Hourman (Matthew Tyler) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Based upon the Golden Age character Rex Tyler, he first appeared in JLA #12 (November 1997) and was created by Grant Morrison and Howard Porter.

Fictional character biography

Creation in the 853rd century
The Hourman of the 853rd century is an android (though he describes himself as an "intelligent machine colony") constructed by Tyler Chemorobotics (formerly TylerCo). Although he is an android, he possesses the full range of emotions and human flaws that an ordinary human does. Nonetheless, the technology with which he was constructed is far advanced beyond anything conceivable in the 20th century. Why the android was built is unknown, although it seems likely that he was in fact commissioned by the New God Metron, who sought to make it his replacement and apprentice. Rex Tyler (the original Hourman), who served as the biological template for the android, spent some time in the future and was involved in its construction.

JLA: Rock of Ages
Shortly after its construction, Metron appointed Hourman as his heir and entrusted him with the Worlogog. The Worlogog was an ancient artifact containing a map of space/time from Creation until the End of the Universe in miniature. The Worlogog, in form of a stone, had been lost for centuries on Earth until it was unearthed by a LexCorp requisition team and was dubbed the Philosopher's Stone. Lex Luthor, not fully understanding the stone, used it to manipulate the alien Jemm with his Injustice Gang against the Justice League of America. The Justice League (notably Batman, Martian Manhunter, and Superman) defeated Luthor and as Superman stood ready to destroy the Worlogog, a temporal split was created.

Were Superman to seemingly destroy the stone, the villain Darkseid would be able to conquer and subjugate the Earth. The corrupted Metron of that future traveled back along the timeline to gather a group of Justice Leaguers that would search for the stone so that it would (unknown to them) fall into the hands of Darkseid.

A timeline in which Superman did not destroy the stone, however, did remain, and to counter the corrupted Metron, Hourman himself also traveled back in time, searching out the Leaguers that were searching for the stone. He was able to convince Green Lantern Kyle Rayner of the terrible future that would follow if they found the stone, and he convinced his teammates Aquaman and Flash (Wally West) to try to stop Darkseid. The three heroes ended up in the alternate timeline in which Darkseid had won, and with the help of their surviving teammates, were able to travel back along the timeline themselves and get a telepathic message to the Martian Manhunter, who stopped Superman from destroying the stone.

The Worlogog was handed to the real Metron, who passed it onto Hourman, who thereby outgrew his role as apprentice and became the master of time and Hypertime, while retaining his membership in the Justice Legion A.

DC One Million
Hourman would later be instrumental in the organization of the celebrations for the return of Superman Prime to the 853rd century. Hourman would use the Worlogog to transport the Justice Legion A into the past to meet the original Justice League, and would then send the League into the future to participate in a form of "super-Olympics". It went according to plan, except the inclusion of the old villain Solaris, who placed a virus (dubbed the Hourman Virus) in the android's body that disabled his time-traveling abilities the moment he reached the past. Now the Legion was stranded in the past and the League in the future.

The Hourman Virus spread to the Justice Legion and then to the rest of the world, which affected both humans and machines. The metahuman population became hostile to the Legion as a result, and they also had to deal with Vandal Savage. It turned out that the virus was the core programming of Solaris, and the Legion would have to create a body in the 20th century for Solaris so the virus could be downloaded into the new body. Hourman was paralyzed by self-pity.

Nonetheless, the Hourman Virus was overcome and Hourman could travel back to the future, and as such, he and the Legion could witness the defeat of Solaris by the hands of Superman Prime, Superman M*, and Green Lantern.

During the celebrations, Hourman reached into the past, seconds before Krypton exploded and created a duplicate of the planet in the 853rd century. He then reached back and plucked the population of Krypton from their world in the seconds after the launch of Kal-El's rocket and before Krypton's final destruction. All this created the world of New Krypton where Superman Prime could live amongst other superpowered Kryptonians, including his parents, as a gift from his comrades in the Justice League and Legions.

Joining the League
After the celebrations had finished, Hourman felt inadequate since he had been used so easily by Solaris as the carrier of the Hourman Virus. Deciding that he needed some more personal growth, he travelled back to the 20th century, since there he could truly grow, unlike in the wondrous 853rd century. Thus he arrived at the Justice League Watchtower, where he would serve as a replacement for the Martian Manhunter (who was on a temporary leave of absence). Immediately upon his entrance, he made somewhat of a temporal snafu, by asking if he had arrived before or after the invasion of the 5th dimension.

He arrived at the Justice League Watchtower, having signaled ahead that he was coming. He did not truly fit in with the League, however, and used his time-vision on multiple occasions to skip over conversations he deemed unnecessary. Eventually, a few members of the League decided to call him on it and decided that Batman would be best to talk some sense into Hourman.

Although annoyed by their interference, he explained to Hourman the worth of thinking before acting. Hourman took the advice rather literally and used his time-vision to learn the history of the Justice League through Batman's experiences. From those experiences, Hourman decided that the best person to guide him through his personal growth was the former mascot of the League, and normal human, Snapper Carr.

Solo series
Hourman and the League found Snapper waiting for them in a Happy Harbor café. Thanks to Hourman's unconscious manipulations of time, Snapper had received a premonition and knew that he would need to help him out. Snapper nicknamed the android Matthew Tyler and took him under his wing, and the two hit it off perfectly.

After Hourman met the android Amazo, Hourman was convinced that he was even more of a liability than before. Snapper helped Hourman understand that he was having problems fitting into the normal world because of the power he wielded. He was practically omnipotent and could manipulate time to his wishes, never learning from his mistakes, and that was what was hindering him, not his lack of experience.

Just as impulsively as he had acted before, Hourman concentrated on breaking down the Worlogog, the source of his almost omnipotent power, scattering its components. He still retained the ability to use his time vision and time travel abilities for an hour out of every 24, so that he was truly an Hourman now. He also kept the permanent abilities of Miraclo strength and speed.

That was not the only effect his confrontation with Amazo had on Hourman. He asked himself if Amazo was the first android, and thus the Adam of the androids; were they inherently meant to be evil. To find the answer to his dilemma, Hourman sought out Professor Ivo, the creator of the Amazo android. In his Hour of Power, he learned how Ivo and Professor T.O. Morrow had created the android Tomorrow Woman, who had broken her programming goal of killing the League and instead died as a hero.

He revived her, and for the last fifty minutes of his Hour of Power, she continued that existence, cementing her status as a hero as she saved lives and lived her life to the fullest. She taught Hourman what consequences his actions can have. In that short time, the two formed a connection that ultimately, when Tomorrow Woman disappeared at the end of the hour, left Hourman with a hole in his non-existent heart.

Joining the Society
While fighting alongside the Justice League in the war with the 5th Dimension, Hourman met the Justice Society of America, and thanks to the feelings and memories of the original Hourman that he possessed, he felt a kinship to them. When asked by Jay Garrick, he attended the funeral of Wesley Dodds, the original Sandman. Together with the others present, he was dragged into the battle for the future Doctor Fate. At the end of that adventure, he joined the Justice Society. During this time, he is often simply referred to as "Tyler".

When Hourman met Rick Tyler, son and heir of the original Hourman, they fought. They would eventually make amends when Amazo, disguised as a future version of Hourman, cures Rick of the disease he had contracted thanks to his Miraclo addiction. After spending some more time with the Society, Hourman left to explore the timestream more, but not before giving Rick two gifts: The first of which was a tachyon-filled hourglass that would give Rick the occasional 'vision' of the future that would take place in an hour's time. The second of these was another hour with Rick's father Rex Tyler whom Hourman retrieved from the fight with Extant and relocated to the Timepoint, a recreation of Rex's old lab. Using a special gauntlet, Rick could travel to and from the Timepoint to talk with his father, with time not existing for Rex while Rick was absent. Once an hour had elapsed, Rex would have to leave to fight Extant and meet his pre-ordained death.

He recently returned at the behest of the Society when Rick was stranded in the Timepoint, mortally wounded. Rick was saved, although Rex's hour in the Timepoint was up and now either Rick or Rex was going to die facing Extant. Instead, Matthew gave his life and took their place, impersonating Rex with a hologram, leaving them with the hourglass from his chest to allow them to return home. When Rex told Hourman that he was as alive as any of them despite being an android, Hourman replied that he appreciated that more than Rex could ever know, and asked Rex to give his wife his love before he returned to the battle with Extant. His broken pieces were retrieved by Rex, who attempts to rebuild him.

A short time later, Rip Hunter said during a team-up with the JSA that the android Hourman would be gone "for a relative year", indicating he may return.

The New Golden Age
In "The New Golden Age", the android Hourman is revealed to be the buyer that wanted to purchase the Lost Children from a Time Scavenger called Childminder. Hourman tells Childminder that his owner will not be pleased with the setbacks that she suffered. He and Childminder later hear the sonic boom that Boom caused. This caused both of them to lead the Child Collectors to recapture Red Arrow, Boom, Sparky, Pinky the Whiz Kid, Secret, and Dan the Dyna-Mite. Upon those with Red Arrow meeting up with Stargirl, Air Wave, Cherry Bomb, Ladybug, Little Miss Redhead, Quiz Kid, Robbie the Robot Dog, and Salem the Witch Girl, everyone but Stargirl is subdued by Hourman as he claims that he is trying to save the Lost Children from "complete obliteration". It turns out that the Hourman android was working for an adult version of Corky Baxter called Time Master. During Stargirl's fight with Time Master, Boom removes the Hourman android's brain so that she, Quiz Kid, and Robbie the Robot Dog can reprogram it. Once the Hourman android was reprogrammed, he blasts Time Master back into the time portal and sends Wing back to his own time. As he can't allow the Lost Children to return to their own time due to paradoxical reasons, the Hourman android brought the Lost Children to Stargirl's time.

Sometime later, Hourman accompanied Stargirl and Boom to the JSA's headquarters. When Flash and Jakeem Thunder comment on what could've changed following their fight with Per Degaton, Stargirl and Boom state to Flash and the JSA members present that the Hourman android shed some light on the time-related questions.

Powers and abilities
Hourman is often simply called an android, but is actually an intelligent machine colony (possibly a form of nanotechnology) created by Tylerco in the far future. If damaged, this colony can effortlessly multiply and repair. His software is encoded with the genetics of Rex Tyler, giving him all of Rex's memories. He originally possessed the Worlogog, which gave him complete control over time. He later gave all but a shard of it up, but not before he absorbed all of Batman's memories of the JLA.

