Anncharlott Eschmann (September 24, 1941, Munich – April 6, 1977, New Delhi) was a scholar of religion.

She was born in Munich, the first daughter of Professor Ernst Wilhelm Eschmann, a renowned Professor of Philosophy, and Mrs. Charlott Eschmann, a retired psychotherapist. She grew up in Roman Catholic Ticino (Switzerland), where her parents' house had become a constant meeting place of members of the Eranos Society.  Eschmann studied Protestant theology, comparative religion and Indology in Marburg and Heidelberg. In 1969, she submitted her PhD thesis on the topic of "The idea of history in Aztec religion".

As a member of the Orissa Research Projekt, Eschmann went to India in autumn 1970. There, she encountered, for the first time, Vishwanath Baba in Joranda.  Eschmann's academic research focussed on "sectarian" movements such as the Samaritans, the oppressed Jewish offspring, and Mahima dharma and the modern reform movement in Orissa. She explored the phenomenon which Srinivas labelled as Sanskritization, i.e. the continuing incorporation of "prehistoric" and popular beliefs into "high" traditions. Her work on Jagannath and Narasimha exemplified the relation of tribal deities and the Jagannath cult of Puri. From 1975, Eschmann was the head of the New Delhi branch of Heidelberg's South Asia Institute.  Anncharlott Eschmann died on April 6, 1977, in New Delhi.

Published works

 "Die Funktion der Geschichte im religiösen Weltbild Altmexikos". In Verhandlungen des 38. Internationalen Amerikanistenkongresses, 1968, Band II. Munich 1970: 353-359.
 "Typen der Erlösung - Bericht von der religionsgeschichtlichen Studienkonferenz in Jerusalem vom 14. bis 19. Juli 1968". In Kairos, Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft und Theologie, Heft 4, 1968: 286-288.
 "Die Samaritaner. 2700 Jahre Glaubensgeschichte zwischen Judentum, Christentum und Islam". In Gehört - Gelesen. Manuskriptauslese der interessantesten Sendungen des Bayrischen Rundfunks, Nr. 1, Januar 1970: 58-65.
 "Spread, Organisation and Cult of Mahima Dharma". In An Inter-Disciplinary Seminar on Mahima Dharma and Darshan, edited by D. Panda, Koraput 1972: 7-11.
 "Der Avataragedanke im Hinduismus des Neunzehnten und Zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts". In Numen: International Review for the History of Religions, vol. 19, 1972: 229-240.
 "The Role of Hindu Tradition in Contemporary India: An Interdisciplinary Study of the Temple City of Puri and the Jagannatha Cult". In Bulletin of the South Asia Institute of Heidelberg University, 1973: 92-99.
 "Religion, Reaction and Change: The Role of Sects in Hinduism". In Religion and Development in Asian Societies, Colombo 1974: 143-157.
 "Religion and Religions in Modern Hinduism". In South Asian Digest of Regional Writing, Heidelberg 1975: 2-20.
 "Spread, Organisation and Cult of Mahima Dharma". In Satya Mahima Dharma, edited by S.N. Senapati, Cuttack 1975: Dharma Grantha Store: 9-22.
 "Das religiöse Geschichtsbild der Azteken", Berlin 1976: Gebrüder Mann.
 "Hinduisation of Tribal Gods and Cults: The Shaiva and Shakta Typology". In The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, edited by A. Eschmann, H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathi, Delhi 1978: Manohar: 79-97.
 "Hinduisation of Tribal Gods and Cults: The Vaishnava Typlogy". In The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, edited by A. Eschmann, H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathi, Delhi 1978: Manohar.
 "Hinduisation of a Ritual: Prototypes of Jagannatha's Navakalevara Ceremony". In The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, edited by A. Eschmann, H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathi, Delhi 1978: Manohar
 "Mahima Dharma - an Autochthonous Hindu Reform Movement". In The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa, edited by A. Eschmann, H. Kulke and G.C. Tripathi, Delhi 1978: Manohar.
 "Baum, Stein und Pfahl: Symbolik der Indischen Volksreligion". In Symbolon. Jahrbuch für Symbolforschung, Bd. 3, Köln, 1977.

German scholars
Religion academics
1941 births
1977 deaths
German expatriates in Switzerland
German expatriates in India

Anncharlott Eschmann


Judith Catchpole, a young maidservant in colonial America, was tried in 1656 for witchcraft and infanticide before one of the earliest all-female juries in  the United States. According to popular belief, all-female juries did not occur until much later.  The state of Wyoming claims the first all woman jury was empaneled in Laramie on March 7, 1870. Even after the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was passed in 1920, not all states permitted all female juries.

Catchpole was an indentured servant in the  colony of Maryland, arriving there by boat  from the Commonwealth of England in January 1656. Upon her arrival she was accused of several  crimes, resulting in a trial on September 22, 1656 in the General Provincial Court in Patuxent County, Maryland. This trial was   the first  to have an all-female jury in  colonial Maryland and one of the earliest in colonial America.

Circumstances
Catchpole was accused of murdering her child and of other bizarre acts, by the indentured servant of William Bramhall, a fellow passenger on the ship "Mary and Francis"; her accuser died after making the accusations. She was accused of killing her child, cutting the throat of a female passenger while the woman was asleep, and stabbing a seaman in the back. Before he died he made known his accusations to other passengers, stating that Catchpole had committed these acts while the other passengers were asleep.  No other passengers substantiated these accusations, nor could any account for how Catchpole had hidden a pregnancy during the voyage and given birth on a small ship without others seeing evidence of this.  Catchpole claimed she had never been pregnant.

It was decided that an all-female jury was needed because the issues of pregnancy and birth required female expertise. Composed of seven married women and four single women, the trial was ordered by the General Provincial Court at Patuxent for  September 22, 1656. In order to determine if Catchpole had murdered her own infant, the jury was to inspect Catchpole's body to find evidence that  she had been pregnant and given birth to a child.  The jury  inspected Catchpole's body and concluded that she had not recently given birth. Other witnesses gave testimony that the man making the accusations was "not in sound mind".
Additional hearsay evidence was presented that the male accuser had spoken of witchcraft and told other bizarre stories. He had said  that after slitting the woman's throat, she sewed it back up before the woman awoke, and that she rubbed grease on the back of the fatally wounded seaman and he came back to life.

The jury gave little credence to the charges of witchcraft, and seeing no evidence of childbirth, acquitted Catchpole of all charges.

Significance
Judith Catchpole was tried before the first all-woman jury to serve in colonial Maryland. The judicial practices of common law in colonial America often arose from the need to accommodate to practical situations. In the case of Judith Catchpole, the expertise of women was needed to decide whether she had been pregnant and given birth to a child. In general however, women were not allowed to serve on juries in the United States, even after the Nineteenth Amendment was passed in 1920 giving women the right to vote.

Footnotes

External links
Jury of Her Peers
Belcher Maryland Court Records and other Belcher information

17th-century American people
1656 in law
17th-century American women
American indentured servants
Murder in the Thirteen Colonies
People acquitted of witchcraft
People of colonial Maryland
American domestic workers

Judith Catchpole


David Carter (born 1952) is a New Zealand politeecian, an a member o the kintra's pairlament in Wellington, representin the Naitional Pairty.  He is a leet member o the pairlament unner the proportional representation seestem.

1952 births
Lincoln Varsity (New Zealand) alumni
Livin fowk
New Zealand leet MPs
New Zealand Naitional Pairty MPs
Fowk eddicatit at St Bede's College, Christchurch
Speakers o the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives
Unsuccessfu candidates in the New Zealand general election, 1993
Members o the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives
New Zealand MPs for Sooth Island electorates
21st-century New Zealand politeecians
Candidates in the New Zealand general election, 2017

David Carter


The Sala São Paulo is a concert hall in the Julio Prestes Cultural Center in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. It is a very large building.  The Cultural Center used to be a railway station and it was rebuilt and changed into a cultural centre in 1999.

