Thai names follow the Western European pattern of a given name followed by a family name. This differs from the family-name-first patterns of Cambodian, Vietnamese, and other East Asian countries. Thai names (given and family) are diverse and often long. The diversity of family names is due to the fact that Thai surnames are a recent introduction and are required to be unique to a family. Additionally, while given names are used for official purposes and record-keeping, most Thais are also given a nickname at birth which they use in their daily life, including at school and in the workplace. In many social situations, the nickname takes precedence over the real name.

Thai given names generally convey positive attributes, and a number of Thai people change their given names frequently (and their family names less frequently, as it requires permission from the head of a family or, in the case of children, father and mother). This practice is virtually unknown in most countries outside of marriage. Besides standard reasons of separation and divorce, many name changes are done to get rid of bad luck (which, if caused by a ghost or spirit, would confuse the malignant entity, allowing the victim to get free from them).

For centuries, inhabitants of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, did not have surnames. They identified themselves by referring to their parents' given names or the place they resided. The Siamese government started recording data on its citizens during the reign of King Rama V (1868–1910). The data recorded consisted of birth dates, dates of death, and household members. It was difficult to distinguish between citizens as many shared the same name. In 1912, two years after King Rama VI ascended to the throne, he declared that a birth, death, and marriage registration system would be instituted in Siam. Everyone had to bear a surname to identify themselves properly. In 1913, the first Surname Act was promulgated.

Official surnames
Last names became legally required of Thai citizens in 1913 with the passing of the Surname Act 1913. Until then, most Thais used only a first or given name. According to the current law, Person Name Act, BE 2505 (1962), to create a new Thai surname, it must be no longer than ten Thai letters, excluding vowel symbols and diacritics. The same law also forbids the creation of a surname which is a duplicate of any existing surnames, however there are some duplicates dating to the time before computer databases were available to prevent this. Some creations incorporated the name of their location (muban, tambon, or amphoe) into their surnames, similar to family name suffixes.

The Surname Act of 1913 decreed that "married woman can bear her husband's surname or keep her maiden name" (Clause 6 of the act). A woman's right to choose her surname ended in 1941 with the passage of the "Personal Name Act 1941". The law forced women to use their husband's surname after marriage (Clause 13). The Personal Name Act of 1941 was revised in 1962. The 1962 law allowed a divorced woman to resume her maiden surname (Clause 13 of the Personal Name Act 1962). A widow could keep her husband's surname or could revert to her maiden surname (Clause 14). The Personal Name Act 2002 gave a married woman the right to use her maiden name or assume her spouse's surname. She has to choose one or the other when the marriage is registered. A couple also has the right to use a different surname.

As a measure of the diversity of Thai names, in a sample of 45,665 names, 81% of family names were unique and 35% of given names were unique. The people with shared family names are related, and the diversity of given names is conventional.

Generic surnames

The surnames of most of the non-Chinese Thai population, such as the Siamese, Mon, Indian, Persian, Pathan, Portuguese, Isan, Lanna, Northern Khmer, or Kuy often use simple words in their surname. Common origins for surnames include naming them after ancestors, professions, or places of residence. For example, the surname of footballer Siwarak Tedsungnoen comes from the name of Sung Noen District, or Kroekrit Thaweekarn comes from the name of Kanchanadit district.

Chinese surnames

Surnames among Thais of Chinese descent are mostly derived from the Chinese surname and contain hints toward the original. For example, the family of former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, adopted the surname in 1938, where the first syllable of the surname, "shin", is derived from the Chinese surname 丘, while the surname of former Prime Minister Banharn Silpa-archa contains "archa", which means horse in Chinese.

Malay surnames

Malay traditional culture does not include surnames. The majority of Thais of Malay descent surnames are in the same style as mainstream Thai, such as Madsiri or Pitsuwan. However, many Thai Malays also use Malay language terms in their surnames such as Dolah, Lahsoh, Soleb, and Sriyankem.

Romanization of surnames
The romanization of Thai in some surnames, especially ones bestowed by the king, do not follow the standard Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS), which follows Thai phonology, but instead follow the romanization of the original Pali or Sanskrit root. For example, in the surname Temeeyaves , the  consonant corresponds to /w/ in Thai phonology, but the relevant Sanskrit root has /v/ there, leading to the transcription with v. This kind of romanization can also be seen in the name of monarchs. For example, the usual romanization for the current King's name is Vajiralongkorn, as opposed to Wachiralongkon.

The main purpose of Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS) transcription is to transcribe Thai words in newspapers, official government publications, and road signs.
The general Thai public hardly knows about this system, not to mention knows how to transcribe their names with it.
Therefore, people come up with their own romanization of their names. It is very common to find two people with the same Thai names
(given names or surnames) but spelling their names differently in the Latin alphabet.

Nicknames
According to Denis Segaller, author of Thai Ways, there are at least "tens of thousands" of formal given names in Thailand, and that compared to any given country in the West "there are many times more first names". He also stated that people in Thailand were creating more given names on a daily basis. Such given names are usually gender-specific; according to Segaller, the number of truly gender-neutral names numbered "perhaps two or three hundred"; he characterised this number as being very small. Because family names are relatively new in Thai society, dating only to 1913, Thai people are primarily known by their given names. According to Segaller, some Thai who have been friends for long periods of time do not know their friends' family names, and "The first-name habit is so deeply ingrained in Thai society".

Informal names are awarded at birth and may continue in use to the extent one may have to check the formal registration to find a person's given formal name.

Thais typically address one other by nicknames (; ), if they have them. The vast majority of Thais have nicknames, though some do not have them, though they may be addressed by shortened versions of their formal given names. Bestowed by relatives or playmates in early childhood, these are commonly one syllable (or worn down from two to one). These may often be nonsense words or humorous and seldom relate to the registered name except in cases where it is a diminutive, such as Nok for Noknoi, or 'bird' from 'little bird'. They are freely used in everyday life. Some may have additional nicknames bestowed by friends or colleagues, especially during school or adolescence. Nicknames may link with a notable physical feature or behavior. In everyday life, a Thai is introduced by nickname and others may not know the person's formal name. When so introduced, one usually continues to use the nickname.

The evolution of Thai nicknames dates back to the Sukhothai era, when names were used to mark the order of children. Nicknames such as Ai, Yee, and Sam designated children as 'one', 'two', and 'three'. Later, in the Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin periods, children began to be named for physical attributes, such as Daeng ('red') or Uan ('fat') or for desirable items such as Thong ('gold').  Conversely, unflattering nicknames such as Mah ('dog'), Moo ('pig'), or Gop ('frog') were employed to keep malign spirits from coveting the child. King Mongkut (Rama IV) (1804–1868) stimulated interest in naming babies in accordance with astrological principles as outlined in the ancient scripture, Namtaksapakorn.

Some of Thai Chinese have courtesy name but practical when interacted with Mainland Chinese and Taiwanese people only, like Dhanin and Suphachai Chearavanont known in Chinese as 'Kok Min' (國民) and 'Rong Ren' (榕仁).

During the time of Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram (1897–1964), gender-based naming was introduced. Names ending in "-sak", "-chai", and "-yot" were for male babies, "-porn" or "-sri" for females. In the 21st century, assigning nicknames still relies heavily on astrological beliefs, but also in keeping up with current naming fashions. Observers have noted such modern nicknames as "Porsche", "Mercedes", "Benz", "Man U", "Big Mac", "Internet", and "Google", among others.

King Bhumibol Adulyadej's nickname, for example, was Ong Lek (; Ong is a numerative noun for kings, princes, princesses, priests, images of Buddha, gods, angels, palaces, pagodas; lek means 'little (one)', a common name for younger siblings). Former Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra's nickname is (; ), Thai for the Miao people. By way of example preceding formal naming, Plaek Pibulsongkram's childhood name 'Plaek' meant 'strange'. He later adopted as a surname what was originally an award for academic excellence and generally known in public life by the shortened form Pibun. Thailand's first female Prime Minister, Yingluck Shinawatra, is nicknamed Pu 'crab' (; ).

Contrast with nickname, at present, vast majority of Thai people's personal names are Sanskrit names, or is compound in Sanskrit based with Thai or Khmer. However, Thai names in Sanskrit usually have the difference style from Indian names, such as Dhiradora, Dhirashila, Janadhipa, Shivarak, Shubhanata, Surajati are not common names in India. Although there are some Thai names that are based on Muslim or Malays traditions like Adul, Nurul, or western name for Luk khrueng like Mika, Elias, but it was not popular, Burmese name like Newin are also not the case.

Forms of address
In the past, different words were used to address men and women. Nai (นาย) or Ay (อ้าย) were used before a man's given name. Am daeng (อําแดง) or Ii (อี) were used before a woman's given name. A man named Somchai was addressed as Nai Somchai or Ay Somchai. A woman whose name was Somsri was addressed as Am daeng Somsri or Ii Somsri. There was no law concerning this matter, it was purely a matter of custom.

In 1917, Rama VI declared a new law, the "Form of Address for Woman Act, 1917". The act mandated a new form of address, Nangsao (นางสาว) ('Miss') for women who were unmarried (the wording used in the act was "woman who has no husband") and Nang (นาง) ('Missus' [Mrs.]) for women who were married ('married woman or woman who has husband'). Once a woman married, she had to use the address Nang before her given name for the rest of her life even if she divorced or widowed. This form of address applied to commoners, not to women in royal or noble families.

In 1921, the king proclaimed the form of address for girls. He specified that that "girl" meant a female under 15 years old; they were addressed as nangsao, as were females older than 15 years of age and unmarried (meaning 'married to a man').

The Form of Address for Women Act 2008 mandates that married or divorced women can choose to use either Nang or Nangsao before their given names. It gives a married woman the right to change all her documents (ID card, driver's license, bank account) to include the title Nangsao before her given name.

Today, in polite speech, Thais address each other by a given name, preceded by the courtesy title khun, particularly with persons of higher status or public distinction. Thai family names are only stated in conjunction with the given name, and people are not addressed solely by their family names. Thai media, print and spoken, after the first mention, address people by given names only unless two people with the same given name are in the same piece of media; in those cases, full names are used. English-language newspapers in Thailand follow the same rule. Directories index peoples' names by their given names.

