Johannes

 Shepherd, Massey H. (2004). The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse, James Clarke,

 Sweet, J. P. M. (1979, Updated 1990). Revelation, London: SCM Press, and Philadelphia: Trinity Press International. .

 Vitali, Francesco (2008). Piccolo Dizionario dell'Apocalisse, TAU Editrice, Todi

 Wikenhauser, A. Offenbarung des Johannes, Regensburg 1947, 1959.
 Witherington, Ben III (2003). Revelation, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, New York: Cambridge University Press, .
 Zahn Th., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, t. 1–2, Leipzig 1924–1926.

External links

 Early Christian Writings: Apocalypse of John: text, introduction, context
 "Revelation to John." Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
 Apocalypse, Book of – Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
 Understanding the Book of Revelation – Article by L. Michael White from PBS Frontline program "Apocalypse!"
The Marvelous Address: The Revelation of the Beloved (Disciple) is an 18th-century manuscript about the book of Revelation written in Garshuni (Arabic written in Syriac script).
 Jewish Encyclopedia
  Various versions

1st-century Christian texts
Christian apocalyptic writings
Johannine literature
Luther's Antilegomena
New Testament books

Book of Revelation


Jill Billings (born January 19, 1962) is a former teacher, former member of the La Crosse County board of supervisors, and Democratic member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, first elected to represent the 95th district in a 2011 special election. She represents the City of La Crosse and portions of the Towns of Shelby and Campbell.

Background
Billings was born in Stewartville, Minnesota; both of her grandfathers had been candidates for mayor. She studied communication and English at Augsburg College, before moving to La Crosse in 1990. She spent seven years as a teacher of English and citizenship to Hmong immigrants.

She worked on La Crosse County's land use plan, helped established a special rehabilitation court for persons convicted of driving while intoxicated, and worked on the county's Economic Development Fund. Between 2004 and 2012, she was a member of the La Crosse County board of supervisors, becoming vice chair of the County Health and Human Services Board and head of the Family Policy Board Executive Committee.

Legislative race
On November 8, 2011, Billings was elected to the Wisconsin State Assembly in a special election in the 95th Assembly District (the city of La Crosse and portions of the towns of Campbell and Shelby), succeeding fellow Democrat Jennifer Shilling, who replaced Senator Dan Kapanke in the Wisconsin State Senate following a successful recall election against him. Billings took 72.6% of the vote against Republican David Drewes, a small government advocate and supporter of Governor Scott Walker. The district has elected Democrats to the Assembly consistently since 1974.

Personal life
As of her election, she was 49, and separated. She has two children, Josh and Zoe, ages 18 and 16.

References

External links
Wisconsin Assembly - Representative Jill Billings official government website
Billings for Assembly official campaign website

1962 births
County supervisors in Wisconsin
Teachers of English as a second or foreign language
Living people
Democratic Party members of the Wisconsin State Assembly
Augsburg University alumni
People from Stewartville, Minnesota
Politicians from La Crosse, Wisconsin
Educators from Wisconsin
American women educators
Women state legislators in Wisconsin
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
Educators from Minnesota

Jill Billings


Ken E. Mendenhall (born August 11, 1948) is a former American football center who played ten seasons in the National Football League (NFL) for the Baltimore Colts.

Born in Stillwater, Mendenhall grew up in Pawhuska in Osage County, Oklahoma.  He later attended Enid High School and went on to play for the University of Oklahoma, where he was "described as a devastating one-on-one blocker."

As a 1969 All-American center, he was valued by his college teammates.  "He's always got the path cleared for you," said tailback Steve Owens. "He's fantastic coming off the ball on a man right in front of him. I'm glad we have him up there."  In fact, "he cleared the way for Owens, who is OU's all-time leading scorer" and 1969 Heisman Trophy winner.

Drafted in the fifth-round of the 1970 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons, Mendenhall was traded several times (including the Houston Oilers) before landing with the Baltimore Colts where he played out his 10-season career.  After the Colts' 1980 season, he retired from professional football with the distinction of having "started 118 consecutive games for the Colts, beginning in the fourth game of 1973 and continuing through the last game of 1980."