Though not as powerful as he was originally, Tyler still retained super strength, durability, and speed equivalent to a person using Miraclo. He was able to access an "Hour of Power", sixty minutes during which he had power over time. He can do many things with this control: move between picoseconds, travel through time, use his own time vision (which allows him to see a person's past and future as well as age) or make people and things younger, slow a person down until essentially frozen, create tunnels between different time periods, and share power with other individuals (though the amount of time that he provides them power for directly takes away from his sixty minutes). Tyler activates the Hour of Power at will and the hourglass on his chest keeps count of the time. There seems to be some doubt how often he can use his Hour of Power. Like the other Hourmans' use of Miraclo, sometimes Tyler is said to only have one Hour of Power a day, while at other times he simply must wait another hour to recharge before he can reactivate, and it is unclear if he must use the entire Hour at once or if he can spread it out over the course of the day.

Tyler also has a timeship that he can summon from the timestream. It is connected to him and reacts to his thoughts. It normally appears as a Viking-style wooden sailing ship adorned with clocks, but it can change form as Tyler dictates to anything from a simple wooden skiff to a futuristic spaceship and also be used as a weapon, as when Hourman made a large hand out of it to trap Extant. The ship can travel through time, to alternate timelines, or through Hypertime.

References

External links

Characters created by Grant Morrison
Comics characters introduced in 1997
DC Comics robots
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters who can teleport
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
Fictional androids
Fictional characters who can manipulate time
Male characters in comics
Robot superheroes

Hourman (android)


Paris K. C. Barclay (born June 30, 1956) is an American television director, producer, and writer. He is a two-time Emmy Award winner and is among the busiest single-camera television directors, having directed nearly 200 episodes of television to date, for series such as NYPD Blue, ER, The West Wing, CSI, Lost, The Shield, House, Sons of Anarchy, In Treatment and Glee; and more recently Dahmer – Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story, The Watcher, and American Horror Story: NYC. He also serves as an Executive Producer on many of the shows he directs, and occasionally as a writer or co-creator as well.
From 2013 to 2017, Barclay served two terms as the President of the Directors Guild of America.

With his ninth Emmy nomination for an episode of Dahmer – Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story in 2023, Barclay became the first Black director to be nominated by the Television Academy in every narrative dramatic category.

Early life
Barclay was born in Chicago Heights, Illinois. Raised Catholic, he attended La Lumiere School, a private college preparatory boarding school in La Porte, Indiana. On scholarship, he was one of the first African-Americans to attend the school.

Barclay went on to Harvard College, where he was extremely active in student musical theatre productions and the a cappella singing group The Harvard Krokodiloes. During his four years there, he wrote 16 musicals, including the music for two of the annual Hasty Pudding shows. Barclay attended both the La Lumiere School and Harvard with John Roberts, now the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. His Harvard roommate was novelist Arthur Golden, author of Memoirs of a Geisha.

Music video career
Following his graduation from Harvard, Barclay worked as a copywriter and creative supervisor at Grey, BBDO, Cunningham & Walsh, and Marsteller. Barclay then moved into music video directing and production through his own company, Black & White Television. He directed music videos for Bob Dylan ("It's Unbelievable"), the New Kids On The Block ("Games"), Janet Jackson and Luther Vandross ("The Best Things in Life Are Free"). Most notably, he created eight videos for LL Cool J, including "Mama Said Knock You Out", which won awards from both MTV and Billboard—and went on to be listed by The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the 500 songs that shaped rock and roll. In 2013, Complex Magazine ranked "Mama Said Knock You Out" as one of the top 50 rap videos of the 1990s, crediting it with creating "one of the most crucial links in establishing the cultural bridge between boxing and rap." Barclay was often hired to direct videos for films, introducing audiences to House Party (1990), White Men Can't Jump (1992), Mo' Money (1992), Posse (1993), and Cool Runnings (1993), among others.

In 2012, Barclay directed his first music video in 16 years, working once again with LL Cool J and R&B star Joe on the video for "Take It".

Also drawing on his music video experience was Barclay's episode ("The Coup") of the Steven Spielberg-produced NBC series Smash, in which TV Fanatic said that the Barclay-directed number for the original song "Touch Me" (written by OneRepublic's Ryan Tedder) "pushed the boundaries from traditional Broadway show to music video level."

Film and television career

1990s
Barclay began his successful career in television with an unaired episode of Angel Street in 1992. He was hired by John Wells, who was making his debut as an executive producer.

Barclay directed Shawn and Marlon Wayans' first feature film, Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (1996) – also featuring Keenen Ivory Wayans, Vivica Fox, and Bernie Mac. Although it received mixed reviews, it was a box office success and has built a cult following since its release. Barclay also directed the HBO movie, The Cherokee Kid (1996), a Western dramedy starring Sinbad, James Coburn, Burt Reynolds, Gregory Hines, and A Martinez.

After directing episodes of ER, Barclay directed and eventually became a producer of NYPD Blue. In three years there, Barclay would receive two Emmy Awards for best directing—the second of which was for the episode titled "Hearts and Souls"— featuring the death of Jimmy Smits' character Bobby Simone. The episode has been ranked one of TV Guides 100 Best Episodes of All Time. Barclay reteamed with Smits again in his role as "Nero Padilla" on Sons of Anarchy.

2000s
In 2000, Barclay joined forces with fellow NYPD Blue producers Steven Bochco and Nicholas Wootton to create City of Angels, a medical drama with a predominantly African-American cast including Blair Underwood, Viola Davis, Octavia Spencer, Maya Rudolph, and Vivica Fox. The show aired on CBS for two seasons while winning two NAACP awards.

In 2002 he returned to the John Wells fold to produce and direct the pilot, The Big Time, featuring Christina Hendricks, Dylan Baker, Molly Ringwald and Christopher Lloyd—which eventually aired as a two-hour movie. In the years that followed, Barclay worked on a wide variety of television dramas and comedies. He served as co-executive producer and producing director of the series Cold Case, for which he has also directed nine episodes. Other shows he directed in the decade include The West Wing, Huff, Law & Order, Numb3rs, Lost, House, The Shield, Weeds, Monk,The Good Wife, NCIS: Los Angeles, Sons of Anarchy, CSI, The Mentalist and 9 episodes of Glee.

2008 marked Barclay's return to HBO, where he executive produced three seasons of In Treatment, as well as directed 36 episodes. The series garnered a Golden Globes nomination for Best Drama Series in 2009 and series lead Gabriel Byrne won the Golden Globe for Best Television Actor in a Drama Series that same year.  In 2008, the series won 2 Emmys for Glynn Turman for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series and Dianne Wiest won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.

Also in 2008, Barclay collaborated with screenwriter Dustin Lance Black to write the MTV film Pedro, the story of Pedro Zamora from The Real World: San Francisco. The film, directed by Nick Oceano, premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and earned the writers WGA, the Humanitas Prize, and GLAAD Media Awards nominations.

2010–2020
In 2011, Barclay became the executive producer and primary director for the fourth season of FX's Sons of Anarchy, a role he continued through the seventh and final season.

Also in 2013, Barclay directed two episodes of Glee, "Diva" and "Lights Out". For his work on "Diva", Barclay was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Direction in a Comedy Series, his second Emmy nomination for Glee.

In 2014, Barclay directed the season premiere and penultimate episodes of Sons of Anarchy for the fourth year running. In addition to his Sons of Anarchy duties, Barclay also directed the milestone episode "100" for Glee, for which he received another Emmy nomination, in addition to episodes of The Good Wife, Extant, executive produced by Steven Spielberg and starring Halle Berry, and Manhattan, a Tommy Schlamme/Sam Shaw period drama for WGN America; and Glee's emotional flashback episode "2009" – the first half of the series finale.

In 2015, Barclay continued his role as Executive Producer/Director on FX's The Bastard Executioner, created by Kurt Sutter. The show starred Katey Sagal, Stephen Moyer, and Matthew Rhys. At the end of the year, he was enlisted by FOX to direct an episode of Empire, the Television Critics Association program of the year.

In 2016, Barclay joined the Shondaland family by directing an episode of ABC's critically acclaimed show, Scandal, created/produced by Shonda Rhimes, starring Kerry Washington.

In fall 2016, he completed the first season of FOX's Pitch, from writer/creators Dan Fogelman and Rick Singer, starring Mark-Paul Gosselaar, Ali Larter, Mark Consuelos, Dan Lauria and Kylie Bunbury in the title role.

In 2017, Barclay directed the pilot and executive produced another  Shondaland project, Station 19, which follows a group of Seattle firefighters in a spinoff of the highly successful Grey's Anatomy. The show is ABC's second highest rated drama, and is currently airing its sixth season on ABC.

In early 2019, Barclay teamed up with the Human Rights Campaign and fellow award winner Dustin Lance Black to produce and direct a star-studded Americans for the Equality Act public awareness and advertising campaign. The series, which launched on March 25, 2019, with a debut video featuring Academy Award-winning actress Sally Field and her son Sam Greisman, features prominent figures in entertainment, sports and beyond speaking about the need for the Equality Act — a crucial civil rights bill that would extend clear, comprehensive non-discrimination protections to millions of LGBTQ people nationwide. The powerhouse lineup of supportive film and television actors, influencers, musicians and professional athletes, includes Adam Rippon, Shea Diamond, Alexandra Billings, Blossom Brown, Justina Machado, Gloria Calderon Kellett, Jamie Lee Curtis, Jane Lynch, Jesse Tyler Ferguson and Justin Mikita, Charlie and Max Carver, Karamo Brown, Marcia Gay Harden, and Nyle DiMarco. The Americans for the Equality Act series is modeled after HRC's successful Americans for Marriage Equality campaign and was awarded at the 4th Annual Shorty Social Good awards, and helped lead to the passage of the act in the House of Representatives.

2021-Present

In May 2021, Barclay directed a virtual reading of Larry Kramer's The Normal Heart, with Sterling K. Brown, Laverne Cox, Jeremy Pope and Guillermo Diaz.

Also in 2021, after executive producing and directing 14 episodes of Station 19, Barclay directed two episodes each on the Ryan Murphy Netflix series Dahmer-Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story (with Evan Peters, Richard Jenkins, and Niecy Nash). The series surpassed 1 billion hours viewed on Netflix, only the third title in Netflix history to cross the 1 billion hour viewing mark within 60 days.