Royal and noble names

East Asian monarchs often adopted regnal names upon ascending the throne, as was done in Thailand until the present day. In addition, subjects of a monarch may be awarded both a title and a name, such as in the case of Sing (or Singh) Sinhaseni () who was awarded the title of Chao Phraya and the name of Bodindecha (.)

Kings Rama I and Rama II were awarded noble titles and names before they assumed regnal names, which were then changed by subsequent kings. As neither noble titles nor names are necessarily unique, it is customary to list the highest title and awarded named first, followed by former names and titles (and personal and family names in parentheses) as needed.

Indexing
According to the Chicago Manual of Style, Thai names may be indexed depending upon the individual practice. Often they may be alphabetized under the given name with no comma or inversion, but they may also be alphabetized under the surname with a comma and with an inversion.

See also

 Rama (Kings of Thailand)
 Thai honorifics

References

Notes

External links

Thai culture
Thai names
Names by culture

Thai name


Dark Earth is a post-apocalyptic adventure game with action elements, developed by Kalisto Entertainment and published by MicroProse for Microsoft Windows in 1997. Reviewers were generally positive, with critics commenting on the well thought-out story and milieu and the impressive visuals, though the combat was criticized. It sold 500,000 copies by 1999.

Gameplay

Dark Earth is a third-person game centered around item-collection and weapon-based melee combat. The game world is filled with a variety of different weapons which can be used until broken, requiring a constant need to expand the main character Arkhan's weapon collection. The vast majority of the weapons are scavenged or improvised, such as kitchen knives and shivs. There are a very limited number of guns in Dark Earth, as most people have forgotten about firearms. For the select few guns Arkhan finds, there is a limited amount of ammo, making guns good for only a limited time. Arkhan must also scavenge for food, as it is his only means of healing.

As time progresses in Arkhan's quest, he slowly begins to transform into a creature of darkness. His physical appearance, the tone of his voice, and his dialog choices change throughout the course of the game. There is also an option for Arkhan to react to situations with his 'dark side' (i.e. he'll say rude things in dialog or treat his environment more aggressively while searching).

The environments of the game are all pre-rendered, with 3D modeled characters moving atop them (much like Resident Evil). This method, while allowing for more detailed environments, prevents any camera control. All locations have fixed-camera views, which can create difficulty in some fight situations in small areas.

Story

Background
Dark Earth takes place several centuries in the future, when a meteor collision with Earth (referred to as the "Great Cataclysm") has thrown up great clouds of ash and dust, blocking out the light of the sun. Those not killed in the collision were soon hunted by strange creatures of darkness, and so they began to seek a refuge from the "Dark Earth" - pockets of land where the light of the sun breached the clouds. Eventually they found such places. Called "Stallites", these places of light became cities, and the survivors built temples in honor of the light. The game is set in a Stallite called Sparta.

By the time of the game, many centuries after the establishment of Sparta, most of the citizens have forgotten their history and now worship the light as a god, Solaar. The city is run by Sunseers, priests of Solaar, who maintain order and prevent the creatures of darkness from entering the city limits. The game focuses on Arkhan, a "Guardian of Fire", one of the military protectors of the city.

Plot
The game begins with Arkhan awakening from a nightmare in which he has a vision of the Great Cataclysm and sees it foretold that a great darkness will threaten Sparta, which he must fight against. He then goes to see the head of the Guardians of Fire, Provost Dhorkan, who orders him to guard the council chamber door at the Temple of Solaar, while the High Sunseer Lory is holding a meeting. On his way to the Temple, Arkhan overhears his father Rylsadhar, also a Sunseer, telling Lory that he fears a great danger is about to engulf Sparta. He gives Lory something, telling her he doesn't feel safe carrying it himself. Arkhan takes his post, but hears a commotion from within the council room. He bursts in to find the Sunseers under attack by two men, one of whom he kills. The other is about to attack Lory, but Arkhan intervenes, and the man throws something in his face and flees. Lory examines Arkhan and sees that he has been contaminated by "Shankr Archessence."

Arkhan awakens some time later, and is horrified to discover that he has begun to turn into a creature of darkness. A healer, Thanandar, tells him that he is infected with darkness and the only way to save him is a "secret energy from the dawn of time." Thanandar says that Rylsadhar is one of the few people in Sparta who knows where it is located. Arkhan goes to see Rylsadhar, who tells him he is forbidden to bring him to the secret and must break his vows as a Sunseer to do so, but only after getting approval from Dhorkan. Arkhan then sees Kalhi, his wife, who is horrified at what has happened to him and tells him that Dhorkan has taken control of the city, declared martial law, locked the gates, and sent the Guardians of Fire out to search for more attackers.

Arkhan heads to meet his father, but Rylsadhar doesn't arrive, so Arkhan sets out to look for him. He learns that Lory has gone into hiding and that his best friend, and fellow Guardian, Zed, is leading the hunt for more "heretics" in the Lower City. Arkhan then learns that Rylsadhar has disappeared, and the Guardians of Fire have arrested Kalhi. He breaks her out of jail and they head to the Lower City to see their friend, the scavenger Danrys, who tells them that they need to speak to a man named Armal Sadak, the chief scavenger. Sadak tells Arkham that the people who attacked the Sunseers are a group of thugs known as the Konkalites who live in the sewers. However, they did so on the orders of someone else, although Sadak doesn't know who. He also recommends that Arkhan find Leona, a hermit who lives outside Sparta in the Dark Earth.

Whilst Kalhi remains with Danrys, Arkhan heads into the sewers and discovers that the Konkalites' leader, Sordos, is planning to take over the Upper City. Arkhan also learns that Sordos and Dhorkan are working together. However, Dhorkan is not the one behind the attack on the Sunseers. Sordos is in league with another Sunseer, who is behind everything. Arkhan then finds Sordos in conversation with Thanandar, who reveals he is holding Rylsadhar prisoner. Arkhan kills them both and enters the cells, finding Zed. Zed tells Arkhan that Thanandar is behind everything and seeks to find the ancient secret to destroy it and banish the light from Sparta forever. Zed then turns into a creature of darkness, and Arkhan is forced to kill him.

Arkhan returns to the Upper City to confront Dhorkan, but he flees through a secret passage in his office. Arkhan pursues him down to the Lower City, where he encounters the resurrected Thanandar. He reveals that Rylsadhar drank the Archessence that fills Thanandar's soul, and now Rylsadhar has become Thanandar's servant. Thanandar sends Rylsadhar to destroy the Well of Light at the heart of the city. Rylsadhar does so, but dies in the process. Arkhan then meets Lory, who tells him that with the destruction of the Well of Light, the walls of the city no longer protect it from the creatures of darkness. She also tells him that the city has only one chance for salvation; Rylsadhar spent many years researching the origins of the light in the Well of Light. If Arkhan can continue Rylsadhar's research, he may find a way to save the city; beneath the city is a source of unlimited light, but it is dormant and needs to be activated - this is what Rylsadhar was researching. Lory gives Arkhan part of the key to Rylsadhar's vault (the item Rylsadhar gave to Lory earlier on) and urges him to find a way to access the light energy.

Arkhan then sets about finding the rest of the key. He finds the first part with the city's Master Builder, Bandor, who tells him the other parts of the key are with Zed, and Leona. Arkhan finds and defeats Dhorkan, and then discovers a secret bunker from the time of the Great Cataclysm, containing hibernation pods and video files detailing how people tried to survive in the bunker after the meteor collision. He then meets a thief who is holding Zed's part of the key. Arkhan kills him and takes the key. As he moves around the city, Arkhan notes that everywhere, people are beginning to turn into creatures of darkness. He heads down into the sewers and finds Dhorkan dying in the Konkalite's prison. Dhorkan regrets his actions, realizing that he had been used by Sordos and Thanandar. He advises Arkhan not to face Thananadar, and that the poison thrown in Arkhan's face was actually Thanandar's blood. He dies, and Arkhan then discovers a secret underwater passage to outside of the city.

He soon encounters Leona. Telling her that the Well of Light has been destroyed, that Rylsadhar is dead and that Thanandar is no longer human, Leona is shocked to hear of what has happened. She reveals that the secret of the Well of Light was known only to a few, known as Initiates, and that knowledge of it goes back to the dawn of time, millennia before the Great Cataclysm. The Well contains the Force of Light, and Rylsadhar was trying to find its source in a tomb deep below the city. Leona reveals that if the source can be found, the Force of Light will destroy the Force of Darkness in Thanandar, who, like Lory, Rylsadhar, Zed and Leona was an Initiate. She then gives him the final part of the key to Rylsadhar's vault. Arkhan heads back to the city, finding dead Guardians everywhere. A dying Guardian reveals that the creatures of darkness have entered Sparta.

Arkhan enters Rylsadhar's vault and finds research on how to gain access to the Runka Tomb, the source of the Well of Light. Rylsadhar had discovered how to enter the tomb, but had been unable to find the door. However, using an explosive substance found in the bunker, Akhan is able to find the door, which was hidden in the center of the city. Now almost completely transformed into a creature of darkness, he enters the tomb. Navigating a series of traps, he reaches the center of the tomb, but realizes he has been followed by Thanandar, now transformed into a monster of darkness. Thanandar attempts to destroy the source of Light, but Arkhan blocks him. They fight, and Arkhan is able to defeat and destroy Thanandar. Arkhan then enters the source, which tells him it is time for the "Great Awakening" as a tower of light shoots into the sky high above the city, banishing the Darkness.

Development
The game was in development for two years. Most of the work on the game was done at Mindscape's development house in Bordeaux, France. The characters' facial models were assembled from various parts (e.g. eyes, cheekbones) chosen from a collective character database, rather than being created from a single model.

Kalisto's plans for a sequel to Dark Earth never came to fruition, although they did produce, in partnership with French publisher Multisim, a tabletop role-playing game based on the Dark Earth world.

Although both Sony and Konami expressed publishing interest, a PlayStation 2 port of Dark Earth was canceled early in development.

Reception

Sales
Dark Earth sold 500,000 units globally by mid-1999. However, it failed commercially in the United States, where its sales totaled 54,200 units by April 1999. Microprose's Tom Nichols blamed this performance on competition from The Curse of Monkey Island and Blade Runner, which he said drew retailers away from stocking Dark Earth and customers away from buying it. He also noted that "we signed the game late in its development, so we didn't have enough time to build the preawareness and hype that you need to have in order to be successful today".

