WrestleMania XXVIII was the 28th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. It took place on April 1, 2012, at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. It is the highest grossing PPV event in professional wrestling history.

There were eight matches on the event's card and one pre-show match that was streamed on YouTube. The main event saw The Rock defeat John Cena and was advertised a year in advance, being set up in the main event of the previous year's WrestleMania XXVII. In other prominent matches, The Undertaker defeated Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match with Shawn Michaels serving as the special guest referee, CM Punk defeated Chris Jericho to retain the WWE Championship, Big Show defeated Cody Rhodes to win the WWE Intercontinental Championship, and in the opening bout, Sheamus defeated Daniel Bryan to win the World Heavyweight Championship in an 18 second match.

The Rock vs. John Cena match was re-broadcast on NBC and later sent to DVD and Blu-ray, collected under the title of The Rock vs John Cena: Once in a Lifetime. The match was later included in WWE Best PPV Matches of 2012 as the Most Anticipated WrestleMania Match of All Time. Despite the "Once in a Lifetime" tagline, the two would wrestle each other again at WrestleMania 29 in the main event for the WWE Championship, with Cena emerging victorious and winning the title from the Rock.

Production

Background

WrestleMania is considered WWE's flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985—in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with the "WWE" abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. It is the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the "Big Four". WrestleMania XXVIII was the first WrestleMania to occur following the end of the first brand extension in August 2011.

The city of Miami Gardens, Florida was one of the two major contenders to host WrestleMania XXVII along with Atlanta; in February 2010, Atlanta was awarded the right to host the event. According to the Miami-Dade Sports Commission, WWE management felt that Miami's planning for the event would have been too hectic with many other sporting events held in the area around the same time of the planning, such as Super Bowl XLIV. However, the Miami area was reportedly considered for the next event due to its international ties, facilities, airports, and experience of hosting previous major events.

Bidding documents were sent to seventeen cities in consideration for hosting a WrestleMania event between 2012 and 2014, with fourteen replying in interest. Other cities under consideration for WrestleMania XXVIII included Los Angeles, New Orleans, New York City, Toronto, Detroit, Tampa, Vancouver, St. Louis, Jacksonville, Orlando, and Houston. The city of Dallas also showed interest, but had to withdraw from bidding for the next two years due to hosting events such as the NCAA Final Four.

Miami was revealed as the site of WrestleMania on February 9, 2011, by The Miami Herald and at a WWE press conference at the Fontainebleau Miami Beach. The event was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2012, at Miami Gardens' Sun Life Stadium. WrestleMania XXVIII was the second WrestleMania event that was hosted in the state of Florida, the fourth open-air event, and the third event to be held entirely outdoors. For hosting the event, WWE received a $250,000 cash incentive from the Miami-Dade Sports Commission raised through grants and sponsorships. Along with WrestleMania XXVIII, a series of events grouped as "WrestleMania Week" was held in the week preceding the event including WrestleMania's annual WrestleMania Axxess fan convention at the Miami Beach Convention Center, the 2012 WWE Hall of Fame ceremony at the American Airlines Arena, the finals of the WrestleMania Reading Challenge, and a Celebrity Pro-Am Golf tournament.

Storylines
The event included matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw and SmackDown.

The main event of WrestleMania XXVIII pitted The Rock wrestling against John Cena, billed as a Once in a Lifetime, face of the company generational match. On the February 14, 2011, episode of Raw, The Rock was revealed as the host of WrestleMania XXVII, and upon his return to WWE, began a feud with John Cena (and Cena's opponent at that WrestleMania, then-WWE Champion, The Miz), which continued for weeks in terms of verbal insults, until the March 28 episode of Raw, where Cena delivered the Attitude Adjustment to The Rock after he fended off attacks from the Miz and his protégé, Alex Riley.  At WrestleMania XXVII, The Rock got involved in the main event WWE Championship match between Miz and Cena, which initially ended in a double count-out. After the match was restarted under no disqualifications, no count-outs rules, The Rock delivered a Rock Bottom to Cena as a measure of payback, thus enabling the Miz to win the match. The next night on Raw, Cena challenged The Rock to a one-on-one match; Rock accepted and proposed that it be held at WrestleMania XXVIII. After winning the championship from Miz at Extreme Rules, Cena interrupted The Rock's birthday celebrations during the May 2 episode of Raw to announce his intention to defend the WWE Championship against The Rock at WrestleMania XXVIII. Such intentions were however thwarted by Cena losing the title at Money in the Bank in July. At Survivor Series in November, Cena teamed with The Rock (who wrestled his first WWE match in almost eight years, last competing at WrestleMania XX in 2004). Billed as "the most charismatic tag team", they defeated the Miz and R-Truth. After the match, Rock performed a Rock Bottom to Cena.

Another match billed as the "end of an era", saw The Undertaker face Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match. The previous year at WrestleMania XXVII, in a No Holds Barred match, The Undertaker defeated Triple H via submission, in their second encounter at a WrestleMania (the first being at WrestleMania X-Seven in 2001, where The Undertaker won as well). However, in the post-match events, due to the harsh physicality suffered during the bout, The Undertaker, for the first time in his career, was carted away from the Georgia Dome by the medical staff on a stretcher. After a near ten-month long hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the January 30, 2012, episode of Raw, confronting and challenging Triple H to a rematch at WrestleMania XXVIII. The Undertaker, having been dissatisfied of his post-WrestleMania match scenario the previous year, stated that he "did not want 'that scene' to be a lasting memory" of him and was willing to give Triple H "another chance at immortality". After Triple H refused to accept the challenge the next week his close friend and WWE Hall of Famer, Shawn Michaels appeared on the February 13 episode to instigate him in accepting The Undertaker's challenge, which was in vain as Triple H stated he was willing to put his ego and personal agendas aside for the future of WWE, and viewed The Undertaker's 19–0 undefeated WrestleMania streak as a "brand" to cash-in for the company, finally ending the argument saying he would not be the one to end it. Then, on the February 20 episode, The Undertaker still remained adamant in getting a WrestleMania rematch with Triple H, going so far as to label Triple H as a "coward", and comparing his abilities and career to that of Shawn Michaels. Enraged by these comments, Triple H finally accepted The Undertaker's challenge at WrestleMania XXVIII, saying that if "he [Undertaker] wanted an end, they would go all the way", and proposed that they would compete in a Hell in a Cell match. On the March 5 episode, Michaels confronted Triple H again; Michaels expressed his views on who was better than the other, predicted Triple H's chances of defeating The Undertaker, and revealed himself as the special guest referee in their Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania.

On July 17, 2011, at the Money in the Bank event, Daniel Bryan won the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match. On the July 22 episode of SmackDown, Bryan declared his intentions of cashing-in his Money in the Bank contract at WrestleMania XXVIII. However, he apparently cashed-in his contract briefcase on the November 25 episode of SmackDown and pinned the reigning World Heavyweight Champion Mark Henry to supposedly win the title and began to celebrate, but SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long informed Bryan that Henry was not medically cleared to compete, and declared the match void, thereby returning the briefcase to Bryan and the title back to Henry. The next week on Raw, Bryan acknowledged that he went back on his word, saying that headlining WrestleMania was his dream and that his "plans changed"; that the briefcase "doesn't guarantee [him] anything", since he could be put out of action at any time. WWE continued to maintain the advertisement for WrestleMania, until Bryan successfully cashed in his Money in the Bank contract briefcase on Big Show at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event on December 18, 2011, to become the new World Heavyweight Champion. In January 2012, at the twenty-fifth annual Royal Rumble pay-per-view, Sheamus won the thirty-man Royal Rumble match, giving him the right to challenge either the WWE Champion or the World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania XXVIII. At Elimination Chamber in February, Sheamus attacked Bryan, after the latter successfully retained his World Heavyweight Championship in an Elimination Chamber match, thus challenging Bryan for his title at WrestleMania.

In another match, CM Punk defended the WWE Championship against Chris Jericho. Since the summer of 2011, Punk had successfully defended the WWE Championship numerous times, calling himself the "best wrestler in the world". On the January 2, 2012, episode of Raw, after extensive hype through several viral vignettes proclaiming the "end of the world as we know it" on that day, Chris Jericho returned to WWE after over a year, and established a villainous persona over the next several weeks. On the February 13 episode of Raw, Jericho accused Punk in an in-ring segment of being a copycat of him, and that Punk stole his proclamation of being the "best in the world". While competing in the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view, Jericho was knocked out by a kick to the head by Punk, rendering him unable to compete any further, and Punk went on to win that match and retain the title. This incident further fueled Jericho's animosity towards Punk. On the February 20 episode of Raw, Jericho won a ten-man battle royal to determine the number-one contender to face Punk for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII. In subsequent promos, both wrestlers expressed their desire to prove who is "the best in the world".

Another title match scheduled was for the Intercontinental Championship between defending champion Cody Rhodes and Big Show. Their feud gained increased momentum week after week when, over January and February 2012, Rhodes began mocking Big Show's less than stellar performances at WrestleMania over the years, calling him "a reverse Undertaker" (a direct reference to The Undertaker's undefeated 19–0 record at WrestleMania, compared to Big Show's 3–8 record), in addition to citing the "ridiculous nature" of some of his matches, such as his Sumo match against Akebono at WrestleMania 21 in 2005 and a No Disqualification match against Floyd Mayweather Jr. at WrestleMania XXIV in 2008, both of which Big Show lost. Rhodes also cost Big Show a chance at the World Heavyweight Championship, by eliminating him from the Elimination Chamber match at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view in February, and a shot at the WWE Championship at WrestleMania, when he pulled Big Show over the top rope, aiding in his elimination by Chris Jericho in the end of a number-one contender's battle royal on the February 20 episode of Raw. On the March 2 episode of SmackDown, General Manager Theodore Long scheduled a match between Rhodes and Big Show for the Intercontinental Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII, where the latter has vowed "to win at all costs."