References

1948 births
Living people
People from Pawhuska, Oklahoma
People from Stillwater, Oklahoma
Sportspeople from Enid, Oklahoma
Players of American football from Oklahoma
American football centers
Enid High School alumni
Oklahoma Sooners football players
Baltimore Colts players

Ken Mendenhall


QGtkStyle is an open-source startup project to create a GTK+ layer for Qt-based applications running on GTK2-based desktops. It intends to make Qt applications blend perfectly into GTK-based desktop environments such as GNOME.

QGtkStyle currently requires gtk2 development packages and Qt 4.4 and can be freely downloaded from SVN repository of Trolltech Labs.

Released under the terms of GNU General Public License 3.

QGtkStyle was incorporated in Qt starting with version 4.5.

See also
 GTK-Qt (GTK-Qt at kde-look.org)
 QtCurve (QtCurve at kde-look.org)

References

External links
 QGtkStyle at Trolltech Labs
 QGtkStyle at Google Code
 Introducing QGtkStyle by Thom Holwerda at OSNews, May 15, 2008
 QGtkStyle Offers Native Gtk Look For Qt Programs at Slashdot, May 15, 2008

GNOME
GTK
KDE
Qt (software)
Widget toolkits
X Window System

QGtkStyle


Carmen Amaya (2 November 1913 – 19 November 1963) was a flamenco dancer and singer, of gypsy origin, born in the Somorrostro slum of Barcelona, Spain.

She has been called "the greatest Spanish gypsy dancer of her generation". and "the most extrardinary personality of all time in flamenco dance".

She danced from the time she was 4 years old. Accompanied on the guitar by her father, she danced in waterfront bars in Barcelona. A young person who saw her dance as a girl was the Spanish guitarist Sabicas (Agustín Castellón Campos). He later said "I saw her dance and it seemed like something supernatural to me... I never saw anyone dance like her. I don't know how she did it, I just don't know!". Sabicas accompanied her for many years. He recorded Queen of the Gypsies (1959) and Flamenco! with Amaya.

In 1929, she made her debut in Paris, to warm acclaims and admiration of her dancing skill. She moved to America in 1936, where she went on to act in several movies that broke box office records, including the Romeo and Juliet adaptation Los Tarantos, and the short movie Danzas Gitanas (Gypsy dances).

Amaya often danced in trousers rather than the layered skirt traditional for female flamenco dancers. One theory is that she did this to give more scope to her footwork, which was exceptional, and rather like a flamenco male dancer. Apparently, in early flamenco, women did not do so much footwork, and male dancers used to fill in the steps while sitting on chairs, unseen in the wings.p100 Her style has been described as repetitive because she always did the same dances: "Carmen was a fabulous dancer, but limited" (Antonio Ruiz Soler).

She was invited by Franklin Roosevelt to dance in the White House in 1944, and also by Harry S. Truman in 1953.

Amaya is buried in the Cementiri del Sud-Oest on Barcelona's Montjuïc.

References

Bibliography

 Bois, Mario (1994). Carmen Amaya o la danza del fuego. Madrid: Espasa Calpe.
 Hidalgo Gómez, Francisco (2010). Carmen Amaya. La biografía. Barcelona: Ediciones Carena.
 Madridejos Mora, Montserrat (2012). El flamenco en la Barcelona de la Exposición Internacional (1929-1930). Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra.
 Madridejos Mora, Montserrat y David Pérez Merinero (2013), Carmen Amaya. Barcelona: Edicions Bellaterra.
 Montañés, Salvador (1963). Carmen Amaya. La bailaora genial. Barcelona: Ediciones G.P.
 Pujol Baulenas, Jordi y Carlos García de Olalla (2003). Carmen Amaya. El mar me enseñó a bailar. Barcelona: Almendra Music.
 Sevilla, Paco (1999). Queen of the gypsies. The Life and legend of Carmen Amaya. San Diego, EE.UU: Sevilla Press.
 Francisco HIdalgo Gómez (1995). Carmen Amaya: cuando duermo sueño que estoy bailando. Barcelona. Libros PM.
 Revista de l'Associació d'Investigació i Experimentació Teatral, año 2008 num 66-67

Other websites
 Carmen Amaya Biography and related products.
 Carmen Amaya description on her grandniece's website.
 QUEEN OF THE GYPSIES, a Portrait of Carmen Amaya. VIDEO clips from the documentary.