Reviews and awards

Dark Earth received generally positive reviews, and held an aggregate score of 71% on GameRankings. It was named the best adventure game of 1997 by CNET Gamecenter, whose editors called it "beautifully conceived and executed" and an example of how "a superior adventure game is made". The game was also a finalist for the Software Publishers Association's 1997 "Best Adventure/Role-Playing Software Game" Codie award, which it ultimately lost to Diablo.

Critics generally saw the game's story as its strongest asset. Next Generation, for example, commented that "An adventure's worth is in the story, and Dark Earths is impressively thought-out and deep. Kalisto's designers were very careful to create an internally consistent world, from history to environment. Thus, the milieu of the Stalite Dhominyon is rich in detail without resorting to needless exposition." PC Zones Chris Anderson opined that despite considerable flaws in the game's cinematic production, "the rich storyline alone will be enough to keep most people happy, and with the added diversions of hand-to-hand fisticuffs and puzzle-solving elements, Dark Earth offers a well-rounded gameplay experience that should appeal to many gamers who wouldn't normally be attracted to the adventure genre."

The combat was more negatively received, with most critics finding it clunky and frustrating due to the minimal control over the player character. The use of fixed camera angles was also criticized as causing frustrations with both the combat and the puzzle solving, but the graphics were a subject of overall praise for most reviewers due to elements such as the distinctive character models, gorgeous environments, and impressive effects. GameSpots Jeff Sengstack, although he was critical of the fixed camera angles, wrote that "Dark Earth features superb graphics, outstanding 3D character animation, and unique action-adventuring in one beautifully crafted package. Adventurers longing for a deep and rich story, with carefully crafted characters, coupled with swashbuckling fighting action and challenging puzzles and problem solving, look no further." Game Revolution's Thomas Garcia also noted that the fact that the game has low system requirements without sacrificing impressive visuals makes it especially appealing to people with slow PC setups.

GamePro gave it a 4.5 out of 5 in graphics, sound, and funfactor, and a 3.5 in control, concluding, "Dark Earth doesn't push any envelopes - in fact, it doesn't even overcome the common pitfalls of its genre - but the engaging plot proves well worth the effort." Next Generation similarly commented that Dark Earth was one of the better adventure games on the market, but that it retained the usual limitations of the genre.

References

External links

1997 video games
Action-adventure games
Cancelled PlayStation 2 games
MicroProse games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Single-player video games
Video games developed in France
Video games scored by Frédéric Motte
Windows games
Windows-only games
Kalisto Entertainment games

Dark Earth


Stephen Jaffe (born December 30, 1954, in Washington, D.C.) is an American composer of contemporary classical music. He lives in Durham, North Carolina, United States, and serves on the music faculty of Duke University, where he holds the post of Mary and James H. Semans Professor of Music Composition; his colleagues there include composers Scott Lindroth, John Supko, and Anthony Kelley. Jaffe graduated summa cum laude from the University of Pennsylvania in 1977; he received a master's degree the following year from the same institution. During his time in Pennsylvania, he studied with George Crumb, George Rochberg, and Richard Wernick.

Jaffe's music has been performed across the United States, Europe, and China (including the Nottingham, Tanglewood, and Oregon Bach Festivals) by ensembles including the National Symphony Orchestra, the R.A.I. of Rome, the North Carolina Symphony, the San Francisco Symphony, the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra, the Miami String Quartet, and the Ciompi Quartet. He has received awards and commissions, and recordings of his works are available, including a three-volume retrospective of his work The Music of Stephen Jaffe from Bridge Records.

Jaffe's notable students include Jeremy Beck, Dorothy Hindman, Penka Kouneva, Caroline Mallonée, Carl Schimmel, Amy Scurria, and Nathaniel Stookey.

Awards and recognition
 Koussevitsky International Recording Award (KIRA) from the Musicians Club of New York (November 2006) – for Concerto for Violin and Orchestra
 Composer of the Year from the Classical Recording Society (November 2005)
 Aaron Copland Foundation for Music (2002) – for Concerto for Violin and Orchestra and Chamber Concerto ("Singing Figures")
 Howard Foundation Fellowship from Brown University (1996)
 American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters Lifetime Achievement Prize (May 1993)
 Best Newly Published Music Citation from the National Flute Association (1991) – for Three Figures and a Ground
 Kennedy Center Friedheim Award (May 1991) – for First Quartet, recorded by the Ciompi Quartet
 Brandeis University Creative Arts Citation (May 1989)
 Guggenheim Fellowship (May 1984)
 Composer Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts (1981)
 Rome Prize administered by the American Academy in Rome (1980)
 Joseph H. Bearns Prize for Four Nocturnes (1976)
 Student Composer Award from BMI (1975) – for the symphony Three Lives
 Premier Medaille d'harmonie from the Conservatoire de Musique in Geneva (May 1972)

Major works
 Poetry of the Piedmont (2006) for orchestra – commissioned by North Carolina Symphony
 String Quartet No. 2 (Sylvan and Aeolian Figures) (2005) – written for the Miami String Quartet, commissioned by the Philadelphia Chamber Music Society
 Concerto for Violoncello and Orchestra (2004) – premiered by the National Symphony Orchestra under Leonard Slatkin, with soloist David Hardy
 Designs (2002) for flute, guitar and percussion – premiered at the National Arts Center of Taiwan, 2002
 Homage to the Breath: Instrumental and Vocal Meditations for Mezzo-soprano and Ten Instruments (2001) – featuring a text by Thich Nhat Hanh, premiered at the Hirshhorn Museum of Art in Washington, DC
 Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (2000) – premiered by soloist Nicholas Kitchen with the Greensboro Symphony Orchestra
 Songs of Turning (1996) for chorus and orchestra
 Chamber Concerto ("Singing Figures") (1996) for solo oboe and chamber ensemble – recorded by Speculum Musicae
 The Reassurance (1995) – contribution to the AIDS Quilt Songbook
 First Quartet (1991) – commissioned and premiered by the Ciompi Quartet
 Three Figures and a Ground (1989) for flute and piano
 Rhythm of the Running Plough (1985)

References

 "Language of Music Is in His Composition" by Thomas May for The Washington Post
 "Composer's life a classic tale of following one's star" by Vicki Hyman for News Observer website
 Profile on the Kennedy Center site
 Profile (containing Jaffe's residency statement) at the Atlantic Center for the Arts

External links
 Jaffe's faculty page on Duke University's website
 Profile on Duke University's website
Stephen Jaffe's page at Theodore Presser Company
 Stephen Jaffe profile at Bridge Records Management
 2009 Concert series at The Walden School with Jaffe as moderator and composer-in-residence
 American Works for String Quartet: Copland/Ward/Jaffe Program notes at DRAM website

Living people
American male classical composers
American classical composers
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Duke University faculty
1954 births
Musicians from Washington, D.C.
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Pupils of George Crumb
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

Stephen Jaffe


A geoglyph is a large-scale man-made feature on the ground. Usually longer than 4 metres, it is made by placing rocks, stones, live trees, gravel, or earth.

A positive geoglyph is formed by the arrangement and alignment of materials on the ground, while a negative geoglyph is formed by removing material to expose bare ground.

Archaeology
Art

Geoglyph


Flux is a term in physics and mathematics. It is broadly defined as "How much stuff goes through a thing" (or into an area). The word "flux" is similar to "flow".

For instance, imagine a butterfly net. The amount of air passing through the net is the flux.

Movement of substances
In the study of transport phenomena (heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid dynamics), flux is defined as flow per unit area, where flow is the movement of some quantity per time. Flux, in this definition, is a vector.

There are many fluxes used in the study of transport phenomena. Each type of flux has its own distinct unit of measurement along with distinct physical constants. Six of the most common forms of flux from the transport literature are defined as:
Momentum flux, the rate of transfer of momentum across a unit area (N·s·m−2·s−1). (Newtonian fluid, viscous flow)
Heat flux, the rate of heat flow across a unit area (J·m−2·s−1). (Fourier's Law) (This definition of heat flux fits Maxwell's original definition.)
Chemical flux, the rate of movement of molecules across a unit area (mol·m−2·s−1). (Fick's law of diffusion)
Volumetric flux, the rate of volume flow across a unit area (m3·m−2·s−1). (Darcy's law)
Mass flux, the rate of mass flow across a unit area (kg·m−2·s−1). (Either an alternate form of Fick's law that includes the molecular mass, or an alternate form of Darcy's law that includes the density).
Radiative flux, the amount of energy moving in the form of photons at a certain distance from the source per steradian per second (J·m−2·s−1). Used in astronomy to study and classify stars.  Also acts as a generalization of heat flux, which is equal to the radiative flux when restricted to the infrared spectrum.
Magnetic flux, the density of a magnetic field.

Electromagnetism

In the field of electromagnetism, flux is usually the integral of a vector quantity over a finite surface. The result of this integration is a scalar quantity. The magnetic flux is thus the integral of the magnetic vector field over a surface, and the electric flux is defined similarly. Using this definition, the flux of the Poynting vector over a specified surface is the rate at which electromagnetic energy flows through that surface. Confusingly, the Poynting vector is sometimes called the power flux,  which is an example of the first usage of flux, above. It has units of watts per square metre (W/m2).

Related pages
Fluid dynamics

References

Further reading

Physical quantity
Mathematics

Flux


Brian Ash (born September 29, 1974 in Bronx, New York)  is an American producer and screenwriter.

Brian Ash is a writer and co-executive producer of Black Dynamite: The Animated Series on Adult Swim and the author of the graphic novel, Black Dynamite: Slave Island.

Previously, Ash was a writer and producer of Adult Swim's Peabody Award-winning The Boondocks, FX's Chozen and a creative consultant on Freaknik: The Musical. His other TV writing credits include The Jellies!, Lazor Wulf, Jamie Foxx's In the Flow and Playhouse Disney's Imagination Movers. Brian also wrote and produced animated segments for season two of Lewis Black's Root of All Evil on Comedy Central and was a writer, producer and director of the web sketch comedy series, The Super Rumble Mix Show.