Sala São Paulo is big enough for an audience of 1.498 people.  The orchestra that perform there is the Orquestra Sinfônica do Estado de São Paulo (Osesp).

The Brazilian government wanted to bring more culture to the centre of São Paulo.  The rebuilding began in November 1997.

The original train station was called Julio Prestes Station.  It was built between 1926 and 1938 so that trains could take coffee to the port of Santos.   When motor car transport became more and more popular many stations connecting Brazilian towns closed down.

The station's large hall was the same shape as many 19th century concert halls, that is, it is shaped like a horse shoe.

Sala São Paulo has 22 balconies and a ceiling that is 24 meters high.  There is a very large platform so that everyone in the audience can see well.  There is an elevator to lift the piano on and off the stage and many other useful modern devices.

Other websites
 Official web site

Concert halls
Buildings and structures in São Paulo
1999 establishments
1990s establishments in Brazil

Sala São Paulo


Islamic music may refer to religious music, as performed in Islamic public services or private devotions, or more generally to musical traditions of the Muslim world. The heartland of Islam is the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa,
Iran, Central Asia, and South Asia. Due to Islam being a multi-ethnic religion, the musical expression of its adherents is vastly diverse. Indigenous traditions of various part have influenced the musical styles popular among Muslims today. The word "music" in Arabic, the language of Islam, (mūsīqā ) is defined more narrowly than in English or some other languages, and "its concept" was at least originally "reserved for secular art music; separate names and concepts belonged to folk songs and to religious chants".

At least one scholar (Jacob M. Landau) makes the generalization about Islamic music that it "is characterized by a highly subtle organization of melody and rhythm", that "the vocal component predominates over the instrumental", and that the individual musician "is permitted, and indeed encouraged, to improvise".

Historically, the question of whether music is permitted in Islamic jurisprudence is disputed. Regardless, Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age. Islamic music is also credited with influencing European and Western music; for example, French musicologist Baron Rodolphe d'Erlanger in his assessment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Islamic history credits Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi's Kitabu l'musiqi al-kabir (The Great Book of Music) with this influence.

Secular and folk musical styles

Classical Islamic music
According to scholar Jacob M. Landau, "a fusion of musical styles" was able to develop between "pre-Islamic Arabian music" and the music of Persians, Byzantines, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Turks, Moors, because of "strong affinities between Arabic music and the music of the nations occupied by the expanding Arabic peoples". The core area were this "new art" of classical Islamic music succeeded stretched "from the Nile valley to Persia".
However, many parts of the Muslim world did not adopt the "new art" of classical Islamic music, or adopted it but also kept native music forms which were "alien" to classical Islamic music. In general, the farther from the area between the Nile and Persia one travels, "the less one finds undiluted Islamic music."

Middle East
 Arabic music
 Egyptian music
 Iranian music
 Turkish classical music
 Yemeni music

All of these regions were connected by trade long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can only speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a great influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs, and facilitated trade between distant lands. Certainly, the Sufis, brotherhoods of Muslim mystics, spread their music far and wide.

Khaliji music has roots going back more than 1,000 years, to the Islamic period, under the Umayyads and Abbasids.

North Africa
The Berber and Arabic speaking countries of Central and Western North Africa, such as Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia, share some musical traditions with Egypt and the Arabic-speaking countries of the Middle East. Popular modern styles of music such as Raï and Chaabi originated in Berber countries. In addition, West African influences can be heard in the popular music of Gnawa.

 Music of Algeria
 Music of Morocco

Horn of Africa

Most Somali music is based on the pentatonic scale. That is, the songs only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Eritrea, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (lahan), and singers ('odka or "voice"). Instruments prominently featured in Somali music include the kaban (oud).

West Africa

Islam is the largest and oldest organized religion in this region, although indigenous Sahelian and Saharan styles and genres are more prominent than those influenced by Middle-Eastern theory.

West African musical genres are more varied, and tend to incorporate both native and Berber influences, rather than those of Arab origin. A long history of court griot music based on historical accounts and praise-singing exists in the region. Wind and string instruments, such as the Kora harp, xalam lute, or Tambin flute (similar to the ney) are generally preferred to percussion, although percussion instruments such as the talking drum and djembe are also widely played among Muslim populations

Central Asia
Many of the countries in Central Asia such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have been heavily influenced by Turkic and Persian culture. Bowed instruments are common, as is bardic singing.

 Music of Central Asia

South Asia

The music of the Muslim countries of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Maldives and Pakistan) as well as countries with sizeable Muslim minorities (India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) merged Middle Eastern genres with indigenous classical musical modes, and is generally distinct in style and orchestration, yet due to the strong links encountered between the Middle-East, Central Asia, and South Asia, it is closer to Middle-Eastern styles than those of the periphery of the Islamic world, which tend to be purely indigenous.

Music of Afghanistan
Music of Bangladesh
Music of Maldives
Music of Pakistan

Southeast Asia

Muslim-majority Indonesia has been significantly less influenced by Middle Eastern traditions than South Asia. As a result, many local musical styles predate the coming of Islam, although exceptions include Malay Zapin and Joget, and the Indonesian Gambus (derived from Qanbus), all of which show strong Middle Eastern influence.

There are also local music genres in Muslim-majority regions in Southeast Asia that are influenced by Arabian traditions, such as the tagonian of the Sundanese people and glipang of the people of Probolinggo

The music of South East Asia's Muslim-majority regions is more closely related to the musical genres of South East and East Asia. Gong chime ensembles such as Gamelan and Kulintang existed in the region before the arrival of Islam, and musical theory and method owe more to heavy Chinese influence, as well as Hindu–Buddhist principles, than to Arabic musical philosophy. Variations of one of two main scales prevail in the region among different ensembles: slendro and pelog (both of which originated in Java).

In Java, use of the gamelan for Islamic devotional music was encouraged by the Muslim saint Sunan Kalijogo.

Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music

Nasheed

Nasheeds are moral, religious recitations recited in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments. However, some nasheed groups use percussion instruments, such as the daff. Singing moral songs of this type without instrumentation is considered permissible (halal) by many Muslims.

Sufi worship services are often called dhikr or zikr. See that article for further elaboration.

The dhikr of South Asian Muslims is "quietist". The Sufi services best known in the West are the chanting and rhythmic dancing of the whirling dervishes or Mevlevi Sufis of Turkey.

However, Sufis may also perform devotional songs in public, for the enjoyment and edification of listeners. The mood is religious, but the gathering is not a worship service.

In Turkey, once the seat of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate, concerts of sacred song are called "Mehfil-e-Sama' " (or "gathering of Sama'"). Song forms include ilahi and nefe.

In South Asia, especially Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, a widely known style of Sufi music is qawwali. A traditional qawwali programme would include:

 A hamd—a song in praise of Allah
 A na`at—a song in praise of Muhammad
 Manqabats—songs in praise of the illustrious teachers of the Sufi brotherhood to which the musicians belong
 Ghazals—songs of intoxication and yearning, which use the language of romantic love to express the soul's longing for union with the divine.

Shi'a qawwali performances typically follow the naat with a manqabat in praise of Ali,
and sometimes a marsiya, a lamentation over the death of much of Ali's family at the Battle of Karbala.

The most well-known qawwali singer in modern times is Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.

