Paul Graener (11 January 1872 – 13 November 1944) was a German composer and conductor. He composed numerous operas and orchestral works in the Romanticism style.

Biography
Graener was born in Berlin and orphaned as a young child.  A boy soprano, he taught himself composition and in 1896 moved to London, where he gave private lessons and served briefly as conductor at the Haymarket Theatre. Before the move, he had married Maria Elisabeth Hauschild, who bore him three children in London. Graener is recorded in the United Kingdom Census of 1901 as a "musical director (theatre)" living at 3 Poplar Grove in Hammersmith together with Maria (born in Kiel), their first two children (Heinz and Paul, aged 4 and 2) and Graener's author cousin, George.

In around 1910, Graener moved to Vienna, where he took up a teaching post at the Neues Wiener Konservatorium. He moved several times in the 1910s, living in Salzburg, Dresden and Munich, eventually accepting the position of professor of composition at the Leipzig University of Music and Theatre which had previously been held by Max Reger. In 1925, he left in order to focus on composition.

Returning to Berlin in 1930, he directed the Stern'sches Konservatorium and, from 1935 to 1941, served as vice-president of the Reichsmusikkammer. This position, previously held by Wilhelm Furtwängler, was a major governmental post within an arm of the Nazi Propaganda Ministry, although the extent to which Graener sympathized with Nazi ideals is a subject of debate - however, Erik Levi states in Graener's entry in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (ç. 1988) that he continued to support the regime until he died. In the late 1920s, Graener had joined the Militant League for German Culture, and on 1 April 1933 he became a member of the Nazi Party. During World War II, his Berlin apartment was bombed and he moved with his family to, successively, Wiesbaden, Munich, Vienna and Salzburg, where he died aged 72 in 1944.

Stylistically, Graener was heavily indebted to the late Romanticism of Richard Strauss and Max Reger.

Works

Operas
The Faithful Sentry, Op. 1 (premiered 1899)
Das Narrengericht, Op. 38 (1913)
Don Juans letztes Abenteuer, Op. 42 (1914)
Theophano, Op. 48 (premiered 1918, Munich)
Schirin und Gertraude, Op. 51 (1920)
Hanneles Himmelfahrt, W/o Op. (1927) (after Gerhart Hauptmann's play)
Friedemann Bach, Op. 90 (1931) (after Albert Emil Brachvogel's novel)
Der Prinz von Homburg, Op. 100 (1935)
Schwanhild (1941, premiered January 4, 1942, Cologne)

Orchestral
2 Stücke, Op. 9
3 Stücke, Op. 26
Sinfonietta for Strings and Harp, Op. 27 (1910)
Symphony in D Minor Schmied Schmerz (1912, Op. 39)
Aus dem Reiche des Pan, Op. 22 (1920)
Romantische Phantasie, Op. 41
Musik am Abend, Op. 44
Variationen über ein russisches Volkslied', Op. 55 (from 1926)Waldmusik, Op. 60
Divertimento in D major,  Op. 67
Piano Concerto, Op. 72Juventus academica (overture), Op. 73Gotische Suite, Op. 74Concerto for Cello and Chamber Orchestra, Op. 78 (published in 1927)Die Flöte von Sanssouci, Op. 88 (1930)Comedietta, Op. 82Variationen über Prinz Eugen, Op. 108 (1939)Sinfonia breve, Op. 963 schwedische Tänze, Op. 98
Violin Concerto, Op. 104Feierliche Stunde, Op. 106Turmwächterlied, Op. 107 (1938)Wiener Sinfonie, Op. 110 (1941, First Performance: Hans Knappertsbusch, Berlin Philharmonic)
Flute Concerto, Op. 116

Chamber music
4 String Quartets (incl. Opp. 54, 65 and 80 published 1920-8 )
Suite, Op. 63 for flute and piano (published in 1924 )

Other
ca. 130 songs

References

Don Randel, The Harvard Biographical Dictionary of Music''. Harvard, 1996, p. 327.
Knut Andreas, Zwischen Musik und Politik: Der Komponist Paul Graener (1872–1944), Frank&Timme Berlin, 2008.

External links
 Site dedicated to Graener

1872 births
1944 deaths
Musicians from Berlin
20th-century classical composers
German classical composers
Nazi Party politicians
Militant League for German Culture members
Academic staff of the University of Music and Theatre Leipzig
German male classical composers
20th-century German composers
20th-century German male musicians

Paul Graener


Rupa-rupa istilah digunakeun keur ngajelaskeun wewengkon géografis jeung pulitis nu béda (kadang-kadang patumpang tindih) ngeunaan kapuloan nu sacara tradisional ngarujuk ka wewengkon "Kapuloan Britania", nu kadang-kadang ngabingungkeun singsaha waé ti bagian dunya séjén, malahan mah keur urang dinyana sorangan. Kagunaan artikel ieu nyaéta keur ngébréhkeun harti tina sarta patula-patalina di antara istilah-istilah éta.

Ringkesna, istilah utama jeung penjelasan basajanna nyaéta:

Istilah géografis
Kapuloan Britania ngawengku Britania Raya, Irlandia jeung pulo-pulo sabudeureunnana.
Britania Raya mangrupa pulo panggedéna di antara sakabéh kapuloan. (kadang-kadang sacara teu resmi dirujuk minangka Britania)
Irlandia mangrupa pulo panggedéna kadua di antara sakabéh kapuloan.
Istilah Pulitis
Karajaan Ngahiji Bitania Raya jeung Irlandia Kalér ( mangrupa wewengkon nu berdaulat nu ngawengku lolobana kapuloan Britania. Sering disingket 'Karajaan Ngahiji' (basa Inggris:'United Kingdom', 'UK' atawa Britania).
Inggris, Skotlandia, Wales jeung Irlandia Kalér mangrupa nagara nu diwengku ku UK.
Irlandia / Républik Irlandia mangrupa wewengkon berdaulat merdika nu ngawengku bagian leuwih gedé tina pulo Irlandia.

Istilah-istilah nu rupa-rupa ieu bisa ngabingungkeun henteu ukur ngeunaan hal éta (sabagiannana ku sabab saruana antara kecap-kecap aktual nu dipaké), tapi ogé ku sabab maranéhannana sering digunakeun kalayan henteu lengkep atawa henteu akurat.

Detil istilah

Britania mangrupa wangun singketan tina Britania Raya. Ogé ampir umum dipigunakeun keur United Kingdom.
Britania Raya (Gréat Britain, singketan: GB) mangrupa kapuloan Britania panggedéna sarta mangrupa gabungan pulitis tina tilu nagara, nyaéta:
Inggris jeung Wales Mangrupakeun istilah pulitis jeung administratif keur ngarujuk dua nagara nyaéta Inggris (England) jeung Wales, nu ngabagi sistim hukum nu sarua. Antara 1746 jeung 1967 itilah "Inggris" sacara hukum kaasup Wales.
Inggris (tempo ogé sajarah Karajaan Inggris = Inggris (satuluyna, Wales) saméméh 1707).
Wales
Skotlandia (tempo ogé sajarah Karajaan Skotlandia)

Karajaan Britania Raya nyaéta Britania keur période 1707-1801.
Britania nyaéta propinsi Roman Britania, atawa rujukan keur Britania satuluyna, atawa personifikasi Britania.
Keur sajarah ngaran, tempo Britania.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, biasana disingget United Kingdom (singgetannana deui UK) nyaéta Britania Raya ditambahan ku Irlandia Kalér ti saprak taun 1927. (The Partition of Ireland took place in 1922, but the consequent change in the official title of the UK was only made by Act of Parliament five yéars later.)
The historical United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is Great Britain plus Ireland, for the period 1801-1927.
N.B.: While "United Kingdom" is normally abbreviated UK, the official ISO 3166 two-letter country code is GB and the three letter code is GBR. The UK's internet top-level domain is .uk, a break from the normal practice of following ISO 3166.
See also United Kingdom (disambiguation) for other united kingdoms and UK (disambiguation) for other meanings of the abbreviation.
Ireland  (in Irish, Éire) refers, géographically, to the island of Ireland, or to any of the following:

Historically:
The Kingdom of Ireland  was Ireland for the period 1541-1801.
The Irish Republic was a  unilaterally declared 32-county republic encompassing the entire island, during the period 1919-22. During this period, Ireland legally remained part of the UK and its independence was not recognised internationally except by Russia.
Southern Ireland was a  proposed Home Rule 26-county state under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It never came into practical existence, being superseded by:
The Irish Free State  is Ireland excepting Northern Ireland during the period 1922-37.
Kiwari:
Ireland (in Irish, Éire) is the political entity consisting of the island of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1937-present.  This is the name of the state according to the Irish Constitution.
The Republic of Ireland  a legal "description" of Ireland excepting Northern Ireland, 1949-present. This form is used where tact or disambiguity demands.  It is also the name used by the international football team.
Northern Ireland 1922-present.  That part of the island of Ireland north of the line of partition of 1922, and which is still part of the United Kingdom. It is sometimes referred to as "the North of Ireland", "the six counties" or the "occupied six counties," especially by Irish Nationalists.
Ulster The name of one of Ireland's four traditional provinces. It contains nine counties, six of which make up Northern Ireland, three of which are part of the Republic of Ireland. It is now primarily used in sporting and cultural contexts by both communities. However, the six counties which form Northern Ireland are sometimes also referred 'Ulster'. See Ulster (disambiguation).
In sport
In rugby union, rugby league, field hockey , cricket and others  the Ireland team is drawn from the whole island (ie. both the Republic and Northern Ireland).
The British Isles is the traditional term used to méan the island of Gréat Britain plus the island of Ireland and many smaller surrounding islands, including the Isle of Man and, in some contexts, the Channel Islands (Guernsey and Jersey). Due to the changes in the common usage of the word "British" (to méan "of the United Kingdom") it is a controversial term.
Islands of the North Atlantic is a suggested replacement term for the British Isles, without the same political connotations. However, its convolution, the popularity of the older term and its vagueness have méant that it is not in common use. (Its acronym, IONA, is also the name of the small but historically important island of Iona off the coast of Scotland.)
British Islands (a political term not in common usage) is the UK, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (which in turn includes the smaller islands of Alderney, Herm and Sark).
Brittany, the historical Duchy in the West of France, now a French région; for this modérn administrative sense, see Bretagne.