Despite controversies surrounding Dahmer, Barclay's work on Episode 6, "Silenced," received wide praise. Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "Directed with more empathy than voyeurism by Paris Barclay, 'Silenced' tells the story of Tony Hughes (excellent newcomer Rodney Burnford [sic]), presented here as perhaps the only victim with whom Jeffrey had traces of a real relationship. It's easily the best episode of the series, an uncomfortably sweet and sad hour of TV that probably should have been the template for the entire show. Tony was deaf and, in placing a Black, deaf, gay character at the center of the narrative, the series is giving voice to somebody whose voice has too frequently been excluded from gawking serial killer portraits."

Kayla Cobb said in her review of "Silenced" for The Decider, "It's not just the strongest episode of the entire series; it's one of the most heart-wrenching episodes of the year." For this episode, Barclay received a 2023 Best Directing for a Limited or Anthology Series or TV Movie Emmy Nomination. Barclay's work on the series finale, "God of Forgiveness, God of Vengeance," was also nominated by the Hollywood Critics Association.

After Dahmer, Paris reteamed with Ryan Murphy to executive produce and direct 2 episodes of the Netflix series The Watcher, (with Naomi Watts, Bobby Cannavale, Margo Martindale and Mia Farrow). The series was a hit, ranking as the #1 most watched show on Netflix the week of its debut.

Currently, he is directing two episodes of a new Ryan Murphy series American Sports Story: Gladiator, set to air on FX/HULU . He's also in post-production on a feature documentary about the life of iconic keyboard and recording artist Billy Preston, due in 2024.

Directors Guild of America
In June 2013, Barclay was elected President of the Directors Guild of America, the first African-American and first openly gay President in the history of the Guild. After the vote, Barclay expressed gratitude for the honor and admiration for the Union's history, saying "I am profoundly honored to be elected President of the DGA.... The DGA has worked for more than three-quarters of a century to advance the creative and economic rights of directors and their teams and I look forward to continuing this strong tradition of service. As the son of a glass blower and a tile maker from Chicago, I am extremely humbled to have the honor to serve in the footsteps of the legendary leaders of the DGA like Frank Capra, Robert Wise and Gil Cates." Barclay was nominated for the Presidency by past-President Michael Apted, who said of him, "Paris' qualifications for DGA president are exceptional.... His understanding of the issues facing directors and their teams is outstanding and his ability to resolve problems and create solutions is beyond compare." His nomination was seconded by Steven Soderbergh, who said of Barclay, "This is a great moment for our Guild; Paris will be a phenomenal leader as we move into the future." Barclay was enthusiastically re-elected in June 2015.

Before being elected DGA President, Barclay served four terms as First Vice President of the DGA, where he was the first African-American Officer in the history of the guild. While serving as First Vice President, Barclay was also chair of the DGA's Political Action Committee, whose mission it is to promote the interests of DGA members to state and federal lawmakers. Their top issues include battling online copyright threats and promoting production tax incentives. He also served on the Western Directors Council and co-chaired the Diversity Task Force, whose mission is to encourage the hiring of women and minority directors to networks and studios. In addition, Barclay served as a board member of the DGA-affiliated Franco-American Cultural Fund, which promotes cultural exchange between French and American directors.

Barclay completed his second term as DGA president in June 2017. He was succeeded by Thomas Schlamme, whom he worked with on The West Wing and Manhattan, as well as on the DGA board.

Barclay's work for the DGA continues even after his presidency: he helped create and teaches the Guild's First Time Director Orientation., and in the successful 2020 contract negotiations Barclay co-chaired the Television Creative Rights Committee. He also serves as the co-Chair of the DGA's Return to Work Committee, which created the protocols that brought the industry back to work after the COVID shutdown. In 2021, he was elected the Guild's Secretary/Treasurer.

In 2021, he was named an Honorary Life Member of the DGA, one of the guild's highest honors, recognizing his career achievements and leadership in the industry. His acceptance speech earned praise for its focus on his hopes for his two sons.

He currently serves as the Guild's Secretary/Treasurer.

Reputation in the entertainment industry
During his three decades as a director, Barclay has developed a strong reputation as a go-to director capable of working adeptly in multiple genres - described in a June 2011 article in Variety as a "highly adaptive force with the ability to control both TV detectives and scene-stealing gleesters". The same article ranked Barclay among the "Ten TV Directors Who Leave Their Mark." and another called him "one of the most reputable TV directors in Hollywood."

Sons of Anarchy creator Kurt Sutter stated in an interview with The Star-Ledger that it wasn't until Barclay came on board to direct that the show found its "groove", observing: "We had all those glitches in those first two or three episodes [...] We had (Paris) come in [...] and we all just started trusting what we were doing here." Later in an interview for Variety, Kurt stated "The great thing about (exec producer Paris Barclay) is that he's a writer and he's also a director [...] so he can get the scripts and understand the production realities of it but also understand creatively what the need for everything is."

In an interview with TV Fanatic, Glee actor Blake Jenner credited Barclay for guiding him through a difficult scene in the episode "Lights Out", saying "He was just so nurturing."

In a piece for Vulture, television critic Matt Zoller Seitz cites Barclay as one of the few producer/directors who can "manage and drive the medium [of television]" as well as a writer-showrunner can. Seitz explains, "Directors tend to think in terms of images and moments; those skill sets aren't often compatible with the left-brain requirements of managing a sitcom or drama (though there are always exceptions; see veteran TV director Paris Barclay's executive-producer credit on FX's stylishly nasty biker drama, Sons of Anarchy)."

Ryan Murphy, creator of the Fox hit Glee, called Barclay's episode "Wheels" a "turning point for the show".

Over time, many of Barclay's former assistants have gone on to great Hollywood success in their own right. One of his first assistants was Kevin Williamson, writer of Scream and I Know What You Did Last Summer, and the creator and Executive Producer of the hit television shows Dawson's Creek, The Vampire Diaries, and The Following. Josh Barry, another former Barclay assistant, was the head of the television department at Prospect Park after working as an executive in Drama Development at ABC. He was recently tapped to be the President of Shawn Levy's 21 Laps Television as part of a major deal with Netflix. Sam Martin, the former HBO executive (Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Lackwanna Blues) and film producer (Pariah) and Jason Clodfelter, former VP of Drama Development, and now Co-President at Sony Television, both previously served as Barclay assistants.

Awards
Along with winning two Emmy Awards for NYPD Blue (Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series - "Lost Israel Part II" and "Hearts and Souls"), Barclay has garnered another seven Emmy nominations: two for producing NYPD Blue (Outstanding Drama Series), one for directing The West Wing (Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series - "Indians In The Lobby"), and three for directing Glee (Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series - "Wheels", "Diva" and "100"),and most recently Dahmer-Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story (Best Directing for a Limited or Anthology Series or TV Movie- "Silenced").

He has also received a Directors Guild of America Award for NYPD Blue and 10 other DGA Award nominations for The West Wing (3), In Treatment (2), NYPD Blue (2), ER, House, and Glee.

Barclay received an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Drama Series as co-creator, writer, and director of the groundbreaking medical drama City of Angels, another Image Award for directing Cold Case, and a third Image Award for directing Smash. On February 22, 2014, the NAACP honored Barclay by inducting him into the NAACP Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame Award is bestowed on an individual who is a pioneer in his or her respective field and whose influence will shape the profession for generations to come. Other recipients have included Lena Horne, Paul Robeson, Sidney Poitier, Bill Cosby and Oprah Winfrey.

Also a writer, Barclay received his first WGA Award nomination for co-writing Pedro with screenwriter Dustin Lance Black, marking the Oscar-winner's first WGA credit. The moving story of The Real World's Pedro Zamora garnered the team nominations for a GLAAD Media Award and Humanitas Prize.

Episodes directed by Barclay for Glee and In Treatment have become the recipients of the prestigious Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting. The Glee episode "Wheels" was also acknowledged at the 2010 Shane's Inspiration Gala, receiving the Visionary Leadership Award for shining a light on the abilities of those with disabilities.

The Glee episode, "Wheels" and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation episode, "Coup de Grace" were both chosen for the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences' Television Academy Honor, saluting "Television with a Conscience," in which the Academy recognizes achievements in programming that present issues of concern to society in "a compelling, emotional, and insightful way." Barclay also accepted the Voice Award from the US Department of Health and Human Services on behalf of In Treatment, for "incorporating dignified, respectful, and accurate portrayals of people with mental illnesses."

In June 2011, Advertising Age featured Barclay on the cover as one of 2011's 50 Most Creative People, saying "Mr. Barclay brings an innate cultural awareness to shows." TV Guide also recognized his House episode, "Three Stories", as one of the 100 Best Episodes of All Time.

In April 2017, Barclay was awarded the Order of the Golden Sphinx by the acclaimed Hasty Pudding Institute of Harvard University – it is the highest honor bestowed by the Institute and recognizes individuals in the entertainment industry for their extraordinary contributions to the performing arts. The recipient represents the Institute's mission to support and foster performing arts within its membership, at Harvard, and around the world.

In addition to his honors in television, Barclay has been awarded the Founder's Award from Project Angel Food in 1998, the GLAAD Stephen F. Kolzak Award in 2001, to honor his outstanding representation of the LGBT community, and in 2004 the Pan-African Film Festival Pioneer Award. In 2009 Barclay was named by POWER UP as one of the Top Ten Gay Men in Entertainment; 2010 he received the Bridge Award from the Cornerstone Theater in Los Angeles for over 20 years of contributing to the theater. Barclay received the 2012 Upton Sinclair Award from the non-profit Liberty Hill for "unwavering idealism and vision.". Also in 2012, he and husband Christopher Barclay were awarded with the Family Values Award from In the Life Media, given to "individuals whose representation of LGBT families serve as an inspiration for all Americans. More recently, he's been awarded the Artistic Excellence Award from the Aviva Family & Children Services Program, the Visibility Award from the Human Rights Campaign, as well as the Legacy Award from the African-American Film Critics Association.

Work in musical theater
In the theater, Barclay presented his original musical On Hold With Music at Manhattan Theater Club in 1984, with a cast including Jason Alexander, Terry Burrell, John Dossett, Ray Gill, and Maureen Brennan. Based on his life in advertising, Barclay wrote and composed the sung through musical in its entirety.