In features, Ash was a writer and co-producer on Universal Pictures' and Roc-A-Fella Films' Paper Soldiers (the first feature film to star Kevin Hart) and has developed and written screenplays for Lion's Gate Films.

With a background in music videos and New York independent film, Ash landed his first production deal with the late George Jackson's UBO Network. There, he created IndiePlanet, an animated online series later syndicated by Sci-Fi Network.

In 2005, he wrote, produced and directed See Paris Die! an animated campaign for the Paris Hilton Warner Bros. film, House of Wax. In 2001, Ash received World Animation Celebration's Best Animated Drama award for The Road to Graceland, a trilogy of animated prequels to the Warner Bros. release, 3000 Miles to Graceland. Starring Kevin Costner and Christian Slater, the project marked the first time a major film's cast created original content for the internet.

Bronx raised and Yeshiva educated, Brian Ash is an alumnus of NYU's Tisch School of the Arts Film & TV program.

External links

 AlefBlessed Trading Cards
 The Super Rumble Mix Show on youtube
 The Boondocks Official Site
 The Playpen on myspace.com
 The Road to Graceland: Animated Prequels to 3KMTG
 See Paris Die! Animation
 Black Dynamite: Slave Island press release

1974 births
Living people
American male screenwriters
Jewish American screenwriters
Writers from the Bronx
Screenwriters from New York City
Tisch School of the Arts alumni

Brian Ash


Sierra Entertainment was an American video game developer/publisher founded in the late 1970s by Ken and Roberta Williams.

Games
The company is known for making the graphic adventure game genre, including the first game, Mystery House. It is also known for its adventure game series King's Quest, Space Quest, Police Quest, Gabriel Knight, Leisure Suit Larry, and Quest for Glory, as well as being the original publishers of Half-Life.

Affiliation
After 17 years as a lone company, Sierra was bought by CUC International in February 1996 to become part of CUC Software. However, CUC International was caught in an scandal in 1998. Therefore many of the original founders of Sierra including the Williamses left the company. Sierra remained as part of CUC Software as it was sold and renamed several times over the next few years; Sierra was dissolved as a company and reformed as a division of this group in 2004. The former CUC Software group was acquired by Vivendi and branded as Vivendi Games in 2006. The Sierra division continued to operate through Vivendi Games' merger with Activision to form Activision Blizzard in 2008. However, it was shut down later. The Sierra brand was revived by Activision in 2014 to re-release former Sierra games and some independently developed games.

History

Founding (1979 - 1982)
Sierra Entertainment was founded in 1979 as On-Line Systems in Simi Valley, California, by Ken and Roberta Williams. Ken, a programmer for IBM, had planned to use the company to create business software for the TRS-80 and Apple II. Ken had brought a teletype terminal home one day in 1979, and while looking through the host system's catalog of programs, discovered the text adventure Colossal Cave Adventure. He encouraged Roberta to join him in playing it, and she was thrilled by the game; after Ken had brought an Apple II to their home, she played through other text adventures such as those by Scott Adams and Softape to study them.  Dissatisfied with the text-only format, she realized that the graphics display capability of the Apple II could improve the adventure gaming experience. With Ken's help in some of the programming, Roberta designed Mystery House, inspired by the novel And Then There Were None and the board game Clue, using text commands and printout combined with graphics depicting the current setting.

On-Line Systems leased their first office space from Ponderosa Printing, a modest space in the back of a small town print shop.

Mystery House
Mystery House was released in 1980. It was a great success with 15,000 copies sold, earning 167,000 American dollars (equivalent to 525,539 American dollars in 2020). It is the first computer adventure game to have graphics, although made with crude, static, monochrome line drawings. The two decided to shift the company's focus to developing more graphical adventure games. Mystery House became the first of their Hi-Res Adventure series. The Hi-Res Adventure series continued with Mission Asteroid, which was released as Hi-Res Adventure #0 though being the second release. The next release, Wizard and the Princess, also known as Adventure in Serenia, is considered a prelude to the later King's Quest series in both story and concept. Through 1981 and 1982, more games were released in the series including Cranston Manor, Ulysses and the Golden Fleece, Time Zone, and The Dark Crystal. A simplified version of The Dark Crystal, intended for a younger audience, was written by Al Lowe and released as Gelfling Adventure.

Rebranding (1982 - 1988)
On-Line Systems was renamed Sierra On-Line in 1982, and they moved to Oakhurst, California. The "Sierra" name was taken from the Sierra Nevada mountain range that Oakhurst was near, and its new logo had the image of a mountain reflecting that. By early 1984 InfoWorld estimated that Sierra was the world's 12th-largest microcomputer-software company, with $12.5 million in 1983 sales.

The company weathered the video game crash of 1983 by seeing only a 20% increase in sales, after analysts in 1982 had predicted a doubling in 1983 of the entire software market. The company had spent much of 1983 developing for a Commodore machine and the TI-99/4A which were both obsolete by the end of the year. Ken Williams was reportedly described as "bewildered by the pace at which computers come into and fall out of favor", and Williams said, "I've learned my lesson. I'm not moving until I understand the market better."

Many of Sierra's most well known series began in the 1980s. In 1983, Sierra On-Line was contacted by IBM to create a game for the new PCjr. IBM offered to fund the entire development and marketing of the game, paying royalties. Ken and Roberta Williams accepted and started on the project. Roberta Williams created a story featuring classic fairy-tale elements. Her game concept includes animated color graphics, a pseudo 3D-perspective where the main character is visible on the screen, a more competent text parser that understands advanced commands from the player, and music playing in the background through the PCjr sound hardware. For the game, a complete development system called Adventure Game Interpreter (AGI) was developed. In mid-1984, King's Quest: Quest for the Crown was released to much acclaim, beginning the King's Quest series.

Sierra On-Line expanded into a larger headquarters in the early-1980s.

While working to finish The Black Cauldron, programmers Mark Crowe and Scott Murphy began to plan for an adventure game of their own. After a simple demonstration to Ken Williams, he allowed them to start working on the full game, which was named Space Quest: The Sarien Encounter. The game was released in October 1986 as an instant success, spawning many sequels in the Space Quest series in the following years.

Al Lowe, who had been working at Sierra On-Line for many years, was asked by Ken Williams to write a modern version of Chuck Benton's Softporn Adventure from 1981, the only pure text adventure that the company had ever released. Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards was a great hit and won the Software Publishers Association's Best Adventure Game award of 1987. It can be deduced that the game first became famous as an early example of software piracy, as Sierra sold many more hintbooks than actual copies of the game. A series of Leisure Suit Larry games followed.

Ken Williams befriended a retired highway patrol officer named Jim Walls and asked him to produce an adventure series based on a police theme. Walls proceeded to create Police Quest: In Pursuit of the Death Angel, which was released in 1987. Several sequels followed, and the series was touted for adherence to police protocol (relevant parts of which were explained in the games' manuals), and presenting some real-life situations encountered by Walls during his career as an officer.

Quest for Glory is a series of hybrid adventure/role-playing video games designed by Corey and Lori Ann Cole. The first game in the series, Quest for Glory: So You Want to Be a Hero, was released in 1989. The series combines humor, puzzle elements, themes and characters borrowed from various legends, puns, and memorable characters, creating a five-part series of the Sierra stable. Although the series was originally titled Hero's Quest, Sierra failed to trademark the name. Milton Bradley successfully trademarked an electronic version of their unrelated joint Games Workshop board game, HeroQuest, which forced Sierra to change the series' title to Quest for Glory. This decision caused all future games in the series (as well as newer releases of Hero's Quest I) to switch over to the new name.

In 1987, Sierra On-Line started to publish its own gaming magazine, about its upcoming games and interviews with the developers. The magazine was initially named The Sierra Newsletter, The Sierra News Magazine, and The Sierra/Dynamix Newsmagazine. However, since Sierra Club already published a magazine called Sierra Magazine, the name of the magazine published by Sierra On-Line was changed to InterAction in 1991. It was discontinued in 1999.

Sierra's Adventure Game Interpreter engine, introduced with King's Quest, was replaced in 1988 with Sierra's Creative Interpreter in King's Quest IV. The game was released under both engines, so those who had newer computers could use the new engine and better rendering technology.

Subsidiaries

Development

 Books That Work; acquired in April 1997, folded into Sierra in February 1999.
 Bright Star Technology in Bellevue, Washington, U.S.; founded in 1980 and acquired in 1992.
 Berkeley Systems, purchased by CUC International in April 1997 and integrated into Sierra as an internal studio.
 Coktel Vision in Paris, France; founded in 1984, acquired in October 1993.
 Arion Software, acquired in 1995, absorbed into Sierra On-Line.[citation needed]
 The Pixellite Group, founded in 1983; acquired in May 1995, absorbed into Sierra On-Line.[citation needed]
 SubLogic, based in Champaign, Illinois; acquired in 1995; absorbed into Impressions Games.[citation needed]
 Dynamix in Eugene, Oregon; founded in 1984, acquired in August 1990, and shut down in August 2001.
 Green Thumb Software in Boulder, Colorado, U.S.; acquired and absorbed in July 1995.
 Headgate Studios in Bountiful, Utah, U.S.; founded in 1992, acquired in April 1996, and sold to the original owner in 1999.
 Impressions Games in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.; founded in 1989, acquired in 1995, and closed in May 2004.
 Synergistic Software; founded in 1978, acquired in 1996, and folded into Sierra in February 1999.
 Papyrus Design Group in Watertown, Massachusetts, U.S.; founded in 1987, acquired in 1995, and closed in May 2004.
 PyroTechnix; founded as Computer Presentation, acquired December 1997, and folded into Sierra in February 1999.
 Yosemite Entertainment in Oakhurst, California, U.S.; formed in 1998, and folded into Sierra in February 1999.

Publishing

 Sierra Attractions; 1998–2001
 Sierra FX; 1998
 Sierra Home; 1996–2004
 Sierra Sports; February 1998–2000
 Sierra Studios; 1998–2001

American video game companies

Sierra Entertainment


Bay Meadows was a horse racing track in San Mateo, California from 1934 until 2008, in the San Francisco Bay Area in the United States.

History

Built on the site of an old airfield, Bay Meadows Racecourse was the longest continually operating thoroughbred racetrack in California—having been founded on November 13, 1934—until its closure on August 17, 2008. The innovative William P. Kyne introduced pari-mutuel wagering, the popular Daily Double, the first all-enclosed starting gate, the totalizator board and the photo-finish camera at Bay Meadows.