Geographical distinctions

The British Isles
The British Isles is an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Continental Europe. It includes Ireland and Great Britain, and the Isle of Man, but usually excludes the Channel Islands. Also included are the thousands of small islands off the coast of both the larger islands such as Shetland and Orkney. The éarliest known usage of this term is in a Greek text of 325 BC in the form Pretanikai nesoi (Pretanic isles).

Britania Raya
Gréat Britain refers to the largest of the British Isles. The word "Great" simply méans "larger" (no connection with "greatness" in other senses is intended) in contrast to Brittany, a historical term for a peninsula in modérn France that largely corresponds with the present day French province of Bretagne. That region was settled by many British immigrants during the period of Anglo-Saxon migration into Britain, and named "Little Britain" by them. The French term "Bretagne" now refers to the French "Little Britain", not to the British "Great Britain", which in French is called Grande-Bretagne.

Irlandia
The second largest island in the archipelago is Ireland. That Ireland is a part of the géographical "British Isles" in no way implies that all of the island is politically British.

Channel Islands
Although the Channel Islands are associated with the United Kingdom politically, they are cléarly an outcrop of the néarby French geology, and historically they are the last remaining parts of the former Duchy of Normandy still under the crown of the United Kingdom.

Political distinctions

The United Kingdom
"United Kingdom" is short for The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which makes it self-explanatory. Great Britain is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the UK. Both Great Britain and The United Kingdom are often shortened to Britain.

The United Kingdom is a sovereign state. Its four constituent countries, whilst having equal rights to elect Members of Parliament on (nominally) the same terms, are sometimes considered to be of different status. This view may be supported by the existence of devolved governments with different levels of power in Scotland and Wales (see Asymmetrical federalism). Due to historical precedent, England, Scotland, and Wales are countries and nations in their own right (although none of these is sovereign today). Wales is also a principality of the United Kingdom (Prince of Wales is a title usually given to the heir apparent to the British throne). Northern Ireland is sometimes described by United Kingdom citizens as a province of the United Kingdom, which derives from the Irish province of Ulster, which Northern Ireland is part of.  This epithet is also applied  because it originally was part of the UK as part of the country of Ireland rather than as a constituent country or nation in its own right.  Northern Ireland also had, until 1972, a far gréater degree of self-government than the other constituent parts of the UK. In contrast to the British unionist usage, Irish nationalists consider all of Ulster to be the province of Ulster, and organise their sporting and cultural institutions accordingly.

The four constituent parts of the UK are also known to some as Home Nations or the "Four Nations"; sporting contests between them are known as "Home internationals" (for example in football, see the British Home Championship).

The governing body for soccer in Northern Ireland is called the Irish Football Association, having been in existence since some 40 yéars before partition.  Its counterpart in the Republic (plus Derry City) is the Football Association of Ireland.  The Northern national téam retained the name "Ireland" for some 50 yéars after partition.  It is only since around 1970 that the two téams have been consistently referred to as "Northern Ireland" and "Republic of Ireland" respectively.

However, in Rugby Union, the four Home Nations are England, Ireland (the whole island, i.e. the Republic of Ireland plus Northern Ireland), Scotland and Wales.

Culturally, some consider the Cornish to be distinct from the English, but, politically, Cornwall is considered by the UK government to have the same status as any other county in England. However some have raised questions concerning the constitutional status of Cornwall.

Thus, Great Britain is both a géographical and a political entity. Géographically, it is one island, but politically it also contains the islands that belong to its constituent nations - England, Wales and Scotland (most notably England's Isle of Wight, Wales' Anglesey and Scotland's Inner Hebrides, Outer Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands).

However, the abbreviation GB is sometimes officially used for the UK, for example in the Olympics - where athletes from Northern Ireland may choose whether to represent the UK or the Republic of Ireland - and as the vehicle registration plate country identification code, however the internet code ".gb", although allocated to the UK, is unused (the UK uses ".uk"). UK téams in the Olympics have competed under several different names - most recently in Athens the athletes were presented at the Opening Ceremony under a banner which said simply Gréat Britain, rather than the full Gréat Britain and Northern Ireland. Since the Good Friday Agreement, and the subsequent implementation legislation, sporting organisation (and several other organisations, e.g. tourism, and Irish Gaelic and Ulster Scots language boards) on the island of Ireland has incréasingly been cross-border.

Citizens of the UK are called British or Britons. The term Brits may also be used, sometimes pejoratively, for example by supporters of Scottish independence when referring to supporters of the Union. Some rather dated slang names for Britons are Tommy (for British soldiers), Pom, Anglo and Limey. Anglo properly refers only to England, but it is sometimes (incorrectly) used as a broader reference as an element in compound adjectives: for example, "Anglo-French relations" may be used in newspaper articles when referring to relations between the political entities France and the United Kingdom (the correct term in this case is "British-French relations"). Anglo-Saxon may be used when referring to the whole English-spéaking world, the (correctly named, as it refers to the English language, not a "British language") Anglosphere, although ethnically very few of the world's one billion English-spéakers are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Interestingly while the rest of the world refers to the 'English', derived from 'Angles', spéakers of the Celtic languages refer to them as 'Saxons' (Sassannach in Scottish Gaelic, Saesneg in Welsh).

Ireland
Ireland is the name since 1937 of the independent state which covers the island of Ireland apart from Northern Ireland. Since 1949, the "description" "Republic of Ireland" has been widely used, but the official name in the Irish constitution is Ireland, or, in the Irish language, Éire. This is also the géographical term for the entire island.

The Republic of Ireland gained full recognised independence from the United Kingdom in 1921. Northern Ireland is sovereign British territory, and a majority of the population of Northern Ireland consider themselves British. Traditionally Ireland is divided into four provinces - Leinster, Connacht, Munster and Ulster. The Republic of Ireland takes up 83% of the island, while Northern Ireland takes up six of the nine counties of Ulster.

On the island of Ireland (as everywhere), the naming of places often raises political issues. The usage of "Ireland" as the official name of the state in the constitution of the Republic of Ireland causes offence to some Unionists in Northern Ireland as it implies that the Republic of Ireland still has a territorial claim to the whole island - the terminology of "Republic of Ireland" or "Éire" is much preferred by Northern unionists when referring to that political state. Similarly, some Nationalists in Northern Ireland also prefer to reserve to usage of "Ireland" to refer to the whole island.

The Republic of Ireland is often referred to by Irish republicans by the term "the Twenty-six Counties", with the connotation that the state constituted as such forms only a portion of the idéal political unit, which would consist of all of the thirty-two counties into which the island is divided. From 1922 to 1937, the state comprising those 26 counties was officially known by the term "The Irish Free State".

Many péople object to these latter two terms, as they are seen to imply that the Republic of Ireland is not a fully independent country. Conversely, some republicans and others refer to Northern Ireland as "the Six Counties" (in reference to Northern Ireland's six counties), a name that avoids the disputed link with Gréat Britain. Some even call it "the occupied six counties". Some nationalists use the terms, "the North of Ireland" and, "the North", instéad of Northern Ireland; these are terms also used by the Irish national broadcaster RTÉ.

Many péople, especially some unionists, sometimes refer to Northern Ireland as Ulster - this is inaccurate as the Irish province of Ulster traditionally includes an additional three counties, which are in the Republic of Ireland. The term Ulster (and "the Province") are sometimes preferred by Unionists, sometimes because it can suggest an origin of the polity of Northern Ireland that pre-dates 1922, referring back to the Act of Union 1800, the Glorious Revolution of 1689, the Plantation of Ulster in 1610, the ancient migrations between Ulster and Scotland, and even to biblical tradition. So, it is understandable that certain local place names should still be in dispute: see Derry/Londonderry name dispute.

British Islands
Since 1978, the term British Islands (as opposed to British Isles) has been used by the UK's governments and assemblies to define the United Kingdom, together with the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.

Under the Interpretation Act 1978 of the United Kingdom, the term British Islands refers to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, together with the Crown Dependencies: the Bailiwicks of Jersey and of Guernsey (which in turn includes the smaller islands of Alderney, Herm and Sark) in the Channel Islands; and the Isle of Man.

Historical aspects

Origins of terms
The éarliest known names for the islands come from the Massaliote Periplus of the 6th century BC, fragments of which survived in the writings of Avienus around AD 400. Ireland was referred to as Ierne (Insula sacra, the sacred island, as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of Hiberni" (gens hiernorum), and Britain as insula Albionum, "island of the Albions". éarlier sources preserve fragments of the travel writings of the ancient Greek Pytheas around 320 BC, and describe the British isles, including Ireland, as the αι Βρεττανιαι, the Brittanic Isles. The péoples of these islands of Prettanike were called the Ρρεττανοι, Priteni or Pretani.

These names  derived from a "Celtic language" term which is likely to have réached Pythéas from the Gauls who may have used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands. The Romans called the inhabitants of Gaul (modérn France) Galli or Celtae. The latter term came from the Greek name Κελτοι for a central Européan péople, and 17th century antiquarians who found language connections developed the idéa of a race of Celts inhabiting the aréa, but this term was not used by the Greeks or Romans for the inhabitants of Britain or Ireland.

Priteni is the source of the Welsh language term Prydain, Britain, and has the same source as the Goidelic term Cruithne. The latter referred to the éarly Brythonic spéaking inhabitants of Ireland, the Scottish highlands and the north of Scotland, who are known as the Cruithne in Scottish Gaelic, and who the Romans called Picts or Caledonians.

Romans
Caesar's invasions of Britain brought descriptions of the péoples of what he called Britannia pars interior, "inland Britain", in 55 BC.
Throughout Book 4 of his Geography, Strabo is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as Prettanikee; he uses the terms Prettans or Brettans loosely to refer to the islands as a group - a common generalisation used by classical géographers. For example, in Géography 2.1.18, …οι νοτιωτατοι των Βρηττανων βορηιοτηροι τουτον ηισιν (…the most southern of the Brettans are further north than this). He was writing around AD 10, although the éarliest surviving copy of his work dates from the 6th century.
Pliny the Elder writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his Naturalis Historia. He writes of Gréat Britain: Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus. (Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; I will spéak of them in a moment.). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny enumerates the islands he considers to maké up the Britannias, listing Gréat Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands.
In his Geography written in the mid 2nd century and probably describing the position around AD 100, Ptolemy includes both Britain and Ireland – he calls it Hibernia – in the island group he calls Britannia. He entitles Book II, Chapter 1 of as Hibernia, Island of Britannia, and Chapter 2 as Albion Island of Britannia.