At the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view in February 2012, John Laurinaitis, WWE's Executive Vice President of Talent Relations and Interim Raw General Manager, expressed his desire to become the permanent general manager of both Raw and SmackDown. Alberto Del Rio, Mark Henry, and Christian all came out and voiced their support for Laurinaitis over SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who later that night put forth his own claim to run both shows. On the February 21 episode of SmackDown, the two General Managers got into an argument following a match between WWE Champion CM Punk and World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan that ended in a draw. The two were then given the chance by the WWE Board of Directors to run the other show for one night in order for the Board to evaluate them, with Long running the March 5 episode of Raw and Laurinaitis in charge of the March 9 episode of SmackDown. But being still not convinced of either man's decision-making, on March 12, the Board of Directors scheduled a 12-man tag team match for WrestleMania XXVIII, with the stipulation that the General Manager of the winning team being awarded stewardship of both Raw and SmackDown. The same night on Raw, Long appointed his assistant, Santino Marella to be the captain of his team, while Laurinaitis appointed his legal counsel, David Otunga to be his team's captain, naming Mark Henry as the first member of his team. Over the following weeks, R-Truth, Kofi Kingston, Zack Ryder, The Great Khali, and Booker T were added to Team Teddy, with Hornswoggle serving as the team's mascot, while Christian, Dolph Ziggler, Jack Swagger, and The Miz joined Team Johnny. Christian, who had joined the team in return for Laurinaitis promising him a shot at the World Heavyweight Championship after WrestleMania, was forced to leave the team due to being (kayfabe) injured by CM Punk on the March 26 episode of Raw (the real reason being Christian not having fully recovered from his real-life ankle injury) and was replaced by Drew McIntyre.

Another match scheduled for WrestleMania was between Divas Beth Phoenix and Eve Torres taking on the team of Kelly Kelly and Extra co-host Maria Menounos. The feud between Phoenix and Menounos began on the October 12, 2009, episode of Raw when Menounos accompanied then-Access Hollywood host Nancy O'Dell, who was the guest host of Raw that night. Phoenix, angered over having been traded to the SmackDown brand by O'Dell, barged into their office and got into a confrontation with both women, leading to a Six-Diva tag team match later that night in which Menounos' team defeated Phoenix's team. On the 2011 edition of Tribute to the Troops, Menounos made an appearance, this time in an Eight-Diva tag team match, winning the match for her team by pinning Phoenix. Kelly and Eve, on the other hand, had a falling apart of their friendship after Eve turned villainous and admitted to having used Zack Ryder and John Cena to further her own career. On the March 15 episode of Extra, Phoenix and Eve interrupted an interview between Kelly and Menounos, which resulted in a confrontation. Phoenix would then challenge Menounos to a match at WrestleMania, which the latter accepted. Later that night, WWE officials sanctioned a tag team match pitting Phoenix and Eve against Menounos and Kelly for WrestleMania XXVIII.

Another rivalry heading into WrestleMania was between Randy Orton and Kane. On the March 2 episode of SmackDown, Kane interrupted Orton's match against Daniel Bryan, causing Orton to lose via count-out. The two men ensued in a brawl, which ended with Kane performing a chokeslam on Orton to "welcome [Orton] back" from being injured at the hands of Bryan a few weeks ago. Orton retaliated on the March 5 episode of Raw, by delivering an RKO to Kane after Kane's match. On the March 9 episode of SmackDown, Orton and Kane once again brawled at the end of the show with no man appearing to gain an advantage. The next week on SmackDown, when Orton demanded Kane to explain the root cause of his attacks on him, the latter referred to his handshake with Orton after a Street Fight on the July 22, 2011 episode of SmackDown, in which Orton had defeated him. Kane, explaining that the handshake made him look weak and "human", that this "wretched" self was now gone, and now wanted to eliminate that memory, challenging Orton at WrestleMania XXVIII.

On March 30, a triple threat tag team match for the Tag Team Championship was scheduled between the defending champions Primo and Epico, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso), and the newly formed team of Justin Gabriel and Tyson Kidd. This match would be streamed online free before the pay-per-view on both WWE.com and the official WWE YouTube channel.

Event

Pre-show
A non-televised triple threat tag team match for the Tag Team Championship pitted champions Primo and Epico, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso), and Justin Gabriel and Tyson Kidd against each other. The match began with multiple aerial tactics and many pin attempts. In the midst of the match, Justin Gabriel botched a dive outside resulting in an elbow injury. The match ended when Epico hit Jey Uso with a Backstabber and pinned him to retain the titles.

Preliminary matches

In the first televised match, Daniel Bryan defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Sheamus. After receiving a good luck kiss from his (kayfabe) girlfriend AJ Lee, Bryan was surprised by Sheamus, who delivered a Brogue Kick and pinned him to win the title. Lasting only 18 seconds, this was one of the shortest title matches in WWE history.

In the second match, Randy Orton faced Kane. After trading moves back and forth, Orton gained the upper hand until Kane made a comeback. Kane continued to dominate the match until Orton kicked out of a chokeslam. Orton gained back momentum but after attempting an RKO from the second rope, Kane delivered a Chokeslam off the second rope and pinned him to win the match.

Next, the Intercontinental Championship was on the line between champion Cody Rhodes and Big Show. Rhodes attempted to avoid his opponent until Big Show caught him and tossed him back inside. Big Show dominated from there with vicious attacks. Rhodes managed to deliver a disaster kick. As he went for another one, he took a spear mid-air to the groin from Big Show. Big Show knocked out Rhodes with a Knockout Punch and pinned him to win his first Intercontinental Championship.

A tag team match pitted Kelly Kelly and Extra correspondent Maria Menounos against Divas Champion Beth Phoenix and Eve. Kelly began to get the upper hand over Eve. Kelly tagged in Menounos who got off to a good start but was slowed down by interference from Phoenix. Phoenix and Eve would continue to wear down Menounos who had already suffered two cracked ribs prior to the event. Menounos eventually tagged in Kelly who began to dominate. Phoenix managed to wear down Kelly but Kelly countered a Glam Slam with a bulldog and tagged in Menounos. The climax of the match came when Kelly saved Menounos, knocked Phoenix into Eve on the apron, and Menounos rolled up Phoenix for the win.

Jim Ross joined the commentators (Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler) for the Hell in a Cell match between Triple H and The Undertaker with Shawn Michaels as special guest referee billed as "The End of an Era". The match started with the two going back and forth. The match moved to the outside where The Undertaker dominated. Back in the ring, Triple H assaulted Undertaker with the steel steps and even countered a Hell's Gate. The match intensified when Triple H brought steel chairs and a sledgehammer into the ring. After multiple big moves and weapon shots on each other, the two men repeatedly kicked out. After suffering a Pedigree, a Sweet Chin Music, and multiple chair and sledgehammer shots, Undertaker came back and executed a Tombstone Piledriver; however, Triple H kicked out. Triple H delivered one more Pedigree before The Undertaker kicked out, took back control, performed another Tombstone, and won the match to extend his undefeated streak to 20–0. After the match, Undertaker and Michaels helped Triple H out of the ring and made it to the entrance stage, where they embraced.

The following match was a twelve-man tag team match to determine who would run both Raw and SmackDown, pitting teams representing Teddy Long and John Laurinaitis against each other. The match began with a back-and-forth between both teams. After Booker T (of Team Teddy) entered he was worn down by most of Team Johnny until the rest of both teams engaged in an all-out brawl both inside and outside of the ring. Then, Zack Ryder (of Team Teddy) started to dominate Team Johnny's Dolph Ziggler and The Miz, but as he was distracted by his storyline girlfriend Eve, The Miz delivered a Skull Crushing Finale to Ryder and scored a pinfall victory for Team Johnny, giving John Laurinaitis control of both shows.

The penultimate match saw CM Punk defend the WWE Championship against Chris Jericho. However, John Laurinaitis told Punk backstage before the match that if Punk were to get disqualified, he would lose the title. Jericho immediately started attacking Punk. Jericho taunted and slapped Punk, trying to provoke him into getting Punk disqualified. Jericho grabbed a chair and attempted to hit him but Punk quickly cleared the chair and continued on with the match. Punk then successfully connected the GTS, only for a near fall. Punk then applied the Anaconda Vise, forcing Jericho to crawl through and was able to tip the rope. Punk missed the Turnbuckle Shining Wizard, which Jericho countered with a roll-up for a near fall. Jericho caught by Punk with a dropkick, then Punk prepared for a GTS, which Jericho noticed and he fled to the outside of the ring. The match began as Jericho was able to apply several Clothesline, followed by a seated dropkick. Jericho went for his signature submission, Walls of Jericho, but Punk countered. Punk missed the running knee as Jericho hit him with an unexpected 'Codebreaker' for a near fall. At the match's climax, Punk won the match by reversing Jericho's Walls of Jericho into the Anaconda Vise, forcing Jericho to submit.

In a filler segment, Brodus Clay came out with his background dancers, Cameron and Naomi, followed by a group of dancers. Clay then presumably called his "momma", after which, Clay's "momma" came out and started dancing with rest of the other dancers.

Main event

The main event pitted John Cena and The Rock in a match billed "Once In A Lifetime". Cena and Rock viciously went back-and-forth with each other throughout the match. During the course of the match, The Rock kicked out of two Attitude Adjustments, Cena out of a Rock Bottom and People's Elbow. When Cena attempted a People's Elbow on The Rock, throwing his sweatband in the crowd in similar fashion to Rock, he ran into another Rock Bottom, which allowed The Rock to pick up the win.

Reception
WrestleMania XXVIII received generally positive critical reception, with praise going to The Rock vs. John Cena, the WWE Championship match, and the match between The Undertaker and Triple H. However, the World Heavyweight Championship match between Daniel Bryan and Sheamus was heavily criticized for its short length and perceived burial of Bryan.