Another traditional South Asian genre of Sufi music is the Kafi, which is more meditative and involves solo singing as opposed to the ensemble form seen in qawwali. The most widely known exponent of the Kafi is the Pakistani singer Abida Parveen.

Sufi music has developed with the times. A Pakistani Sufi rock band, Junoon, was formed in the 1990s to bring a modern twist to suit the new younger generation. The band achieved wide popularity, in Pakistan as well as in the West.

Music for public religious celebrations
 Ta'zieh music—Ta'zieh is a passion play, part musical drama, part religious drama, rarely performed outside Iran. It depicts the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, venerated by Shia Muslims.
 Ashurah music—performed during the Muharram mourning period, commemorating the deaths of Imam Hussein and his followers. (Shia)
 Thikiri (from the Arabic word "Dhikr") which means remembrance of God—performed by the Qadiriyya Sufi orders of waYao or Yao people in East and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa).
 Manzuma—moral songs performed in Ethiopia.
 Madih nabawi—Arabic hymns praising Muhammad.

Modes

 Arabic Maqam
 Dastgah

According to scholar Jacob M. Landau, in Islamic music, "melodies are organized in terms of maqāmāt (singular maqām), or "modes," characteristic melodic patterns with prescribed scales, preferential notes, typical melodic and rhythmic formulas, variety of intonations, and other conventional devices."

rhythmic modes are known as īqāʿāt (singular īqāʿ), and they have a "cyclical patterns of strong and weak beats".

Instruments

Although there are a wide variety of opinions on the permissibility of musical instruments, those who produce Islamic music with instruments often feature the following instruments:

Traditional:
 Drums (daf, bendir, zarb, rebana, etc.)
 Gongs

Differences of opinion over prohibition

The question of permissibility of music in Islamic jurisprudence is historically disputed, and with the advent of a whole new generation of Muslim musicians who try to blend their work and faith, the issue "has taken on extra significance".

Islamic art and music flourished during the Islamic Golden Age.

Contemporary Islamic music

See also

References

Further reading

Jenkins, Jean and Olsen, Poul Rovsing (1976). Music and Musical Instruments in the World of Islam. World of Islam Festival. .
 Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. .
 Shiloah, Amnon (1995). "Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-cultural study." Wayne State University Press. Detroit.

Islamic music


To monitor or monitoring generally means to be aware of the state of a system. Below are some examples:
 to observe a situation for any changes which may occur over time, using a monitor or a measuring device of some kind:
Baby monitor, medical monitor, Heart rate monitor
Biomonitoring
Cure monitoring for composite materials manufacturing
Deformation monitoring
Election monitoring
Mining monitoring
Natural hazard monitoring
Network monitoring
Structural monitoring
System monitoring
Website monitoring
Futures monitoring, Media monitoring
 to observe the behaviour or communications of individuals or groups (see: surveillance)
 Clinical monitoring, for use of new medical drugs

Monitoring


Joseph Edward Schaefer  (December 27, 1918 – March 16, 1987) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II.

Schaefer joined the Army from Long Island, New York in January 1942, and by September 24, 1944, was serving as a staff sergeant in Company I, 18th Infantry Regiment, 1st Infantry Division. On that day, near Stolberg, Germany, Schaefer led his squad in their defense against a German attack. He voluntarily took the most dangerous defensive position, killed many of the attacking soldiers, and single-handedly captured ten. He then participated in the American counter-attack and freed a group of American soldiers captured earlier. For his actions during the battle, he was awarded the Medal of Honor eleven months later, on August 22, 1945.

Schaefer later served in the Korean War. He died at age 68 and was buried at Long Island National Cemetery, Farmingdale, New York.

Medal of Honor citation
Schaefer's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
He was in charge of a squad of the 2d Platoon in the vicinity of Stolberg, Germany, early in the morning of 24 September 1944, when 2 enemy companies supported by machineguns launched an attack to seize control of an important crossroads which was defended by his platoon. One American squad was forced back, another captured, leaving only SSG Schaefer's men to defend the position. To shift his squad into a house which would afford better protection, he crawled about under heavy small-arms and machinegun fire, instructed each individual, and moved to the building. A heavy concentration of enemy artillery fire scored hits on his strong point. S/Sgt. Schaefer assigned his men to positions and selected for himself the most dangerous one at the door. With his M1 rifle, he broke the first wave of infantry thrown toward the house. The Germans attacked again with grenades and flame throwers but were thrown back a second time, S/Sgt. Schaefer killing and wounding several. Regrouped for a final assault, the Germans approached from 2 directions. One force drove at the house from the front, while a second group advanced stealthily along a hedgerow. Recognizing the threat, S/Sgt. Schaefer fired rapidly at the enemy before him, killing or wounding all 6; then, with no cover whatever, dashed to the hedgerow and poured deadly accurate shots into the second group, killing 5, wounding 2 others, and forcing the enemy to withdraw. He scoured the area near his battered stronghold and captured 10 prisoners. By this time the rest of his company had begun a counterattack; he moved forward to assist another platoon to regain its position. Remaining in the lead, crawling and running in the face of heavy fire, he overtook the enemy, and liberated the American squad captured earlier in the battle. In all, single-handed and armed only with his rifle, he killed between 15 and 20 Germans, wounded at least as many more, and took 10 prisoners. S/Sgt. Schaefer's indomitable courage and his determination to hold his position at all costs were responsible for stopping an enemy break-through.

See also

List of Medal of Honor recipients
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II

References

1918 births
1987 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
People from Long Island
United States Army soldiers
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor

Joseph E. Schaefer


William Ledyard Mitchell (November 2, 1881 – May 18, 1964) was an American automobile executive and All-American college football player. A native of Cincinnati, Ohio, Mitchell graduated from Yale University, where he was selected as a fullback on the 1903 College Football All-America Team. Members of the Yale Class of 1904 created the Ledyard Mitchell Cup trophy awarded each year to a Yale player for proficiency in punting. Mitchell became president of the Maxwell Motor Car Company in 1917. When Maxwell folded, Mitchell was appointed the receiver. In 1922, he became vice president in charge of manufacturing when Maxwell's manufacturing operations were merged into Chrysler Corporation. He was named secretary and vice president in charge of manufacturing in the early days of Chrysler. In 1926, he became general manager of operations for Chrysler with responsibility for Chrysler's five manufacturing plants. And in 1931, he was named chairman of Chrysler Export Corporation.

Mitchell was married in 1910 to Sara Moulton Sherman.  The couple had five children, Sara Sherman Mitchell, William Ledyard Mitchell, Jr., Mary Sherman Mitchell, Frank Sherman Mitchell and Ann Sherman Mitchell. Mitchell died on May 18, 1964, at his home in Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan.

References

1881 births
1964 deaths
American football fullbacks
Chrysler executives
Yale Bulldogs football players
All-American college football players
People in the automobile industry
Businesspeople from Cincinnati
Players of American football from Cincinnati
20th-century American businesspeople

Ledyard Mitchell


The Museo Civico di Zoologia is a natural history museum in Rome, central Italy. It is situated next to the Bioparc (Zoo) and can be entered by the Zoo or through the entrance on via Ulisse Aldrovandi. Founded in 1932, it is said to continue the natural history tradition of the Gabinetto di Zoologia dell'Università Pontificia and the collections date from 1792.

Importance
It is recognized as an institute of national importance by the Ministero per la Università e la Ricerca Scientifica. There are collections of entomology, malacology, osteology, ornithology, herpetology, ichthyology and mammology. There are five million specimens in total( molluscs, insects, birds and mammals and fossils). The displays are modern, with over 1000 square metres of multi-sensorial or interactive stations exhibitions and three-dimensional reconstructions.
A biodiversity display includes sections on the significance of sex in the animal world; adaptations in borderline environments and ecosystems. other displays are more traditional with two ornithology halls a gallery on  "Arrigoni degli Oddi" and two halls of mammals.