Prior to the track's closure, the Bay Meadows Handicap had been the longest continually run stakes event in California, having been started in 1934.  Seabiscuit won this race twice: 1937 and 1938.  The track was allowed to remain open during World War II because of its agreement to give 92% of its profits towards the war effort.  The track generated more than $4 million for War Relief projects during the war years.  Its ability to run during the war accounts for its status as the longest continually operating US racetrack.  In 1945, the first racehorse to be transported by plane, El Lobo, was set down in the parking lot.

In 1948, the eventual Hall of Fame jockey, Bill Shoemaker, began his career by exercising horses on this track.  He won his first stakes race here in 1949.

In 1950 and 1951 the Bay Meadows 150 AAA Indy Car race was run at the track.

In 1954, 1955 and 1956 the track was used for NASCAR.  In the 1955 event, Elias Bowie became the first African-American to start a top-level NASCAR race.

All of the exterior scenes in Stanley Kubrick's 1956 heist movie The Killing were filmed at Bay Meadows. The track was renamed as Lansdowne for the movie but the Bay Meadows name is visible in at least one early scene.

Bay Meadows' racing season began in August with the San Mateo County Fair portion of the meet, which ran two weeks. This was followed by a short break of a few days and until recently, this break avoided conflict with the first week-and-a-half of the California State Fair horse race meet. Racing picked up again on Labor Day Weekend (or thereabouts) with the main thoroughbred meet, which was split into two parts—one in the fall, the other in the spring/early summer (Golden Gate Fields' meet took place in the interim in the winter/early spring).

Throughout its history, Bay Meadows has also hosted harness and quarter horse racing meets but due to the low revenue such events generate, they were not run in the final years of the track. At the end, Bay Meadows focused exclusively on thoroughbred racing. Olden Times, Silky Sullivan, Citation, John Henry, Round Table and Lost in the Fog have raced here. In 1954, Determine won the Bay Meadows Derby then went to take the Kentucky Derby. Wild Again ran at Bay Meadows in 1984 and went on to win the Breeders' Cup Classic. On December 1, 2006, jockey Russell Baze won the fourth race to pass Laffit Pincay, Jr. as the winningest rider ever in thoroughbred horse racing.

There was talk through the 2000s of demolishing Bay Meadows due to plans to build an entirely new racetrack near Dixon, California to replace the San Mateo race track so Bay Meadows remained open on a year-by-year case basis. The Bay Meadows Phase II Specific Plan Amendment was adopted by the city council of the city of San Mateo on November 7, 2005. The plan called for  of office space, 1,250 residential units,  of retail space, and  of public parks, as well as a rebuilt Hillsdale Caltrain station near the site of the old Bay Meadows Caltrain station.

Physical attributes
Bay Meadows had a  dirt oval and a seven furlong [] turf oval. The track had a total seating capacity of 12,000 and had stabling for 900 horses on site.

Closure
After the track failed to acquire a two-year extension of the deadline to replace its dirt oval with an artificial surface for the safety of the horses from the California Horse Racing Board, it was announced that Bay Meadows intended to close November 4, 2006 immediately following its summer-fall season.

On July 3, 2007, the California Horse Racing Board unanimously voted to approve a one-year exemption for Bay Meadows to continue horse racing in 2008 on its current racing surface. Bay Meadows was open to race for its last Spring Meet, February 6, 2008, to May 11, 2008. From May 14 to August 4, simulcasting occurred in Bay Meadows every open day, with free parking on August 4, free admission on August 11, and  both on August 18. There were ten final race dates run in August 2008 for the San Mateo County Fair, with the last official race occurring on August 17, 2008. The last day Bay Meadows was open for simulcasting was on August 18, 2008.

An auction for Bay Meadows paintings occurred from August 23 to August 25.

Construction began on a housing and commercial development in September 2008. Criticism from local newspapers and community groups came when, after the demolition of the grandstand and clubhouse, debris waiting to be recycled was left in "unsightly" piles on the site for several months.

Racing
Bay Meadows had the following graded stakes events:

Grade 3 Bay Meadows Breeders' Cup Handicap
Grade 3 Bay Meadows Derby
Grade 3 California Juvenile Stakes
Grade 3 El Camino Real Derby
Grade 3 Seabiscuit Handicap (Bay Meadows)

And the following important ungraded events.

Bay Meadows Breeders' Cup Sprint Handicap
California Oaks, called Bay Meadows Oaks

See also
 Bay Meadows II (Neighborhood)

References

External links

Bay Meadows construction site

Defunct horse racing venues in California
Sports venues in San Mateo County, California
History of San Mateo County, California
Entertainment companies established in 1934
1934 establishments in California
2008 disestablishments in California
Defunct companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Sports venues in the San Francisco Bay Area
Motorsport venues in California
Defunct motorsport venues in the United States
Demolished sports venues in California

Bay Meadows Racetrack


Smiley is a 2012 American slasher film directed by Michael Gallagher and made by Level 10 Films. The film stars Caitlin Gerard, Melanie Papalia, Keith David, Shane Dawson, Andrew James Allen, Toby Turner, and Liza Weil. The film was released on October 12, 2012, to largely negative reviews.

Plot
The plot revolves around the titular Smiley killer, the subject of an Internet myth. Supposedly, if a person on a Chatroulette-style website types the phrase "I did it for the lulz" three times, their chat partner will be murdered by a killer called Smiley (so named because he mutilated his own face by stitching his own eyes shut and carved his mouth into a smile) before they themselves are killed.

A college student named Ashley (Gerard) becomes roommates with Proxy (Papalia). Ashley decides to go to a party where she meets Zane (Allen), Mark (Turner) and Binder (Dawson), who is mocked by his classmates for having reported a case of pedophilia, earning him the nickname Pedobear.

One night Ashley and Proxy test out the Smiley myth with a random person online. After typing "I did it for the lulz" three times, to their horror, the stranger is murdered. Proxy convinces Ashley to stay silent. However, Ashley begins experiencing guilt over the stranger's death. She also begins to believe that Smiley is stalking her and intends to kill her; her friends and a psychiatrist write this off as anxious hallucinations and nightmares. Ashley eventually goes to the police; there she tries to convince them, to no avail, to investigate the murders caused by Smiley. The police dismiss her, implying that she is going crazy and quite possibly on the receiving end of a large, elaborate prank.

When Proxy loses contact with Zane, she video chats Ashley in hysterics. Ashley goes to his house to check on him, only to find him shot dead with a handgun he purchased for self-defense. Instead of calling the police, Ashley picks up the gun and orders Proxy to type "I did it for the lulz" three times, hoping to ambush and kill Smiley. However, she accidentally shoots Binder, who had been coming over to check on her. Moments later, Smiley appears and slits Binder's throat. Ashley is then attacked by multiple Smileys, finally throwing herself out a window to her presumed death to escape them.

It is then revealed that Ashley's classmates, including Proxy, Binder, and the babysitter murdered in the opening, are all part of a fringe group of Anonymous. They created the Smiley myth as a large-scale prank, although they are satisfied with Ashley's death. Binder states that Smiley will likely live on long after them and inspire copycat killings.

Later, Proxy is video-chatting with Zane, questioning their morality. Zane dismisses her worries and types "I did it for the lulz" three times as a joke. However, a real Smiley appears behind Proxy, kills her, and then waves at Zane via webcam as he watches on in pure horror.

In a post-credits scene, Ashley unexpectedly wakes up and gasps loudly, revealing that she survived her fall.

Cast
 Caitlin Gerard as Ashley
 Melanie Papalia as Proxy
 Shane Dawson as Binder
 Andrew James Allen as Zane
 Liza Weil as Dr. Jenkins
 Toby Turner as Mark
 Roger Bart as Professor Clayton
 Keith David as Diamond
 Patrick O'Sullivan as Cooper
 Nikki Limo as Stacy
 Jason Horton as Flasher
 Bree Essrig as Kim
 Darrien Skylar as Mary
 Michael Traynor as Smiley

Production and release

Gallagher began working on Smiley after performing in some episodes of the Totally Sketch series on YouTube. As he was producing the film himself, Smiley had a small budget and Gallagher was active in various different parts of the film such as advertising and seeking MPAA approval. Gallagher initially debated using stockings with a smiley face painted on it as Smiley's mask, but discarded the idea because it "just wasn't scary enough". He chose to go with the final mask after imagining a "guy who stitched an emoticon into his own face and thought, 'Wow, that's really creepy. Theatrical rights for the film were purchased by AMC Theatres who gave the film a limited screening on their independent platform on October 12, 2012.

The film played in select AMC theaters throughout the United States, with fans able to request to host screenings of Smiley in their cities via Tugg.

Reaction from 4chan and Anonymous
Prior to the film's official theatrical release, Gallagher and his family began receiving threats from people alleging to be from 4chan and Anonymous. Personal information for Gallagher, his family, and anyone that had worked on Smiley was posted online with the recommendation that people use it to harass them. In an interview with Fearnet, Gallagher stated that the site had posted the information as part of "Operation Fuck Smiley" and that "Their goal was to spoil the end of the movie, post pornography and gore on any website that talks about it, rate the movie really low... it was this horrible vendetta, like they wanted to destroy it because we talked about 4chan in the movie." The validity of these claims were questioned by Cole Strycker, author of Epic Win for Anonymous, who expressed suspicion that Gallagher was trying to use the death threats as a publicity stunt to promote the film. In response, Gallagher asserted that the death threats were real and were not being used as a publicity stunt.

Reception

The film received largely negative reviews and holds an 18% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on an average rating of 3.5/10 based on 22 reviews; several reviews called the film a "rip off" of Scream and Candyman. Criticism centered on claims of the film being "dull" or "generic", with additional criticisms over the acting performances and lack of originality. Smiley also received negative reviews from The A.V. Club and The New York Times.

Bloody Disgusting panned the film, stating that the writers "took a strong, modern idea, over-thought it and turned it into a generic '90s movie that'll have you throwing popcorn at the screen". Variety called the film "uninspired", saying that "the mayhem here is neither especially gory nor suspenseful". Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times gave a more positive review, calling the film a "more or less satisfying low-key creeper". Olsen praised Gerard, Weil, David, and Bart's performances, but called the story-telling "repetitive".