The name Albion for Great Britain fell from favour, and the island was described in Greek as Ρρεττανια or Βρεττανια, in Latin Britannia, an inhabitant as Βρεττανοζ, Britannus, with the adjective Βρεττανικοζ, Brittanicus, equating to "British". With the Roman conquest of Britain the name Britannia was used for the province of Roman Britain. The Emperor Claudius was honoured with the agnomen Britannicus as if he were the conqueror, and coins were struck from AD 46 inscribed DE BRITAN, DE BRITANN, DE BRITANNI, or DE BRITANNIS. With the visit of Hadrian in AD 121 coins introduced a female figure with the label BRITANNIA as a personification or goddess of the place. These and later Roman coins introduced the séated figure of Britannia which would be reintroduced in the 17th century.

In the later yéars of Roman rule Britons who left Latin inscriptions, both at home and elsewhere in the Empire, often described themselves as Brittanus or Britto, and where describing their citizenship gave it as cives of a British tribe or of a patria (homeland) of Britannia, not Roma. From the 4th century, many Britons migrated from Roman Britain across the English Channel and founded Brittany.

Medieval period
While Latin remained the language of léarning, from the éarly medieval period records begin to appéar in native languages. The éarliest indigenous source to use a collective term for the archipelago is the Life of Saint Columba, a hagiography recording the missionary activities of the sixth century Irish monk Saint Columba among the péoples of modérn Scotland. It was written in the late seventh century by Adomnán of Iona, an Irish monk living on the Inner Hebridean island. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is Océani Insulae méaning "Islands of the Ocean" (Book 2, 46 in the Sharpe edition = Book 2, 47 in Reeves edition), it is used sparingly and no Priteni-derived collective reference is made.

Another éarly native source to use a collective term is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum of Bede written in the éarly eighth century. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is insularum méaning "islands" (Book 1, 8) and it too is used sparingly. He stated that Britain "studies and confesses one and the same knowledge of the highest truth in the tongues of five nations, namely the Angles, the Britons, the Scots, the Picts, and the Latins", distinguishing between the Brythonic languages of the "ancient Britons" or Old Welsh spéakers and other language groups.

éarly Celtic, Saxon and Viking kingdoms such as Rheged, Strathclyde and Wessex amalgamated, léading to the formation of Scotland, England and Wales. In Norman Ireland, local lords gained considerable autonomy from the Lordship of Ireland until it became the Kingdom of Ireland under direct English rule.

Renaissance mapmakers
Continental mapmakers Gerardus Mercator (1512), Balthasar Moretus (1624), Giovanni Magini (1596), Abraham Ortelius (1570) and Sebastian Munster (1550) produced maps béaring the term "British Isles". Ortelius makes cléar his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically nominally at léast separate in 1570 by the full title of his map: "Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio" which translates as "a description of England, Scotland and Ireland, or the British Isles", additionally many maps from this period show Wales and Cornwall as separate nations, most notably those of Mercator.

Evolution of kingdoms and states

The diagram on the right gives an indication of the further evolution of kingdoms and states. In 1603 the Scottish King James VI inherited the English throne as "James I of England". He styled himself as James I of Great Britain, although both states retained their sovereignty and independent parliaments, the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. The 1707 Act of Union united England and Scotland in the Kingdom of Great Britain under the Parliament of Great Britain, then in 1800 Ireland was brought under British government control by the Act of Union créating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Irish unrest culminated in the Irish War of Independence and the 1922 separation of the Irish Free State which later became the Republic of Ireland. The mostly Protestant northeast continued to be part of what was now the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

British overseas territories such as Bermuda, Gibraltar, Hong Kong, the Falkland Islands, and the British Antarctic Territory have (or have had) various relationships with the UK. The Commonwealth of Nations (formerly the British Commonwéalth) is a loose confederation of nations roughly corresponding to the former British Empire, mostly for economic co-operation, formalised in 1931. (This has no connection with the Commonwealth of England and The Protectorate which were short-lived republics replacing the previous kingdoms during the Interregnum (1649 - 1660).)

Adjectives
The adjectives used to describe the contents and attributes of the various constituent parts of the British Isles also cause confusion.

British is generally used to refer to the United Kingdom. However, in a specifically physical géographical sense, British is used to refer to the island of Great Britain. The cumbersome adjective Great British is very rarely used to refer to Great Britain, other than to contrive a pun on the word great, as in "Great British Food".

Irish, in a political sense, is used to refer to the Republic of Ireland. Northern Ireland, as a constituent part of the United Kingdom, would be included within the umbrella of the political term British, though many unionists in Northern Ireland would also consider themselves Irish in a géographical sense. In order to be more specific, Northern Irish is therefore in common usage. The term Ulster can also be used as an adjective (e.g. "Royal Ulster Constabulary"), but this is more likely to be used by Unionists and has political connotations in the same fashion as its use as a proper noun (because only six of the traditional nine counties of Ulster, namely Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone, are included in Northern Ireland with the remaining three counties Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan forming part of the Republic). Likewise, Nationalists might describe, say, a lake in Northern Ireland as Irish. However, some Nationalists might attribute what they see as less attractive aspects of Northern Ireland to Britain or even to England (e.g. "The Northern Ireland squad is an English football team").

The "Northern" in "Northern Ireland" is not completely accurate.  A large portion of Northern Ireland lies to the south of County Donegal, which is in the Republic.  The northern tip of the island, Malin Head, is on Donegal's Inishowen Peninsula.

Scottish, English and Welsh are self-explanatory. The term English is, however, commonly used to méan British by many Anglophones, both within and without the archipelago.

Problems with use of terms

There is considerable sensitivity about some of the terms, particularly in relation to Ireland. The term British Isles itself can be considered irritating or offensive by those who find that the association of the term British with the United Kingdom léads to a mistaken presumption that the Republic of Ireland is still in some way under British rule, or think that it implies that the UK has continuing territorial claims to that country. No branch of the Irish government, including the Department of Foreign Affairs and the Irish Embassy in London, uses the term, though it is on occasion used in a géographical sense in Irish parliamentary debates. In Northern Ireland nationalists reject the term and use these islands as an alternative, wheréas unionists, when countering nationalist insistence on the territorial integrity of the island of Ireland, change the géographical frame of reference to that of the whole archipelago of what they call the British Isles. There have been several suggestions for replacements for the term British Isles but no single one has won any wide acceptance.

The term Ireland is also a matter of sensitivity. It is the official name of the Republic of Ireland as well as being a géographical term for the whole island. In Northern Ireland, Irishness is a highly contested identity, with fundamentally different perceptions between unionists who perceive themselves as being both British and Irish, and nationalists who consider both communities to be part of the Irish nation.

Further information

Isle of Man and Channel Islands
The Isle of Man and the two bailiwicks of the Channel Islands are Crown Dependencies; that is, non-sovereign nations, self-governing but whose sovereignty is held by the British Crown. They control their own politics, but not their defence. They are not part of the United Kingdom nor part of the European Union.
The Isle of Man is part of the British Isles, situated in the Irish Sea between Gréat Britain and Ireland.
The Channel Islands consist politically of two self-governing bailiwicks: the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey. They are the remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, which was once in personal union with the Kingdom of England. They are sometimes, despite their location next to mainland France, considered part of the British Isles.

Celtic names
The Celtic languages in the region — Cornish, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Manx— éach have names for the various countries and subdivisions of the British Isles.

Some of the above are:
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Note: In Irish there are actually several terms for Northern Ireland: An Tuaisceart, méaning "the North", is usually used, but a more recent term for official use is Tuaisceart Éireann. Ulaidh, the Irish word for Ulster, is also sometimes used, though the traditional region of Ulster also includes 3 counties which are not included in the political region of Northern Ireland. Ironically the most northern point in Ireland is 'down South', that is ruled from Dublin, not London.

The English word Welsh is from a common Germanic root méaning "foreigner" (cognate with Wallonia and Wallachia, and also cognate with the word used in Mediaeval German to refer to the French and Italians). The English names Albion and Albany are related to Alba and used poetically for either England or Scotland, or the whole island of Gréat Britain. English Erin is a poetic name for Ireland derived from Éire (or rather, from its dative form Éirinn)

Rockall
The island of Rockall is a disputed territory in the Atlantic Océan. It is a small, uninhabited island lying some 301.4 km (187.3 miles) west of St Kilda (Outer Hebrides) and 424 km (229.1 miles) north-west of Ireland. It is claimed by the United Kingdom (as part of the Isle of Harris), whilst its surrounding continental shelf (but not the island itself) is claimed by the Republic of Ireland, Iceland and Denmark (through the Faroe Islands). Its remote position, however, méans that it is open to question whether or not, géographically, it belongs to the British Isles. In any event The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, states Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf.

Slang
Blighty is a slang word for Britain derived from the Hindustani word bilāyatī ("foreign"). Depending on the user, it is méant either affectionately or archly.  It was often used by British soldiers abroad in the First World War to refer to home.

Europe
The term "Europe" may be used in one of several different contexts by British péople; either to refer to the whole of the Européan continent, to refer to only to Mainland Europe, sometimes called "continental Europe" or simply "the Continent" by some péople in the archipelago — as in the apocryphal newspaper héadlining "Fog shrouds Channel, continent cut off."

Europe and the adjective Européan may also be used in reference to the European Union, particularly in a derogative context such as "The new regulations handed out by Europe".

Notes

See also
Alternative words for British
British-Irish Council
British Overseas Territory

External links
"The British Isles and all that..."
"The Great British Venn Diagram"

 B

Kapuloan Britania (istilah)


Jolly Fellows (), also translated as Happy-Go-Lucky Guys, Moscow Laughs and Jazz Comedy, is a 1934 Soviet musical film, directed by Grigori Aleksandrov and starring his wife Lyubov Orlova, a gifted singer and the first recognized star of Soviet cinema.

The script was written by Aleksandrov, Vladimir Mass, and Nikolai Erdman (whose father briefly appears on screen as a German music teacher). It features several songs which instantly became classics across the Soviet Union. The most famous song — "Kak mnogo devushek khoroshikh" (Such a lot of nice girls) — enjoyed international fame, covered as "Serdtse" (Heart) by Pyotr Leshchenko. Music was by Isaak Dunayevsky, the lyrics were written by the Soviet poet Vasily Lebedev-Kumach.