1913 births
1963 deaths
Spanish dancers
Musicians from Barcelona
Spanish singers

Carmen Amaya


Tonic water is a kind of soda that tastes slightly bitter. The quinine in tonic water  has a bitter flavor. Originally, it was to protect people against malaria. The first drug against malaria was chloroquine, which became available in 1934. The first time tonic water became available was in the 1860s, over 70 years before the first drug.

Tonic water is often called Indian tonic. People drank it in Africa and Southeast Asia, where malaria was common. At the time, quinine was a powder that was mixed with water or soda water. Because quinine on its own is bitter, sweeteners were often added (usually sugar). Often, it was mixed with liquors. Gin and tonic is the most common.

Quinine should not be used during pregnancy as it will have an influence on the unborn child. There are also other conditions where quinine (and tonic water) should not be used.

Today, tonic water contains a lot less quinine than before the drug was developed.

Soft drinks

Tonic water


See John McWhirter (disambiguation) for other people of the same name.

John G. McWhirter FRS FREng FIMA FInstP FIEE FLSW is a British mathematician and engineer in the field of signal processing.

John McWhirter attended Newry High School. He graduated in mathematics from Queen's University Belfast in 1970, and did his PhD there in 1973 on "The Virial Theorem in Collision Theory" under Benjamin Moiseiwitsch. He started working in the Signal Processing Group at the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment, Great Malvern, in the late 1970s, and has worked there for RSRE's successor organizations, currently QinetiQ. Prof. McWhirter left QinetiQ on 31 August 2007 to take up his current post as Distinguished Research Professor in Engineering at Cardiff University.

His work has mainly been in military areas including radar, sonar and communications, recently branching into civil applications. A particular interest is "blind" signal detection in which one does not know whether a signal is present, or its nature.

Awards and honours
 1986 honorary visiting professor at Queen's University Belfast
 1988 visiting professor at Cardiff University
 1996 Elected as a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng)
 1999 Elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society.
 2000 Honorary Doctorate from the Queen's University Belfast
 2002 Honorary Doctorate from the University of Edinburgh
 2003 EURASIP European Group Technical Achievement Award

He is also a Fellow of the Institute of Physics. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) and in 2002/3 its president. He is also a Founding Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales.

Selected papers
 On the numerical inversion of the Laplace transform and similar Fredholm integral equations of the first kind, J G McWhirter and E R Pike,  J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 11 1729–1745 (1978)
 Some systolic array developments in the United Kingdom, John V. McCanny and John G. McWhirter, Computer Volume 20, Issue 7 p. 51 (1987)

References

External links
 Cardiff University page

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
People from Malvern, Worcestershire
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Institution of Engineering and Technology
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
20th-century British mathematicians
21st-century British mathematicians
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
Academics of Cardiff University
Qinetiq
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
Fellows of the Learned Society of Wales
People from Newry

John McWhirter (mathematician)


Just Add Magic is an American live-action family television series, loosely based on the book of the same name by Cindy Callaghan. It was produced by Amazon Studios. A pilot was produced in 2015 and the series commissioned for a full season the following year. Amazon renewed the series for a second season in June 2016 after it "set a record as the most successful Amazon Original Kids premiere weekend in terms of U.S. Prime Video streams and hours."

A followup series, Just Add Magic: Mystery City, was released on January 17, 2020.

Series overview

Mystery City

Episodes

Season 1 (2015–16)

Season 2 (2016–18)

Season 3 (2019)

Mystery City (2020)

References

Lists of American children's television series episodes

List of Just Add Magic episodes


Closed source (or proprietary software) means computer programs whose source code is not published.  The source code is not shared with the public for anyone to look at or change.  Closed source is the opposite of open source.

Most companies who sell their software for money make it closed source so people cannot easily change it or copy it for free.

Even some who give their software for free do not show the source code, because they think it looks bad, or that somebody will change the authors' names to their own (a kind of plagiarism) without making the program better. Some programs called "freeware" are given away for free, but they are not the same as free software that anyone can do whatever they want with.