The museum contains the zoological collections of  Conte Arrigoni degli Oddi.

Convention
The museum is the result of a convention made between the municipality of Rome and the Sapienza University of Rome . It is one of  three centres, second in the university, conserves specimens  of invertebrates and vertebrates including fish, amphibians and small mammals. It is at Museo di Zoologia, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza, Viale dell'Università 32, 00100 Roma. The third, at Via Catone, contains entomological collections retained by the university.

References

External links

Natural history museums in Italy
Museums in Rome
Museums established in 1932
Rome Q. III Pinciano

Museo Civico di Zoologia


Voice in grammar expresses the way the action (or state) that the verb expresses relates to the subject or object.

In English grammar, there are two voices: active and passive. When a clause is in the active voice, the subject is the doer of the action. When a clause is in the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of the action. The active voice is much more commonly used than the passive voice.

Active voice: Jane chose the furniture.
Passive voice: The furniture was chosen by Jane.

This example shows how the word order changes the emphasis of the sentence. The first clearly answers the question "Who chose the furniture?" The second is more of an incidental comment.

The active voice is usually easier to say, and easier to understand than the passive voice. When a person learns a language, it is learnt first, and uses fewer words than the passive voice. Therefore, given an equal choice, the active voice is usually chosen.

References

Grammar

Voice (grammar)


In cryptography, key size or key length is the size (measured in bits or bytes) of the key used in a cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher). Typical key sizes in modern symmetric ciphers are 128, 192, and 256 bits. Older symmetric ciphers used only 40, 56, or 64 bits, which can be broken by brute force. 128 bits is considered secure against brute-force by traditional computers, but not quantum computers. 192 and 256 bit keys are considered quantum-safe, and AES keys of these lengths are approved for protecting top secret information. Asymmetric (public key) ciphers such as RSA need a much longer key to be secure. RSA keys are typically at least 2048 bits. A large key size alone does not necessarily mean a cipher is secure - there are many insecure ciphers which have a large key size but have other design flaws that allow them to be broken.

Cryptography

Key size


The 2007 floods in the United Kingdom were a series of major floods that happened in many places across the country during June and July 2007.

In Gloucestershire, there was a flash flood from the River Severn and a lot of extreme rainfall. It is estimated that 13 people were killed and nearly all of Gloucestershire was trapped in their homes for the summer holidays. The water was around four foot deep, and it got into most people's homes. The repairs would have cost about 3 thousand pounds per home.

Effects
Primary effects
 In July 2007, thirteen people were killed after the River Severn burst its banks.
 10,000 motorists were stranded overnight.
 Farmers lost crops.
 350,000 people were without running water after the sewage treatment plant was submerged.
 Houses and buildings were flooded and ruined.
 Electricity in Gloucester was shut down.
 Schools and businesses were unable to travel or work and were shut down.
 Significant damage to most properties in the area with nearly 50,000 homes affected, with people losing treasured, personal belongings and made homeless- staying with friends or relatives and 850 families had to stay in caravans, some up to Christmas 2008.
 Infrastructure severely affected, with roads cut off and badly damaged.
 On 22nd May water treatment works shut down. The media reporting's of imminent loss of supplies, meant usage doubled and led to water depletion. By 24 July, 140,000 properties in Gloucestershire had no water supply. Alternative water supplies by bottles, bowsers and tankers had to be used. Water supplies were not fully restored until 1 August.

Secondary effects
 Shops had better business because people needed more supplies.
 £3 billion had to be spent on repairs.
 Some businesses lost income while they had to repair buildings.
 9,000 businesses affected
 More than 180,000 insurance claim

Responses
 People helped each other, creating a sense of community.
 Children were taught in temporary classrooms without books.
 Sandbags were distributed. (25,000)
 200 tonnes of sand used
 Flood barriers were put in place.
 Bottled water was given out.
 5 million liters of water distributed through 85 different places
 People who lost their homes were forced to live with relatives or caravans for up to two years.

Floods
2007 floods
Floods in Europe
July 2007 events
June 2007 events
2007 disasters

2007 United Kingdom floods


eduroam ( ; education roaming) is an international Wi-Fi internet access roaming service for users in research, higher education and further education. It provides researchers, teachers, and students network access when visiting an institution other than their own. Users are authenticated with credentials from their home institution, regardless of the location of the eduroam access point. Authorization to access the Internet and other resources are handled by the visited institution. Users do not have to pay to use eduroam.

In some countries, Internet access via eduroam is also available at other locations than the participating institutions, e.g. in libraries, public buildings, railway stations, city centres and airports.

History
The eduroam initiative started in 2002 when during the preparations for the creation of TERENA's task force TF-Mobility, Klaas Wierenga of SURFnet shared the idea of combining a RADIUS-based infrastructure with IEEE 802.1X technology to provide roaming network access across research and education networks. Initially, the service was joined by institutions in the Netherlands, Germany, Finland, Portugal, Croatia and the United Kingdom. Later, other NRENs in Europe embraced the idea and started joining the infrastructure, which was then called eduroam. Since 2004, the European Union co-funded further research and development work related to the eduroam service through the GN2 and GN3 projects. From September 2007, the European Union also funded through these projects the continued operation and maintenance of the eduroam service at the European level.

The first non-European country to join eduroam was Australia, in December 2004. In Canada, eduroam started as an initiative of the University of British Columbia, which was later taken over by CANARIE as a service of its Canadian Access Federation. In the United States, eduroam was initially a pilot project between the National Science Foundation and the University of Tennessee (UTK). In 2012, Internet2 announced the addition of eduroam to its NET+ service offerings. AnyRoam LLC, a private company, was formed by former UTK staff to serve as an Internet2 active corporate member administering the top-level servers.

Technology
The eduroam service uses IEEE 802.1X as the authentication method and a hierarchical system of RADIUS servers. The hierarchy consists of RADIUS servers at the participating institutions, national RADIUS servers run by the National Roaming Operators, and regional top-level RADIUS servers for individual world regions. When a user visits a remote institution, the user's mobile device presents their credentials to the local RADIUS server. That RADIUS server discovers that it is not responsible for the realm of the user's home institution and proxies the access request to the national RADIUS server. If the visited institution is in a different country than the home institution, the request is in turn proxied to the regional top-level RADIUS server, and then to the national RADIUS server of the user's home country. That national server forwards the credentials to the home institution, where they are verified. The 'acknowledge' travels back over the proxy-hierarchy to the visited institution and the user is granted access.

Because the user's credentials travel via a number of intermediate servers, not under the control of the home institution of the user, it is important that the credentials be protected. This requirement limits the types of authentication methods that can be used. There are two categories of useful authentication methods: those that use credentials in the form of some public-key mechanism with certificates and those that use so-called tunnelled authentication. Most institutions use a tunnelled authentication method that only requires server certificates. These server certificates are used to set up a secure tunnel between the mobile device and the authentication server, through which the user credentials are securely transported.

A complication arises if the user's home institution does not use a two-letter country-code top-level domain as part of its realm, but a generic top-level domain such as .edu or .org. By inspection of such realms, it is not possible to determine which national RADIUS server the request should be routed to. Such domains will thus, by default, fail to work in international roaming. The workaround for this problem involves the creation of exceptions in the international RADIUS request routing tables; however, this workaround does not scale as the number of exception entries grows. Several solutions have been proposed to eliminate this workaround in the future, the most promising of which is RADIUS over TLS with Dynamic Discovery, which does not rely on static routing tables inside a RADIUS server configuration to route requests to their proper destination. Instead, the participating institution adds one single DNS resource record to its own domain's DNS zone, which states by which server eduroam authentication for the domain is handled.