Both Orlova and her co-star, the jazz singer and comic actor Leonid Utyosov, were propelled to stardom after this movie.

Plot

Yelena (Mariya Strelkova), a well-off would-be singer who can't carry a tune, mistakes shepherd Kostya Potekhin (Leonid Utyosov) for a famous Paraguayian conductor of a symphony orchestra Costa Fraschini and invites him to an elegant party held in her house. He plays his pan flute, which attracts the herd of animals from his kolkhoz to the dining tables. Yelena's servant Anyuta (Lyubov Orlova) falls for Kostya. But Kostya is attracted to Yelena, and when she turns him down following the discovery of his real identity, he is very upset. He leaves for the city to try himself as a professional musician and finds himself in many comical situations. Eventually he joins a jazz band consisting of young "jolly fellows". Kostya becomes a head of the band and it turns to be quite a challenge – not only is he supposed to manage the creative work and performances but he must also control his quick-tempered bandmates, whose fiery arguments sometimes turn rehearsals into a brawl that results in the band being turned out of the house by their landlord. Because of this the band is urged to rehearse before a forthcoming performance right in the street and even play at funerals for more practice. On a rainy evening Kostya and his band mates accidentally meet Anyuta on their way to a concert hall and take her with them. She is revealed to be an excellent singer, so she joins the band and they start to perform together successfully.

Contemporary criticism
Graham Greene, in his 26 September 1935 review for The Spectator, wrote that it "is the best thing that has happened to the cinema since René Clair made The Italian Straw Hat. Alexandrov, who has been awarded a Soviet Order for his direction, has produced, just as Clair did then, out of the smallest resources and apparently with poor-quality film, a picture of almost ecstatic happiness. ... I have no wish to criticise this film, but simply to rejoice in its wildness, its grotesqueness, its light, taking tunes, a sense of good living that owes nothing to champagne or women's clothes."

Film critic Jean Ross — writing as Peter Porcupine in her 1 October 1935 review for The Daily Worker — effusively praised the film: "The workers in the Soviet Union have introduced to the world an entirely new sort of humour... behind the comedy of Jazz Comedy is no dismal shadow of tragedy, but the electrifying strength and vitality and freedom of a victorious working class."

Influence
The film was enormously successful in the Soviet Union.  It had a small impact much later in Australia after it was shown in 1964 at the Australia Cinema in Melbourne and the name "The Jolly Fellows" was used for over a decade thereafter by a small jazz band after the original members, David Meadows, Keith Morgan and Pete Bannister, high school friends and then all aged 19, had seen and enjoyed the film.

Cast

 Lyubov Orlova
 Leonid Utyosov
 Mariya Strelkova
 Yelena Tyapkina
 Fyodor Kurikhin
 Arnold Arnold
 Valentin Parnakh

References

External links

 http://www.close-up.ru/catalog/detail.php?FID=5325

1934 films
Mosfilm films
1930s Russian-language films
1934 musical comedy films
1930s romantic musical films
Films set in Moscow
Films set in the Soviet Union
Films shot in Georgia (country)
Films shot in Moscow
Soviet black-and-white films
Soviet musical comedy films
Russian musical comedy films
Films directed by Grigori Aleksandrov
Films scored by Isaak Dunayevsky

Jolly Fellows


Scott Logan Verrett (born June 19, 1990) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He made his Major League Baseball (MLB) debut with the Texas Rangers in 2015. Also, he played for the New York Mets and Baltimore Orioles. Prior to playing professionally, he played for  Calallen High School and Baylor University.

Amateur career
Verrett spent his early years in The Woodlands, Texas, where he played Little League Baseball as an infielder. Before he began high school, his family moved to Corpus Christi, and he played for Calallen High School's varsity baseball team as a pitcher. In 2008, his senior year, he became the staff's ace pitcher, recording an 18–0 win–loss record, a 0.67 earned run average (ERA), 167 strikeouts, and 12 complete games. He also had a .455 batting average, seven home runs, and 33 runs batted in on the year. With a 42–1 win–loss record, his team went on to win the Texas Class 4A state championship. That year, he was named the All-South Texas Most Valuable Player and the Class 4A Player of the Year by the Texas Sports Writers Association.

Verrett enrolled at Baylor University to play college baseball for the Baylor Bears baseball team. As a relief pitcher in his freshman year, he recorded seven wins and a save in his first eight appearances, and served as the team's closer. He moved into the team's starting rotation as a sophomore, and finished the year with a 5–3 win–loss record, a 3.28 ERA, and 97 strikeouts in  innings pitched. As a junior, Verrett compiled a 7–6 win–loss record, a 2.93 ERA, 96 strikeouts in  innings pitched, and had two complete games. In 2009 and 2010, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Chatham Anglers of the Cape Cod Baseball League. Hed was named a league all-star in 2010.

Professional career

New York Mets

The New York Mets selected Verrett in the third round, with the 101st overall selection, of the 2011 MLB Draft. Verrett signed with the Mets, receiving a $425,000 signing bonus. He signed just before the August signing deadline, and did not make his professional debut until 2012, when he began the season with the Savannah Sand Gnats of the Class A South Atlantic League. During the season, he received a promotion to the St. Lucie Mets of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League in July. Between the two levels, he finished the year with a 5–2 win–loss record, a 2.70 ERA, and 93 strikeouts in 103 innings pitched, despite missing two months due to a strained rotator cuff. He was named the South Texas Professional Player of the Year by the Corpus Christi Hooks, who play in the Class AA Texas League.

Verrett pitched for the Binghamton Mets of the Class AA Eastern League in 2013, finishing the season with a 12–6 win–loss record, a 4.25 ERA, a 1.144 walks plus hits per innings pitched ratio and 146 strikeouts in 24 games started. The Mets invited Verrett to spring training in 2014 as a non-roster player. He pitched for the Las Vegas 51s of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League in 2014, where he had an 11–5 record and a 4.33 ERA in 28 games.

Texas Rangers
During the 2014 Winter Meetings, the Baltimore Orioles selected Verrett from the Mets in the Rule 5 draft. After competing for a spot on the Orioles' Opening Day roster in spring training in 2015, the Orioles waived Verrett with the hopes of him going unclaimed so that they could work out a trade with the Mets, allowing them to keep Verrett. Instead, he was claimed on waivers by the Texas Rangers. Verrett made the Rangers' Opening Day roster. He made four appearances with the Rangers, pitching to a 6.00 ERA in nine innings, before he was designated for assignment by the Rangers on April 24.

With the Rangers, he finished 0-1, 6.00 ERA in 4 games pitching 9 innings with a WHIP of 1.667 while giving up 11 hits, 7 runs (6 of them earned), 1 home run, and 4 walks and striking out 3 batters.

Return to the Mets
The Rangers returned Verrett to the Mets on May 4, 2015, and assigned to Las Vegas. After Verrett pitched to a 2–0 win–loss record and a 3.00 ERA in 11 appearances, four of which were starts, the Mets promoted Verrett to the major leagues on June 18. Verrett pitched to a 0.73 ERA with 12 strikeouts in  innings before the Mets optioned him to Las Vegas due to the activation of Jenrry Mejía from the suspended list on July 7. The Mets promoted Verrett to the major leagues on August 18, when Bobby Parnell went on the disabled list. In his first major league start in place of Matt Harvey, Verrett pitched eight innings, striking out eight and giving up one run in his first career win against the Colorado Rockies at Coors Field with the Mets winning 5–1. Verrett finished the 2015 season with a 1–1 record and 3.03 ERA in  innings pitched.

Verrett made the Mets' roster for Opening Day in 2016. On April 13, 2016, Verrett made his first start of the season and second of his career against the Miami Marlins at Citi Field in place of Jacob deGrom. Verrett pitched six scoreless innings, and received a no decision.

On April 19, 2016, he made his second start of the year against the Philadelphia Phillies at Citizens Bank Park. He once again pitched six scoreless innings just allowing six hits, one walk and striking out four for his first win of the season. The Mets would go on to win 11–1. In his first two starts, he hasn't allowed a run while striking out ten in twelve innings. Verrett also recorded his first major league hit, a double on 1–0 pitch from the opposing pitcher Vince Velasquez to lead off the fifth inning.

Baltimore Orioles
The Mets traded Verrett to the Baltimore Orioles on November 30, 2016, for cash considerations. He made his Orioles debut on April 30, pitching 2 scoreless innings and getting the win. He elected free agency on September 30, 2017.

NC Dinos
On November 18, 2017, Verrett signed a one-year contract worth $800,000 with the NC Dinos of the KBO League. He became a free agent following the season.

Oakland Athletics
On February 8, 2019, Verrett signed a minor league deal with the Oakland Athletics. He became a free agent following the 2019 season.

Cleburne Railroaders
On March 12, 2021, Verrett signed with the Cleburne Railroaders of the American Association of Professional Baseball. Verrett made 1 appearance for Cleburne, pitching 6.0 innings of 1-run ball.

Seattle Mariners
On May 23, 2021, Verrett's contract was purchased by the Seattle Mariners organization. Verrett made 19 starts with the Triple-A Tacoma Rainiers, going 11–4 with a 4.74 ERA and 88 strikeouts. He became a free agent following the season.

Washington Nationals
On February 18, 2022, Verrett signed a minor league contract with the Washington Nationals. He elected free agency on November 10, 2022.

Personal life
Verrett and his wife, Erin, reside in Arlington, Texas.

References

External links

1990 births
Living people
Baseball players from Harris County, Texas
Baseball players from The Woodlands, Texas
Baseball players from Corpus Christi, Texas
Baylor University alumni
Major League Baseball pitchers
Texas Rangers players
New York Mets players
Baltimore Orioles players
Baylor Bears baseball players
Chatham Anglers players
Savannah Sand Gnats players
St. Lucie Mets players
Binghamton Mets players
Las Vegas 51s players
Norfolk Tides players
KBO League pitchers
American expatriate baseball players in South Korea
NC Dinos players
Midland RockHounds players
Tacoma Rainiers players
Cleburne Railroaders players
Rochester Red Wings players

Logan Verrett


Kateryna Serebrianska (born 25 October 1977 in Simferopol) is a Ukrainian former individual rhythmic gymnast. She is the 1996 Olympics gold medalist, the 1995 World All-around champion, a two time (1995,1996) European All-around champion, and three time Grand Prix Final All-around champion.