Eric Larnick of The Huffington Post praised the main event match giving it a verdict of good; he applauded Dwayne Johnson, opining that he worked "his butt off to prove that he can still go in the squared circle". The post also praised the WWE Championship and Hell in a Cell matches, ranking them alongside the main event. IGN called Daniel Bryan vs Sheamus the "worst match of the night" and The Undertaker vs. Triple H the "match of the night". They also applauded the main event match, calling the unexpected outcome a good way for the crowd to go home happy. Wrestling-Edge rated all the matches on a scale of 5 and gave a full 5 star ratings to The Undertaker vs. Triple H Hell in a Cell match.

The Baltimore Suns Adam Testa led with a headline that WrestleMania XXVIII was unable to live up to the hype, while the main event did. He labeled the match as being the match that could break or make the WrestleMania and ended in "an amazing sequence". The Rock's victory was again stated as shocking and welcome, leaving people curious about the aftermath of the event. Yahoo's A. Orien Avery found The Rock vs. Hulk Hogan from WrestleMania X8 as the only comparable match from previous WrestleManias, though according to him The Rock being in his prime would make the match more symbolic.

WrestleMania XXVIII garnered 1,300,000 buys, making it the most purchased wrestling event in history, surpassing WrestleMania 23's buyrate of approximately 1.2 million, with global gross sales in excess of $67 million. The event also set a new record for the highest grossing live event in WWE history, grossing $8.9 million.

The Undertaker vs. Triple H Hell in a Cell match won the 2012 Slammy Award for the match of the year as well as being voted the match of the year on Pro Wrestling Illustrated. It has since been regarded as one of the greatest Hell in a Cell matches of all time, as well as one of the best matches in professional wrestling history.

Aftermath
The following night on Raw, John Cena talked about his loss to The Rock. He asked for The Rock to come out so that he could offer his congratulations. Instead, Brock Lesnar, in his first appearance since WrestleMania XX in 2004, appeared and laid out Cena with an F-5. The following week, a match between Cena and Lesnar was scheduled for Extreme Rules, which was later changed to an Extreme Rules match. At the event, Cena defeated Lesnar.

On the April 10 episode of SmackDown, it was announced that a two out of three falls match between Daniel Bryan and Sheamus for the World Heavyweight Championship would take place at Extreme Rules. At the event, Sheamus defeated Bryan to retain the title and end the feud.

On the following episode of SmackDown, Randy Orton and Kane faced each other again, this time in a No Disqualification match, which Orton won. A Falls Count Anywhere match between the two was later scheduled for Extreme Rules, which Orton won to end the feud.

A tables match between Big Show and Cody Rhodes was scheduled for Extreme Rules, where Rhodes defeated Show to reclaim the title.

Also, a Chicago Street Fight between CM Punk and Chris Jericho for the WWE Championship was scheduled for Extreme Rules, where Punk retained.

At the 2013 Royal Rumble, John Cena won the Royal Rumble match to earn himself a world title match at WrestleMania 29. Later that night, The Rock defeated CM Punk to end Punk's 434 day reign as champion. The following night on Raw, Cena chose to face The Rock for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29. At the event, Cena defeated The Rock to win the title.

Results

References

External links
The Official Website of WrestleMania XXVIII

2010s in Miami
WrestleMania
2012 in professional wrestling in Florida
Professional wrestling shows in Miami
2012 WWE pay-per-view events
April 2012 events in the United States

WrestleMania XXVIII


Roger Miles Uttley (born 11 September 1949) OBE is a former English rugby union player.

Career

Uttley played 23 games for England both in the second row and the back row, five times as captain, and four tests in the Lions back row on the undefeated 1974 tour to South Africa.

Roger was born in Blackpool, attended Montgomery High School, and Blackpool Grammar School and played first for Fylde then Gosforth before finishing his career at Wasps.

He was a member of the famous North team which beat the All Blacks at Otley on 17 November 1979 and went on to play in the England team which won the Grand Slam in 1980, retiring from international rugby later that year.

He coached the successful London and South East Divisional side in the mid to late 1980s before working with Geoff Cooke to coach and guide the England XV captained by Will Carling to the final of the 1991 World Cup

He was also assistant coach to the victorious 1989 British and Irish Lions tour to Australia.

In 1997 he was asked to manage the England XV, a job he enjoyed doing despite it coinciding with the infamous tour to hell. Due to cutbacks within the RFU the post of manager became financially unviable and he lost his position along with 30 other RFU employees.

His day job has always been in teaching physical education and for 20 years he was Director of that subject at Harrow School. In 2008 he retired to look after his wife and was succeeded by Jesse Coulson. He also taught at Cramlington High School for some years in the 1970s.

He is a former president of Sparks and a current council member of the same charity. He is an honorary member of Wooden Spoon the charity for disadvantaged children and young people.

In August 2014, Uttley was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue.

References

External links
ESPN Scrum Profile

1949 births
Living people
British & Irish Lions rugby union players from England
England international rugby sevens players
England international rugby union players
English rugby union players
Fylde Rugby Club players
Male rugby sevens players
Newcastle Falcons players
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Rugby union locks
Rugby union players from Blackpool
Wasps RFC players
Teachers at Harrow School

Roger Uttley


Ghebaleh, ( Ghbeleh) is a Village in Keserwan, Lebanon.

At 40 KM from the capital of Lebanon, Ghebaleh is thought to be the capital of Ftouh Kesrwan, with an altitude of 700-1100 meters above sea level.

A Christian conservative village in the Lebanese mountain, wild nature and historical heritage.
the 400 year old Church St. Sarkis & Bakhos is one of the major religious monuments in the region, in addition to St. Georges Church at Hakl al Rayes, St. Chalita, St. Antoine, St. Nohra, Ste Al Shekiff and the Immaculate conception Church.

22nd of july comemorates the "Eid Mar Nohra" the Patron Saint of the El Hosri Family a very renown family in Ghbeleh since they were the first Maronites to settle in Ghebaleh in the 16th century and who played a crucial and historical role in the rise of this heavenly village on the religious and social forefront throughout the years and across borders. to name a few; Yousef Semaan El Hosri designated by the Wali as ruler of the Area, Dr. Chucri Nassif El Hosri one of the first 4 medical doctors in Lebanon graduated in 1900, Dr. Antoine Chucri El Hosri 1st Gastroentirologist in lebanon and president of the Order Of Doctors, Mr. Fernand Antoine Hosri a visinory Business Man who has dedicated years in the service of Mar Nohra and the renovation of this historic church. Eid Mar Nohra spreads over a full week of festivities with the hype on the eve of the 22nd of July (21st Of july).

On September 13th each year, Ghebaleh hosts the "Eid Al Saleeb", (feast of the Cross) festival, that includes a carnival, musical and religious events, attendees come from all over Lebanon, and locals living abroad.

During summer, Ghebaleh is a destination for people looking for cool weather (comparing with Lebanese coast), beautiful nature and very close to city facilities, where they can enjoy tasty Lebanese food in exceptional restaurants.

References

Cities in Lebanon

Ghebaleh


Pansexual people are people attracted to people regardless of their sex or gender. This is similar to many bisexual people. The word pansexual comes from the Greek word 'pan-', meaning "all".

Although the sexuality overlaps with bisexuality, both labels are accepted as long as the person is comfortable and respects the other equally.

Originally, Sigmund Freud invented the word "pansexual", regarding the hypothesis "that regards all desire and interest as derived from [the] sex instinct".

Pansexuality is often described as 'attraction to people regardless of gender (including those who may not identify as boys or girls or as men or women, or to those who are intersex, genderfluid, etc.) pansexuality can also be described as "gender blind".

Some may describe it as "gender blind" because those who identify as pansexual do not consider gender important when they are attracted to others. Pansexuality is considered the opposite of asexuality, as pansexuality means a person may be sexually attracted to anyone regardless of their gender identity, but asexuality means a person is sexually attracted to no one. However, pansexuals are not necessarily sexually attracted to everyone they meet, nor do they necessarily have strong sex drives.

The pansexual colors from the pride flag all have different meanings, pink meaning attraction to fem presenting people, blue attraction to masculine presenting people, and yellow for people (for an example) of a non-binary gender, such as agender, bigender or genderfluid.

Related pages
 Bisexuality
 Pansexual flag
 Panromanticism

Pansexuality

Pansexuality


George de Forest Brush (September 28, 1855 – April 24, 1941) was an American painter and Georgist. In collaboration with his friend, the artist Abbott H. Thayer, he made contributions to military camouflage, as did his wife, aviator and artist Mary (called Mittie) Taylor (Whelpley) Brush, and their son, the sculptor Gerome Brush.

Background
Although Brush was born in Shelbyville, Tennessee, his parents, Nancy (Douglas) and Alfred Clark Brush, were New Englanders, and he grew up in Danbury, Connecticut. He attended the National Academy of Design in New York, and also studied in Paris under Jean-Léon Gérôme at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, where Thayer was also a student.

Native American interests

He returned from Paris in 1880, and soon after accompanied his brother on a business excursion to Wyoming. He remained in that part of the country for some months, and lived among various Native Americans, including Arapahoes, Crows and Shoshones. When he returned East, he developed a series of paintings derived from his drawings of Indian life. In the early 1880s, some of these were published in prominent periodicals, such as Harper's Weekly and Century Magazine, sometimes as illustrations for his own eyewitness accounts. Even years later, he still enjoyed living occasionally in a tepee. It was partly because of such "wildness" that his future in-laws refused to approve of his marriage to their daughter, née Mittie Taylor Whelpley, which took place by elopement in 1886.

Artistic career

Around the same time period, the subjects of Brush's paintings evolved from heroic depictions of Indian life to Renaissance-inspired portraits, some of which were modeled by his wife and his children. Among his many awards were gold medals at the Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), Exposition Internationale (Paris, 1900), Pan-American Exposition (Buffalo, 1901), and Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis, 1904). He was elected to the Society of American Artists, the National Academy of Design (1908), and the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1910).