In 1985, he wrote the book, music and lyrics for another musical drama entitled Almos' a Man, based on a short story by Richard Wright – which had been developed in the second year of the ASCAP Musical Theater Workshop in New York, under the tutelage of Charles Strouse and Stephen Sondheim. It was produced that year at Soho Rep, receiving a mixed review from the New York Times' Mel Gussow.

After years of directing, Barclay returned to composing in September 2001 with the premiere of a musical based on the collection of letters Dear America: Letters Home from Vietnam. Called Letters from 'Nam, the play featured Grammy winner Maureen McGovern, future Tony winner Levi Kreis, and David Burnham. Praised by most reviewers and opening days before the September 11 attacks in 2001, the Vietnam musical hit home emotionally with those who performed in it, produced it, or experienced it.

In 2003, Barclay wrote songs for and co-directed Order My Steps for the Cornerstone Theater Company. The musical play, with book by Tracey Scott Wilson, dealt with the African-American church's response to the AIDS epidemic. The Los Angeles Times call a "moving tale about the human toll of AIDS."

Barclay returned to Vietnam with One Red Flower: Letters from 'Nam, a reworked version of the musical was produced at the Village Theater in Issaquah to further acclaim, with Levi Kreis and David Burnham reprising their roles. Other productions followed, with the most significant being Eric Schaeffer's "gritty and emotional" staging at the Signature Theatre in Arlington, Virginia in 2004.

In 2008, Barclay presented a reading of One Red Flower in Los Angeles to benefit New Directions, an organization that supports veterans of all wars. Maureen McGovern, Levi Kreis and David Burnham returned in featured roles, with television stars Hunter Parrish and Josh Henderson. Although it was not a full production, again it received glowing reviews, described by Beverly Cohn in the Santa Monica Mirror as an "evening that had the audience smiling with a lump in its throat."

Barclay is currently working with Brian Yorkey (Next to Normal) to develop One Red Flower as a television movie, now entitled Letters From 'Nam.

Personal life
Openly gay since late in his college days, he was a regular contributor to The Advocate for several years. Barclay married food-industry executive Christopher Barclay (né Mason), his partner of 10 years, in 2008. They have 2 children.

Filmography
Directed episodes of (arranged in order from most episodes directed to least):

 In Treatment (36 episodes; also executive producer; Golden Globe nomination, 2 DGA nominations, and NAACP Image Award nomination)
 Sons of Anarchy (15 episodes, one NAACP Image Award nomination, also executive producer)
 Station 19 (14 episodes; also executive producer)
 NYPD Blue (12 episodes; 2 Emmy Awards; also supervising producer)
 Cold Case (9 episodes; also co-executive producer; NAACP Image Award)
 Glee (9 episodes, 3 Emmy nominations, 2 DGA nominations)
 The Bastard Executioner (4 episodes; also executive producer)
 City of Angels (4 episodes; NAACP Image Award for best drama series; also co-executive producer and co-creator)
 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (4 episodes; 2 NAACP Image Award nominations)
 Pitch (4 episodes, NAACP Image Award nomination, also executive producer)
 The Shield (3 episodes; NAACP Image Award nomination)
 The West Wing (3 episodes; Emmy nomination, 3 DGA nominations)
 ER (3 episodes; DGA nomination)
 Sliders (3 episodes)
 The Watcher (2 episodes)
 Dahmer – Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story (2 episodes)
 American Horror Story: NYC (2 episodes)
 The Good Wife (2 episodes)
 Angel Street (2 episodes)
 Second Noah (2 episodes)
 Clueless (2 episodes)
 Monk (2 episodes)
 NCIS: Los Angeles (2 episodes)
 Dirt (2 episodes)
 Fastlane (2 episodes)
 Empire
 Scandal
 How to Get Away with Murder
 Diagnosis: Murder
 Brooklyn South
 American Dreams
 Huff
 Lost
 NUMB3RS
 House MD (DGA nomination)
 Weeds (DGA nomination)
 The Mentalist
 Miami Medical
 The New Normal
 Last Resort
 The Chicago Code
 Law & Order
 Silk Stalkings
 Moon Over Miami
 Rebel (ABC)

Television pilots:
 Station 19, for ABC
 Perfect Citizen, for CBS
 Pitch, for FOX
 The Bastard Executioner, for FX
 The Street Lawyer, based on the novel by John Grisham for ABC
 Dead Lawyers starring F. Murray Abraham for SyFy
 City of Angels with Blair Underwood and Viola Davis for CBS
 Hate starring Marcia Gay Harden for Showtime
 The Chang Family Saves the World written by John Ridley for ABC
 Big Mike starring Greg Grunberg for A&E
Television movies:
 The Cherokee Kid (HBO)
 The Big Time (TNT)

Feature Film:
 Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood (Miramax)

References

External links

1956 births
21st-century African-American writers
20th-century African-American people
African-American film directors
African-American television directors
American music video directors
American television directors
Comedy film directors
American gay writers
Television producers from Illinois
African-American television writers
American male television writers
Film directors from Indiana
Harvard College alumni
La Lumiere School alumni
African-American LGBT people
LGBT people from Illinois
LGBT television directors
Living people
Businesspeople from Chicago
Presidents of the Directors Guild of America
Primetime Emmy Award winners
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Hasty Pudding alumni
Screenwriters from Illinois
People from Chicago Heights, Illinois
African-American Catholics

Paris Barclay


The Alameda County Fairgrounds is a  facility located in Pleasanton, California. It is home to the annual Alameda County Fair, held since 1912, as well as numerous trade shows and community events. Located on its grounds, the Pleasanton Fairgrounds Racetrack was built in 1858, making it the oldest  horse racing track in the United States. There is a 3,000 seat amphitheater, as well as a 9-hole golf course located within the track's infield.

The Alameda County Central Railroad Society has maintained a model train exhibit at the fairgrounds since 1959, which has grown to two  layouts in O scale and HO scale.

Building J, also known as the Amador Pavilion, is a multi-purpose arena and livestock event facility at the fairgrounds. It was briefly home to the Tri-Valley Ranchers of the National Indoor Football League.

Fair cancellations happened in 1917–1918, 1942–1944 and 2020.

Heathcote-MacKenzie House

The Heathcote-MacKenzie House, also known as The Heritage House, was built on the site of the fairgrounds around 1905, to host wealthy harness racers from Canada who wintered their horses in Pleasanton.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991.

Notable events
Besides the annual fair, events regularly held at the fairgrounds include:
 The Scottish Highland Gathering and Games, which dates back to the 1860s and is reported to be the largest two-day Scottish gathering in North America, celebrating its 150th anniversary in 2015.
 The Pirates Of Emerson Haunted House
 Several annual automobile shows managed by the Goodguys Rod & Custom Association
 Night to Shine prom hosted by Cornerstone Fellowship

See also
 List of convention centers in the United States

References

External links

Pleasanton, California
Fairgrounds in California
National Register of Historic Places in Alameda County, California
Buildings and structures in Alameda County, California
Convention centers in California
Horse racing venues in California
Amador Valley
Government of Alameda County, California
Sports venues in Alameda County, California
Tourist attractions in Alameda County, California

Alameda County Fairgrounds


Wesley Walker Bradshaw (November 26, 1897 – April 10, 1960) was an American football player and coach. He was an All-Southwest Conference (SWC) back at Baylor University and was the first Southwest Conference football player to score 100 points in a single season with 119 points scored during the 1922 college football season.

He earned the nickname of "Rabbit" for his running style on the field. "On the football field, he was one of the hardest guys to get hold of I ever saw. He wasn't great as a fast runner, but he was very shifty and had a great change of pace. He was very hard to catch," said Southern Methodist University player James Stewart.

Bradshaw excelled in other sports at Baylor as well. He was a letterman in basketball, track, and baseball.

As a professional athlete, Bradshaw played for the Rock Island Independents (1924) in the position of half right. Jim Thorpe was among his teammates. He also played for the Buffalo Rangers (1926) in the National Football League (NFL).

After his professional career, Bradshaw became a high school football coach at Athens High School in Athens, Texas. He was appointed to the post June 4, 1925. He was also charged with coaching the basketball team. Bradshaw was the third coach at the school in as many years, and local boosters were reportedly concerned about his salary. Local businesses footed the bill.

In January 1927, Bradshaw was injured in a traffic accident. A motor bus, carrying Baylor students to a basketball game in Austin, collided with a fast International-Great Northern Railroad train, killing 10 students and injuring five. Bradshaw was accompanying the party as a guest of the Baylor coach.

Bradshaw later coached at Polytechnic High School in Fort Worth, Texas and at Ouachita Baptist University in Arkansas in the 1940s.

He was inducted into the Baylor Athletics Hall of Fame in 1961. He was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame in 1966.

References

Hendry, Ron. Athens' Day in the Sun, Hendry Publishing, .

External links

1897 births
1960 deaths
American football halfbacks
American men's basketball players
Baseball players from Texas
Basketball coaches from Texas
Basketball players from Texas
Baylor Bears men's track and field athletes
Baylor Bears baseball players
Baylor Bears men's basketball players
Baylor Bears football players
Buffalo Rangers players
Hardin–Simmons Cowboys basketball coaches
Hardin–Simmons Cowboys football coaches
High school football coaches in Texas
Ouachita Baptist Tigers football coaches
Ouachita Baptist Tigers men's basketball coaches
People from Athens, Texas
Players of American football from Texas
Rock Island Independents players

Wes Bradshaw


Drift mining is a way of mining where tunnels are dug horizontally. It was used by the coal industry in the 1700s. It would follow a coal seam into a hillside. It was not very safe which is why it wasn't used much. It was not safe because water could easily get in.

Mining

Drift mining


The Bell System was a system of companies. The companies were led by the Bell Telephone Company and later by AT&T (the American Telephone and Telegraph Company). The Bell System provided telephone service to most of the United States and Canada. Sometimes, it was a monopoly.

The Bell System companies were founded in 1877. People called the Bell System "Ma Bell".

On December 31, 1983, the system was divided into independent companies, known as Baby Bells and RBOCs (Regional Bell Operating Companies).

The Baby Bells were BellSouth, Southwestern Bell, Bell Atlantic, Southern New England Telephone, NYNEX, Pacific Telesis and Ameritech.