Life and career
Serebrianska was born in Simferopol, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union. She started gymnastics in 1982 at age 4, with her mother Liubov as her coach at the Gratsia club in Simferopol. She later moved to the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv, to train at the Deriugina School.

Serebrianska tied Bulgaria's Maria Petrova for the all-round title at the 1995 World Championships in Vienna, Austria. She also won several individual apparatus titles: rope at the 1993 World Championships in Alicante, Spain; hoop (tied with Belarusian Larissa Lukyanenko and Bulgarian Maria Petrova), ball (tied with Ukrainian teammate Olena Vitrychenko), clubs and ribbon in the 1994 World Championships in Paris, France; ball (tied with Russians Yanina Batyrchina and Amina Zaripova) at the 1995 Worlds in Vienna, Austria; and again in 1996 in Hungary. Her sweep of all 4 event finals golds at the 1994 World Championships is one of only two times in history this has been achieved, the other being Alexandra Timoshenko, and was all the more miracle after major mistakes in the All Around final put her in 4th place after being favored to win (ironically Timoshenko in 1991 also failed to win the All Around title, coming 2nd to teammate Oksana Skaldina, prior to sweeping the event final golds). She also won the 1996 European all-round title, together with the team gold, and gold on rope, ball and ribbon finals.

As the gold medal favorite after her dominance in 1994, 1995, and early 1996, at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, Serebrianska's technical strength, cleanliness, difficulty, and mature presentation won her the gold medal, although she had a slight fumble with the ribbon before her final toss. She was ahead of her closest rival, Russia's Yanina Batyrchina by 0.150 points going into the ribbon routine, who competed before her and dropped the ribbon.

Serebrianska, Alina Kabaeva, Olexandra Tymoshenko and Evgenia Kanaeva are the only rhythmic gymnasts to win World, European and Olympic titles.

At the 1997 European Championships in Greece, Serebrianska dropped a club at the end of her all-round clubs routine (9.825), but scores of 9.950 on both the rope and ribbon, and a 9.912 on hoop gave her an accumulated score of 29.637 and hence the bronze medal by 0.012 ahead of French competitor, Eva Serrano. In the apparatus finals, she won the gold in the rope event with a perfect 10.000, and took silver in the clubs and ribbon events. She did not compete at the 1997 World Championships due to an illness suffered by her mother. In her final major competition, the 1998 European Championships, she reached each of the apparatus final events. She won gold in the hoop final (9.950) and silver in rope (9.933). She also won bronze in the ribbon event (9.933), tying with the same score as Evgenia Pavlina of Belarus and Yanina Batyrchina of Russia, but winning the medal due to the new tie-breaker scoring system. She placed 6th (lost in the tie-breaker to Belarusian, Yulia Raskina) in the all-round final.

Serebrianska retired from rhythmic gymnastics in 1998.

Records
 Serebrianska became the first female rhythmic gymnast to hold the European, World, and Olympic all-round titles at the same time. This record was tied by Alina Kabaeva at the 2004 Athens Olympics and Evgenia Kanaeva at the 2012 London Olympics.
 Serebrianska has won gold medals in all of the apparatus in a single World Championship ( and has won on all five apparatus: rope, hoop, ball, clubs and ribbon), a record tied only by Bianka Panova, Oxana Kostina and Evgenia Kanaeva.
 Serebrianska is tied with Evgenia Kanaeva and Lilia Ignatova for three World gold medals in ball.
 Serebrianska is only one of the three rhythmic gymnasts ( with Alina Kabaeva and Evgenia Kanaeva ) to win all the Grand-slam titles (Olympics, World Championships, European Championships, World Cup Final and Grand Prix Final).

Routine music information

Detailed Olympic results

Notes and references

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Simferopol
Deriugins Gymnasts
Ukrainian rhythmic gymnasts
Gymnasts at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic gymnasts for Ukraine
Olympic gold medalists for Ukraine
Olympic medalists in gymnastics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships

Kateryna Serebrianska


George Thomas Stokes (1843–1898) was an Irish ecclesiastical historian.

Life
He was the eldest son of John Stokes of Athlone and Margaret Forster his wife, born on 28 December 1843 in Athlone, Ireland. He was educated at Galway grammar school, Queen's College, Galway, and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated B.A. in 1864. He subsequently proceeded M.A. 1871, B.D. 1881, and D.D. 1886.

In 1866, Stokes was ordained for the curacy of Dunkerrin in the diocese of Killaloe in the then established Church of Ireland, and in the following year was appointed to the curacy of St. Patrick's, Newry.
In 1868, he was nominated first vicar of the newly constituted charge of All Saints, Newtown Park, Co. Dublin, which he held till his death. In 1893, he was elected by the chapter of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, to the prebend and canonry of St. Andrew.

From the date of his appointment to All Saints, Stokes studied Irish ecclesiastical history of his own country.  Dr. Reichel made him his deputy in the chair of ecclesiastical history in the university of Dublin; and in 1883, Stokes was appointed his successor. Ireland and the Celtic Church, published in 1886, achieved an immediate success. It was followed in 1888 by his Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church, in which the history of Irish Christianity was traced through a further stage.

Stokes took on for the Expositor's Bible a "Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles" (1891). In 1887, he published, as the second volume of a Sketch of Universal History, a Sketch of Mediaeval History.
In 1891, he published an edition of Bishop Pococke's Tour in Ireland. He was an occasional contributor on subjects connected with theology and ecclesiastical history to the Contemporary Review. Among many articles in this periodical, that on Alexander Knox and the Oxford Movement is perhaps the most important (August 1887); and he produced numerous papers before the Royal Society of Antiquaries in Ireland, and the Royal Irish Academy. In 1887, he was appointed librarian of St. Patrick's Library, in Dublin, while continuing with clerical duties. In 1890, he was temporarily disabled by a partial stroke of paralysis, from the effects of which he never fully recovered. In 1896, he delivered a series of lectures entitled How to write a Parochial History; and the following year began a course of lectures on Great Irish Churchmen of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, which he did not live to complete; they were edited, under the title Some Worthies of the Irish Church (London, 1900), after his death by the Rev. H. J. Lawlor, who succeeded to his professorial chair.

On 24 March 1898, Stokes succumbed, after a brief struggle, to an attack of pneumonia. He was buried at Dean's Grange, Co. Dublin.

Family
Stokes was twice married: first, to Fanny, daughter of Thomas Pusey of Surbiton, Surrey, and secondly to Katherine, daughter of Henry J. Dudgeon of the Priory, Stillorgan, co. Dublin.

Publications
 Ireland and the Celtic Church. A History of Ireland from St Patrick to the English Conquest in 1172 (London, 1886)
 A commentary on the Acts 2 vols, in The Expositor's Bible (1888)
 Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church.  A History of Ireland and Irish Christianity from the Anglo-Norman Conquest to the Dawn of the Reformation (1889)
 Dudley Loftus: A Dublin Antiquary of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1890)
 The Island Monasteries of Wales and Ireland (1891)
 St Fechin of Fore, and his Monastery (1892)
 Greek in Gaul and Western Europe down to A.D. 700. The Knowledge of Greek in Ireland between A.D. 500 and 900 (1892)
 Calendar of the Liber Niger Alani (1893)
 The Writings of St Patrick, a Translation with Notes (1887) (in collaboration with C. H. H. Wright)

References

Attribution

External links

1843 births
1898 deaths
Irish historians of religion
People from Athlone
Historians of Christianity
19th-century Irish Anglican priests
Christian clergy from County Westmeath
Scholars and academics from County Westmeath

George Thomas Stokes


Vis and Rāmin (, Vis o Rāmin) is a classical Persian love story. The epic was composed in poetry by Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani (or "Gorgani") in the 11th century. Gorgani claimed a Sasanian origin for the story, but it is now regarded as of Parthian dynastic origin, probably from the 1st century AD. It has also been suggested that Gorgani's story reflects the traditions and customs of the period immediately before he himself lived. That cannot be ruled out, as stories retold from ancient sources often include elements drawn from the time of their narrator.

Framework
The framework of the story is the opposition of two Parthian ruling houses, one in the west and the other in the east. Gorgani originally belongs to Hyrcania which is one of main lands of Parthians. The existence of these small kingdoms and the feudalistic background point to a date in the Parthian period of Iranian history. The popularity of this pre-Islamic story in the Islamic period is mentioned by the poet himself, and shows that there was a demand for ancient themes and traditional lore.

Synopsis

The story is about Vis, the daughter of Shāhrū and Kāren, the ruling family of Māh (Media) in western Iran, and Ramin (Rāmīn), the brother to Mobed Manikan, the King of Marv in northeastern Iran. Manikan sees Shāhrū in a royal gala, wonders at her beauty, and asks her to marry him. She answers that she is already married, but she promises to give him her daughter if a girl is born to her.

Shāhrū gives birth to a girl and calls her Vis (or Viseh). She sends the infant to Khuzan to be raised by a wet-nurse who also happens to be raising Ramin, who is the same age as Vis. They grow up together. When Vis reaches adolescence, she returns to her mother, who marries Vis to her brother Viru. The marriage remains unconsummated because of Vis' menstruation, which by Zoroastrian law makes her unapproachable. Mobad Manikan finds out about the marriage celebration and sends his brother Zard to remind Shāhrū of her promise to give him Vis as his wife. Vis rejects Manikan's request and refuses to go. An aggrieved Manikan leads an army against Māh-abad. Vis's father, Qārin, is killed in the ensuing conflict, but Manikan also suffers a defeat from Viru. Manikan then takes his army to Gurab, where Vis is waiting the outcome of the battle. He sends a messenger to her, offering her various privileges in return for marrying him. Vis rejects Manikan's offer proudly and indignantly. Manikan asks advice from his two brothers Zard and Ramin. Ramin, who is already in love with Vis, attempts to dissuade Manikan from trying to marry her. However, Manikan's brother Zard suggests bribing Shāhrū as a way of winning over Vis. Manikan sends money and jewels to Shāhrū and bribes her to gain entry to the castle. He then takes Vis away, much to the chagrin of Viru.

On the journey back to Marv, Ramin catches a glimpse of Vis and is consumed with love for her, so much so that he falls off his horse and faints. Vis is given residence in the harem of Manikan and gifts are bestowed upon her. Vis's nurse also follows her to Marv, and attempts to persuade her to behave pragmatically, accept Manikan and forget Viru. Vis at first has a hard time accepting her fate, but eventually resigns herself to life in the harem.