Governance
GÉANT has established a lightweight global governance structure. Recognising the large variety in the organisation and funding of research and education (networking) in different countries and regions, rules imposed on the operations of eduroam are limited to technical and administrative requirements that are necessary to ensure the smooth and secure operations of eduroam worldwide. Moreover, the eduroam operators have the leading role in creating and maintaining the rules of the global eduroam governance.

The Global eduroam Governance Committee (GeGC) has the central role in the global eduroam governance structure. While its structure has evolved over time, it presently has three representatives from each of five regions — mirroring those used by the Regional Internet registries — serving a two-year term. In addition, GÉANT may appoint one or more experts as non-voting members of the GeGC.

Geographical deployment

eduroam is available at selected locations in countries with a National Roaming Operator that has signed the eduroam Compliance Statement. Those sixty-seven countries are listed below. In addition, there may be pilot deployments in countries that are in the process of joining eduroam.

Europe
The NRENs that are members of the consortium of the GN3 project have joined the European eduroam confederation by signing the confederation's policy that requires its members to comply with a set of technical and organisational requirements, which are more specific than those in the global eduroam Compliance Statement.

As a consequence, eduroam is deployed in the following countries:

In addition, three NRENs that are associate members of the consortium of the GN3 project without voting rights joined the European eduroam confederation; they represent Belarus (UIIP), Moldova (RENAM) and Russia (Joint Supercomputer Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences).

Finally, five NRENs not involved in the GN3 project joined the European eduroam confederation on a voluntary basis, enabling the deployment of the service in:

The European top-level RADIUS servers are operated by SURFnet and Forskningsnettet.

Asia-Pacific
eduroam is deployed in the following countries and economies:

The Asia-Pacific top-level RADIUS servers are operated by AARNet and by the University of Hong Kong.

North America
eduroam is deployed in:

Latin America
eduroam is deployed in:

Africa
eduroam is deployed in:

See also
 Fon Wireless

References

External links

Academic computer network organizations
Computer networks
Information technology organizations based in Europe
Science and technology in Europe
Wi-Fi providers

Eduroam


Real Momentum is the name of a documentary series on the Logo network.

Documentaries in the Real Momentum series vary in length and style, and are mix of original Logo-produced documentaries, co-productions, and acquired documentaries.

The series launched with the channel on June 30, 2005; the first program to broadcast on the channel was the Logo-produced Real Momentum documentary titled The Evolution Will Be Televised, which followed the history of LGBT images in the media.

In addition to broadcasting on the Logo channel, the Real Momentum documentary series broadcasts on the Logo On Demand service, on LOGOonline.com, and can be purchased through download to own services such as iTunes.

Season One Documentaries
 The Evolution Will Be Televised [6/30/2005]
 Go Dragons! A Rugby Story [7/9/2005]
 Ruthie and Connie: Every Room in the House [7/16/2005]
 Trembling Before G-d [7/23/2005]
 Gidyup! On the Rodeo Circuit [7/30/2005]
 Latino Beginnings  [8/6/2005]
 The Brandon Teena Story
 Paragraph 175
 Forbidden Love, The Unashamed Stories of Lesbian Lives
 Raising Teens
 Farm Family: In Search of Gay Life in Rural America
 The Eyes of Tammy Faye
 Hip Hop Homos
 Daddy and Papa
 The Celluloid Closet
 Out in Nature: Homosexual Behaviour in the Animal Kingdom
 The Two Cubas [10/29/2005]
 Butch Mystique
 Power Lesbians
 The Cockettes

Season Two Documentaries
 Curl Girls [1/2/2006]
 Bachelor Farmer
 Let's Get Frank
 Paris Is Burning
 Beautiful Daughters [2/11/2006]
 The Aggressives
 100% Woman
 The Opposite Sex: Rene's Story
 The Opposite Sex: Jamie's Story
 When Ocean Meets Sky
 Elephant In The Room [6/23/2006]
 Jumpin' the Broom
 No Dumb Questions
 Same Sex America
 Gender Rebel
 Little Man
 Pick Up the Mic
 The Lost Tribe
 Gay Siblings [11/19/2006]

Season Three Documentaries
 Southern Comfort
 Love Lessons [2/4/2007]
 Reporter Zero
 For the Love of Dolly
 Freddie Mercury: Magic Remixed

Season Four Documentaries
 Small Town Gay Bar
 Camp Out
 On The Downlow
 The Believers
 Real Momentum Shorts
 Bisexual Girls
 Rock the Boat
 My Mums Used to Be Men

External links
Official Series Page

2005 American television series debuts
2008 American television series endings
2000s American documentary television series
2000s American LGBT-related television series
Documentaries about LGBT topics

Real Momentum


The terms Nobilissimus (most noble) and nobilissima familia (most noble family) have been used since the 11th century for the King of Hungary and his family. But it were then only a few that were mentioned in documents as such:

 in the year 1055 Bela I of Hungary.
 in the year 1093 Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary.
 in the year 1161 Ladislaus II of Hungary.
 in the year 1213 Gertrude of Merania.
 in the year 1226 Coloman of Lodomeria.
 in the year 1386 Saint Hedwig of Poland.

Besides the most noble family of the King of Hungary were three other families mentioned in court verdicts in the 14th century in Hungary and in Dalmatia as "nobilissima familia" (most noble family):

 in the year 1322 the most noble family of Budislav de genere Percal in a supreme court verdict in a case about the right of jurisdiction in a village.
 in the year 1340 the most noble family of Job Zabroczky de Kesmark, because he could through his genealogy verify, that his family once had come from Dalmatia, because he was the son of Adam, son of Demetrius, son of Jonas, son of Hervard, son of Koloman, son of Gothard, son of Benedictus.
 in the year 1360 the most noble family of duke Gilet de Fraknó, because he gave Fraknó back to the crown.

References
 Magyar Országos Levéltár

Hungarian noble families

Nobilissima familia (Hungary)


The City of David (, Ir David), called in , Wadi Hilweh, is an archaeological site in Jerusalem. It is next to the south-eastern corner of the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. The site is attributed to the palace of king David, and includes a water tunnel that was built by the king Hezekiah.

Near the site live Jewish and Arabs.

Other websites

 City of David
 From Shiloah to Silwan project
 City of David, Biblical Archaeology Review

Neighbourhoods of Jerusalem
Archaeological sites in Israel

City of David


Craig Benjamin Wedren (born August 15, 1969) is an American singer-songwriter, musician and composer, who began his career fronting post-hardcore band Shudder to Think. Following the disbandment of Shudder to Think, Wedren pursued a career as a television and film music composer, as well as releasing solo material.

Career
Wedren began his career as the singer and primary songwriter for Washington, DC-based Shudder to Think, a band that started out in the hardcore music scene, only to challenge the aesthetics and limitations of this then-emerging musical genre. After breaking indie music tradition by signing with Epic Records (Sony Music), Shudder to Think released three major label albums including their opus Pony Express Record. Shudder to Think toured widely with bands like Smashing Pumpkins, Fugazi, and Pearl Jam, and their videos were featured in regular rotation on MTV. At the peak of their career, a battle with Hodgkin's Disease grounded Wedren and the band, but following successful treatments Shudder to Think returned with a new goal in mind – to create music for film. With Shudder to Think, Wedren scored the independent films First Love Last Rites, and High Art, and contributed music to the film Velvet Goldmine. Shortly after making the transition to film work, the band dissolved their partnership, and Wedren continued his dual career as both film composer and solo artist.