References

External links

2012 films
2012 horror films
2012 independent films
2010s psychological horror films
2010s serial killer films
2010s slasher films
2010s teen horror films
American independent films
American psychological horror films
American slasher films
American teen horror films
Films shot in California
Films based on urban legends
Films about the Internet
Films about social media
Supernatural slasher films
2010s English-language films
Films directed by Michael J. Gallagher
2010s American films

Smiley (2012 film)


Works of bamboo painting, usually in ink, are a recognized genre of East Asian painting. In a work of bamboo painting in ink, a skilled artist and calligrapher will paint a bamboo stalk or group of stalks with leaves. The contrast between the foreground and background, and between the varying textures represented by the stalks and the leaves, gave scope to the painter to demonstrate his or her mastery with an inkpot and a brush.

The bamboo painter often inscribes a poem that accompanies the painting and further elucidates the motif. The poem is often an integral part of the work as a whole. A viewer of the work can compare the calligraphy of the poem with the calligraphy of the painting, as both are typically inscribed with the same brush and reflect a similar mood and state of awareness.

A standard primer on classical East Asian bamboo painting is Hu Zhengyan's "Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy" (1633), with woodblock print illustrations.  Because of the volume of bamboo works painted over time, the production of a work of ink bamboo became one of the standard subjects to which an East Asian student could be set in a competitive examination.

Like bamboo painting, bambooworking is found across East Asia as bamboo is regarded as culturally significant.

Appreciation

From the days of their common origin, Chinese painting and Chinese writing have been allied arts. They use the same equipment and share aims, techniques, and standards. Ever since the beginning, bamboo has been written and also been painted in the same manner, in other words, a work depicting bamboo is both a painting and a piece of calligraphy. There are so-called "bamboo painters" who all their lives paint only bamboo.  The bamboo is strong, upright, and dependable. He may bend with the wind, the storm and the rain, but he never breaks. He is a true gentleman of courage and endurance (Ju 1989).

The bamboo plant came under close observation by many East Asians because of its persistence and vegetative productivity. The plant was especially appreciated by men and women educated in the tradition of Confucius. It came to be seen as an exemplar of moral force, and appreciating the bamboo was seen as an act of self-cultivation. It was said of the ink bamboo painter Wen Tong that "there are whole bamboos in his heart" (胸有成竹).

Bamboo is not exclusive to the Four Noble Kind group. It also belongs to a distinct group where it openly fraternizes with pine trees and plum blossoms. Collectively, they are called the Three Friends of Winter because bamboo and pine do not wither on winter days and the plum blossoms starts blooming during the cold season.

Bamboo also exhibits a certain visual appeal on educated people because its silhouette cast by either the sun or moon on the paper windows of a Chinese house produced a poetic effect. Its straight stalk was the symbol of the sage, in that adversity could always bend it but it could never break it. The inner region of the bamboo stalk symbolizes the void that must be established in one's mind before thinking of useful ideas. To put it in simpler terms, one should always have clarity of mind when dealing with things to avoid chaos and to achieve desired results.

On the technical area, one needed to be an expert with the brush in order to execute perfectly cylindrical, smooth and hard internodes, and thin, translucid, nervous leaves placed in various perspectives. One should also have a keen talent in identifying where to place dark tones and light tones in the painting.

These characteristics are enough to validate that bamboo is a complete subject because it portrays lasting values one needed to get on with life and it commands a truly talented painter to create varying tones that never repeat.

Bamboo Art

See also
 Guan Daosheng
 Gu An
 Ke Jiusi
 Xia Chang
 Wang Fu
 Kitagawa Utamaro

References

Buhot, Jean, "Chinese and Japanese Art"

Ju, I-Hsiung. The Book of Bamboo. Art Farm Gallery. 1989

Bamboo
Chinese iconography
Chinese painting
Still life paintings

Bamboo painting


The Second Battle of Mohács, also known as the Battle of Harsány Mountain, was fought on 12 August 1687 between the forces of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed IV, commanded by the Grand-Vizier Sari Süleyman Paşa, and the forces of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, commanded by Charles of Lorraine. The result was a decisive victory for the Austrians.

Background
The Great Turkish War began in July 1683 with an attack on Vienna by the Ottoman army. The siege was broken by the Battle of Vienna on 12 September, won by the combined forces of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nations and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, under the overall command of the King of Poland, John III Sobieski, who led the Polish forces. From September the initiative passed to the Imperial troops. In the following years the Imperial Habsburg armies under Charles of Lorraine drove the Ottomans back, conquering many fortresses (such as Esztergom, Vác, Pest). After the Battle of Buda they laid siege to and took over the former Hungarian capital of Buda. At the end of 1686 the Ottomans made peace overtures; however, the Imperial Habsburgs saw a chance to conquer the whole of Hungary and the overtures were rejected.

In April 1687 it was decided in Vienna that further military action should be taken. The main army (of about 40,000 troops) under the command of Duke Charles of Lorraine proceeded along the River Danube to Osijek on the River Drava, while another army of about 20,000 men under the command of Elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria moved along the River Tisza to Szolnok and towards Petrovaradin. In the middle of July the two imperial armies met on the Danube and either marched overland or along the Drava to Osijek.

In contrast, the Ottoman army (of about 60,000 men), under the command of the Grand Vizier Sari Süleyman Paşa, stayed in front of the main River Drava crossing (with its 8 km-long wooden bridge) at Osijek in order to protect it, and then fortified this position. When the Imperial Habsburg army arrived, the River Drava divided the two sides. At the end of July the Imperial Habsburg army was able to make a bridgehead on the shores of the river and stood in battle array, to challenge the Ottomans. However, the Ottoman army remained passive and was satisfied with artillery bombardments of the weirs on the Drava, the bridges and the riverside.

As the Duke of Lorraine realized he was not able to attack the fortified Ottoman camp, he decided to leave the bridgehead after a few days. For this he was criticized both by his own sub-commanders and by the Emperor Leopold I. The move was interpreted by the Ottoman Grand Vizier as a sign of a loss of morale by the Habsburg troops, so he decided to follow them. In early August, the Osman army drove the Habsburg army back toward Mohács and an Ottoman fortified position. The Ottomans had also built a fortified position at Darda, hidden among the thick bushes so that it was not visible to the Habsburg army. For this reason Duke Charles of Lorraine did not suspect the presence of the Ottoman army in the vicinity.

Battle

On the morning of 12 August the Duke of Lorraine decided to move to Siklós, because the position and the hard ground there made it more appropriate as a battleground. The Habsburg right wing moving westward began to march through a densely forested area. Sari Süleyman Paşa decided that this was just the chance he was waiting for. He ordered an attack with his entire army on the Imperial army's left wing, which under Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria was still in its earlier position, and which according to the Habsburg battle plan was also to start marching west. The Ottoman army caught the Imperial army near Nagyharsány and the nearby Nagyharsány Hill, with its heavily wooded steep slopes. Their cavalry, consisting of 8,000 Sipahis, tried to outflank this Habsburg army wing from the left. The commander of the wing, the Elector of Bavaria, immediately sent a courier to the Duke of Lorraine, informing him that this wing was under threat. Orders were given and sent quickly and positions were taken immediately to resist the attack of the superior Ottoman forces, which had twice the number as the Imperial forces. The Habsburg infantry held their position, and Gen. Enea Silvio Piccolomini with some of his cavalry regiments successfully counterattacked and stopped the advance of the Ottoman Sipahi cavalry.

The Ottoman Grand Vizier was surprised by this unexpectedly fierce resistance and ordered the cessation of the Ottoman attack. The Ottoman artillery continued to shell the Habsburg positions, but the infantry and cavalry troops were ordered to hold their positions and  the infantry to go defensive behind the fortifications. This relative lull in fighting gave the right wing of the Habsburg army enough time to return to its original position. The Duke of Lorraine initially thought that his army should defend the positions, which might have led to a relative standstill. However, to gain the initiative, the Elector of Bavaria and the Margrave Louis of Baden-Baden persuaded him to order a large-scale counterattack. The deployment of the Habsburg army for this counterattack was finished at 3:00 pm. At that same time Sari Süleyman Paşa decided to attack again alongside Mustafa Pasha of Rodosto, the commander of the Janissary. Again, Sipahis supported the Janissary infantry frontal attack by attempting to outflank the Habsburg army. The Margrave of Baden-Baden successfully resisted the attack with his infantry squadrons and then went on to attack the still unfinished Ottoman defensive position. At the forefront of this Imperial penetrative attack on the Ottoman fortifications were troops under the command of the generals Rabutin and Eugene of Savoy. The Ottoman attack and then resistance collapsed and Ottoman army retreated in a wild flight. The battle became a crushing defeat for the Ottomans.

Throughout the battle only the left wing of the Habsburg army saw the main action. There was a dense forest in front of the army's right wing that prevented it from attacking. Despite this, it attempted a bypassing maneuver on the right to force the relocation and withdrawal of the Ottomans, but its columns lost their way in the forest.

The losses of the Habsburg army were very light, about 600 men. The Ottoman army suffered huge losses, with an estimated 10,000 dead, as well as the loss of most of its artillery (about 66 guns) and much of its support equipment. The splendid command tent of the Grand Vizier and 160 Ottoman flags fell into Imperial hands. It is reported that the value of the share of the bounty that was given to the Elector of Bavaria surpassed two million golden ducats.

Aftermath
After the battle, the Ottoman Empire fell into deep crisis. There was a mutiny among the troops. Commander Sari Suleyman Pasa became frightened that he would be killed by his own troops and fled from his command, first to Belgrade and then to Constantinople. When the news of the defeat and the mutiny arrived in Constantinople in early September, Abaza Siyavuş Pasha was appointed as the commander and as the Grand Vizier. However, before he could take over his command, the whole Ottoman army had disintegrated and the Ottoman household troops (Janissaries and Sipahis) started to return to their base in Constantinople under their own lower-rank officers. Even the Grand Vizier's regent in Constantinople was frightened and hid. Sari Suleyman Pasa was executed. Sultan Mehmed IV appointed the commander of Bosphorus Straits Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha as the Grand Vizier's regent in Constantinople. He consulted with the leaders of the army that existed and other leading Ottoman statesmen. After these, on 8 November it was decided to depose Sultan Mehmed IV and to enthrone Suleiman II as the new Sultan.