In 1994-95, Southwestern Bell changed its corporate name to SBC Communications. Between 1997 and 1999, SBC bought Pacific Telesis, SNET and Ameritech.

In 1997, Bell Atlantic blended with NYNEX. That was when Bell Atlantic began doing business in New York state and New England.

In 2000, Bell Atlantic bought GTE (General Telephone and Electronics Corporation). The corporate name was changed to Verizon. Also in 2000, Qwest bought US West. The surviving company was Qwest Communications.

In 2005-06, AT&T merged with BellSouth and SBC. AT&T was the company surviving after the merger. The company became AT&T Inc.

In 2010-11, Qwest was bought out by the CenturyLink telephone company. It was then renamed CenturyLink. The company operates in many U.S. states.

References

American telephone companies
1877 establishments in the United States
1984 disestablishments in the United States

Bell System


Antony Pay (born 21 February 1945 in London) is a classical clarinettist. After gaining a place with the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain, with whom he performed the Mozart clarinet concerto at the age of 16, he studied at the Royal Academy of Music and then read Mathematics at Cambridge University, graduating in 1966.

Principal Clarinet positions include the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra from 1968 to 1978,  London Sinfonietta (of which he was a founder member) from 1968 to 1983 and the Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields from 1976 to 1986. A member of several chamber ensembles he has worked with the Nash Ensemble, the Tuckwell Wind Quintet, the Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields Chamber Ensemble, and Hausmusik.

During his time with the London Sinfonietta he collaborated with a variety of composers, including Boulez, Stockhausen, Birtwistle, Henze, Maxwell Davies, Goehr and Berio. For the RCA he recorded Berio's Concertino, with the composer conducting, and gave the first performance of Henze's mini-concerto Miracle of the Rose, which was written for him to direct from the clarinet. He has previously been Professor of Clarinet at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama from 1982 to 1990, the Royal Academy of Music, the Music Academy Accademia Lorenzo Perosi in Biella and at Musikene - Centro Superior de Música del País Vasco in San Sebastián (Spain) from 2005 to 2018.

Recently he has concentrated on solo playing and conducting, recording the Spohr and Mozart Concertos for Decca, the Weber and Crusell Concertos for Virgin Classics and Birtwistle's Melencolia I for NMC. He has conducted the Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands, and the London Sinfonietta throughout Europe, as well as guest-conducting with orchestras in Scandinavia, Italy and the United States.

Period performance on specially reconstructed instruments includes his recordings of the Mozart, Weber and Crusell Concertos. He currently works with The Academy of Ancient Music and the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, with both of which he is a frequent soloist. His recording of the Mozart concerto with The AAM and Christopher Hogwood is available on Decca (414 339-2). He has written for the journal Early Music and The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet. He is working on a book concerned mainly with the use of metaphor in teaching and learning to play the clarinet.

References
 Biography at Coldbergweb.com

English clarinetists
1945 births
Living people
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music
21st-century clarinetists

Antony Pay


Boa Sr. (circa 1925 - Januar 26, 2010) wis an Indien Great Andamanese elder. She wis the last surviving person who remembered ony Bo, a leid o the Great Andamanese leid faimily.

She wids born aroond 1925.

Boa Sr. lived throu the epidemic brocht bi the Breetish tae the Andaman an Nicobar Islands, which devastated the Great Andamanese population, an the Japanese invasion an occupation o the Andaman Islands during Warld War II. Boa Sr.'s mither, who dee'd approximately fowerty years afore her daith, wis the ae livin speaker o Bo for a lang time.  Ither members o the Great Andamanese speech community haed difficulty understanding the sangs an narratives which she knew in Bo. She an aa spoke the Andamanese dialect o Hindi, as well as Great Andamanese, a mix o the ten indigenous leids o Andamans.

Boa Sr. worked wi Anvita Abbi, a professor o linguistics at Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi, syne 2005. Abbi studied an recordit Boa's leid an sangs.

Boa Sr. survived the 2004 Indie Ocean yirdquauk bi climbing a tree. She later explained her escape frae the tsunami saying, "We wur all there when the yirdquauk came. The eldest told us the Earth would part, don't run away or move."

Her husband, Nao Jer, dee'd several years afore she did an the couple haed no childer. She suffered frae some vision loss during her later life, but wis considered tae be in guid heal until shortly afore her daith in 2010.

Boa Sr. dee'd at a hospital in Port Blair on Januar 26, 2010. Boa Sr., who wis approximately 85 year auld, wis the auldest livin member o the Great Andamanese tribes at the time. Boa Sr.'s daith left juist 52 surviving Great Andamanese fowk in warld, none o whom remember ony Bo. Thair population is greatly reduced frae the estimatit 5,000 Great Andamanese livin in the Andaman Islands at the time o the arrival o the Breetish in 1858.

Stephen Corry, director o the Breetish-based NGO Survival International, issued a statement saying, "With the daith o Boa Sr. an the extinction o the Bo leid, a unique part o human society is now juist a memory. Boa's loss is a bleak reminder that we must not allow this to happen to the ither tribes o the Andaman Islands." Linguist Narayan Choudhary an aa explained what the loss o Boa Sr. meant in baith academic an personal terms, "Her loss is not just the loss o the Great Andamanese community, it is a loss o several disciplines o studies put together, including anthropology, linguistics, heestory, psychology, an biology. To me, Boa Sr. epitomised a totality o humanity in all its hues an with a richness that is not to be found anywhere else."

References

1925 births
2010 daiths
Indie fowk
Last kent speakers o a leid
Fowk frae the Andaman an Nicobar Islands
Andamanese leids

Boa Sr.


In re Gault, , was a landmark case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1967.  The Court ruled that juveniles (children and teenagers) have the same rights as adults when they are accused of a crime.  For example, they have due process rights, like the right to have a lawyer, when they are being questioned by the police, and when they are on trial.

The Court's ruling in this case was so important for children's rights that Justice Earl Warren said it would become "the Magna Carta for juveniles."

History
In the four years before the Supreme Court decided In re: Gault, the Court also decided some other very important cases about due process rights  the rights people have when they are accused of a crime.  However, these rulings did not apply to children who were being tried in juvenile courts. The case was argued by Norman Dorsen in favor of the juveniles.

Rights for adults

Constitutional rights
The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to ... the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."  ("Counsel" is a legal word for "lawyer.")

Also, the Fourteenth Amendment says that no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."

Supreme Court cases

Based on these two amendments, the Supreme Court decided these landmark cases:

 Gideon v. Wainwright, : The Court ruled that having a lawyer is necessary for a fair trial.  It ruled that any defendant charged with any crime had the right to a lawyer.  If the defendant cannot pay for a lawyer, the state must assign them a free lawyer.
 Miranda v. Arizona, : When a person is being asked whether they committed a crime, they do not have to answer.  They cannot get in trouble for not answering.  This is called the right against "self-incrimination" (the right not to say anything that proves you committed a crime).  Before being questioned, a suspect must be told that they do not have to answer any questions.

These decisions, however, only applied to adult courts.  While the Constitution never says that its rights are only for adults, American courts had never given juveniles the same due process rights as adults.

Juvenile courts

In the United States' court system, there are separate courts for children who are accused of committing crimes or having behavior problems.  These are called "juvenile courts."

Every state has its own laws about their juvenile courts.  However, usually, if the judge rules that the child is "delinquent," the judge can make that child a "ward of the court."  This means the judge is putting the court in charge of the child, and taking that power away from the child's parents.  For the worst crimes, the court can decide to put the child in a special school, juvenile prison, or other program away from home, and keep them there until they turn 21.

At the time that Gerald Gault was arrested, juveniles had very few rights in the juvenile justice system.  For example, they could be put in jail without a trial, or without even knowing what crime they were being charged with.

Background of the case

On June 8, 1964, a police officer arrested Gerald Gault, a fifteen-year-old.  The sheriff did not tell Gault's parents that he had been arrested.  He was arrested after a neighbor named Ora Cook who complained that she received an obscene, vulgar phone call.  At the time, Gault was on probation.  He had been put on probation for six months, starting February 25, 1964, for being with another boy who stole a woman's wallet.

Meanwhile, Gault's mother came home and realized he was missing.  She eventually found him at the county Children's Detention Home, but was she not allowed to take him home.  Without being charged with a crime, Gault had been put in a juvenile jail.

Gault has always said that his friend Ronald Lewis made the call to Cook from the Gault family's trailer.  In 2007, Gault said that once he heard what Lewis said, he kicked Lewis out.

Juvenile court hearings

First hearing
The next morning, Gault had his first court hearing, in front of Judge McGhee.  Judge McGhee usually worked in the Gila County Superior Court (an adult court), but was working in the juvenile court that day.

At the end of the hearing, Judge McGhee said he would think about what to do, and sent Gault back to jail.  Gault was kept in jail for a few more days, then was sent home.  Nobody ever explained why he was kept in jail or why he was let go.  The day he came home, his mother got a note saying that Judge McGhee had ordered another hearing.

Second hearing

At the second hearing, McGhee ruled that Gault was "a delinquent child."  This meant Gault had broken a state law.  McGhee ordered Gault to be sent to the State Industrial School until he turned 21, unless the court decided to let him out before then.  This punishment was based on a charge of "Lewd Phone Calls."  If Gault had been convicted of the same crime as an adult, the Arizona laws would have allowed a maximum punishment of two months in prison and a fine of $5 to $50.

Problems with the hearings

Gault's accuser, Mrs. Cook, was not at either hearing, even though Mrs. Gault had asked for her to come so she could identify whether Gerald or his friend had made the phone calls.  Judge McGhee had said "she didn't have to be present."  Judge McGhee had never told Gault's parents that they could bring a lawyer to the hearings or call witnesses to defend Gerald.

Also, nobody wrote a transcript (a record of exactly what was said) during either hearing.  Because of this, there was no proof of what Gault or Judge McGhee said during these hearings.   Later, Judge McGhee said Gault admitted to saying something "lewd" to Mrs. Cook.  Both of Gault's parents insisted that Gerald never admitted to doing anything wrong.