Software

Closed source


The Superior Court of Los Angeles County is the California Superior Court located in Los Angeles County. It is the largest single unified trial court in the United States.

The Superior Court operates 37 courthouses throughout the county. Currently, the Presiding Judge is Samantha P. Jessner and David W. Slayton is the Executive Officer/Clerk of Court. They, together with 583 judicial officers and 4,800 employees, operate the nearly 600 courtrooms throughout the county, with an annual budget of over $1 billion.

History

When California declared its statehood in 1849 and became a part of the United States, the first California Constitution authorized the legislature to establish municipal and such other courts as it deemed necessary. The 1851 California Judiciary Act divided the state into districts, placing Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego counties into one district. Each district had its own court, below which were County and then Justice of the Peace Courts.  Judge Agustín Olvera of the County Court and Judge Jonathan R. Scott of the Justice of the Peace Court were the first judges of these lower courts. Almost immediately the District Court system was burdened by the vast expanse of the district. District Judges were required to hold court proceedings where the cases were filed. Because of the distance District Court Judges had to travel to conduct trials and the sudden growth in population due to the California Gold Rush, the District Court system became ineffective and non-responsive to the needs of its constituency.

In 1879 California adopted a new constitution and with it a revised court system. The District Courts became appeals courts below the State Supreme Court. To take over the District Courts original function, the county Superior Courts were created. The new Superior Court of Los Angeles County began with two judges: Ygnacio Sepulveda and Volney E. Howard. In 1905, juvenile delinquency and dependency hearings were put under the Superior Court's jurisdiction, as were mental health hearings in 1914. Eventually the Superior Court's jurisdiction came to include all civil, felony criminal, family law, juvenile delinquency and dependency, and probate cases in the county.

Throughout its history the Superior Court had had a close relation with the county's many Municipal Courts. By 1971 the Superior Court assumed responsibility for coordinating, providing and scheduling court interpreters for all courts in the County and by 1973 the Court had implemented a county wide system to process the payment of court appointed attorneys. The following year, 1974, all jury services in the county had been consolidated. In 1986 county-wide uniform criminal Local Court rules and uniform exhibit processing procedures were adopted to ensure consistency in how criminal cases were handled through the court system. By 1988 the Municipal and Superior Courts began to cross-assign cases to ease the county's judicial backlog. In 1993 the Superior Court adopted the Municipal Courts' automated criminal case processing system; known as the Municipal Court Information it was rebranded the Trial Court Information System. Also in 1993 the Superior Court was administratively unified with several of the Municipal Courts. And by 1999 17 more Municipal Courts had joined. Finally on January 22, 2000, in accordance with Proposition 220 passed in 1998, the Judges of the Municipal and Superior Courts voted to merge into the Superior Court of California, County of Los Angeles.

Courthouses

General
 Alhambra Courthouse, First Street and Commonwealth Avenue
 Airport Courthouse, 105 and 405 freeway intersection
 Catalina Courthouse, Catalina Island, smallest, one part-time courtroom
 Bellflower Courthouse
 Beverly Hills Courthouse
 Burbank Courthouse
 Chatsworth Courthouse
 Compton Courthouse
 Downey Courthouse
 East Los Angeles Courthouse
 El Monte Courthouse
 Glendale Courthouse
 Hollywood Courthouse
 Huntington Park Courthouse
 Inglewood Courthouse
 Long Beach Courthouse
 Malibu Courthouse
 Metropolitan Courthouse
 Michael D. Antonovich Antelope Valley Courthouse
 Norwalk Courthouse
 Pasadena Courthouse
 Pomona Courthouse North
 Pomona Courthouse South
 Redondo Beach Courthouse
 San Fernando Courthouse
 San Pedro Courthouse
 San Pedro Courthouse Annex
 Santa Clarita Courthouse
 Santa Monica Courthouse
 Stanley Mosk Courthouse, Downtown Los Angeles, 100 courtrooms, largest courthouse in the United States
 Torrance Courthouse
 Van Nuys Courthouse East
 Van Nuys Courthouse West
 West Covina Courthouse
 West Los Angeles Courthouse
 Whittier Courthouse