Camouflage
Brush and his family often spent the summer in Dublin, New Hampshire, where there was a thriving artists colony, and where they eventually settled. Among the other residents was Thayer, who was intensely interested in protective coloration in nature or what later became known as camouflage. According to Brush's daughter, as early as 1898 Brush and Thayer worked together on devising ways to use natural camouflage principles for military purposes. For example, they suggested that countershading (a natural protective device that Thayer had discovered in 1896) could be used as a way of reducing the visibility of a ship. This was later patented (by Thayer and Gerome Brush) as U.S. Patent No. 715013, "Process of Treating the Outside of Ships, etc., For Making Them Less Visible".

In 1916, Brush acquired a small Morane-Borel monoplane (also known as a Morane-Saulnier). He experimented with the possibility of making its wings and fuselage transparent, to reduce its visibility. His wife, who was an early woman aviator, also addressed the problem of airplane camouflage, as shown by her various patents.

Later life

Brush died in Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1941. Nearly thirty years later, his eldest daughter, a painter and theatre designer named Nancy Douglas Bowditch, published an account of his life.

Brush is also well known as the "grandfather" of American art pottery. Having been inspired by the American Pueblo artisans, and learning their craft, he brought these techniques to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and more importantly Long Island and Manhattan, New York, where he started The Brush Guild Pottery Foundation. His students were mostly females, who would later go on to create decorative household works, jars with lids, urns and such. Many depicted animal stylings (bulls, cows, lions).

He was also a personal friend of Author Mark Twain, whom he visited many times. He was a world traveler.

His oil paintings (specifically of Indians, from the period 1888–1900) were important influences on the young illustrator N. C. Wyeth. Observe the similarities in shapes and symbols in his painting Mourning her Brave and Wyeth's Winter (of 1909). He led a fascinating life and was an important force in the arts at the turn of the 20th century.

Selected works
 The Sculptor and the King (1888), Portland Museum of Art, Portland, Oregon. Awarded the 1888 First Hallgarten Prize by the National Academy of Design.
 The Moose Chase (1888), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C.

References

External links

 de Forest Brush: The Indian Paintings, National Gallery of Art
 American paintings & historical prints from the Middendorf collection, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Brush (no. 46)
 Nancy Douglas Bowditch and Brush Family papers, circa 1860-1985, digitized archival collection of Brush family papers, Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution

1855 births
1941 deaths
American alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
19th-century American painters
American male painters
20th-century American painters
Painters from Connecticut
Art Students League of New York faculty
National Academy of Design alumni
People from Shelbyville, Tennessee
People from Danbury, Connecticut
Artists from Tennessee
Camouflage
Georgists
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

George de Forest Brush


Rammellzee (stylized RAMM:ΣLL:ZΣΣ, pronounced "Ram: Ell: Zee"; December 15, 1960 – June 28, 2010) was a visual artist, gothic futurist "graffiti writer", painter, performance artist, art theoretician, sculptor and a hip hop musician from New York City, who has been cited as "instrumental in introducing elements of the avant-garde into hip-hop culture".

Early life

Rammellzee was born on December 15, 1960 in Far Rockaway, Queens to an African-American mother and Italian father who worked as a transit detective. He grew up in the Carlton Manor Projects near the Far Rockaway–Mott Avenue A train terminal station. His graffiti work started to show up in the 1970s on New York City's subway cars and stations, specifically on the A-train since it was his local train.

Rammellzee studied dentistry at the Clara Barton High School for Health Professions, was a model for Wilhelmina (under the name Mcrammellzee), and briefly studied jewelry design at the Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT).

Career
Discovered by a larger audience through the 1982 cult movie Wild Style by Charlie Ahearn, Rammellzee's earlier fame in graffiti circles was established when he painted New York subway trains with DONDI, OU3, and Ink 76, and doctor Revolt under his aliases Hyte, Hytestyr, EG (Evolution Griller the Master Killer), Sharissk Boo, Razz, and Maestro on the A, CC, 2 and 5 subway lines.

Rammellzee was an occasional member of the Death Comet Crew, with Stuart Argabright, Michael Diekmann and Shinichi Shimokawa. He also formed the crew Tag Master Killers, consisting of A-One, Delta2, Kool Koor and Toxic.

Rammellzee became a friend and collaborator of artist Jean-Michel Basquiat. In 1982, Rammellzee and Toxic accompanied Basquiat to Los Angeles while he prepared for his show at the Gagosian Gallery. They called themselves the Hollywood Africans as a social and political statement to counter the stereotypical portrayals of African Americans in Hollywood.

The trio are depicted in Basquiat's paintings Hollywood Africans in front of the Chinese Theater with Footprints of Movie Stars (1983) and Hollywood Africans (1983). Rammellzee was an original hip hop artist who introduced specific vocal styles which date back to the early 1980s.

His 12-inch single "Beat Bop," in collaboration with rapper K-Rob and with cover art by Basquiat, is considered by some to be the most valuable (meaning collectible) hip-hop record of all time. "Beat Bop" was also featured in the film Style Wars.

Rammellzee makes a cameo appearance near the end of Jim Jarmusch's 1984 film Stranger Than Paradise. Rammellzee's influence can be heard in artists such as Beastie Boys and Cypress Hill.

In 1988, Rammellzee and his band Gettovetts recorded the album Missionaries Moving, with producer Bill Laswell, a frequent collaborator. Laswell also paired Rammellzee with writer William Burroughs on the 1989 album, Seven Souls, and featured him on several albums recorded by his revolving super-group, Praxis.

He also wrote an opera "The Requiem of Gothic Futurism" in 1985, "offered to send the U.S. military some of the intelligence he had gathered for national defense," and "tried to promote his ideas by producing a comic book and a board game."

Rammellzee was the first artist to collaborate with the streetwear brand Supreme, making hand-painted trucker hats at their first store in 1994.

In 2003, Rammellzee released his debut album, This Is What You Made Me, and performed at the Knitting Factory in New York with the newly reformed Death Comet Crew. Subsequently, Troubleman Unlimited re-released recordings made by DCC between 1982 and 1984.

Their single for Exterior St was featured on the compilation Anti-NY with Ike Yard, Sexual Harassment, and Vivien Goldman, among others. In 2004, Rammellzee released his second album Bi-Conicals of the Rammellzee, produced by Gamma Records.

Gothic Futurism
Rammellzee's graffiti and art work are based on his theory of Gothic Futurism, which describes the battle between letters and their symbolic warfare against any standardizations enforced by the rules of the alphabet.

His treatise, Ionic treatise Gothic Futurism assassin knowledges of the remanipulated square point's one to 720° to 1440°, details an anarchic plan by which to revise the role and deployment of language in society. Rammellzee performed in self-designed masks and costumes of different characters which represented the "mathematical equation" that is Rammellzee.

On the basis of his Gothic Futurism approach, he described his artistic work as the logical extension into a new phase which he calls Ikonoklast Panzerism. This artistic work has been shown in art galleries throughout the US and Europe. His Letter Racers, and other Noise includes artistic works by individuals mostly identified with their musical contributions.

Afrofuturism
Rammellzee's work is considered to contribute to the canon of Afrofuturism, primarily through his repeated use of language as a technology. One of the central themes of Afrofuturist content is the use of language as a technology to transcend the Digital Divide.  Conversely, Rammellzee had stated that "there is no such thing as Afro Futurism" and considered his work to be more part of a larger European monastic tradition than any part of an Afrofuturist tradition.

The theory of Gothic Futurism attempts to deconstruct the English language as it is currently conceived. The battle between letters seen in the Ionic treatise deploys language as a technology to fight the oppressive nature of the alphabet. The introduction of a new mythology in the treatise suggests that Rammellzee's language can serve as a force of liberation, thereby lessening the Digital Divide.

In addition, Rammellzee's Letter Racers are intended to pit each individual letter in galactic battles against each other, symbolically challenging the accepted standards and functionality of the 26-letter alphabet.

Rammellzee's description of the Letter Racers is as follows:

"Humans...in the 14th Century the monks ornamented and illustrated the
manuscripts of letters. In the 21st and 22nd century the letters of the alphabet
through competition are now armamented for letter racing and galactic battles. This was made possible by a secret equation known as THE RAMM:ELL:ZEE."

Rammellzee is celebrated in Big Audio Dynamite's song, 'Come On Every Beat Box'.

Personal life
Rammellzee was married to Carmela Zagari Rammellzee. He died in New York City on June 28, 2010, at the age of 49, having suffered from the exposure to glue, paint fumes, resin and other toxins through his work and from liver problems. The official cause of death was listed as heart disease.

Name
He legally changed his name to Rammellzee in 1979 and friends who knew his birth name were unwilling to reveal it, in accordance with his wishes. He sometimes went by the shortened name of "Ramm". He has stated that his name is derived from RAM plus M for Magnitude, Sigma (Σ) the first summation operator, first L – longitude, second L – latitude, Z – z-bar, Σ, Σ – summation. He has credited Jamel-Z, a mentor from the Nation of Gods and Earths he met in 1977, with inspiration for his name.