Habeas corpus appeal

At the time, Arizona law did not allow juvenile cases to be appealed.  Gault's parents hired a lawyer named Amelia Lewis, who petitioned the Arizona Supreme Court for a writ of habeas corpus.  This means they asked the Supreme Court to let Gerald go because his imprisonment was unfair.  The Supreme Court sent the case to the Arizona Superior Court, a regular trial court, for a habeas corpus hearing.  This hearing would decide whether Gault was sent to juvenile prison unfairly.

McGhee's arguments

The hearing was held on August 17, 1964.  The Gaults' lawyer questioned Judge McGhee about the legal reasons for his actions.  She asked McGhee to explain what laws he had used to find Gerald "delinquent."

McGhee gave several answers:
 Gerald used lewd language while another person could hear (this was a misdemeanor under the Arizona Revised Statutes § 13-377)
 Gerald was delinquent under ARS § 8-201(6)(d).  This part of the law said that a delinquent child "habitually" (regularly) behaves in ways that "injure or endanger the morals or health of himself or others."  As evidence that Gerald was "habitually" dangerous, McGhee gave two reasons:
 He said Gault admitted making "silly calls, or funny calls, or something like that" in the past
 Two years earlier, the juvenile court got a report saying Gault had stolen a baseball glove and lied to the police about it.  However, the court never did anything about this because there was no proof

Judge McGhee also said that Gerald was already on probation.  This played a part in his decision, he said.

The court dismissed the habeas corpus petition.  It ruled that Judge McGhee had enough evidence and legal reasons to send Gault to jail.

Appeal to the Arizona Supreme Court

Next, Amelia Lewis and the Gaults appealed to the Arizona Supreme Court (99 Ariz. 181 (1965)). They had two main arguments.  They argued that Gerald's conviction was not legal because he was not given the due process rights in the Constitution.  They also argued that the state's set of juvenile laws, the Arizona Juvenile Code, was unconstitutional because it did not include these due process rights.

The Arizona Supreme Court ruled against the Gaults.  They said that neither the Juvenile Code or Gerald's conviction violated due process.

Appeal to the United States Supreme Court

Under United States law, the Gaults had only one legal option left.  This option was to appeal to the United States Supreme Court, but to do this, they would need more lawyers, and that would be expensive.  However, lawyers from the Arizona chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) got involved and worked with Amelia Lewis on the Supreme Court appeal.  On December 16, 1966, they went before the Supreme Court.

Legal questions
The Supreme Court had to answer three important legal questions in this case: a specific question, a general question, and a question that would affect every juvenile and court in the country.:
 The specific question: Were Gerald Gault's due process rights violated when he was convicted and sent to juvenile prison?  If they were, what should happen to him?
 The general question: Was the Arizona Juvenile Code unconstitutional because it did not give juveniles the due process rights in the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution?
 The biggest question: Did juveniles even have the same due process rights as adults?  Did the Fourteenth Amendment even apply to juvenile court processes?

Decision
On May 15, 1967, the Supreme Court voted 81 in favor of the Gaults.  They ruled that Gerald's due process rights were violated.

Justice Abe Fortas wrote the Court's majority opinion.  He wrote:

Justice Fortas pointed out that if Gerald were over 18, and were tried in adult court, he would have had many different rights, including the ones in this table.

However, because he was 15 and in juvenile court, Gerald got none of these rights.

In the Court's opinion, Justice Fortas wrote that without these due process rights, a person cannot get a fair trial, no matter what age they are.  The Fourteenth Amendment says that "no state can take away any person's "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person ... the equal protection of the laws."  Since juvenile courts could take away children's freedom by sending them to juvenile prisons, they needed to give juvenile defendants full due process rights.  They also needed to give them "equal protection of the laws"  the same protections an adult at risk of going to jail would get.

The Court threw out Gerald's conviction and ordered him to be set free.  He had spent three years in the Industrial School: two years and ten months longer than he could have possibly spent in prison if he was convicted as an adult.

The Court also ruled Arizona's Juvenile Code unconstitutional.  They ruled that Juvenile Codes had to include due process rights.

Importance

Before In re Gault, juveniles accused of crimes had very few rights.  In re Gault gave due process rights, which juveniles had never had, to children and teenagers being accused of crimes.  These protections apply to all juveniles in the United States, not just Arizona.  After this decision, by law, all juveniles being accused of crimes must be given the rights in the Fourteenth Amendment.  For example:
 They must be told what crime they are being accused of and when they have to go to court, far enough ahead of time that they can prepare (for example, by working on a defense or getting a lawyer)
 The juvenile, and their parents, must be told about their right to a lawyer
 The juvenile (or usually their lawyer) has the right to question the witnesses that say they are guilty, and call their own witnesses to say they are not guilty
 They must be warned that they do not have to answer questions about whether they are guilty, even in court

In other words, In re Gault ruled that every juvenile court in the country had to follow the Fourteenth Amendment.

Notes

References

Other websites
 Download a video about The Gault case  or a video of Gerald Gault talking about his case  (from The National Juvenile Defender Center's Gault page )

United States Supreme Court cases
1967 in the United States

In re Gault


Jigging is a method of fishing. It is well known in Japan, especially in Okinawa, the United States, and Canada. This way of fishing need a unique fishing lure called a jig. The hook does not hang bait. It consists of a model that resembles an injured fish. The model will lure big fish. On the fishing boat, fishermen jerk the fishing line regularly. The hook moves vertically. Because this is a fairly new method of fishing, jigging equipment is limited. But, universal fishing equipment can be used to jig, as well.

Fishing

Jigging


Hypoglycemia is when the level of blood sugar is lower than normal. A normal blood sugar level is about 70 to 100 milligrams per deciliter.  All of the cells in the body need sugar to do their jobs and to survive.  When a person does not have enough blood sugar, their body cannot work normally.

Hypoglycemia can cause many symptoms.  Some common symptoms are nausea, feeling hungry, sweating, feeling sad, and heart palpitations (feeling the heart pounding).  Bad hypoglycemia can make a person act like they are drunk or have taken drugs.  Very bad hypoglycemia can look like a stroke.

Hypoglycemia can happen to anyone, at any age, but it usually happens in people who are diabetic.  It is often a complication of treatment for diabetes with insulin or oral medications.

Hypoglycemia is treated by returning the blood sugar levels back to normal.  Often, a hypoglycemic person can bring their blood sugar levels back up by eating.  In the worst cases, when the blood sugar is very low, hypoglycemia is treated by giving sugar water intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein). In some cases, the liver is able to handle the issue by making glucose.

The brain and other parts of the body cannot work without sugar.  Because of this, severe (very bad) hypoglycemia can cause serious medical problems (like seizures) or even death if it is not treated quickly enough.

References

Blood disorders

Hypoglycemia


Richard L. Brooks (born December 9, 1962) is an American actor, singer, and director. He played the eccentric bounty hunter Jubal Early in the space-western Firefly and assistant district attorney Paul Robinette in the NBC drama series Law & Order from 1990 to 1993, later appearing as a defense attorney on that same show. In 2013, he began starring as Patrick Patterson in the BET drama series, Being Mary Jane.

Early life
Born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio, Brooks studied acting, dance, and voice work at Interlochen Academy of Arts in Michigan. Later, he moved to New York City and was a student of the Circle in the Square Professional Theater School.

Career
While in New York, Brooks performed in the Eugene O'Neill Theater Conference production of August Wilson's Fences, which gained him a positive reputation. A subsequent move to Los Angeles found the actor landing television roles in Hill Street Blues and The Russians Are Coming, along with made-for-TV features such as Badge of the Assassin (1985) and Resting Place (1986). With Teen Wolf (1985), The Hidden (1987), Off Limits (1988), Shakedown (1988), and Shocker (1989), Brooks began his work in the world of feature films. Brooks appeared as OD in the award-winning film 84C MoPic (1989), directed by Patrick Sheane Duncan.

Throughout the 1990s, most of his popularity came from his widespread exposure in his role as Paul Robinette on Law & Order. However, the actor would constantly find himself alternating between the feature films, television, and the stage. After appearing in The Substitute and playing the villain in The Crow: City of Angels (both 1996), Brooks opted to try his hand at directing, and the result was  Johnny B Good (1998). It is about a young, urban black man who makes a positive change after suffering amnesia. Brooks returned to television for the short-lived series G vs E in 1999. In 2001 he made a guest appearance in NYPD Blue. Brooks is also well known by some science fiction fans for his appearance on Joss Whedon's Firefly, as a bounty hunter named Jubal Early in the existentialist series finale "Objects in Space". He also appeared as Hasdrabul Skaras in "Slayer", the fifth episode of the series Brimstone. He also appeared as Detective Ehrle in the short-lived Fox series Drive, alongside Nathan Fillion, with whom Brooks had worked on Firefly.

In addition to his film work, Brooks also founded his own production company, Flat Top Entertainment LLC. At the dawn of the millennium, Brooks released his first solo R&B album, Smooth Love, on Flat Top Records.

In March 2011, Brooks played the role of Harmond Wilkes in Radio Golf, written by August Wilson, at Geva Theatre Center in Rochester, New York. He played Frederick Douglass in the 2013 PBS series The Abolitionists.

Brooks stars as Patrick in the BET original series Being Mary Jane. It premiered July 2, 2013.

Brooks stars as Lead Marshal Pollack in Person of Interest, season 3, "The Devil's Share".

Brooks played Warden Gregory Wolfe in season 4 of The Flash, and Dwight Wise in Seasons 5 and 6 of the show Bosch.

Brooks plays Augustus Barringer on the UMC network comedy The Rich and the Ruthless (2017–present).

Filmography

Film

Television

Awards and nominations

References

External links

American male stage actors
American male film actors
American male singers
American male television actors
African-American film directors
American rhythm and blues singers
Singers from Ohio
Male actors from Cleveland
Interlochen Center for the Arts alumni
Circle in the Square Theatre School alumni
Film directors from Michigan
Film directors from Ohio
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
1962 births
Living people
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American male actors
21st-century African-American male actors

Richard Brooks (actor)


Admiral Sir Arthur Kaye Legge KCB (25 October 1766 – 12 May 1835) was an officer of the British Royal Navy who served in three wars and commanded ships in several campaigns. Known as a brave officer and an effective commander, Legge  was given several very important postings in the latter part of his career as a rear-admiral, serving in command at Cadiz during the Peninsula War. After retirement, Legge entered royal service, and was in the procession at the funeral of King George III. A very wealthy man, Legge never married, and when he died in 1835 he left large sums of money to his domestic staff.