As a composer, Wedren has scored a host of popular feature films including Wanderlust, Role Models, School of Rock, Wet Hot American Summer, By the People: The Election of Barack Obama, Laurel Canyon, Reno 911!: Miami, Roger Dodger, The Baxter, and Boxers and Ballerinas. Wedren has also written and performed music for the television shows Hung, United States of Tara, Reno 911!, Stella, The State, The Whitest Kids U' Know, Dawson's Creek, Bones and Don't Trust the B---- in Apartment 23.

In 2004 Wedren released a recording by his band BABY, which was in an electronic dance vein, but distinguished by glam and pop sensibilities.

While continuing to grow creatively and commercially as a composer, Wedren has also developed a career as a solo artist. In 2005 he released his first solo album Lapland on the Team Love label, after which he toured supporting Foo Fighters, and Greg Dulli of Afghan Whigs. In September 2011, Wedren released Wand. To accompany the release of Wand, Wedren toured the United States with Chris Cornell, and he worked with director Tim Nackashi to create a series of 360-degree interactive videos.

In 2012, Wedren re-released recordings by his band BABY. The release included previously unreleased demos, and mixes, as well as a mixed tape which includes covers, and other unreleased material.

Wedren has also contributed vocals to the musical act Tweaker with Chris Vrenna, formerly of Nine Inch Nails, The Verve Pipe's self-titled album, the musical act Cex, The Dead Science's album Villainaire and Someone To Run Away From with Pocket, Jherek Bischoff, and a Fleetwood Mac cover with St. Vincent on Fleetwood Mac Tribute record Just Tell Me That You Want Me.

Wedren wrote the theme for and was a regular extra on MTV's The State and was close friends with many members of the show. Wedren also played a part in 2009's I Love You, Man as a member of the wedding band, as well a role in David Wain's 2012 film Wanderlust.

Wedren also wrote and performed the title track for the movie Balls of Fury. Additionally, he wrote the song "Bondage" for the movie soundtrack.

In 2021, Wedren and Anna Waronker collaborated on the soundtrack to Showtime's Yellowjackets. The original theme song No Return, for the opening credits, was composed by the duo, alongside the score for the show. They also collaborated on the soundtrack for Hulu's Shrill in 2019.

Personal life
Wedren was diagnosed with Hodgkin's Lymphoma in 1995. He successfully fought the disease and, after several years of treatments, remains in remission. He has been married to Meggan Lennon since 2006 and they share a son.

Discography
Lapland (2005 · Team Love Records)
The Spanish Amnesian (2009)
WAND (2011)
Adult Desire (2017)

References

External links
Craig Wedren official website
Team Love Records

Spin interview
 https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2019/03/singer-craig-wedrens-polaroids-are-proto-instagrams-of-the-indie-90s
 https://variety.com/2022/music/news/yellowjackets-theme-song-composers-craig-wedren-anna-waronker-1235155037/

1969 births
Living people
Shudder to Think members
Team Love Records artists
The Field School alumni
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
American rock songwriters
American rock singers
Alternative rock singers
Alternative rock guitarists
American indie rock musicians
American punk rock guitarists
American punk rock singers
American film score composers
American male film score composers
American alternative rock musicians
American television composers
Guitarists from Washington, D.C.
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
American male singer-songwriters
Singer-songwriters from Washington, D.C.

Craig Wedren


Heinz Hoffmann (28 November 1910 – 2 December 1985) was Minister of National Defense in the Council of Ministers of the German Democratic Republic, and since 2 October 1973 member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party (SED).

Youth
Born in Mannheim, Grand Duchy of Baden, Hoffmann came from a working-class family. After attending school in Mannheim, he spent the 1925 – 1930 period learning to be an engine fitter at MWM (Motoren Werke Mannheim AG). From 1926 to 1930 he was a member of the Young Communist League of Germany, followed by membership in the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). During this time Hoffman served several short prison sentences for participating in demonstrations and fights.

Immigration
After the rise of the Nazi Party in 1933, he was faced with a warrant for his arrest. Hoffmann fled Germany and immigrated to the Soviet Union by the way of Switzerland and Czechoslovakia. Until 1945 he used the alias "Heinz Roth," which is the reason why he used Heinz as his first name rather than his given name Karl-Heinz. In the Soviet Union he attended the International Lenin School in Moscow.

Service in the Spanish Civil War

For a few months in 1936 and 1937 he attended military school in Ryazan conducted by the Frunze Military Academy in preparation for service with the Republican forces in Spain. Upon graduation he was given the rank of Lieutenant. From 1937 to 1938 he served in the 11th International Brigade in the Spanish Civil War. Under the pseudonym "Heinz Roth" he was a Battery Commissar in the Hans Beimler Battalion. He took command of the Battalion after his commander was wounded. He himself was severely wounded in the legs and abdomen by infantry gunfire south of Quijorna. Hoffmann was hospitalized in Madrid for a few months then later moved to a clinic in Eaubone, France where he recovered from 1938 to 1939. From April 1939 to November 1940, he continued to recover from his injuries in the Soviet Union.

Training in the Soviet Union

Starting in March 1941, he attended a special course of the Comintern in Pushkino, northwest of Moscow. In addition to an extensive social science training he was also taught military subjects. This included training in rear area sabotage with other German exiles. He was medically disqualified from training after parachute jumps aggravated his earlier leg wounds. Hoffmann was then selected to work in German prisoner of war camps after assisting the Soviet NKVD in interrogating prisoners. From 1942 to 1944, Hoffmann was a teacher at the Antifascist School, first in the territory of Gorky, and later in Krasnogorsk. By 1945, Hoffman headed the Party School No. 12 in Moscow.

Party functionary in the Soviet Occupation Zone and East Germany
In January 1946, he returned to Berlin and was initially on the personal staff of Wilhelm Pieck, and later the staff of Walter Ulbricht. From 1950 until his death, Heinz Hoffmann was a member of the East German Parliament (Volkskammer) and was a candidate for the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). In 1952 he joined the Central Committee of the SED. Hoffmann belonged to the Politburo of the SED from 1973 until his death in 1985.

Military career
Starting in 1949, Hoffmann was involved in the establishment of the East German armed forces. He was first vice president of the German Administration of the Interior and head of the Department of Political Culture with the rank of inspector general. In 1950, Hoffmann was appointed head of the Main Administration for Training (HVA), the immediate predecessor of the Barracked People's Police. During the establishment of Kasernierte Volkspolizei (KVP) he was on 1 July 1952 made their chief, being promoted to lieutenant-general in October 1952. Hoffmann held that position until 1955. From 1955 to 1957 Hoffmann studied at the Voroshilov General Staff Academy of the Soviet Union. Due to this training he was not in East Germany when the new National People's Army was founded.

After his return from the Soviet Union, he served from 1957 to 1960 as the first Deputy Minister of National Defense, and from 1958 to 1960 also serving as the chief of staff. In 1959 he was promoted to colonel-general and in 1961 to army general. In 1960, Hoffmann was promoted as the successor of Willi Stoph as Minister of National Defense of the GDR serving in that position until his death. With the elevation to the office of the Minister, he also became a member of the National Defense Council.

After his death, the 9th Armored Division of the East German Army was named after Heinz Hoffmann, as well as the Grottkauer Straße in Berlin district of Hellersdorf was renamed Heinz-Hoffmann-Straße.

Family
Hoffman married Klavdiya "Klava" Ivanovna Knjazeva, whom he met in 1940 while living in Peredelkino. She died on 28 March 1952. They had two sons, Jura and Sascha. The youngest son, Sascha, died 20 years later in a traffic accident soon after graduating from officer training as a lieutenant in the National People's Army.