Battle Station
Rammellzee's live/work loft studio space on 46 Laight Street in the TriBeCa neighborhood, which he shared with his wife Carmela, was named Battlestation. It was a popular place in the 1980s and 1990s for artists to visit, because Rammellzee's artwork and costumes created a unique atmosphere. After 9/11, the building was sold in order to build luxury condos and this forced Rammellzzee and Carmela to move to a smaller place in Battery Park City, and relocate his 20 years worth of artwork into a storage unit. Some of this stored work was included in the 2011 art exhibition, Art in the Streets at Museum of Contemporary Art Los Angeles. In May 2018, Red Bull Arts New York opened its exhibition RAMMΣLLZΣΣ: Racing for Thunder

Collections
Rammellzee's work is held in the following public collection:
Museum of Modern Art, New York: one 12-inch vinyl record (Beat Bop) and a series of ten drawings titled Alphabet, undated
Museum of Graffiti, Miami

Discography
Studio albums

Singles & EPs

References

External links

 Artist biography at Magical-Secrets.com
 Excerpts from Rammellzee's thesis Iconic Treatise Gothic Futurism
 Interview with Rammellzee
 Video Interview with Guerilla Art
 Red Bull Music and Culture Video Profile "RAMMELLZEE: It's Not Who But What"

1960 births
2010 deaths
American graffiti artists
Rappers from New York City
20th-century American painters
American male painters
American people of Italian descent
21st-century American painters
Painters from New York City
Mass media theorists
People from Far Rockaway, Queens
Postmodern artists
20th-century American printmakers
African-American contemporary artists
American contemporary painters
African-American male models
African-American painters
African-American printmakers
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American artists
20th-century American male artists

Rammellzee


The Black Mass was a horror-fantasy radio drama produced by Erik Bauersfeld, a leading American radio dramatist of the post-television era. The series aired on KPFA (Berkeley) and KPFK (Los Angeles) from 1963 to 1967, on an irregular schedule.  Bauersfeld was the Director of Drama and Literature at KPFA from 1966 to 1991.

Bauersfeld's sound designer for most of the episodes was John Whiting, KPFA's production director.    Their collaborations were later credited in a Ph.D. dissertation with "keeping radio drama alive in America in the 1960s."

Music for the series was by several Bay Area composers, including KPFA's Music Director Charles Shere, a composer and music critic who later wrote books on American composers and also serves on the board of the Berkeley restaurant Chez Panisse.

Bauersfeld's Black Mass productions were an influence on writer-producer Thomas Lopez (ZBS), who noted, "In the 1960s, I was inspired by someone at KPFA in Berkeley, Eric Bauersfeld, who did a series called The Black Mass, adaptations of H. P. Lovecraft and such. He helped me a lot. I consider Eric my mentor. He also did some fine Eugene O'Neill plays for radio."

Episodes
Except as noted, these are in the Pacifica Radio Archives and on the Official Black Mass site:

"The Flies" (by Anthony Vercoe)
"O Mirror, Mirror" (by Nigel Kneale) and "Shiddah and Kuziba" (by Isaac Bashevis Singer)
"Evening Primrose" (adaptation of John Collier's short story)
"An Evening's Entertainment" (by M. R. James)
Two by Edgar Allan Poe: "A Predicament" and "The Tell-Tale Heart"
"Nightmare" (by Alan Wykes)
"A Haunted House" (by Virginia Woolf)
"Bartleby, the Scrivener" (by Herman Melville)
"A Country Doctor" (by Franz Kafka)
"The Ash Tree" (by M. R. James)
"Atrophy" (by J. Anthony West)
"The Judgment" (by Franz Kafka)
"Oil of Dog" (by Ambrose Bierce) and "Esmé" (by Saki)
"The Jolly Corner" (by Henry James)
"Diary of a Madman" (by Nikolai Gogol)
"Legend of the Island of Falles" (by Betty Sandbrook) ("lost" episode")
"All Hallows" (by Walter de la Mare)
"The Dream of a Ridiculous Man" (by Fyodor Dostoyevsky)
"The Death of Halpin Frayser" by (Ambrose Bierce)
"Moonlit Road" (by Ambrose Bierce)
Two by Poe - "The Man of the Crowd" and "MS. Found in a Bottle"
Six Tales by Lord Dunsany
"The Outsider" (by H. P. Lovecraft)
"Proof Positive" (by Graham Greene) and "Witch of the Willows" (by Lord Dunsany)
"The Renegade" (by Albert Camus) ("lost" episode)
"The Squaw" (by Bram Stoker)
"The Rats in the Walls" (by H. P. Lovecraft)

The following are listed from KPFA, KPFK or KQED airchecks, not the Pacifica Archives:
Great American Scream - KPFK:
"The Boarded Window" by Ambrose Bierce
"A Haunted House" by Virginia Woolf
"The Feeder" by Earl Linder
"The Imp of the Perverse" (by Poe from KQED, San Francisco [15"])

Releases of Black Mass episodes
Dream of a Ridiculous Man - Pacifica Radio Archive #BB5499 36:00  This tape has no opening, closing or credits; an older copy is listed as 37:40. A cast of six is listed on the label. With sound effects and original music by Ian Underwood, the show aired 1/29/67.
Erik Bauersfeld's dramatic adaptations of Lovecraft's "The Rats in the Walls" and "The Outsider" were released in the 1970s on an unauthorized limited LP pressing of 1,000 copies.

Listen to
 The Black Mass on Internet Archive
The Black Mass Index

External links
KPFA: The Black Mass official site
OTR Plot Spot: The Black Mass - plot summaries and reviews
The Definitive Black Mass Radio Log

References

1960s American radio programs
American radio dramas
Fantasy radio programs
Horror fiction radio programmes
Horror fiction
Pacifica Foundation programs

The Black Mass


The European Federation of Parasitologists (EFP) is a non-profit scientific international organization, founded in November 1966 by Witold Stefański who was its first president. It gathers around 30 national societies of parasitology of European countries. The original bylaws were published in the International Journal for Parasitology in 1979. Hundreds of European scientists are affiliated to the EFP through their national societies. The EFP is a member of the World Federation of Parasitologists . The EFP aims at helping human or animal health authorities in fighting any emerging parasitic problem.

Aims
The main objectives of the European Federation of Parasitologists are to promote the exchange of knowledge on parasitic organisms and diseases, to coordinate researches and networks related to parasitic organisms, to support of basic, veterinary & medical parasitology, to attract young scientists and students to develop researches in Parasitology and to organize a European Multicolloquium of Parasitology (EMOP) every 4 years. The European Federation of Parasitologists is registered in the EU transparency register ( ID: 68170229123-35)

Colloquiums
Eleven European Multicolloqium of Parasitology (EMOP) have been held so far :
 Rennes, France, 1–4 September 1971
 Trogyr, Yugoslavia, 1–6 September 1975
 Cambridge, United Kingdom, 7–13 September 1980
 İzmir, Turkey, 14–19 October 1984
 Budapest, Hungary, 4–9 September 1988
 The Hague, Netherlands, 7–11 September 1992
 Parma, Italy, 2–6 September 1996
 Poznań, Poland, 10–14 September 2000
 Valencia, Spain, 18–23 July 2004
 Paris, France, 24–28 August 2008
 Cluj Napoca, Romania, 25–29 July 2012.
 Turku, Finland, 20–24 July 2016, hosted by Scandinavian-Baltic Society for Parasitology (SBSP).

Awards and Scholarships
The EFP offers, during the EMOP, Young Scientist Awards to stimulate the involvement of young scientists in the development of parasitology in Europe. Awards are in two areas: "Research in Basic Parasitology" and "Research in Applied Parasitology". In addition, to help and stimulate the participation of young parasitologists to the EMOP, the board of the European Federation of Parasitologists grants scholarships to cover the registration fees.

References

External links
 Official site
 EMOP XII Turku, Finland 20 - 24 July 2016

Parasitologists
Pan-European scientific societies
Parasitology
1966 establishments in Europe
Organizations established in 1966

European Federation of Parasitologists


An intron is a non-coding sequence in a gene.

It is any nucleotide sequence within a gene that is removed by RNA splicing to get the final RNA product of a gene. The term intron refers to both the DNA sequence within a gene, and the corresponding sequence in RNA transcripts.

Sequences of coding DNA which are joined together in the final RNA after RNA splicing are exons. They code for amino acids in the final polypeptide.

Introns are in the genes of most organisms and many viruses. They can be in a wide range of genes, including those that generate proteins, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). RNA splicing takes place after transcription and before translation.

Introns: parts of a gene which are discarded: non-working bits.
Exons: parts of a gene which are expressed: bits of a gene which code for amino-acid sequences in a protein.

The discovery of introns led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1993 for Phillip Sharp and  Richard Roberts. The term intron was introduced by American biochemist Walter Gilbert.

Biological meaning
There are many unanswered questions about introns. It is unclear whether introns serve some specific function, or whether they are selfish DNA which reproduces itself as a parasite.

Recent studies of entire eukaryotic genomes have now shown that the lengths and density (introns/gene) of introns varies considerably between related species. There are four or five different kinds of intron. Some introns represent mobile genetic elements (transposons).

Alternative splicing of introns within a gene allows a variety of protein isoforms from a single gene. Thus multiple related proteins can be generated from a single gene and a single precursor mRNA transcript. The control of alternative RNA splicing is performed by complex network of signalling molecules. In humans, ~95% of genes with more than one exon are alternatively spliced.

References

Genetics
Molecular biology
Cell biology

Intron


Eton fives, a derivative of the British game of fives, is a handball game, similar to Rugby fives, played as doubles in a three-sided court. The object is to force the other team to fail to hit the ball 'up' off the front wall, using any variety of wall or ledge combinations as long as the ball is played 'up' before it bounces twice.  Eton fives is an uncommon sport, with only a few courts, most of them as part of the facilities of the independent schools in the United Kingdom.

The origins

Eton fives is a sport developed in the late 19th century at Eton College.  The shape of the court used now is taken from the chapel at Eton College, where A. C. Ainger and some of his friends developed a simple set of rules in 1877. The rules have been modified since that time to those seen now, but the essential components are still the same and are described below in the 'Rules' section.

Much earlier than the formalisation of Eton fives, a court was built in the grounds of Lord Weymouth's Grammar School, now Warminster School, in 1787, the School's 80th year. It is claimed that Thomas Arnold a pupil here took the game with him to Rugby School leading to Rugby Fives. The court at Warminster School survives but is rarely used.