Still mourning her father's death and her kidnapping, Vis refuses to give herself to Manikan for a year. Her nurse makes a talisman that renders Manikan impotent for one month. The spell can be broken only if the talisman is broken, and it is swept away in a flood and lost, so that Manikan is never able to sleep with his bride. Meanwhile, after many attempts to contact Vis, Ramin finally meets with her and the two consummate their love while Manikan is away at war.

When Manikan returns, he overhears a conversation between the nurse and Vis, and realizes his wife loves Ramin. Manikan demands that Vis prove her chastity by undergoing trial by fire. But Vis and Ramin elope. Manikan's mother makes peace between Ramin and the king, and they all go back to Marv.

Manikan takes Ramin along on a campaign against the Romans, but Ramin falls sick and is left behind. Ramin goes back to Vis, who is imprisoned in a castle by Manikan and guarded by the king's other brother Zard. Ramin scales the wall and spends his time with Vis until Manikan comes back from the war and Ramin escapes.

Ramin thinks that his love with Vis has no future, so he asks Manikan to send him to Maah on a mission. There, Ramin falls in love with a woman called Gol and marries her. Vis finds about this and sends her nurse to Ramin to remind him of their love. Ramin sends back a harsh reply. Vis sends an elaborate message pleading with him to come back. At this time, Ramin was bored from his married life and after he receives the second message he goes back to Vis. But when he reaches Marv on his horseback in a snow storm, Vis goes to the roof of the castle and rejects his love. Ramin goes off desperately. Vis regrets what she has done and sends the nurse after Ramin. They reconcile.

Manikan takes Ramin hunting while Vis and the nurse with some other women attend a fire temple nearby. Ramin leaves the hunt, disguises himself as a woman to enter the temple, and flees with Vis. They go back to the castle and, with help from Ramin's men, kill the garrison and Zard as well. They then escaped to Dailam, on the coast of the Caspian Sea. Manikan is killed by a boar during the hunt. Vis and Ramin come back to Marv and Ramin sits on the throne as the king and marries Vis. Ramin reigns for 83 years. In the 81st year Vis dies and Ramin hands over the kingdom to his eldest son with Vis and goes and mourn on Vis' tomb for 2 years, after which he joins her in the afterlife.

Influence

The Vis and Ramin story had a noticeable influence on Persian literature. Significantly, Nizami, himself a major poet of Persian romantic traditions, took the bases of much of his rhetoric from Gorgani.

The romance also has had its influence beyond Persian culture. The story became very popular also in Georgia through a 12th-century free translation in prose known as Visramiani, which had a longlasting effect on the Georgian literature. Being the oldest known manuscript of the work and better preserved than the original, it is of great importance for the history of the Persian text and helps restore several corrupted lines in the Persian manuscripts.

Vladimir Minorsky did a four-part study of the story and was convinced of its Parthian origin.

Some scholars have suggested that Vis and Ramin may have influenced the Tristan and Iseult legend, and the two plots have distinct resemblances. Nevertheless, views have differed about the connection between these two stories.

Excerpt

An excerpt where the beauty of Vis is described:

Metre
Gorgani's poem is composed in the hazaj meter, one of the seven Persian metres traditionally used for writing long poems. The 11-syllable line has this structure:

 u – – – | u – – – | u – –

 u = short syllable; – = long syllable

The first couplet of the extract quoted above reads as follows:
  u  – –   –   u –  –   –   u  – –

  u  –  –   –   u  –  –  –   u  – –

The same metre is used in Nezami's romantic epic Khusrow o Shirin, completed in 1192.

Notes

See also
 Shahnameh (Iran's national epic book)
 Firdowsi (Writer of Shahnameh)
 Persian literature
 Persian mythology

References

 Julie Scott Meisami, Medieval Persian Court Poetry, Princeton, 1987.
 Vladimir Minorsky, "Vis u Ramin: A Parthian Romance," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, vol. XI, 1943–46, pp. 741–63; Vol. XII, 1947–1948, pp. 20–35; Vol. XVI, 1954, pp. 91–92; "New Developments". Vol. XXV, 1962, pp. 275–86. Read online

English translations

External links
 Vīs u Rāmīn, The Persian Epic on The Love of Vīs and Rāmīn, by Fakhr al-dīn Gorgānī, Persian Critical Text composed from the Persian and Georgian oldest manuscripts by Magali A. Todua and Alexander A. Gwakharia, edited by Kamal S. Aini (Tehran 1970). Digitized text: University of Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
 Vīs u Rāmīn, audiobook, recorded by Ahmad Karimi Hakkak at University of Washington, USA.
 Dick Davis (January 6, 2005), "Vis o Rāmin", in: Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition. Accessed on April 4, 2010.

Love stories
Persian mythology
Persian poems
Epic poems in Persian
11th-century poems
11th-century Persian books

Vis and Rāmin


Kurt Goldstein (November 6, 1878 – September 19, 1965) was a German neurologist and psychiatrist who created a holistic theory of the organism. Educated in medicine, Goldstein studied under Carl Wernicke and Ludwig Edinger where he focused on neurology and psychiatry. His clinical work helped inspire the establishment of The Institute for Research into the Consequences of Brain Injuries. Goldstein was forced to leave Germany when Hitler came to power because of his Jewish heritage. After being displaced, Goldstein wrote The Organism (1934). This focused on patients with psychological disorders, particularly cases of schizophrenia and war trauma, and the ability of their bodies to readjust to substantial losses in central control. His holistic approach to the human organism produced the principle of self actualization, defined as the driving force that maximizes and determines the path of an individual. Later, his principle influenced Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He was the co-editor of Journal of Humanistic Psychology.

Background

Early life

Goldstein was born into a Jewish family the seventh of nine children. He lived in Upper Silesia in an eastern part of the German empire with his family. Goldstein's father was a successful owner of a lumberyard. Although not formally educated, Goldstein's father held scholarship in high regard. He felt that a good education was the most proper way to prepare for life, and because of this, ensured that all his sons obtained university degrees.

As a child, Goldstein was described as being shy, quiet, and bookish amidst his bustling surroundings. His love of reading earned him the nickname of "Professor" at the public school he attended in Kattowitz. The Goldstein family relocated to the metropolitan city of Breslau after a few years, where Goldstein attended the Humanistische Gymnasium. After graduation, Goldstein planned to study philosophy at the university level. His father did not approve of this venture, as he considered it an unprofitable art, and sent Goldstein to work at a relative's business.

Academic career

After a short period working at that business, Goldstein's father reluctantly allowed him to enroll at Breslau University. Goldstein stayed there for only one semester before he transferred to the University of Heidelberg where he was able to pursue the study of Neo-Kantian philosophy and literature where he was introduced to the concepts of Carl Wernicke. One year later, Goldstein made his way back to Breslau where he studied medicine, much to his father's satisfaction. Under the instruction of Wernicke, Goldstein focused his study on neurology and psychiatry. Goldstein obtained his medical degree at the age of 25.

In 1903, Ludwig Edinger invited Goldstein to the Senckebergisches Neurologisches Institut at the University of Frankfurt where he became Edinger's assistant (Oct 1903 - Sept 1904). Edinger became one of the most influential figures in Goldstein's career. After a stint in Königsberg, Goldstein returned to work with Edinger in 1914 at the Neurological Institute in Frankfurt as first assistant. Their goal was to investigate comparative neuroanatomy and neuropathology. After Edinger's death in 1918, Goldstein became acting director of the Neurological Institute. From 1917 to 1927, Goldstein yielded conceptual aspects of neurological conditions including tonus disturbances, agnosia, aphasia, apraxia, and general behavioral changes after a brain injury. In July 1922, he was appointed associate professor for Neurology and director of the Neurological Institute. In 1923, he assumed the role of professor of neurology.

In 1926, Fritz Perls became Goldstein's assistant for a year. Perls married Laura Posner in 1930. They would go on to become the co-developers of Gestalt therapy. Goldstein's research and theory had a considerable influence on the formation of this new psychotherapy. Later that year, Goldstein accepted a position at the University of Berlin and the director of neurology at Berlin-Moabit General Hospital. The hospital was established for Goldstein's patients to study their neurological conditions.

In 1927, Goldstein was instrumental in organizing the International Society for Psychotherapy.[NAS1]  He published material on the roles of the nurse, physician and social worker for in care of brain-injured patients. In 1938, he was to read the William James Lectures on Philosophy and Psychology at Harvard and were later published. He was clinical professor of neurology at Tufts Medical School. He was active on the staff of the Boston Dispensary's clinic for nervous diseases.

Professional career

Between 1906 and 1914, Goldstein worked in a psychiatric clinic in Königsberg. Here he realized that the patients were not receiving adequate treatment. During World War I, Goldstein took advantage of the large number of traumatic brain injuries at the clinic, and established The Institute for Research into the Consequences of Brain Injuries in close cooperation with , a gestalt psychologist. The collaboration between the two resulted in 16 papers, the most notable of which reported on a case of visual agnosia. Goldstein served as the director of the clinic until 1930. It was there that he also developed his theory of brain-mind relationships. He applied the figure-ground principle from perception to the whole organism. In this application, the whole organism existed as the ground for the individual stimulus that formed the figure. This idea became an early criticism of the simple behavioral stimulus-response-theory.

When Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933, Goldstein, was arrested and imprisoned in a basement. After a week, he was released on the condition that he would agree to leave the country immediately and never return. For the next year Goldstein lived in Amsterdam, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation, and wrote his classic The Organism.

Goldstein immigrated to the United States of America in October 1934 and became a citizen in April 1941. He worked at the Psychiatric Institute in New York City, Montefiore Hospital as attending neurologist and made connections with Columbia University in New York. Between 1940 and 1945, Goldstein worked at the Tufts Medical School in Boston as the clinical professor of neurology. In 1946 he returned to New York City, where he established a private practice.

While in the United States, Goldstein coined the phrase "self actualization". Goldstein met American psychologist Abraham Maslow, who was at Brandeis University. Maslow became influenced greatly by Goldstein's ideas, particularly self-actualization. Later, this principle would become a fundamental concept in Maslow's "Need - Hierarchy Theory of Motivation". Self-actualization was an essential component to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, but differed from Goldstein's original concept. Maslow described self-actualization as realizing one's full potential and seeking personal growth. Maslow felt that self-actualization would only be met if all fundamental needs had been satisfied first.