In 1954, Hoffmann married a nurse, Halina, who worked in a government hospital. They had two children and divorced in 1964.

Later in 1964 he married his chief secretary, Master Sergeant Gisela Sauer. They had three children and remained married until his death in 1985.

Awards and honors
 1954: Patriotic Order of Merit (Vaterländischer Verdienstorden)
 1965: Order of the Red Banner
 1970: Order of Karl Marx
 1974: Order of Lenin
 1974: Scharnhorst Order
 1975: Hero of the German Democratic Republic
 1975: Honorary doctorate degree (Dr. h.c.) in philosophy from the Party University "Karl Marx"
 1980: Hero of the German Democratic Republic
 1980: Order of Karl Marx
 1980: Order of Lenin
 1985: Order of Karl Marx

References
 Mannheim, Madrid, Moskau. Erlebtes aus drei Jahrzehnten. 4. Auflage: Militärverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Berlin 1986.
 Moskau, Berlin. Erinnerungen an Freunde, Kampfgenossen und Zeitumstände. Militärverlag der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, Berlin 1989.
 Klaus Froh, Rüdiger Wenzke: Die Generale und Admirale der NVA. Ein biographisches Handbuch. 4. Auflage. Ch. Links, Berlin 2000,

Specific

External links

 Wer war wer in der DDR?

 Armeegeneral Dr. h.c., Dipl.-Mil. Heinz Hoffmann by Shawn Bohannon

1910 births
1985 deaths
Politicians from Mannheim
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
Communist Party of Germany politicians
Members of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany
Ministers of National Defence (East Germany)
Members of the Provisional Volkskammer
Members of the 1st Volkskammer
Members of the 2nd Volkskammer
Members of the 3rd Volkskammer
Members of the 4th Volkskammer
Members of the 5th Volkskammer
Members of the 6th Volkskammer
Members of the 7th Volkskammer
Members of the 8th Volkskammer
Army generals of the National People's Army
International Brigades personnel
German people of the Spanish Civil War
Refugees from Nazi Germany in the Soviet Union
International Lenin School alumni
Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union alumni
National Committee for a Free Germany members
Recipients of the Scharnhorst Order
Recipients of the Patriotic Order of Merit (honor clasp)
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner

Heinz Hoffmann


The Cluniac (Clunian) Reform was a series of changes within medieval monasticism. The reforms focused on restoring the traditional life in the monasteries. Monasteries should encourage the production of artworks. They should also care for the poor.

The reform is named after the Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy. It started in the Benedictine order there. The reform was largely carried out by Saint Odo. It spread through France (Burgundy, Provence, Auvergne, Poitou), England and much of Italy and Spain.

The reform was stated, because there was corruption in the Benedictine order. People thought this corruption came because people that were not priests and that came from outside the monasteries interfered with them. A Benetictine monastery needed land. This land was given by a Feudal lord. By giving the land, the lord would become the patron of the monastery.  However, he would often demand the right to interfere in the business of the monastery. The Cluny reform was an attempt to change this practice. A more independent abbot would have better success at enforcing the Rule of the order, it was thought.  William of Aquitaine formed the first Cluny monastery in 910 with the novel stipulation that the monastery would report directly to the pope rather than to a local lord. This meant essentially that the monastery would be independent, since the pope's authority was largely theoretical at that distance.

During its height (about 950–c.1130) the Cluniac movement was one of the largest religious forces in Europe. Among the most notable reform supporters were Pope Urban II, Lambert of Hersfeld and Abbot Richard of Saint Vannes at Verdun. The Cluniacs were supporters of the  Peace of God concept, as well as pilgrimages to the Holy Lands.

Notes

References
Southern, R.W., Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages, London: Penguin Books, 1970.

Roman Catholicism
Middle Ages

Cluniac Reforms


The Morris Minor wis a Breetish economy caur that debuted at the Earls Court Motor Show, Lunnon, on 20 September 1948. Designed unner the leadership o Alec Issigonis, over 1.3 million examples wur manufactured frae 1948-1971.  Initially available as a 2-door saloon an tourer (convertible), the range wis subsequently expandit tae include a 4-door saloon in 1950 an wood-framed estate (the Traveller), panel van ad pick-up truck variants in 1952.

The Minor wis manufactured in three series, Series I, Series II (1952) an finally the 1000 series (1956). Ane author described the Minor as typifyin "Englishness."

Minor
Issigonis vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
1948 introductions

Morris Minor


Problem solving is a mental activity related to intelligence and thinking. It consists of finding solutions to problems. A problem is a situation that needs to be changed. It suggests that the solution is not totally obvious, for then it would not be a problem. A great deal of human life is spent solving problems. Social life is based on the notion that together we might solve problems which we could not as individuals.

The word "problem" comes from a Greek word meaning an "obstacle" (something that is in your way). If someone has a problem, they have to find a way of solving the problem. The way to solve it is called a solution. Some problem-solving techniques have been developed and used in artificial intelligence, computer science, engineering, and mathematics. Some are related to mental problem-solving techniques studied in gestalt psychology, cognitive psychology. and chess.

Problems can be classified as ill-defined or well-defined.  Ill-defined problems are those that do not have clear goals, solution paths, or expected solution. An example is how to face threats which might perhaps be made in the future. Well-defined problems have specific goals, clearly defined solution paths, and clear expected solutions. These problems also allow for more initial planning than ill-defined problems.

Being able to solve problems involves the ability to understand what the goal of the problem is and what rules could be applied to solving the problem. Sometimes the problem requires abstract thinking and coming up with a creative solution.

References

Problem solving


Carl Stolworthy Hawkins (1926–2010) was a prominent American lawyer, law school dean and also a local leader in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Hawkins was the son of William D. Hawkins and his wife the former Wilma Stolworthy.  Hawkins was raised in Provo, Utah and graduated from Provo High School.  He then joined the United States Army Air Corps with which he served as a radio operator for the Pacific Theatre of Operations of World War II.  On September 11, 1946 Hawkins married Nelma Jean Jones in the Salt Lake Temple.

Hawkins received his bachelor's degree from Brigham Young University (BYU) in political science.  He earned his law degree from Northwestern University.  In 1952–1953, Hawkins was a law clerk to Fred M. Vinson.  While he was at Northwestern he was editor-in-chief of the Illinois Law Review now known as the Northwestern University Law Review.  He was then a Harry A. Bigelow Teaching Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School,

Hawkins then joined the law firm of Wilkinson, Cragun, Barker & Hawkins, where he was involved in cases for Native American tribes for payments from the United States government.

From 1957 to 1973, Hawkins was a professor at the University of Michigan.  While in Michigan Hawkins was a consultant to the state legislature on forming laws.  He was also the executive secretary of the Michigan Law Revision Commission and worked with the Michigan Supreme Court in formulating rules for jury instruction.  Hawkins co-authored two casebooks on tort law.

Hawkins served for a time as bishop of the Ann Arbor Ward of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.  He also served as president of the Detroit Stake and then as the first president of the Dearborn Stake of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

In 1973 Hawkins went to Brigham Young University as one of the founding members of the J. Reuben Clark Law School.  He was acting dean of BYU's law school from 1975 to 1977 and dean from 1981 to 1985 and was a professor there until 1991.  Hawkins was the inaugural holder of the Guy Wilson Chiar at the J. Reuben Clark Law School. Hawkins also was a visiting professor at the University of Georgia, Pepperdine University, Washburn University, and the University of New Mexico. He also took a two-year leave from BYU to serve as executive director of the Florida Academic Task Force for Review of Insurance and Tort Systems.