Specialty
 Alfred J. McCourtney Juvenile Justice Center
 Central Arraignment Court
 Central Civil West Courthouse
 Clara Shortridge Foltz Criminal Justice Center
 David V. Kenyon Juvenile Justice Center
 Eastlake Juvenile Court
 Edmund D. Edelman Children's Court
 Inglewood Juvenile Courthouse
 Los Padrinos Juvenile Courthouse
 Mental Health Courthouse
 Sylmar Juvenile Courthouse

Administration
The Court uses the California Court Case Management System (CCMS) v3, and exposes services to the public such as the Criminal Defendant Index, Civil Party Name Search, Civil Case Document Images, Traffic Ticket Online Services, e-File Small Claims, and Divorce Judgment Documents. The difference between CCMS and these other services is similar to the difference between the federal CM/ECF and PACER systems.

The Court has nearly 4,800 employees, operates nearly 600 courtrooms throughout the county, and has an annual budget of $1 billion. The Court has 2.7 million new cases each year:
 1.7 million traffic tickets
 About 500,000 criminal cases
 Nearly 120,000 family law cases
 Over 150,000 civil lawsuits

Pursuant to California Government Code and the California Rules of Court, the Los Angeles County Superior Court has adopted Local Rules for its government and the government of its officers. The Presiding Judge assigns cases to departments and judges to departments. Nominations and election of the Presiding and Assistant Presiding Judge are made by all judges and take place between September and October of each year. All departments are divided into several principal divisions under the policy and procedures established by its supervising judge, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee and the Presiding Judge.

Officers
There are several officers of the court, including judges, jurors, commissioners, prosecutors, defense attorneys, clerks, bailiffs, and court reporters.

Jurors
 3.1 million of the County's residents are called for jury duty each year
 1 million people became qualified jurors
 Between 7,000 to 10,000 people serve as jurors every day
 Over 5,500 jury trials are held each year
 Average length of a trial is about 7 days
 $15 per day and 34 cents per miles (one way) compensation after the first day
 18 years of age or older, citizen of the United States and a resident of Los Angeles County are minimum requirements

Judges
The state Administrative Office of the Courts maintains an official roster of all superior court judges, including the 431 judges of the L.A. Superior Court. Median spending for a judicial office election for the Los Angeles County Superior Court has risen from $3,177 in  to $70,000 in . Notable judges:

 Lee Smalley Edmon, Presiding Judge
 David S. Cunningham, III
 James Hahn
 Shirley Hufstedler
 Lance Ito

 Joyce Karlin

 Loren Miller Jr.
 Loren Miller (1903–1967)
 Billy G. Mills
 Lawrence Mira
 Michael T. Sauer
 Robert Mitsuhiro Takasugi (1930–2009)
 Joseph Wapner

Commissioners
A commissioner is a subordinate judicial officer elected by the judges of the Court and given the power to hear and make decisions in certain kinds of legal matters, similar to the United States magistrate judge. Their jurisdiction includes, but is not limited to, traffic matters, family law and juvenile cases, criminal misdemeanors, and criminal felony cases through the preliminary hearing stage. There are 140 commissioners.

Prosecutors
The Los Angeles County District Attorney, currently George Gascón, prosecutes crimes before the court on behalf of California, Los Angeles County, and all cities and special districts within Los Angeles County.

Public Defenders
The Los Angeles County Public Defender, currently Ricardo Garcia, is the public defender.
http://pd.co.la.ca.us/

Clerks
The court clerks, or Judicial Assistants, are responsible for managing the courtrooms and other clerical courtroom activities, interacting with the attorneys and the public, administering oaths, assisting with the impaneling juries, and are responsible for the inventory and safe-keeping of the exhibits. The current Clerk is David W. Slayton.

Bailiffs
The functions of the bailiff are carried out by Los Angeles County Sheriff, currently Robert Luna, under contract.