Holistic approach

Goldstein's holistic approach is described in his book, The Organism. Rather than looking at certain phenomena, such as the patellar reflex, as singular events, Goldstein tried to understand them as components of a holistic organism. Although he believed it was possible that reflexes could exist by themselves, Goldstein's approach postulated that they always exist in concurrence with another process in the body. While hitting the kneecap with a rubber hammer or testing the pupillary response might seem to be a simple example of an isolated reflex, Goldstein argued that a holistic approach would be necessary to fully understand what the body is experiencing. In an excerpt from The Organism, he writes:

If, in examining a man's pupillary reflex, we obtain a relatively constant contraction of the iris, this is possible only because the individual, so to speak, surrenders his eye to us and completely foregoes the usual act of seeing, i.e. the visual prehension of some environmental feature. Of course, it is true that in real vision the diameter of the pupil changes according to the amount of light on the seen object. But it certainly is not true that the same light intensity will produce the same contraction when it affects the organ in isolation (as in the reflex examination), and when it acts upon the eye of the person who deliberately regards an objects. Although it is not easy to prove this experimentally, one only needs to contrast the pupillary reaction of a man looking interestedly at a brightly illuminated object with the reaction of an eye which has been exposed "in isolation," to the same light intensity. The difference in pupillary reaction is immediately manifest.

Goldstein asserts that, when observing a phenomenon within an organism, humans instinctively isolate that observation from the context in an attempt to understand it better. Yet, in doing so, they miss the essence or intrinsic nature of the organism. Rather than attempting to understand single facets of a situation, Goldstein believes it is essential to understand the situation in which the phenomenon arose.

To illustrate this idea, Goldstein gives the example of a person first learning how to ride a bicycle. Initially, the person will attempt various motions in an attempt to succeed. While some motions fail to manifest in success, eventually the individual will understand how to coordinate their body in respect to the bicycle, and ride it successfully. While a smoothly propelled bicycle may signify accomplishment, looking at the coordinated movements of the learner and the smile that results is also another sign. Thus, when looking at a single aspect of a phenomenon instead of the whole, Goldstein argues one misses the true nature of the phenomenon.

Methodology

Goldstein developed an approach whereby a situation or phenomenon is analyzed holistically, rather than simply looking at an isolated event. First, when observing a situation, interpretations should be taken in as a whole without giving special preference toward one part of the phenomenon. When describing the phenomenon, attention should not be diverted to one aspect of the phenomenon that may be of interest. The holistic approach calls instead for the phenomenon to be described from all angles without bias toward one part. Lastly, Goldstein argues that one must consider each and every phenomenon in reference to the entire situation.

Major contributions to psychology

Schizophrenia

Although trained as a medical doctor, Goldstein pioneered many important advances in psychology. As an early pioneer of neuropsychology, he studied the effects of brain damage on abstraction abilities. His work lead him to conclude that although physical areas of the brain, such as the frontal lobes and the subcortical ganglia, may be damaged, psychological trauma was a more pressing concern. His conclusions on schizophrenia emphasized the disease as a protective mechanism against anxiety rather than an organic defect.

War trauma

Following the research of German neurologist, Hermann Oppenheim, on war-related trauma, Goldstein focused upon understanding the trauma of soldiers returning from duty in World War I. At the time, physicians thought soldiers were merely faking symptoms in order to receive a pension after the war and there was little research to prove otherwise. Goldstein and his team attempted to look at this from a holistic perspective by theorizing that all neural networks were interconnected and thus, connected to the outside world. Therefore, any trauma one receives from the war would directly impact the neural networks.

Goldstein later attempted to rehabilitate patients suffering from war trauma. At the time, suffering veterans were placed in penitentiaries and asylums. Goldstein attempted to bring back normal function of patients by introducing multidisciplinary care teams consisting of medical, orthopedic, physiological, and psychological personnel, as well as a school facility to provide workshops for patients. His efforts resulted in successful rehabilitation of many soldiers: 73% of patients were able to return to their old jobs while only 10% remained hospitalized.

Publications

Books/monographs

 Goldstein, Kurt. (1908). Zur Lehre von der motorischen Apraxie. J. fur Psychol. und Neurol., XI., 169-187, 270-283.
 Goldstein, Kurt. (1934). Der Aufbau des Organismus. Einführung in die Biologie unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Erfahrungen am kranken Menschen. Den Haag, Nijhoff, 1934
 Goldstein, Kurt. (1939). The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man. New York: American Book Company.
 Goldstein, Kurt. (1940). Human Nature in the Light of Psychopathology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
 Goldstein, Kurt; Scheerer, Martin.(1941): Abstract and Concrete Behavior: An Experimental Study With Special Tests. In: Psychological Monographs, ed. by John F. Dashell, Vol. 53/1941, No. 2 (whole No. 239), p. 1-151.
 Goldstein, Kurt. (1942) After effects of brain injuries in war. New York: Grune & Stratton.
 Goldstein, Kurt., Hanfmann, E., Rickers-Ovsiankina (1944). Case Lanuti: Extreme Concretization of Behavior Due to Damage of the Brain Cortex. In: Psychological Monographs, ed. by John F. Dashell, Vol. 57/1944, No. 4 (whole No. 264), p. 1-72.
 Goldstein, Kurt., Scheerer, M., Rothmann, E. (1945). A Case of "Idiot Savant": An Experimental Study of Personality Organization. In: Psychological Monographs, ed. by John F. Dashell, Vol. 58/1945, No. 4 (whole No. 269), p. 1-63.
 Goldstein, Kurt. (1948). Language and Language Disturbances: Aphasic Symptom Complexes and Their Significance for Medicine and Theory of Language. New York: Grune & Stratton.
 Goldstein, Kurt. (1967). Selected writings. ed., Aron Gurwitsch, Else M. Goldstein.

On Goldstein

 Benzenhöfer, Udo. "Kurt Goldstein - ein herausragender Neurologe und Neuropathologe an der Universität Frankfurt am Main" Benzenhöfer, U., Ehrlich, Edinger, Goldstein et al.: Erinnerungswürdige Frankfurter Universitätsmediziner. Münster/Ulm 2012, pp. 43–65 Bruns, Katja, Anthropologie zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft bei Paul Tillich und Kurt Goldstein. Historische Grundlagen und systematische Perspektiven. Kontexte. Neue Beiträge zur historischen und systematischen Theologie, Vol. 41. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht, 2011,   Geroulanos, Stefanos and Todd Meyers. The Human Body in the Age of Catastrophe: Brittleness, Integration, Science, and the Great War. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018)
  Geroulanos, Stefanos and Todd Meyers, Experimente im Individuum: Kurt Goldstein und die Frage des Organismus. (Berlin, August Vlg., 2014)
 Harrington, Anne: Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler, Princeton University Press, 1999. (Anne Harrington dedicates a comprehensive chapter to Kurt Goldstein and his 'organismic theory'.) Stahnisch, Frank W., Hoffmann, Thomas: Kurt Goldstein and the Neurology of Movement During the Interwar Years. In: Hoffstadt, Christian u. a. (Hrsg.): Was bewegt uns? Menschen im Spannungsfeld zwischen Mobilität und Beschleunigung. Bochum/Freiburg: Projekt Verlag, 2010, pp. 283–311 Teuber, H.-L. (1966) Kurt Goldstein's role in the development of neuropsychology, Neuropsychologia 4, 299–310. Benzenhöfer, Udo, Hack-Molitor, Gisela: Zur Emigration des Neurologen Kurt Goldstein. Ulm 2017'' (Frankfurter Studien zur Geschichte und Ethik der Medizin, Neue Folge 5)

See also

 Neuropsychology
 Organismic theory
 Gestalt Psychology
 Self-actualization
 Humanistic psychology

References

External links
 Kurt Goldstein Biography
 A History of Speech - Language Pathology

Two articles that discuss Goldstein's influence on and contribution to Gestalt therapy:
Achim Votsmeier: Kurt Goldstein and Holism
Allen R. Barlow:  Gestalt Therapy and Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt-antecedent influence or historical accident

1878 births
1965 deaths
People from Katowice
Physicians from the Province of Silesia
German neurologists
Jewish physicians
Academic staff of Goethe University Frankfurt
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
Heidelberg University alumni
University of Breslau alumni
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Academic journal editors
New York State Psychiatric Institute people

Kurt Goldstein


Tunahan Kuzu (born 1 June 1981 in Istanbul) is a Dutch politician of the DENK party. He was political leader from 2015 to 2020 (succeeded by Farid Azarkan).

He has been a member of the Second Chamber since 2012 and was also parliamentary group leader from 2014 to 2020. Previously he was a councillor of the municipality of Rotterdam.

Kuzu was a member of the Labour Party but left the party in 2014, together with fellow parliamentarian Selçuk Öztürk. Both founded the political party of DENK in 2015. By creating this party they wanted to support the interests of non-Western citizens.

He studied public administration at Erasmus University Rotterdam and worked as a health care specialist at the consulting firm of PricewaterhouseCoopers.

He is a Muslim and of Turkish descent.

References
  Bio at Parlement.com

1981 births
Living people
Dutch councillors
Dutch Muslims
Leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Independent politicians in the Netherlands
Labour Party (Netherlands) politicians
Members of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands
Naturalised citizens of the Netherlands

Tunahan Kuzu


Haydn Tanner (9 January 1917 – 5 June 2009) was a Welsh international rugby union player who represented both Wales and the British and Irish Lions. At club level he played for several top-flight teams, including Bristol, Cardiff, Swansea, London Welsh and the Barbarians.

Personal history
Tanner was educated at Gowerton Grammar School and was still a schoolboy when he played at scrum-half for Swansea against the All Blacks at St. Helens in 1935. Swansea won the game by 11 points to 3, with Tanner and his cousin Willie Davies outstanding. The New Zealand captain, Jack Manchester, is said to have passed back the message to New Zealand: "Tell them we have been beaten, but don't tell them it was by a pair of schoolboys".

In December the same year Tanner won his first cap for Wales at the age of 18 years and 11 months, making him one of the youngest players to appear for Wales. The match was again against the All Blacks and Tanner was again on the winning side. He went on to win 25 international caps, 12 as captain, despite his career being interrupted by the Second World War.