Early career
Arthur Kaye Legge was born in 1766, the sixth son of William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth and his wife Frances-Catherine. Among his siblings were George Legge, 3rd Earl of Dartmouth, Edward Legge, Bishop of Oxford and Lady Charlotte Feversham, the wife of Lord Feversham. Entering the Navy at a young age, Legge served aboard HMS Prince George with the young Prince William off the Eastern Seaboard of North America.

By 1791, Legge was a lieutenant and held an independent command in the Channel Fleet as captain of HMS Shark. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793 saw Legge promoted, becoming a post captain in the frigate HMS Niger. In this vessel, Legge served in the fleet under Lord Howe that fought in the Atlantic campaign of May 1794 and the ensuing Glorious First of June. As a frigate captain, Legge was not actively engaged in the battle, but did perform numerous scouting missions during the campaign, relayed signals to the fleet during the battle and gave a tow to badly damaged ships in its aftermath.

In 1795, Legge took command of HMS Latona and formed part of the squadron that escorted Caroline of Brunswick to Britain before her marriage to Prince George. In 1797 he moved to HMS Cambrian and operated independently off the French Channel coast, sailing from Weymouth. During these services he frequently spent time with royalty visiting the port and captured a number of French prizes. Legge remained in command of Cambrian until the Peace of Amiens in 1802.

With the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803, Legge was recalled to the Navy and took command of the ship of the line HMS Revenge. In 1805 Revenge was ordered to cruise off the Spanish coast and captured a valuable Spanish merchantship and also participated in the Battle of Cape Finisterre under Robert Calder against the combined Franco-Spanish fleet of Pierre-Charles Villeneuve. By 1807, Revenge was stationed with the Mediterranean Fleet and participated in the Dardanelles Operation under John Thomas Duckworth. During the attempt to reach Constantinople, Revenge suffered ten men killed and 14 wounded. Legge was later part of the naval contingent in the Walcheren Expedition and, with thousands of his men, contracted malaria and was evacuated home, severely ill.

Flag rank
In July 1810, Legge was promoted to rear-admiral and the following year was appointed to be commander at Cadiz in Revenge. The Spanish port was an important position as it was the seat of the Spanish government during the Peninsular War which was raging at that time. Legge performed well in this position and returned to Britain in September 1812 to become admiral in command of the River Thames. Legge held this command, from the frigate HMS Thisbe until the end of the war in 1815.

As a member of the nobility, Legge had numerous royal contacts, and became a Groom of the Bedchamber to King George III in 1801, a position that he held in London until 1812 and afterwards at Windsor, to where the mentally unbalanced king had retreated, until the king's death in 1820. Legge later marched in the procession at George III's funeral.

By the time of his retirement, Legge had risen to vice-admiral and been made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath. He later became a full admiral in 1830. Legge never married, and on his death in 1835, he was reported to have left over £3,000 to his butler, £1,000 each to his groom, footman, coachman and housekeeper and other substantial amounts to his other servants. He was buried in the family vault in Lewisham.

Notes

References

1766 births
1835 deaths
Younger sons of earls
Royal Navy admirals
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Arthur

Arthur Kaye Legge


From 1952 to 1966, Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) dumped about 370 million gallons (1,400 million litres) of chromium-tainted wastewater into unlined wastewater spreading ponds around the town of Hinkley, California, located in the Mojave Desert about 120 miles north-northeast of Los Angeles.

PG&E used chromium 6, or hexavalent chromium (a cheap and efficient rust suppressor), in its compressor station for natural-gas transmission pipelines. Hexavalent-chromium compounds are genotoxic carcinogens.

In 1993, legal clerk Erin Brockovich began an investigation into the health impacts of the contamination. A class-action lawsuit about the contamination was settled in 1996 for $333 million (around $ in ). In 2008, PG&E settled the last of the cases involved with the Hinkley claims. Since then, the town's population has dwindled to the point that in 2016 The New York Times described Hinkley as having slowly become a ghost town.

History
During the early 1950s, Pacific Gas & Electric built its first two compressor stations in Topock, Arizona, and Hinkley at the southern end of what became its trans-California natural-gas transmission system: a network of eight compressor stations linked with  of distribution pipeline and  of transport pipeline. From Bakersfield to the Oregon border, the network served 4.2 million customers. At the Topock and Hinkley compressor stations, a hexavalent chromium additive was used as a rust inhibitor in cooling towers. The water was then disposed adjacent to the compressor stations. Although the dumping took place from 1952 to 1966 (when Hinkley was a remote desert community with one school and a general store), PG&E did not inform the local water board about the contamination until December 7, 1987.

Residents of Hinkley filed a class action against PG&E, Anderson, et al. v. Pacific Gas and Electric (Superior Ct. for County of San Bernardino, Barstow Division, file BCV 00300). LeRoy A. Simmons was the judge. In 1993, Erin Brockovich (a legal clerk for lawyer Edward L. Masry) investigated an apparent cluster of illnesses in the community which were linked to hexavalent chromium. The case was referred to arbitration, with maximum damages of $400 million for more than 600 people. After arbitration for the first 40 people resulted in about $120 million, PG&E reassessed its position and decided to end arbitration and settle the case. It was settled in 1996 for $333 million, the largest settlement of a class action lawsuit in U.S. history at the time.

During negotiations, the presiding judges told PG&E's lawyers that a 1987 study by Chinese scientist Jian Dong Zhang reporting a strong link between chromium 6 pollution and cancer in humans would be "influential" in their decision. In 1997, an article was published in which Zhang retracted his 1987 research. ChemRisk, a firm known to be working with PG&E since 1995, updated his analysis and published it in April 1997 Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (JOEM, the official publication of the American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine) as a retraction of Zhang's 1987 paper. It was published under Zhang's name (then a retired Chinese government health officer, and despite his written objection) and that of a second Chinese scientist, Shu Kun Li. Peter Waldman, reporter for The Wall Street Journal, wrote that Zhang's son was "outraged" at "the idea that his father would willingly have invalidated his earlier award-winning work." According to the Center for Public Integrity, "In contrast to the earlier article, the new one concluded that chromium wasn't the likely culprit. The revised study—which did not reveal the involvement of PG&E or its scientists—helped persuade California health officials to delay new drinking water standards for chromium."

In March 2001, the California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA) asked the University of California, Berkeley to name a panel of experts to form the Chromate Toxicity Review Committee. The California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), established in 1991 with the creation of CalEPA, had been located across from UC Berkeley and had maintained academic ties with the school. A meeting was held on July 25, 2001, to obtain "public input on the review of scientific questions regarding the potential of chromium 6+ to cause cancer when ingested." The panel was selected by Jerold A. Last, with Dennis Paustenbach as vice-president, and included Mark Schrenker, Silvio De Flora and John Froines. Paustenbach, De Flora and Froines resigned from the committee and were replaced.

On August 31, 2001, the Chromate Toxicity Review Committee (which then included Russell Flegal, Jerold Last, Ernest E. McConnell of ToxPath, Marc Schenker and Hanspeter Witschi) submitted its report, entitled "Scientific Review of Toxicological and Human Health Issues Related to the Development of a Public Health Goal for Chromium(VI)". The committee recommended that reports of chromium concentrations (particularly in southern California) were alarmist and "spuriously high", and further evaluation should be handled by academics in laboratory settings—not by regulators. The report cited the 1987 Zhang article and its retracted 1997 version. Citing the 2001 Chromate Toxicity Review Committee review in November of that year, the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment withdrew its 1999 public-health goal for total chromium in drinking water of 2.5 parts per billion.

In 2001, the law firm of Engstron, Lipscomb and Lack filed a follow-up lawsuit on behalf of 900 people alleging chromium contamination in Hinkley and Kettleman, California. Two years later, Senator Deborah Ortiz (who represented the Sacramento area and chaired the Senate Health and Human Services Committee) called a Senate hearing about "Possible Interference in the Scientific Review of Chromium VI Toxicity". At the hearing, Gary Praglin, a lawyer with Engstron, Lipscomb and Lack in Los Angeles, testified about how the flawed 2001 report by the Chromate Toxicity Review Committee adversely affected the firm's court case against PG&E:

Since the Hinkley groundwater contamination lawsuit, a group of California-based scientists with organizations such as the Desert Sierra Cancer Surveillance Program (DSCSP) and ChemRisk have argued against the claim that chromium 6 is genotoxic, downplaying the number of cancer cases and challenging a "cancer cluster in the Hinkley area".

According to the lawsuit, PG&E was also required to discontinue its use of chromium 6 and clean up the contaminated groundwater. By 2008 the chromium plume was spreading, however, and it attracted media attention by 2011. In November 2010, PG&E began offering to purchase threatened houses and property in Hinkley and to provide bottled water. By 2013, the plume was over six miles long, two miles wide, and slowly growing.

In 2006, PG&E agreed to pay $295 million to settle cases involving another 1,100 people statewide for hexavalent chromium-related claims. Two years later, it settled the last of the Hinkley claims for $20 million. That year, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) responded to research by the National Toxicology Program on the development of cancerous tumors in mice and rats who had consumed heavy doses of chromium 6.

California became the first state to acknowledge a link between ingested hexavalent chromium and cancer in July 2014, establishing a maximum contaminant level (MCL) for hexavalent chromium of 10 parts per billion (ppb). Hexavalent chromium is measured in μg/L (micrograms per liter). The EPA does not have an MCL for hexavalent chromium in drinking water, but the agency has an MCL of 100 parts per billion for all forms of chromium.

Groundwater pollution
PG&E operates a compressor station in Hinkley for its natural-gas transmission pipelines. The gas must be re-compressed about every , and the station uses cooling towers to cool the gas after compression.

Between 1952 and 1966, the water in the cooling towers contained hexavalent chromium—now recognized as a carcinogen—to prevent rust in the machinery. The water was stored between uses in unlined ponds, which allowed it to percolate into the groundwater. This led to groundwater pollution, affecting soil and contaminating water wells near the compressor station with a plume originally about  long and nearly  wide. By 2013, the plume was  long and nearly  wide.