The disintegration of the Ottoman army allowed Imperial Habsburg armies to conquer large areas. They took over Osijek, Petrovaradin, Sremski Karlovci, Ilok, Valpovo, Požega, Palota and Eger. Most of present-day Slavonia and Transylvania came under Imperial rule. On 9 December there was organised a Diet of Pressburg (today Bratislava, Slovakia), and Archduke Joseph was crowned as the first hereditary king of Hungary, and descendant Habsburg emperors were declared the anointed kings of Hungary. For a year the Ottoman Empire was paralysed, and Imperial Habsburg forces were poised to capture Belgrade and penetrate deep into the Balkans.

Notes

References

Dupuy, Ernest R. and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, 4th Ed., HarperCollins Publishers, 1993,  .
Laffin, John, Brassey's Dictionary of Battles, Barnes & Noble Inc., 1998  .
Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks 1977 pp. 350–351

Conflicts in 1687
1687 in the Habsburg monarchy
17th century in Hungary
1687 in the Ottoman Empire
Battles of the Great Turkish War
Battles involving the Ottoman Empire
Battles involving Austria
Battles involving Habsburg Croatia
17th-century military history of Croatia
Battles involving Serbia

Battle of Mohács (1687)


James "Jem" Broadbridge (1795–1843) was an English professional cricketer who is widely considered the outstanding all-rounder in England during the 1820s.  He played mainly for Sussex teams and made 102 known appearances in first-class cricket from 1814 to 1840, being best remembered for his part in the introduction of roundarm bowling. He played for the Players in the Gentlemen v Players series and the South in the North v. South series.

Cricket career
Born on 25 June 1795 in Duncton, Petworth, Sussex, Jem Broadbridge had a known career spanning the 1814 to 1840 English seasons. In 102 matches, he scored 2,671 runs at a batting average of 16.59 runs per innings with a highest score of 135. He took 51 catches and at least 324 wickets.

He had an outstanding season in 1825 when inter-county cricket was revived for the first time since 1796, with Sussex playing two matches each against Hampshire and Kent. Broadbridge scored the most runs in the season with 552 at an average of 46.00 and also took the most wickets with 31. This was the first time that one player had led both the batting and bowling rankings in a single season.

Broadbridge repeated the feat in 1828, the year after the roundarm trial matches, when he scored 316 runs at 19.75 and took 46 wickets. Although roundarm had not yet been formally legalised, it was noted that Broadbridge and his Sussex colleague William Lillywhite constantly bowled with arm outstretched and the umpires did not no-ball them. Roundarm became known as "Sussex bowling" and this nickname stuck for a long time.

Broadbridge had been arguably the best player in England during the 1820s but he was past his best in the 1830s, although he still had much to offer in terms of knowledge and experience. He continued playing until the 1840 season.

Roundarm controversy
Broadbridge and Lillywhite were innovators who did much to have roundarm bowling legalised. In the 1827 season, three roundarm trial matches were staged between Sussex and All-England to evaluate roundarm vis-à-vis underarm. Broadbridge and Lillywhite were allowed to bowl roundarm for Sussex but the All-England players had to bowl underarm. The result of the "trial" was inconclusive but in practice, with umpires turning a blind eye, Broadbridge and Lillywhite continued to bowl roundarm without penalty.

Style and technique
Known to his fellow cricketers as "Our Jem", Broadbridge was arguably the outstanding all-rounder of his time. According to Arthur Haygarth in Scores and Biographies, he was "considered for some seasons the best general cricketer in England, both as a batsman, bowler and single wicket player". He bowled right-arm fast-medium and batted right-handed. He was described by Haygarth as "an extremely hard hitter".

The bowling of Broadbridge and Lillywhite was the key factor in the success of Sussex, which was hailed as the Champion County in the 1820s. Haygarth says that Broadbridge began as a "slinging" bowler who afterwards delivered roundarm. He was quicker than medium pace but varied his length and speed "with effect".

Broadbridge was described as "one of the most fox-headed fellows that ever bowled and was enough to worry and puzzle any man alive".

In the third of the roundarm trial matches in 1827, Broadbridge was out to one of the most unusual dismissals ever recorded. Despite his team having been told to bat steadily in their second innings when chasing 120 to win, Broadbridge at the start literally threw his bat out of his hands at a wide delivery. Bat and ball made contact and the ball flew off to point where it was caught by William Ward and Broadbridge was out. England then won by 25 runs.

Family and personal life
Broadbridge belonged to a farming family and lived all his life at Duncton. He regularly walked from Duncton to Brighton and back, a  round trip, to play cricket. He was the son of William and Mary Broadbridge. His height was  and he weighed about . He died at Dunction in 1843 having not married.

His elder brother William Broadbridge (1790–1860) was an occasional Sussex player in 25 matches between 1817 and 1830. His younger brother Robin (born 1797) played four matches between 1822 and 1824. The Broadbridge brothers were cousins of their Sussex colleague George Millyard.

Broadbridge's home village of Duncton has a pub named The Cricketers in honour of Broadbridge and his colleague Jemmy Dean, another lifelong resident.

References

1795 births
1843 deaths
English cricketers
English cricketers of 1787 to 1825
English cricketers of 1826 to 1863
Players cricketers
Sussex cricketers
North v South cricketers
Suffolk cricketers
Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers
Kent cricketers
Gentlemen cricketers
Left-Handed v Right-Handed cricketers
Married v Single cricketers
Godalming Cricket Club cricketers
The Bs cricketers
A to K v L to Z cricketers
George Osbaldeston's XI cricketers
People from Duncton
Cricketers from West Sussex

Jem Broadbridge


Nontrinitarism is a movement that rejects the idea of the Christian Trinity. That idea says that God is three different persons in one being.

There are several movements which can be classified as Nontrinitarian. At the First Council of Nicaea, in the year 325, people met and defined the idea of trinity. Some movements started before the council. Nontrinitarianism was later renewed in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in Restorationism during the 19th century.

Modern-day versions are usually called Unitarianism.
 Jehovah's Witnesses do not believe in the Trinity and are known for showing people from the Bible why they believe the idea to be false.
Mormons also do not believe in the Trinity but believe that God the Father, his son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are three separate entities.
Seventh-day Adventists did not believe in the Catholic doctrine of the trinity for the first 50 years of their existence either. The founders of the world wide Seventh Day Adventist Church believed that: "There is one supreme God of the universe and Jesus Christ: The only begotten Son of God!", Statement of Believes, 1873. The change came many years latter, when the founders of the Seventh Day Adventist Church had already 'slept in the Lord"(died).

References

Nontrinitarianism


Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink. It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth, in Antarctica and in the Arctic.

When light hits the blue oceans or seas, some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water. However, some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds. These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water. The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice. For example, Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole, as did Louis Bernacchi and Douglas Mawson in Antarctica.

Sources
Mawson, Sir Douglas; The Home of the Blizzard
Reed, William; The Phantom of the Poles 1906

External links
Water Sky and Ice Blink
Water Sky

Atmospheric optical phenomena

Water sky


Reignfire is a fictional character and villain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has appeared in the series X-Force. His original creators were Fabian Nicieza and Matt Broome, who had completely different plans for the villain than what evolved.

Creation history
Originally, Fabian Nicieza had meant for Reignfire to be a time traveling, slightly older, more mentally disturbed version of Sunspot. However, when a later writer John Francis Moore took over the title he changed the original plan and came up with the explanation about the protoplasmic, amorphous origin.

Fictional character biography
After the events of the X-Cutioner's Song crossover event, the Mutant Liberation Front (MLF) was incarcerated and left leaderless. To fill this void came a maniacal being named Reignfire. He liberated four members of the original MLF: Forearm, Reaper, Wildside, and Tempo, and added two more to their ranks: Moonstar and Locus. He charged his team with the mission of killing Henry Peter Gyrich—a man who had always been a thorn in the side of the mutant agenda. However, their attempt was foiled by X-Force and, during the battle, the powers of Locus and Sunspot reacted together in an odd way, teleporting the pair to parts unknown. Before doing so, Reignfire says Cable's real name, a big foreshadowing technique in Nicieza's original plan.

When Reignfire made his presence known, it was noticed how remarkably similar he was to Sunspot, not only in appearance but in powers as well. Since, at this time, Sunspot was missing in action (MIA), that possibility was not ruled out by Cable. His suspicions were revealed when, in the middle of a battle, Reignfire removes his mask to show that he is indeed Roberto.

Cable uses his telepathic powers to forcefully remove/suppress the Reignfire persona in Sunspot, and supposedly succeeds. As an unexpected side effect, Sunspot gathered some knowledge from Cable's mind, including information about Askani—Cable's religion and language. There were occasional moments when Sunspot would have a mental struggle to suppress evil urges, but for the most part all seems well.

Later, Sunspot goes to visit his friend and former New Mutants teammate Skids in Colorado when the pair is attacked by none other than Locus and Reignfire. Although things once more go awry with Locus' powers when they come in contact with Skids' force field, the mission is generally a success as Sunspot is captured. Once shackled to the wall, Reignfire begins to tell the story of his "real" origin: he was not an evil Sunspot, which many had believed, but a clone of him created from his cellular material. He was once a protoplasmic entity possessed by the Celestials with no real form until Gideon injected a sample of Sunspot's blood into his container. With a set of genetic material to duplicate, the protoplasmic goo began to pattern itself on the DNA sample given to it and thus shared Sunspot's appearance and powers. Another added bonus was the fact that, when he was within close proximity, he could activate a telepathic link with his host and psychically imprint himself onto Sunspot—explaining why Sunspot would sometimes seem to be evil. Reignfire wanted to kill Sunspot, but fails when several of his teammates came to his rescue.

When he next appeared, it was back with the Celestials' ship. X-Force found the ship and the protoplasmic figure inside and, after a battle, Reignfire was crushed to death by a Celestial golem inside of the ship.