City of Norwich School (formerly Eaton (City of Norwich) School) is possibly unique in being a state run comprehensive school which houses two fives courts. Matches have been undertaken on the courts between Eaton & Eton, but in the 1990s the courts were used as car parks for teaching staff, however since 2013 one of the courts is being used for fives, whilst the other is now a boiler room.

Dale Vargas, a retired teacher at Harrow School where he was master in charge of Fives, has written and published a history of Eton fives. The book is titled "Eton Fives: A History." The co-author is Peter Knowles.

The court

An Eton fives court consists of three walls, with the left-hand wall interrupted by a buttress approximately halfway up the court. There are also two levels to the court, the front being around six inches higher than the back half of the playing area. On the front wall is a vertical black line about three-quarters of a metre from the right wall; this is used during the serve and return process detailed later. There is a diagonal ledge that circumvents the entire 'top-step' at about chest height; it is this ledge which the ball has to hit or go above to be 'up'. Below this ledge, at knee height, is a horizontal ledge about two inches wide, and which is only present on the 'top-step'. This is merely here because of the origins of Eton fives as the ledge is present at the chapel in Eton College.

The diagonal ledge drops vertically at the edge of the 'top-step' and then returns to normal at a slightly lower height on the bottom step, running to the back of the court. At the back are brick columns that jut out slightly into the court, which vary in width from school to school, these "buttresses" are usually anywhere from 2 – 10 inches in width. Shots very rarely hit this part of the court, but once they do it is usually very effective for winning a point. Between the buttress and the top step is a small rectangular area about 10 cm sq, often referred to as the 'pepper pot'. If the ball is hit into the pepper pot it is almost always point-winning. Each of the courts at varying schools differ in some way, leaving room to modify how your school's courts are built to a certain extent. In this way the 'home team' will often have an advantage over a visiting side because of their knowledge of the court's characteristics and layout.

The rules
Fives has many rules that are similar to other court type games, such as tennis or squash:

 The ball is only allowed to hit the floor once (note: it can bounce off as many ledges or hit the walls any number of times).
 The pair whose turn it is to hit the ball 'up' must do so without the ball hitting the ground.
 You can only use your gloves to return the ball, no legs, arms, wrists, feet or any other appendages can be utilised in this way (similar to tennis and squash where you can only use your racket).
 You can only hit the ball once before it must go up, and therefore only one member of the pair is able to hit the ball during the return of a shot (i.e., no Volleyball style 'set-ups' can be used).
 A pair can only score when it is their serve.

However, there are a large number of rules unique to the game of Eton fives:

 All games are played to 12. However, if the score is 10–10, or 11–11 the game can be 'set' so that you play to a higher number.
 The start of a point comes from a serve, and then a shot called a 'cut' is used to try and stop the server or his/her partner being able to hit the ball back.
 The cut must go to the right of the black line on the front wall (note: if the ball hits the right hand wall and then hits the front wall to the left of the black line this is regarded as 'in'). If the ball goes to the left of the black line a 'Black Guard' is in effect and if the serving pair hit the ball down they do not lose the point; it is treated as a 'let'.
 When a pair reaches 11 points, the server must stand with at least one foot on the bottom step when they serve. From that point they cannot move until the 'cutter' has hit to ball. This is called 'step'.
 On 'step' the cutter can hit the ball anywhere on the front wall, it does not have to go to the right of the black line.

A point
A point operates thus: At the start of the play, the server stands between the buttress and the front wall. The receiver, known as a 'cutter', stands in the backcourt, along with the other two players (the cutter's partner stands behind him, with the server's partner in the bottom right corner). The server throws the ball high so it bounces off the front and right wall, landing after the step and roughly in the middle of the court (note: different players like the ball to bounce at different points in order to get varying types of spin on their 'cuts').  There are no rules about the serve but as a cutter can reject any serve, there is little benefit in a serve which can not be easily hit.  The cutter will then often play the ball overarm so that it is 'up', usually into the corner, so that the ball hits the right then the front wall and goes straight back at the server. The best way to follow up this 'cut' is to follow the ball in and stand on the step, ready for a volley if the server returns it high.  From here the cutter and the server will try to volley the ball, while the other two players will sweep up anything that they miss. This continues until the ball is either hit 'down' or out of the court.

Competitions
There are now a huge number of championships and tournaments that take place at various times throughout the fives season.

The Kinnaird Cup is an open tournament for any age. Over the years it has become more and more competitive, and is now the most sought after trophy of them all. Other tournaments include the Northern Championships and the Eton fives Association (EFA) Trophy, where teams of 6 players (3 pairs) compete against one another in one-set matches.

The Schools National Championships are the highlight of the season for school players across the country. The location of the championships changes every year between Eton and Shrewsbury. There are championships for every age group, ranging from the Under 10s to the Open (Under 18s). Within these championships are the Main Tournament, Plate A and Plate B.

Kinnaird winners
The following have won eight or more Kinnairds:
 19 – Tom Dunbar (Harrovian): 2002–04, 06–07, 09, 11–23
 13 – Seb Cooley (Olavian): 2011–23
 11 – John Reynolds (Citizen): 1981–91
 10 – Brian Matthews (Citizen): 1981–90
 9 – Tony Hughes (Edwardian): 1958, 63, 65–68, 71, 73, 75
 8 – Robin Mason (Edwardian): 1993–95, 98–99, 2002–04
 8 – Gordon Campbell (Edwardian): 1958, 65–68, 71, 73, 75

Keepers of Fives
The "Keeper of Fives" is the equivalent to the captain of any particular sport at any particular establishment the sport is played at.  It is one of a number of minor officer positions to be held at Eton College.

List of courts
Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe, St Bartholomews School, Newbury, St Olave's Grammar School, City of Norwich School and Queen Elizabeth's School, Barnet enjoy being the only non-private schools with Eton fives courts in the UK. Other schools with Fives courts include Alleyns School, Aldenham School, Shrewsbury School, Highgate School, Harrow, Berkhamsted School, Cranleigh School, Sunningdale School, St Bees School, Eton College,  King Edward's School, Birmingham, Westminster School, Wolverhampton Grammar School, Marlborough College, Oswestry School, Oakham School, Wrekin College, Repton School and Ipswich School, University College School; consequently, it has been primarily the preserve of their students and alumni.

The only known court to be owned by a private individual in the UK is on the Torry Hill estate in Kent.

Cambridge University, St Olave's Grammar School, Bryanston School, Charterhouse School, Lancing College, Emanuel School and Summerfields Prep school house the only indoor Eton fives courts in England, with four courts being part of an Eton fives and Squash Court complex (consisting of four top quality courts for both sports) at the former. However, the first real public courts have recently opened in the Westway Sports & Fitness Centre in London's White City, marking a possible change in fortunes for Eton fives as a minor sport.

Public school Rydal Penrhos currently boasts the only Eton fives courts in Wales.

Only a few courts exist outside Britain, most notably at Geelong Grammar School in Australia (the school is often referred to as the 'Eton of Australia'); there are also courts in Geneva, Zurich, Lyceum Alpinum Zuoz, Switzerland, St. Paul's School, Darjeeling, India (the school is often referred to as the 'Eton of the East') and Malay College Kuala Kangsar, Malaysia, while two brand-new courts have recently been completed in the South of France, in the village of Grillon, Provence.

See also

 Baseball5, another game involving hitting a ball with the hand

References

External links
 The Eton fives Association website
 Encyclopædia Britannica article on Fives in general

1877 establishments in England
School sport in the United Kingdom
Fives
Team sports
Ball games
Fives
1877 in English sport
Youth sport in England
Sports originating in England

Eton fives


Franz Vinck or Frans Vinck (14 September 1827 – 17 October 1903) was a Belgian painter known for his history paintings, genre and Orientalist scenes and portraits.  He led a peripatetic life style and travelled and worked in many countries.

Life
Vinck was born in Antwerp.  His father was a bookkeeper at the local gin distiller Louis Meeus. As a child Vinck took drawing lessons with the painter Karel Schippers, the fiancé of a cousin. His parents wanted him to study the violin at the Conservatory of Brussels, but instead he enrolled at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts (Koninklijke Academie voor Schone Kunsten) in Antwerp.  His teachers at the Academy included Edward Dujardin and Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans.

In 1846 Vinck debuted at the Salon of Antwerp with his work Joseph with the wife of Putifar. The painting was subsequently exhibited in Philadelphia in the United States after which it disappeared without a trace. The artist lost as a result the money that a buyer had already offered for the work.

Vinck subsequently traveled with a fellow painter to Paris where he copied old masters in the Louvre.  After his return to Antwerp in 1852, he participated in the Prix de Rome.  He made it through the pre-selection, but lost out to Ferdinand Pauwels who won first prize.   His father's employer generously offered to fund Vinck so that he could accompany the winner Pauwels to Italy.  After leaving for Rome, he lingered in Paris where he met Gustaf Wappers, the leading Belgian Romantic painter who had fled Antwerp after his voluntary resignation from his post as director of the Antwerp Academy.

After nine months in Paris, Vinck finally left for Rome. Here he painted a composition called The consequences of the seven deadly sins of humanity. After he sent it to Antwerp the work was met with success and the Belgian government awarded the artist a grant.

In 1856 Vinck returned to Antwerp. The painter Florent Mols (1811-1896) invited Vinck to join him on a trip to the Middle East. The painter accepted the invitation and subsequently spent a year travelling in Egypt and Palestine. After his marriage in 1859 Vinck settled in Brussels.  Here he remained until 1866. Failing to achieve success in the Belgian capital, he returned to his home town. There Vinck got included in the small circle of students and assistants of Henri Leys, at the time the leading Belgian Romantic painter who enjoyed an international reputation.  Under the influence of Leys he started to concentrate more on history paintings rather than religious paintings.