Average hexavalent chromium levels in Hinkley were recorded as 1.19 parts-per-billion (ppb), with an estimated peak of 20 ppb. Based on the PG&E Background Study, the PG&E Topock Compressor Station averaged 7.8 ppb and peaked at 31.8 ppb. The proposed California health goal for hexavalent chromium was 0.02 ppb in 2011. In 1991, when the EPA raised the federal MCL for total chromium to 100 ppb, California remained at 50 ppb. According to CalEPA in 2015, "At the time Total Chromium MCLs were established, ingested Hexavalent Chromium associated with consumption of drinking water was not considered to pose a cancer risk, as is now the case."

Plume
Samples taken in August 2010 showed that the plume of contaminated water had begun to migrate to the lower aquifer. In September 2013, CalEPA reported that the plume had expanded to  long and  wide. In 2015, the California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Lahontan Region served PG&E with an order to clean up the effects of the chromium discharge. At the time of the report, the plume was " in length and approximately  in width, throughout the Hinkley Valley and into Harper Dry Lake Valley."

Cleanup
By 2013, PG&E had spent over $750 million on remediation. Sheryl Bilbery, in charge of PG&E remediation efforts, explained why remediation was taking a long time. "It's a very complex project. We are highly regulated. There are a lot of interested parties. The other thing is it is very important that we get it right."

For their 2013 series Science for Sale, PBS NewsHour journalist Miles O'Brien interviewed PG&E director of chromium remediation Kevin Sullivan. According to Sullivan, PG&E cleaned up ; however, it would take another 40 years before they were done. PG&E built a concrete barrier about a half-mile long to contain the plume, pumped ethanol into the ground to convert chromium 6 to chromium 3, and planted acres of alfalfa. O'Brien interviewed Erin Brockovich, who was surprised that PG&E had not completed the cleanup it promised over a decade earlier. In correspondence with Sullivan, the Water Board noted that by 2014 "chromium from PG&E's historical releases at the Hinkley Compressor Station has migrated from the upper aquifer to the lower aquifer causing hexavalent chromium concentrations in the lower aquifer to exceed drinking water standards." Cleanup documentation about Hinkley is maintained on the CalEPA webpage.

Debates
A 2007 toxicity report for the National Toxicology Program provided evidence that high doses of chromium 6 caused cancers of the gastrointestinal tract in rats and mice at levels higher than 5 mg/L of water, (5 ppm, or 5,000 ppb).

Average hexavalent chromium levels in Hinkley were recorded at 1.19 ppb, with an estimated peak of 20 ppb. The PG&E Topock Compressor Station averaged 7.8 ppb, peaking at 31.8 ppb (based on the PG&E Background Study). In 2013, PG&E's Sheryl Bilbery told a PBS journalist: "There's a lot of scientists that are still debating that question [hexavalent chromium toxicity]. I think that's why the process has taken so long, from what I have read, both at EPA and at the state level. So, I think they're still trying to figure out exactly what is the right answer there." In July 2014, CalEPA established a maximum chromium-6 MCL of 10 ppb as a result of new research which linked ingestion of hexavalent chromium with cancer.

CalEPA
California was the first state to put into effect an MCL for hexavalent chromium (chromium 6) in drinking water in July 2014, setting a limit of 10 ppb. A 2015 United States Geological Survey (USGS) report, based on the EPA's 2010 review of the health effects of chromium 6 in drinking water, re-examined related federal regulations. Following California's 2014 limit, Illinois began research in collaboration with the USGS which was published in 2015. According to the USGS report, the EPA proposed in 2010 to "classify Cr(VI) as likely to cause cancer in humans when ingested over a lifetime." Concentrations of chromium 6 in water are given in micrograms and milligrams per liter (µg/L and mg/L), with 50 µg/L equal to 50 ppb and 50 mg/L equal to 50 ppm.

John Morgan
Since January 1, 1988, all cancers in California have been reported to California Cancer Registry (CCR) regional registries. Hinkley, in San Bernardino County, is covered by the Desert Sierra Cancer Surveillance Program (DSCSP) with the California Department of Public Health. Epidemiologist John Morgan began working with the DSCSP in 1995.

Morgan has published over 100 abstracts, presentations and reports, some of which have been peer-reviewed. Many of his PowerPoint presentations and online posts attempt to debunk allegations that chromium pollution caused the cancer cluster in the Hinkley area and downplay the number of cancer cases there. In his often-cited 2010 California Cancer Registry study, Morgan wrote that cancer rates in Hinkley "remained unremarkable from 1988 to 2008". In a study co-authored with M. E. Reeves, he wrote that "the 196 cases of cancer reported during the most recent survey of 1996 through 2008 were less than what he would expect based on demographics and the regional rate of cancer."

Morgan used cartoon characters in his 2012 PowerPoint presentation at the Proceedings of the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries (NAACCR) Conference, saying: "Inhaled Cr[VI] powder is accepted as a carcinogen, while the role of aqueous Cr[VI] as a human carcinogen has been challenged." He wrote a letter to The Connection to publicize a poster of his. In 2013, the Center for Public Integrity found weaknesses in Morgan's 2010 analysis which challenge the validity of his findings: "In his first study, he dismisses what others see as a genuine cancer cluster in Hinkley. In his latest analysis, he excludes people who were exposed to the worst contamination."

Dennis Paustenbach
Dennis Paustenbach has been an expert witness and consultant for a number of companies facing lawsuits over products, environmental practices or product safety. Paustenbach was the founder and director of ChemRisk, and Brent Kerger was one of his senior scientists. Their clients included PG&E and BP.

Paustenbach was at the center of a publishing scandal involving the research of Chinese scientist Jian Dong Zhang, who published a paper in 1987 reporting an association between chromium pollution of drinking water and higher rates of stomach cancer in residents of three villages in Liaoning Province (in rural northeastern China) who lived near a chromium-ore smelter and drank tainted water for years.

According to Allan Hirsch, CalEPA's 2008 review of Zhang's 1987 paper agreed with his findings that the rates of stomach cancer in the three villages were significantly higher than those in the province. PG&E hired ChemRisk, a for-profit scientific consulting firm.

According to the Center for Public Integrity, "[Zhang's] revised [1997] study—which did not reveal the involvement of PG&E or its scientists—helped persuade California health officials to delay new drinking water standards for chromium." The EPA cited the article when it allowed the continued use of chromium in a wood preservative, and the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry discounted chromium 6 as an oral carcinogen because of the revised study.

In 2006, the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine conducted a six-month internal review of the 1997 retraction. Although Zhang had died by the time the JOEM made its investigation, his co-author agreed that the revised paper should be retracted. The retraction, written by JOEM editor Paul Brandt-Rauf, said:

It has been brought to our attention that an article published in JOEM in the April 1997 issue by Zhang and Li failed to meet the journal's published editorial policy in effect at that time ... Specifically, financial and intellectual input to the paper by outside parties was not disclosed.

According to a 2005 article by Peter Waldman in The Wall Street Journal, ChemRisk had authored the article as consultants for PG&E (who were "being sued for alleged chromium pollution"). In addition to ChemRisk, Paustenbach later worked with Exponent; he and ChemRisk have "drawn the scrutiny of investigative journalists."

Steven Patierno
In September 2010, EPA scientists concluded that "even a small amount of a chemical compound commonly found in tap water may cause cancer." Steven Patierno, who had been an expert defense witness in seven chromium-6 lawsuits, was named by the EPA to the peer-review panel critiquing the agency's chromium-6 findings in a potential conflict of interest. A team of investigative journalists from the Center for Public Integrity made the disclosure in a series entitled Toxic Clout.

Patierno, an expert witness for PG&E, was deputy director of the Duke Cancer Institute and a former professor of pharmacology at the George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences who had conducted a number of studies on chromium and said that "drinking low doses of chromium (VI) does not cause cancer." Patierno has co-authored papers with ChemRisk's Paustenbach, another expert witness for PG&E. In 1996, Paustenbach and Patierno co-authored an article saying that chromium 6 is not genotoxic.

Film
The contamination and lawsuit became the subject of Erin Brockovich, a 2000 biographical film which starred Julia Roberts as Brockovich. The film was a critical success, with Roberts winning a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama and an Academy Award for Best Actress. Brockovich, who said that the film was about 98 percent accurate, made a cameo appearance.

See also
 Environmental issues in the United States
 Toxic hotspot
 Flint water crisis
 Water pollution
 Merchants of Doubt
Love Canal

References

External links
 Hinkley Groundwater Remediation Program

1996 in California
1996 in the environment
Chromium
Environment of California
Environmental disasters in the United States
History of the Mojave Desert region
Mojave Desert
Pacific Gas and Electric Company
San Bernardino County, California
Water pollution in the United States

Hinkley groundwater contamination


Wakeshma Township is a civil township of Kalamazoo County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The 2010 census recorded a population of 1,301, down from 1,414 at the 2000 census.

Communities
Fulton is an unincorporated community near the center of the township at . It is the only population center in the township. The Fulton area ZIP code is 49052 and serves the eastern and southern portion of the township as well as a portion of southeast Climax Township and western Athens Township in Calhoun County.

Fulton is the site of the headquarters of the federally recognized Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi. The Band has a reservation near here and jurisdiction over tribal members in neighboring counties. It owns and operates a gaming casino in Battle Creek, Michigan, about  to the northeast of the township.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of , all land. Little Portage Creek and Bear Creek flow through the township.

Adjacent townships in Kalamazoo County are: Brady (west), Pavilion (northwest) and Climax (north). In Calhoun County: Leroy (northeast) and Athens (east). In Branch County: Sherwood (southeast). In St. Joseph County: Leonidas (south) and Mendon (southwest).

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,414 people, 486 households, and 402 families residing in the township.  The population density was .  There were 502 housing units at an average density of 13.9 per square mile (5.4/km).  The racial makeup of the township was 97.60% White, 0.50% African American, 0.07% Native American, 0.35% Asian, 0.64% from other races, and 0.85% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.64% of the population.

There were 486 households, out of which 40.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.8% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.1% were non-families. 13.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.88 and the average family size was 3.14.

In the township the population was spread out, with 28.8% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 23.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 107.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.1 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $52,328, and the median income for a family was $53,264. Males had a median income of $36,739 versus $27,292 for females. The per capita income for the township was $20,051.  About 7.3% of families and 8.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.2% of those under age 18 and 8.3% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
Official website

Townships in Kalamazoo County, Michigan
Kalamazoo–Portage metropolitan area
Townships in Michigan

Wakeshma Township, Michigan