Powers and abilities
Since Reignfire was the genetic clone of Sunspot, he shared all of his abilities: absorption rechanneling of solar energy, either within his own body or externally, to create multiple abilities including, super strength, thermal updrafts for flight, projection of heat and light as concussive blasts or in a stream of fiery rain, and the ability to forge a telepathic link with his genetic host and psychically imprint himself onto his brain.

References

External links
Uncannyxmen.net Character Profile on Reignfire

Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities
Clone characters in comics
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics mutants
Marvel Comics telepaths
Marvel Comics supervillains

Reignfire


The Radio Research Laboratory (RRL), located on the campus of Harvard University, was an 800-person secret research laboratory during World War II. Under the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), it was a spinoff of the Radiation Laboratory (Rad Lab) at MIT, and set up to develop electronic countermeasures to enemy radars and communications, as well as electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) to circumvent enemy ECM. The RRL was directed by Frederick E. Terman and operated between 1942 and 1946.

The RRL was engaged in both analysis and hardware development. They made significant contributions to the basic understanding of methods, theories, and circuits at very-high and ultra-high frequencies for radio systems, particularly in signals intelligence gear and statistical communications techniques. However, unlike the Rad Lab, the RRL never released significant details on its accomplishments; ECM and ECCM have always been closely guarded secrets by all nations.

The RRL conducted considerable work on chaff, light-weight aluminum strips dropped in clouds from aircraft to confuse enemy radars. Fred L. Whipple, an astronomer, made detailed analytical studies of this and devised a formula giving radar cross-section at a given wavelength per kilogram of chaff.

An example of RRL hardware development was Tuba (aka 'Project Tuba'), a giant ECM system generating continuous 80-kW signals in the range of 300-600 MHz to jam German Lichtenstein radars. The power tube (called Resnatron) for Tuba was developed at the RRL by David H. Shone and Lauritsen C. Marshall. Tuba used a horn antenna built of mesh wire 150 feet long and driven through 22- by 6- inch waveguides, possibly the largest ever built. Tuba was placed in operation in mid-1944 on the south coast of England. The radiated energy was such that it lit fluorescent bulbs a mile away and jammed radars throughout Europe.

The RRL staff did document some of the general theory that they developed. After the war, this was released in a two-volume publication Very High-Frequency Techniques, edited by Herbert J. Reich (McGraw-Hill, 1947).

References
 Louis Brown, A Radar History of World War II, Inst. of Physics Publishing, p. 293, 1999
 Steve Blank, Google Tech Talk: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFSPHfZQpIQ
 Raymond C. Watson Jr.; Radar Origins Worldwide, Trafford Publishing, pp. 203–205, 2009
 United States. Radio Research Laboratory, Harvard University. Records of the Radio Research Laboratory : an inventory, Harvard University Archives

Harvard University
University and college laboratories in the United States
Radiation
Radar

Radio Research Laboratory (Harvard)


Francis Fessenden (March 18, 1839 – January 2, 1906) was an American lawyer, politician, and soldier from the state of Maine who served as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was a member of the powerful Fessenden family, which was prominent in national politics during the mid-19th century.

Early life and career
Francis Fessenden was born in Portland, Maine, in the spring of 1839. He was the son of U.S. Senator William P. Fessenden and a brother of James Deering Fessenden, who would also serve as a general in the Union army. Another brother, Samuel, would be killed at the Second Battle of Bull Run during the war. Two uncles, Samuel C. Fessenden and T. A. D. Fessenden were U.S. Congressmen.

He was educated in the local schools and then graduated from Bowdoin College in 1858. He studied law at the Harvard Law School, passed his bar exam, and joined his father's law firm.

Civil War
Following the outbreak of the Civil War, Fessenden received a commission as a captain in the Regular Army in the newly raised 19th U.S. Infantry on May 14, 1861. He spent much of the year as a recruiting officer, helping raise additional troops.

In January 1862, he assumed duties as a line officer in the Army of the Cumberland in Tennessee and was severely wounded at the April 1862 Battle of Shiloh. He became the colonel of the 25th Maine Infantry and commanded a brigade as part of the 22nd Army Corps in the defenses of Washington, D.C. He was married that year to Ellen Winslow, a daughter of Edward Fox of Portland.

In July 1863, his term of enlistment in the volunteer Union army expired and he reverted to his rank of captain of the 19th U.S. Infantry in the Regular Army. In September, Fessenden was appointed as the colonel of the 30th Maine Veteran Infantry.

On May 10, 1864, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general and served later that year in command of a brigade in the army of Nathaniel P. Banks in the Red River Campaign. He saw action in several battles in that campaign, including Sabine Crossroads, Pleasant Hill, and Monet's Ferry, where he led a major assault in which he suffered a severe leg wound that necessitated amputation. After convalescing, he was assigned to administrative duty for the rest of the war, commanding various garrisons and supply trains.

Postbellum career
Following the end of the war, Fessenden stayed in the army. He served on the military commission that oversaw the war crimes trial of Henry Wirz, who was executed for his controversial actions while commanding the Andersonville Prison in Georgia. He also served as the president of a military court of inquiry. He was promoted to major general of volunteers on November 19, 1865, and assigned command of the 1st Division of the Department of West Virginia. He was subsequently assigned to the 1st Veteran Corps.

He served in the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands in 1866. He declined an appointment as the lieutenant colonel of the 45th U.S. Infantry in August 1866. Later that year, he was transferred to the 28th U.S. Infantry during the sweeping reorganisation of the army. He retired from the Regular Army on November 1, 1866, with the rank of brigadier general. Fessenden then returned home to Portland and resumed his legal career. He was elected as the city's mayor in 1876.  He was a Republican. He wrote a biography of his father, The Life and Services of William Pitt Fessenden, which was published in 1907.

He was a Companion of the First Class of the Maine Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - a military society for officers who has served the Union during the Civil War.  On October 28, 1881, he was elected commander of the Maine Commandery.  He was also a member of the General Society of Colonial Wars.

Francis Fessenden died in Portland, where he is buried in Evergreen Cemetery.

Family tree

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)

References

Citations

Works cited
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 2001, .
 Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, .
 U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.

External links
  Retrieved 2008-09-27

Union Army generals
People of Maine in the American Civil War
Bowdoin College alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Fessenden family
Maine lawyers
American amputees
1839 births
1906 deaths
Mayors of Portland, Maine
American politicians with disabilities
Burials at Evergreen Cemetery (Portland, Maine)
Maine Republicans
American lawyers with disabilities

Francis Fessenden


The Territorial abbey of La Trinità della Cava (), commonly known as Badia di Cava, is a Benedictine territorial abbey located near Cava de' Tirreni, in the province of Salerno, southern Italy. It stands in a gorge of the Finestre Hills.

History
It was founded in 1011 by Alferius of Pappacarbone, a noble of Salerno who became a Cluniac monk and had lived as a hermit in the vicinity since 1011. Pope Urban II endowed this monastery with many privileges, making it immediately subject to the Holy See, with jurisdiction over the surrounding territory.

The first four abbots were canonized as saints on December 21, 1893, by Pope Leo XIII.

In 1394, Pope Boniface IX elevated it to a diocese, with the abbots functioning as bishops. In 1513, Pope Leo X separated the two offices, detaching the city of Cava from the abbot's jurisdiction. About the same time the Cluniacs were replaced by Cassinese monks.<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia, "Abbey of Trinita di Cava Dei Tirreni" (1913).</ref>

The monastery was closed under Napoleon but the community remained relatively unscathed, thanks to Abbot Carlo Mazzacane, and was restored after his fall. The abbey still provides the surrounding parishes with clergy.

The church and the greater part of the buildings were entirely modernized in 1796. The old Gothic cloisters are preserved. The church contains a fine organ and several ancient sarcophagi.

The church of the monastery has the tombs of Queen Sibylla of Burgundy (died 1150), second consort of King Roger II of Sicily, and a number of notable ecclesiastics.

Library
The monastery contains the Biblioteca statale del Monumento Nazionale Badia di Cava with its rich archives of public and private documents, which date back to the 8th century, e.g., the Codex Legum Longobardorum of 1004 (the oldest digest of Lombard law), and the La Cava Bible and fine incunabula''. The monastery later became the seat of a national educational establishment, under the care of the Benedictines.

Abbots

Saint Alferius of Pappacarbona (1011–1050)
Saint Leo I of Cava (1050–1079)
Saint Peter of Pappacarbone (1079–1122)
Saint Constabilis (1122–1124)
Blessed Simeon (1124–1140)
Blessed Falcone (1140–1146)
Blessed Marino (1146–1170)
Blessed Benincasa (1171–1194)
Rugger  Roger (1194)
Blessed Peter II (1195–1208)
Blessed Balsamo (1208–1232)
Blessed Leonard (1232–1255)
Blessed Leo II (1266–1295)
Philip de Haya (1316–1331)
Maynerio (1342–1366)

Bishop-Abbots
John of Aragon
Oliverio Carafa

Abbots

Crisostomo d'Alessandro (1512–1517)
Gerolamo Guevara (1528–1552)
Pellegrino Dell'Erre (1549–1550)
Vittorino Manso (1588–1592)
Giulio Vecchioni (1630–1633)
Gregorio Lottieri (1640–1642)
Giuseppe Lomellino (1647–1651)
Severino Boccia (1671–1677)
Gaetano Dattilo (1772–1778)
Raffaele Pasca (1781–1787)
Tommaso Capomazza (1793–1801)
Carlo Mazzacane (1801–1824)
Pietro Candida (1844–1849)
Onofrio Granata (1849–1858)
Michele Morcaldi (1878–1894)
Benedetto Bonazzi (1894–1902)
Silvano de Stefano (1902–1908)
Angelo Maria Ettinger (1910–1918)
Giuseppe Placido M. Nicolini (1919–1928)
Ildefonso Rea (1929–1945)
Mauro De Caro (1946–1956)
Fausto Mezza (1956–1967)
Michele Alfredo Marra (1969–1992)
Benedetto Maria Salvatore Chianetta (1995–2010)

See also
Cava de' Tirreni, Italy (Italia)
Alferius

References

External links

Official website

Churches in the province of Salerno
Benedictine monasteries in Italy

Cava de' Tirreni
1025 establishments in Europe
11th-century establishments in Italy
Christian monasteries established in the 11th century
Monasteries in Campania
Buildings and structures in the Province of Salerno

La Trinità della Cava