He became a teacher at the Academy of Fine Arts and the Academy of Dendermonde.  In Dendermonde Franz Courtens was one of his pupils. When in January 1886 Vincent van Gogh matriculated at the Antwerp Academy, van Gogh got into trouble with a number of his teachers including Vinck who was the instructor of the drawing class.

In Antwerp, Vinck obtained many official commissions such as that for decorations in the meeting room of the Antwerp City Hall.  He also painted seven Stations of the Cross for Antwerp Cathedral).  He further obtained commissions from abroad including for more Stations of the Cross for the Saint-Nicholas Church in Boulogne-sur-Mer in France and St Cuthbert's, Earls Court in London.  The artist earned awards in exhibitions in Brussels, Vienna, London, Lyon and Philadelphia.

He died on 3 October 1903 at his home in Berchem.

Work
Vinck is known primarily for his religious and historical paintings. He was also drawn towards the then popular Orientalism and created a number of Orientalist paintings inspired by his travels in the Middle East.

As a painter of history paintings Vinck took his principal direction from Leys.  Leys had made a name with his meticulously painted historical scenes recounting major events from Belgium's national history, which were regarded as a key to the country's national identity..  Vinck produced a number of history paintings that were inspired by important episodes in Beligium's history such as the Crowning of Margaretha of Parma (At Rossini on 8 December 2010 in Paris, lot 46).  His palette was generally lighter than that of Leys.

Like Leys and his teacher Josephus Laurentius Dyckmans, he also took inspiration from 17th century genre painting.  Some of his scenes set in the past such as The Skaters (At Christie's on 7 December 2000 in London lot 217) do not represent important historic events but are rather in the nature of genre scenes.

Vinck painted a number of Orientalist paintings, clearly inspired by his visit to the Middle East.  An example is Lunch at the foot of the pyramids, Gizeh (At Christie's, 16 July 2003, Paris lot 39).  In sharp contrast to the French Orientalist Théodore Frère for whom a vision of an eternal East, unaffected by modern western concerns, was paramount, Vinck depicted in this composition the meeting between East and West.  In the Lunch at the foot of the pyramids, Gizeh Vinck sets out the principal figures in an almost theatrical way, capturing in strong chiaroscuro the fascination and reservation with which East began to meet West at the end of the 19th century, a time when tourism became a fashionable pursuit for the European and North American middle classes.

References

External links

1827 births
1903 deaths
Belgian history painters
Belgian genre painters
Belgian portrait painters
Orientalist painters
Painters from Antwerp
19th-century Belgian painters
Belgian male painters
19th-century Belgian male artists

Franz Vinck


Nathaniel Rochester (January 14, 1919 – June 8, 2001) was the chief architect of the IBM 701, the first mass produced scientific computer, and of the prototype of its first commercial version, the IBM 702. He wrote the first assembler and participated in the founding of the field of artificial intelligence.

Early work

Rochester received his B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1941. He stayed on at MIT in the Radiation Laboratory for three years and then moved to Sylvania Electric Products where he was responsible for the design and construction of radar sets and other military equipment. His group built the arithmetic element for the Whirlwind I computer at MIT.

IBM 701 computer

In 1948, Rochester moved to IBM, where he co-designed, along with Jerrier Haddad, the first mass-produced scientific computer, the IBM 701. He wrote the first symbolic assembler, which allowed programs to be written in short, readable commands rather than pure numbers or punch codes. He became the chief architect of IBM's 700 series of computers.

Artificial intelligence

In 1955, IBM organized a group to study pattern recognition, information theory and switching circuit theory, headed by Rochester. Among other projects, the group simulated the behaviour of abstract neural networks on an IBM 704 computer.

That summer John McCarthy, a young Dartmouth College mathematician, was also working at IBM. He and Marvin Minsky had begun to talk seriously about the idea of intelligent machines. They approached Rochester and Claude Shannon with a proposal for a conference on the subject. With the support of the two senior scientists, they secured $7,000 from the Rockefeller Foundation to fund a conference in the summer of 1956. The meeting, now known as the Dartmouth Conference, is widely considered the "birth of artificial intelligence."

Rochester continued to supervise artificial intelligence projects at IBM, including Arthur Samuel's checkers program, Herbert Gelernter's Geometry Theorem Prover and Alex Bernstein's chess program. In 1958, he was a visiting professor at MIT, where he helped McCarthy with the development of the Lisp programming language.

The artificial intelligence programs developed at IBM began to generate a great deal of publicity and were featured in articles in both Scientific American and The New York Times. IBM shareholders began to pressure Thomas J. Watson Jr., the president of IBM, to explain why research dollars were being used for such "frivolous matters." In addition, IBM's marketing people had begun to notice that customers were frightened of the idea of "electronic brains" and "thinking machines". An internal report prepared around 1960 recommended that IBM end broad support for AI and so the company ended its AI program and began to aggressively spread the message that "computers can only do what they were told."

Later work

In the 1960s, Rochester continued to work at IBM, directing research in cryogenics and tunnel diode circuits.  By 1975 he was working at IBM Cambridge Research on the IBM Chord Keyboard.  Later, he joined IBM's Data Systems Division, where he developed programming languages.

Recognition

Rochester was appointed an IBM Fellow in 1967, the company's highest technical position. In 1984 he received the Computer Pioneer Award from the IEEE Computer Society.

Notes

References

External links
Oral history interview with Gene Amdahl Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.  Amdahl discusses his role in the design of several computers for IBM including the STRETCH, IBM 701, 701A, and IBM 704. He discusses his work with Nathaniel Rochester and IBM's management of the design process for computers.

American computer scientists
1919 births
2001 deaths
MIT School of Engineering alumni
IBM Fellows

Nathaniel Rochester (computer scientist)


The Grand Lake St. Marys Lighthouse, also known as the "Northwoods Lighthouse", is a historic lighthouse on Grand Lake St. Marys, a reservoir in the far western part of the U.S. state of Ohio.  Located east of the city of Celina in Mercer County, the lighthouse was built in 1923, using a plan modeled after the Eddystone Lighthouse off the coast of Cornwall in the United Kingdom.

History

A predominantly concrete structure, the lighthouse rests on a stone foundation.  Measuring  from foundation to pinnacle, it is covered with a dome of bronze and glass that surrounds the beacon; the dome is crowned with a decorative weathervane.

Although the lighthouse was built partially for ornamental purposes, it has also served as an active lighthouse. In its earliest years, it operated in a standard lighthouse role between April and November under a license from the U.S. Coast Guard.  Grand Lake St. Marys was built to provide water for the Miami and Erie Canal; although the canal had ceased operations by 1923, there was still sufficient lake traffic to warrant the use of a lighthouse on this peninsula, which protrudes into the northern shore of the lake.  Today, it is one of three lighthouses on Grand Lake St. Marys: the Celina Rotary Club erected an operating lighthouse in 1986, at the lake's northwestern corner, and a third lighthouse was completed on the lake's southern shore in 2003.  Unlike the other two lighthouses, the Northwoods Lighthouse is completely inaccessible by land, as surrounding property owners have completely blocked public access.

In 1982, the Grand Lake St. Marys Lighthouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of its historically significant architecture.  Key to its inclusion was its unusual location — western Ohio is a flat, landlocked region far from major bodies of water.  It is the only historic lighthouse in the region, and until the construction of the Rotary Club lighthouse in 1986, there were no other lighthouses in the region at all.

References

External links

Lighthouses completed in 1923
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio
Buildings and structures in Mercer County, Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Mercer County, Ohio
1923 establishments in Ohio

Grand Lake St. Marys Lighthouse


Edward Divers FRS (27 November 1837 – 8 April 1912) was a British experimental chemist who rose to prominence despite being visually impaired from young age. Between 1873 and 1899, Divers lived and worked in Japan and significantly contributed to the science and education of that country.

Biography
Divers was born in London and was of Kentish ancestry. He had one brother, who was connected with the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company, and a sister. Inflammation in the eyes during infancy seriously impaired his vision, which could not be properly corrected by glasses. This deficiency was further aggravated by an explosion during an experiment in 1884 making him blind in the right eye. In 1850, Divers entered the City of London School where he became inspired by chemistry lectures given by Thomas Hall. In 1853–1854 he became an assistant in John Stenhouse's laboratory at the medical school of St Bartholomew's Hospital. Stenhouse regarded defective vision of Divers too serious a hindrance to admit of the attainment of success in a chemistry career, though he changed this opinion later. In 1854 an assistant vacancy opened with Edmund Ronalds (1819–1889) which Divers accepted and then continued in the same capacity under Thomas Henry Rowney (1817–1894). He then went to the Queen's College, Galway, Ireland, to take the university degree in medicine, one of the few scientific degrees then available, and to use the opportunities there afforded for teaching and research in chemistry. He remained in Galway for twelve years, defending his PhD in 1860, until 1866, when he left Ireland for London. After 1860, and until his Japanese appointment in 1873, Divers held various teaching appointments as lecturer in medicine (Queen's College, Birmingham, which later became Birmingham University), medical jurisprudence (Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London), physics (Imperial College London) and chemistry (Albert Veterinary College).

Divers joined the Chemical Society in 1860, and in 1862 started publishing his experimental work, on magnesium ammonium carbonate (1862), zinc ammonium chloride (1868), and three papers in 1870 on the carbonates and carbamate of ammonium. He had studied in 1863 the spontaneous change which guncotton undergoes with formation of gelatinous acids, and published two papers in 1871 on nitrites where he announces his discovery of hyponitrites. In 1873 he reported interaction of ammonia and ammonium nitrate, the work which he elaborated in Japan between 1873 and 1899.  A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate in ammonia is now known as Divers' solution. His work during that period was acknowledged by D. Sc. honoris causa degree at the National University of Ireland, Galway, and by the various societies in England. He was president of Section B of the British Association (1902); vice-president of the Chemical Society (1900–02); vice-president of the Institute of Chemistry (1905), and president of the Society of Chemical Industry (1905). Divers was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1885, while still working in Japan.