Tanner toured South Africa with the British and Irish Lions in 1938 and played in only one test owing to injury. In 1948 he was captain of the Barbarians against Australia. His last international match was against France in 1949.

He was undoubtedly one of the greatest scrum-halves to ever play the game and, according to the 1950 Lion, Bleddyn Williams, he was 'the greatest': "Among all the scrum-halves I've seen and played with, he would reign supreme," said Williams. "He had a superb pass – the best I ever played with. His service was even better than Gareth Edwards."

After retiring from rugby, he became an industrial chemist working in the wood pulp trade for Thompson and Norris. He later became a buyer for Reed International and travelled extensively. He attended the Harvard Business School and became purchasing director for Reed Paper and Board UK. He retired in November, 1980. Having moved to Surrey, he became coach of Esher and became a member of London Welsh.

Tanner died in his sleep on the 5 June 2009, aged 92.

References

1917 births
2009 deaths
Barbarian F.C. players
British & Irish Lions rugby union players from Wales
Cardiff RFC players
London Welsh RFC players
People educated at Gowerton Grammar School
Rugby union players from Penclawdd
Rugby union scrum-halves
Swansea RFC players
Wales international rugby union players
Wales rugby union captains
Welsh rugby union players

Haydn Tanner


Richmond and Hillcroft Adult Community College is a further education college located in Richmond and Surbiton in Greater London. It was established in 2017 by a merger between Richmond Adult Community College and the specialist Hillcroft College.

History
The college's Richmond campus traces its roots to the 19th century as a technical institute. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was no reasonable secondary education in Barnes and Richmond for miles around, except for those who could afford private tuition or send their children many miles to school. In the most populous areas of Surrey, (e.g. Sutton, Wimbledon and Richmond) parents were for the most part obliged to be content to give their children an elementary education. Richmond County was to be one of a series of new technical buildings erected or being erected by the county council in the seven principal towns of the county. The site was opened on 2 July 1895 on land in Kew Road, Richmond and was fee paying. The buildings occupied a prominent site on the Kew Road at the corner of Selwyn Avenue. This building housed both the Technical Institute and secondary school. When the school merged with Sheen Grammar School in 1939 the school moved out of the Kew Road premises leaving the Technical Institute as sole occupants of the Kew Road site.

The technical institute continued up to the Second World War when it was put on a war-time basis and used as an ARP (Air Raid Precautions) and ambulance depot. It was revived as the Technical Institute and School of Art for Richmond and Barnes in 1947 and in 1954 renamed as the Richmond Institute of Further Education. In 1970 it became the Richmond Adult College and in 1978 transferred to the Parkshot site, vacant with the closure of Richmond County School for Girls and as the Richmond Adult & Community College remains at that site. The college also previously occupied The Clifden Centre in Twickenham, the campus of the former Twickenham County Grammar School for Girls (which became the comprehensive Twickenham Girls' School). The college relocated from the Clifden Centre to the main college campus in September 2014, making way for St Richard Reynolds Catholic College.

The college's site in Surbiton was previously Hillcroft College, a residential adult education college for women. Originally called The National Residential College for Women, the college was established in 1920, and has always been a residential college solely for the education of adult women. The college was intended to be a female equivalent to Ruskin College in Oxford. In this regard, Hillcroft College was unique in the British further education sector. The college was owned and operated by the Hillcroft Charitable Trust. The college's joint founder, and first principal (1929–1933) was Fanny Street. Street was acting principal of Royal Holloway College (RHC), University of London, from 1944 to 1945 when Edith Clara Batho took over.

In September 2017, Richmond Adult Community College and Hillcroft College merged to form Richmond and Hillcroft Adult Community College.

Location
The college's Richmond campus is situated on Twickenham Road (A316) just west of the Richmond Circus roundabout with the A307. It is opposite the Old Deer Park, and just north of Richmond tube station. The Hillcroft campus is at South Bank, Surbiton.

Courses
The college offers a range of courses including GCSEs, NVQs and Access courses. In addition, the college offers some higher education courses in conjunction with the University of Westminster.

References

External links
 Official website: Richmond campus
 Official website: Hillcroft campus

1895 establishments in England
Adult education in the United Kingdom
Education in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
Education in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames
Educational institutions established in 1895
Former women's universities and colleges in the United Kingdom
Further education colleges in London
Grade II listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames
Richmond, London
Surbiton


K. G. Corfield Ltd was an innovative camera and lens manufacturing company based in Wolverhampton. The company produced high quality cameras and lenses basing many design features on the Leica range of 35mm cameras. One unique design was employed in the Periflex series of cameras which utilised a novel periscope viewing system to achieve fine focus. A miniature periscope descended into the optical path of the lens when the film was advanced. This provided a much enlarged view of the central area of the film frame. When the shutter was released, the periscope sprung vertically up out of the optical path and then the horizontal cloth focal plane shutter operated.

The company also produced other photographic equipment including the Lumimeter, an exposure meter for use in the darkroom based on the comparison between reflected light from the enlarger and a variable transmitted light from the meter observed in a split screen. When both sides were equally lit, the dial controlling the variable light showed the correct exposure.
The driving force behind the company and its products was Sir Kenneth Corfield

In January 1959, the camera manufacturer moved from Wolverhampton to Ballymoney, becoming the only camera manufacturers on the island of Ireland. In the face of face of Japanese and German competition, the enterprise failed. The company ceased trading in 1971
Subsequently, Sir Kenneth Corfield resurrected the firm to build the Architect camera and to become involved in the production of Gandolfi cameras.

Products

 Periflex
 Periflex 2
 Periflex 3
 Goldstar
 Interplan
 Architect
 Lumimeter

Distributors for
 Prestolite Electric alternators
 Shirley Wellard Universal Cassettes

References

Cameras
Photography companies of the United Kingdom
Lens manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Wolverhampton
Defunct manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom
Photography in the United Kingdom

K. G. Corfield Ltd


Alternative or alternate may refer to:

Arts, entertainment and media
 Alternative (Kamen Rider), a character in the Japanese TV series Kamen Rider Ryuki
 Alternative comedy, a range of styles used by comedians and writers in the 1980s
 Alternative comics, a genre of comic strips and books
 Alternative media, media practices falling outside the mainstreams of corporate communication
 Alternative reality, in fiction
 Alternative title, the use of a secondary title for a work when it is distributed or sold in other countries

Music
 Alternative (album), a B-sides album by Pet Shop Boys
 The Alternative (album), an album by IAMX
 "Randy Scouse Git" (released as "Alternate Title" in the UK), by the Monkees, 1967
 "Altern-ate", song by H-el-ical//, 2020

Genres
 Alternative country
 Alternative dance
 Alternative hip hop
 Alternative metal
 Alternative R&B
 Alternative reggaeton
 Alternative rock, also known as "alternative music" or simply "alternative"
 Indie pop, sometimes known as "alternative pop"
 Indie folk, sometimes known as "alternative folk"

Culture and society
 Alternate (sports), a replacement or backup for a regular or starting team player
 Alternative culture, a variety of subcultures existing along the fringes of mainstream culture
 Alternative dispute resolution, processes and techniques outside the traditional mainstream of jurisprudence
 Alternative fashion, for example Gothic fashion, Punk fashion, Fetish fashion
 Alternative lifestyle, a lifestyle that is not within the cultural norm
 Alternative medicine, healing practice that does not fall within the realm of conventional medicine

Education
 Alternative education, non-traditional education
 Alternative school, a school geared towards students whose needs cannot be met in a traditional school

Mathematics and science
 Alternative algebra, an abstract algebra with alternative multiplication
 Alternativity, a weaker property than associativity
 Alternate leaves, a classification in botanical phyllotaxis

Other uses
 Alternative investment, investment other than stocks, bond (finance), money funds, and cash

Alternatives


Men Reading or The Reading (Spanish: La Lectura) or Politicians are names given to a fresco painting likely completed between 1820 and 1823 by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya. It is one of Goya's 14 Black Paintings (Pinturas negras) painted late in his life when, living alone in physical pain, spiritual torment and  disillusionment with the political direction of Spain, he painted 14 bleak, agonised frescoes onto the walls of the Quinta del Sordo (House of the deaf man), the house he was living in alone outside Madrid.

As with the others in the series, it was transferred to canvas in 1873–74 under the supervision of Salvador Martínez Cubells, a curator at the Museo del Prado. The owner, Baron Emile d'Erlanger, donated the work to the Spanish state in 1881, and they are now on display at the Prado.

Description
Men Reading shows a group of six men huddled together reading a printed page held in the lap of a seated central figure. Although it is not known for certain, they are often thought to be politicians reading, and passing comments on, a newspaper article about themselves. Goya most likely placed the work on a smaller wall of the first floor of the Quinto, next to its companion piece Women Laughing and opposite The Dog and Two Old Men Eating Soup.

X-ray reveals that the image was dramatically altered before Goya settled on what is now on the canvas. At some stage a landscape in the background showed a mounted rider. The central figure in white at one point had large horns, or possibly bird wings, seemingly growing out of his head. From studying the x-rays art historian Carmen Garrido discovered that  the center of the image contained a large white lead impasto beginning at the head of the man looking upwards, and that "both the part on top of the impasto and that which is level with the rest of the painting are identical, and have neither the texture nor the normal structure of the authentic brushstrokes of the painter."

Thematically and stylistically it shares characteristics with another work from the Black Paintings series, Women Laughing. Both are vertical rather than horizontal and smaller in scale than the other works. Both are thematically less dark than the other works in the series, although they are chromatically darker. Both are lit by identical light falling from the upper left of the pictorial space. Women Laughing shows two hags mocking a man in the act of masturbating, while in Men reading, according to writer Francisco-Xavier de Salas Bosch, "the incessant talk of the politicians...was perhaps, in Goya's eyes, as sterile as the solitary pleasure which the women are making fun of."

See also
List of works by Francisco Goya

References

Bibliography
 de Salas Bosch, Francisco-Xavier. Goya. NY:Mayflower Books, 1978.
 Junquera, Juan José. The Black Paintings of Goya. London: Scala Publishers, 2008.
 Hughes, Robert. Goya. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004.
 Licht, Fred. Goya: The Origins of the Modern temper in Art. Universe Books, 1979.

External links
 Digital tour of the Quinta del Sordo

1820s paintings
Paintings by Francisco Goya

Men Reading