Notable cases
 Hillside Strangler
 Charles Manson murders
 O. J. Simpson murder case
 The Onion Field
 Paul v. Clinton
 Phil Spector murder of Lana Clarkson
 Lee Marvin palimony case
 Trial of Conrad Murray (Michael Jackson's last doctor)

See also
 Superior Courts of California
 Santa Clara County Superior Court
 Sacramento County Superior Court
 Alameda County Superior Court

References

Sources

External links
Official website

Los Angeles
Superior Court

Los Angeles County Superior Court


August Wilhelm Ernst von Stockhausen (19 February 1791, in Thüringen – 31 March 1861, in Berlin) was a Prussian officer and minister of war 1850-51.

Stockhausen came from Thüringen. In 1805 he joined the Feldjägerregiment of the Prussian Army as an officer cadet. In 1808 he became a second lieutenant and changed over to the Garde-Jäger-Bataillon. In 1813 and 1814 he participated in the War of the Sixth Coalition. In 1824 he was made a Major and in 1830 was assigned to the General Staff. From 1840 to 1842 he was the Chief of Staff of the Guard Corps, that was then commanded by Prince Wilhelm. In 1845 he was made a Major General. A short while later he was made inspector of the garrisons of the German Confederation's fortresses. In 1848 he was placed in command of the 9. Infanteriebrigade in Posen. Before he could take up this position, however, he was made Chief of Staff of the troops under General Friedrich Graf von Wrangel in the First Schleswig War. By the time Von Stockhausen joined up with the troops, the Danish units had already withdrawn to the islands.

In July 1848 he was placed in command of the 1st Division in Königsberg. He aimed to become minister of war, however, and tried to campaign for himself in Berlin. Since he met with no success, he asked to be retired. This request was granted when he was made a Lieutenant General, with appropriate pension rights.

But there were still political elements that wanted to see Von Stockhausen as minister of war. Partly for this reason, Von Stockhausen successfully stood for election to the second chamber of the Prussian parliament. He was a member of the parliament until he resigned his mandate on 9 May 1849. There, he belonged very much to the right wing, but did not join any parliamentary party.

After Karl von Strotha's resignation on 27 February 1850, he was made minister of war. For a time, he also had hopes of becoming Prime Minister. However, there were personal as well as political differences between Stockhausen and King Frederick William IV. Amongst the personal matters, the latter accused Stockhausen of being an "enemy of Pietism", and thus, of Christianity. Politically, Stockhausen, like his predecessor, supported the view that royal orders concerning personnel issues (such as promotions) constitutionally had to be counter-signed by the minister of war.

After the appointment of Joseph von Radowitz as Foreign Minister, Stockhausen tried to avert a looming war with Austria. He was even falsely accused of deliberately dragging his feet in the preparations for such a war. His relationship with the King remained tense and Stockhausen asked to be dismissed more than once. The King delayed doing so however, as there was no suitable replacement. When Stockhausen refused to defend in parliament higher pay for the officers of certain Guard regiments, he was dismissed on 31 December 1851. He then held the post of chairman of the general medals commission (Generalordenskommission) until 1853. He was also a member of the first chamber of the Prussian parliament in 1852-53.

19th-century Prussian people
19th-century German military personnel
Prussian Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Prussian politicians
Prussian nobility
Military personnel from Thuringia
1791 births
1861 deaths
Lieutenant generals of Prussia

August von Stockhausen


Devanahalli Fort is located 35 kilometers (22 mi) north of Bangalore city, at Devanahalli in the State of Karnataka, India. Chieftain Malla Byre Gowda of Avathi, a Vijayanagara empire vassal, built a mud fort in c. 1501 at Devanadoddi (now called Devanahalli). In the late 18th century, Hyder Ali re-constructed the fort in stone resulting in the current structure.

It was originally built in 1501 by Mallabairegowda, which remained in the hands of his descendants until the mid–eighteenth century. In 1749, the then Dalwai of Mysore, Nanjarajaiah, attacked the fort and occupied it.
Later, the fort passed into the hands of Hyder Ali and subsequently Tipu Sultan. In 1791, Lord Cornwallis laid siege to the fort and took possession during the Anglo-Mysore War.

The birthplace of Tipu Sultan, also known as Tiger of Mysore, is located near to the fort. The fort is situated on the side of National Highway 7, near the Bengaluru International Airport.

An Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) board outside the fort and at Tipu Sultan's birthplace declares them to be protected monuments.

History

The history of Devanahalli dates back to 15th century, when a family of fleeing refugees from Conjeevaram (modern day Kanchi), camped near the foot of Ramaswami betta, east of Nandi Hills. Their leader Rana Baire Gowda was apparently directed in a dream to set up a settlement in this region. He and his Morasu Wokkalu family settled in a small village, Ahuti, which was later known as Avati. His son Malla Baire Gowda founded Devanahalli, Chikka-ballapura and Dodda-ballapura. Kempegowda, the founder of Bangalore city is also from Morasu Wokkalu family.

Devanahalli was part of Gangawadi and later came under the rule of Rashatrakutas, Nolamba, Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara rulers. During the time of Vijayanagara rule, Malla Baire constructed the initial mud fort in 1501 AD with the consent of Devaraya at Devanadoddi, the previous name of Devanahalli. In 1747 AD, the fort passed into the hands of the Wodeyars of Mysore under the command of Nanja Raja. It was conquered many times from the Marathas and later came under the control of Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan.

Tipu also renamed it as Yousafabad (the abode of Yousuf, the finest man) which never got popular. The fort finally fell into the British, under Lord Cornwallis in 1791, during the Mysore War.

Architecture

 Fort is spread over an area of 20 acres (8 ha). The roughly oval east oriented fortification veneered with dressed masonry has as many as 12 semi-circular bastions at regular intervals. A spacious battlement is provided towards the inner side of the fortification. The fort has entrances decorated with cut plasterwork at the east and west. The entrances are quite small, comfortable enough for the horses of yore. The bastions are provided with gun points built with lime and brick.

The house in which Tipu and Hyder Ali lived also still exists. The house of Dewan Purnaiah, a high-ranking official in Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan's court, is also located inside the fort.

Tipu's birthplace

A memorial with a small plaque stands  south-west outside of the fort, stating that Tipu Sultan was born here in 1751. It is about six feet (2 m) tall with a pillared enclosure and square top and bears a stone tablet.

The area around the enclosure is known as Khas Bagh and has a dried up stone pond, banana, tamarind and mango plantations.

Temples inside the fort

Kote Venugopalaswamy Temple

The small town inside the strong walls of Devanahalli fort has many temples. The Venugopalaswamy temple, which faces the main town road is one of the oldest among them. The courtyard, with  a Garuda Stamba, is spacious and the walls of the temple depict various scenes from Ramayana and the feats of Lord Krishna as a child, and the pillars have beautiful statues carved on them. The sculptures in this temple is said to be comparable to the temples of Belur and Halebid. On the pillars of the main entrance stand two horsemen with swords unsheathed. The Garbhagriha has a standing Venugopala image of Vijayanagara style. There is a Dravidian style Shikhara over the temple. The Navaranga has four black-stoned pillars carved with fine relief sculptures on all sides, such as hayagriva, dancing female figures with attendant musicians, a conch blower, a kinnara with the lower portion of his body in bird form, a huntress removing a thorn from her leg, etc.
A teru is the big chariot used to parade the idol of Gopalaswamy around the town once a year.

Siddalingeshwara Temple

A few yards away from the  Venugopalaswamy temple is Siddalingeshwara temple. Next to this temple is a Raghavendraswamy Math.

Chandramouleshwara Temple

Across the street is another age old temple, Chandramouleshwara Temple. It has a spacious inner prakara and is built in Vijayanagara style. The Garbhagriha has a shivalinga, and there are two cells on either side with idols of lord Ganapati and goddess Parvati enshrined respectively.

On the left of the main road stands another temple dedicated to Anjaneya known as Sarovaranjaneya temple.

Nanjundeshwara Temple

The Nanjundeshwara temple is a small building with two cells in a line and a common navaranga. It is said that this was earlier called Kashi Vishveshwara and is regarded as the oldest temple in the town.

References

Forts in Karnataka
Buildings and structures in Bangalore Rural district
Tourist attractions in Bangalore Rural district
History of Karnataka
1501 establishments in India

Devanahalli Fort