Life and work in Japan
On the recommendation of A. W. Williamson, in July 1873, Divers left for Japan. This country had then only begun to remodel, in particular by introducing Western sciences and institutions. Divers was invited to teach general and applied chemistry at the Imperial College of Engineering at Toranomon, Tokyo. He eventually became the Principal of the College in 1882. In 1886 the college was incorporated with the Tokyo Imperial University, where Divers held the Chair of Inorganic Chemistry until his return to England in 1899. During his first seven or eight years in Japan due to administrative and teaching duties, as well as numerous requests from the Department of Public Works to analyse samples of various minerals and noble metals. As a result, his first papers after leaving England were on Japanese minerals, and these were communicated to the meetings of the British Association held in York in 1881. One of these papers was on the occurrence of selenium and tellurium in Japanese sulphur obtained from lead-chamber deposits of the Osaka sulphuric acid work. Using this material he later discovered tellurium sulfoxide and developed a new method for the quantitative separation of tellurium from selenium. These and other papers on tellurium and selenium were published in the Journal of the Chemical Society during 1883–1885. There he published more than 20 other paper within a short period of 1884–1885, mostly on the chemistry of nitrogen and sulphur compounds.

Two years before coming to Japan, Divers reported an important paper on "The existence and Formation of Salts of Nitrous Oxide", which he elaborated in Japan in 1884 to establish the composition of silver hyponitrite as (AgNO)x, against the formula Ag5N5O5 asserted by Berthelot and Ogier. In 1885 he discarded the work by Georg Ludwig Carius, according to which thionyl chloride formed by the action of phosphorus pentachloride on inorganic sulfites was regarded as a direct product of the reaction and which formed the only experimental evidence in favour of the symmetrical constitution of the sulfites. Divers demonstrated that thionyl chloride was instead
produced by a secondary reaction between sulphur dioxide and phosphorus pentachloride. It was in the course of this work, on 24 November 1884, that Divers lost vision in his right eye as he was badly cut by pieces of glass resulting from the sudden bursting of the bottle with phosphorus oxychloride.

Chemistry of sulfonated nitrogen compounds was the subject of most attention for Divers while staying in Japan. In collaboration with Haga, he showed that the numerous complex acids belonging to this group of compounds are the products of the reaction between sulphurous and nitrous acids, the base being essential only in so far as it protects the products of the reaction against hydrolysis, and that, contrary to the statements of previous workers, normal sulfites and nitrites have no action on each other. Divers and Haga further showed that the primary product of the reaction between sulphurous and nitrous acids is always hydroxylaminedisulfonic acid and nothing else.

Divers was pre-eminently an experimental chemist and rarely occupied with the theoretical study of chemical questions. He greatly encouraged the spirit of experimental research among his pupils including Jōkichi Takamine, who was the first to prepare pure adrenaline, and Masataka Ogawa who discovered "nipponium" (later found to be rhenium). By advice of Divers, M. Chikashige of the Kyoto Imperial University studied the atomic weight of Japanese tellurium in 1896, in the hope that this tellurium, which contrary to the European tellurium is associated with sulphur and not with any heavy metal, might yield an atomic weight in conformity with the periodic table. No difference was observed, however.

Divers had two great misfortunes while staying in Japan. One was the sudden death of his son Frederic, which occurred in China, where he was in the service of the Maritime Customs. The other was death, in Tokyo in 1897, of his wife, Margaret Theresa Fitzgerald, whom he married in 1865. After this loss, Divers never seemed to be in the best of spirits, and this fact, combined with his advancing age and isolation, led him to return to England in 1899. He was much respected in Japan, particularly by Itō Hirobumi, who, in the early days of the Engineering College, was the Minister of Public Works, and thus came in frequent contact with Divers. The contribution of Divers to education was recognised by the Japanese government, which, in 1886, conferred upon him the Order of the Rising Sun of the Third Class, in 1898, the Order of the Sacred Treasure of the Second Class. He was further an Honorary Member of the Tokyo Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry of Japan, and the Engineering Society, the last of which was established by students of Divers at the Engineering College. On leaving Japan in 1899, Tokyo Imperial University conferred upon him the title of Professor Emeritus. A memorial bust of Divers was erected in the university grounds on 17 November 1900.

Divers was survived by his two daughters, both of whom were married in Japan. The elder, Edith, being married to Count Labry, a military attache to the French Legation in Tokyo, and the younger, Ella, to E. W. Tilden, a resident of Kobe.

References

Further reading
 The Times, Wednesday, 10 April 1912; page 9; Issue 39869; col B.

1837 births
1912 deaths
Fellows of the Royal Society
British chemists
Foreign advisors to the government in Meiji-period Japan
People educated at the City of London School
Academics of the University of Birmingham
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class
Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure, 2nd class
Academic staff of the University of Tokyo

Edward Divers


Heating food to make it last longer is known as pasteurization or sterilization

Heat treating or heat treatment is the name for a number of processes in metallurgy: All processes have in common that the piece being worked on is heated for some time, and then cooled off. This is done to change some of the properties of the workpiece. Heat treating is used for pieces of metal, for certain alloys, and for certain types of plastic. With ceramics, a form of heat treating is part of the production process, and is called sintering.

There is also a concept called hot working, but it is different.
Metalworking

Heat treating


Ariyalur is a town and district headquarters of Ariyalur district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu and rich lime stone and surrounded with five cement factory and two suger factory. It is the smallest district headquarters in Tamil Nadu. The town is a part of the fertile Cauvery Delta and the major profession in the town is agriculture.

Ariyalur is administered by a municipality established in 1994. As of 2011, the municipality covered an area of 7.62 km2 (2.94 sq mi) and had a population of 28,902. Ariyalur comes under the Ariyalur assembly constituency which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years and it is a part of the Chidambaram constituency which elects its Member of Parliament (MP) once in five years.

Demographics
According to 2011 census, Ariyalur had a population of 28,902 with a sex-ratio of 1,014 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 2,977 were under the age of six, constituting 1,538 males and 1,439 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 11.26% and .03% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the town was 76.04%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The town had a total of : 7319 households. There were a total of 10,283 workers, comprising 315 cultivators, 670 main agricultural labourers, 298 in house hold industries, 7,165 other workers, 1,835 marginal workers, 159 marginal cultivators, 175 marginal agricultural labourers, 150 marginal workers in household industries and 1,351 other marginal workers. As of 2008, there were a total of eight notified slums, with 5,907 comprising 21% of the total population residing in those. As per the religious census of 2011, Ariyalur had 90.55% Hindus, 4.61% Muslims, 3.81% Christians, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.01% Buddhists, 0.01% Jains, 0.97% following other religions and 0.01% following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference.
Towns in Ariyalur district

Ariyalur


The  took place on the night of 1 August 1945, as part of the strategic bombing campaign waged by the United States against military and civilian targets and population centers in the Japan home islands during the closing stages of World War II. Between 65.5 and 80 percent of the urban area of Nagaoka was destroyed during the bombing.

Background
Nagaoka was a regional commercial centre and home to one of the laboratories of Japan's Institute of Physical and Chemical Research. As of 1945 it had a population of around 67,000. While local lore held that Nagaoka was targeted because it was the hometown of Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who had directed the attack on Pearl Harbor, the presence of the chemical laboratory was more likely the reason the city was targeted.

Air raids

Nagaoka was attacked for the first time on 26 July 1945. The city was one of ten to be attacked during late July by the United States Army Air Forces' 509th Composite Group to practice the tactics the unit later used to conduct the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These raids were conducted by small groups of two to six Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers armed with Pumpkin bombs. The 509th Composite Group assessed the results of the small attack on Nagaoka as having been "fair".

During the night of 27/28 July B-29s dropped leaflets on Nagaoka and ten other cities which stated that they would be subjected to attack, and that civilians should evacuate ahead of the raids. This tactic sought to intensify the psychological effects of the bombing campaign.

The main raid on Nagaoka occurred on 1 August 1945. Commencing at around 10:30 p.m. that night, 125 B-29 Superfortress bombers from the 313th Bombardment Wing struck the city with an estimated 163,000 incendiary bombs totaling 925 tons. The raid lasted for 1 hour and 40 minutes. The city suffered severe damage, though estimates of its extent vary: in 1953 the USAAF's official history stated that 65.5 percent of Nagaoka's urban area was destroyed, and this figure was also used by historian Richard B. Frank in 2001. However, in 2016 The Washington Post reported that 80 percent of Nagaoka had been burnt out. A total of 1,486 people were killed in Nagaoka, including more than 280 school age children. The American force that attacked Nagaoka did not suffer any casualties.

The cities of Toyama, Mito and Hachioki were also attacked on the night of 1/2 August, and suffered severe damage. The New York Times reported that the raids that night had included the largest number of bombs dropped up to that time.

Legacy
In November 1951 a bronze statue was erected at the Nagaoka railway station to commemorate the bombing and its victims. Called Heiwa-zo (Statue of Peace), it depicts a goddess with outstretched arms, a little girl with a ball, and a boy reading a book. Hidden in the bosom of the goddess is a copper plate engraved with the names of the schoolchildren who died in the air raid. The statue was moved to the Peace Forest Memorial Park in 1996.

Beginning in 2003, a fireworks display has been held annually on 1 August at 10:30 pm, the time the bombing occurred. Three shiragiku (white chrysanthemum fireworks) are launched "as an offering to the war dead". In 2015 the display featured an additional 2,000 fireworks.

See also
 Strategic bombing during World War II
 Evacuations of civilians in Japan during World War II

References
Citations

Works consulted

Further reading

External links

 67 Japanese Cities Firebombed in World War II

History of Niigata Prefecture
Nagaoka
1945 in Japan
Firebombings in Japan
Nagaoka, Niigata
Japan–United States military relations

Bombing of Nagaoka