Hawkins was appointed to the Judge Nominating Commission of the 10th United States Circuit Court by Jimmy Carter.  He also served on Utah's Alcohol Control Board.

Carl and Nelma Hawkins were the parents of five children.

See also
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)

References

Sources
University of Michigan bio
article published on Hawkins shortly after his death
obituary of Hawkins
LDS Church Almanac, 2008 Edition, p. 237
Deseret News. May 1, 2010, obituary of Carl Hawkins

1926 births
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Brigham Young University alumni
Northwestern University Pritzker School of Law alumni
Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
University of Chicago fellows
University of Michigan faculty
Michigan lawyers
American legal scholars
Provo High School alumni
University of New Mexico faculty
University of Georgia faculty
Pepperdine University faculty
Washburn University faculty
Brigham Young University faculty
2010 deaths
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Latter Day Saints from Illinois
Latter Day Saints from Michigan
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army Air Forces soldiers

Carl S. Hawkins


Luke Daniel Hamlin (July 3, 1904 – February 18, 1978) was an American professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Detroit Tigers (1933–34), Brooklyn Dodgers (1937–41), Pittsburgh Pirates (1942), and Philadelphia Athletics (1944).

Born in Ferris Center, Michigan, Hamlin won the nickname "Hot Potato" because of his tendency to juggle the ball while getting ready to pitch. He pitched two years with the Tigers, going 3–3 in 23 games for the Bengals.

After two years out of the major leagues, Hamlin returned in 1937 with the Dodgers, where he played five seasons from 1937 to 1941.  His best year was 1939 when he went 20–13 and had 10 complete games in  innings pitched. Hamlin's 20 wins was 4th best in the National League, his WHIP was 1.146 (3rd in the NL), and he also finished #10 in the National League Most Valuable Player voting in 1939.  He had another strong year in 1940 with a 3.06 earned run average for an Adjusted ERA+ of 131 (4th best in the NL).  He was also #1 in the National League in 1940 with a strikeout to walk ratio of 2.68.

Hamlin's performance declined after 1940, as his ERA jumped from 3.06 to 4.24 in 1941.  Dodgers manager Leo Durocher lost faith in "Hot Potato", who had blown a number of leads over the 1941 season.  When Dodgers boss Larry MacPhail sent a messenger between games of a double header telling Durocher to start Hamlin in the second game, Durocher erupted in anger.  But Durocher complied with the boss's order and started Hamlin, who gave up 4 runs before getting an out and lasted only 2 innings. After seeing an old political campaign poster for the Abe Lincoln–Hannibal Hamlin ticket, Durocher once quipped: "It proves Lincoln was a great man; he could even win with Hamlin."

Hamlin died in 1978 at age 73 in Clare, Michigan.

References

External links

Luke Hamlin at Baseball Library

1904 births
1978 deaths
Baseball players from Michigan
Major League Baseball pitchers
Brooklyn Dodgers players
Detroit Tigers players
Pittsburgh Pirates players
Philadelphia Athletics players
Minor league baseball managers
Hanover Raiders players
Fort Smith Twins players
Evansville Hubs players
Beaumont Exporters players
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players
Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players
Leesburg Dodgers players
Lakeland Pilots players
Saginaw Bears players

Luke Hamlin


Spykee is a robotic toy made by Erector/Meccano. It contains a USB webcam, microphone and speakers. Controlled by computer locally or over the internet, the owner can move the robot to various locations within range of the local router, take pictures and video, listen to surroundings with the on-board microphone and play sounds/music or various built-in recordings (Robot laugh, laser guns, etc.) through the speaker. Spykee has a WiFi connectivity to let him access the Internet using both ad hoc and infrastructure modes.
The electronics inside Spykee were built by a French start-up called WaveStorm.

Introduction
The Spykee robot was conceived in 2006  and began shipping in the United States in late 2008.

Assembly
Spykee is marketed for children ages 8 and up and claims to require 1.5 hours installation time. A review of Amazon.com product reviews indicates the actual assembly time is longer.

Modifications
Spykee is compatible with other Meccano set parts.

At least one owner has modified Spykee to be able to move its "head" (and thus its webcam) up and down. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fN_9rkovW6s

It is advertised as an open-source robot, although no API or SDK has been officially released. However, http://spykee.duskofsolace.com is an unofficial wiki containing information on how to access Linux on Spykee. There is information on how the hardware works and new unofficial firmware, that mainly addresses issues on accessing linux and has the capability of mounting network or USB partitions in linux.

As of May 2010 (possibly earlier), the full source code for the robot firmware, as well as documentation, has been made available, see: http://www.spykeeworld.com/spykee/US/freeSoftware.html

A home made robot daemon open source project (named Phobos Daemon) is available on spykeewiki as well. The aftermarket daemon supports all the basic functionality of Spykee and has additional features.

As of October 2010, there exists an application to control Spykee from an Android Smartphone. http://www.aspykee.com .  There is also a perl application to control Spykee from for example Linux.  https://github.com/petterreinholdtsen/libspykee-perl .

References

 Online review on robotreviews.com
 Online review on tech.spotcoolstuff.com

External links

 Perl library

Entertainment robots
2000s toys
Toy robots
Rolling robots
Robots of the United Kingdom
2006 robots

Spykee


Rugby could mean:

The sport of rugby football, which may be played in many different forms or ways:
Rugby union - (often referred to as Rugby or Union)
Rugby sevens - (often referred to as Sevens)
Rugby league football - (often referred to as League)
Touch rugby - (often referred to as Touch)
Wheelchair rugby
Tag Rugby
Rugby coaching

Places:
Rugby, Warwickshire, England, UK
Rugby (borough)
Rugby and Kenilworth  constituency
Rugby constituency - Former constituency
Rugby, New South Wales, a small town in Australia
Rugby, Cape Town, South Africa
Rugby, North Dakota,USA
Rugby, Tennessee, USA
Rugby, Brooklyn, USA
Rugby Park, Scotland (Kilmarnock FC's stadium)
Rugby Park Stadium, rugby stadium in New Zealand

Other meanings:
Rugby School
Rugby (automobile)
Rugby railway station
Rugby Ralph Lauren, a brand from Ralph Lauren

Rugby


Victor von Bruns (9 August 1812 – 19 March 1883) was a German surgeon born in Helmstedt.

He studied at Braunschweig, Tübingen, Halle and Berlin, and from 1843 to 1882 was a professor of surgery at the University of Tübingen. His son, Paul von Bruns (1846-1916) was also a professor of surgery at Tübingen. In 1872 he was a founding member of the German Society of Surgery.

Bruns was a leading authority in the field of plastic and reconstructive surgery, particularly known for his work in lip and cheek reconstruction. He is also known for his pioneer work in laryngology, and was among the first to perform operations for laryngeal polyps and tumors.

Bruns popularized usage of absorbent cotton wool dressings, which later became a standard practice in modern antiseptic treatment of wounds.

He died in Tübingen.

Written works
 Handbuch der praktischen Chirurgie (Textbook of practical surgery); Tübingen 1854-60, two volumes, with atlas 1853 ff.
 Durchschneidung der Gesichtsnerven beim Gesichtsschmerz; (Transection of the facial nerve for treatment of facial pain); Tübingen 1859
 Behandlung schlecht geheilter Beinbrüche (Treatment of poorly healed bone fractures); Berlin 1861
 Die erste Ausrottung eines Polypen in der Kehlkopfhöhle ohne blutige Eröffnung der Luftwege (Treatise on removal of a laryngeal polyp), (two editions- Tübingen 1862; Nachtrag 1863)
 Chirurgische Heilmittellehre (Surgical therapy instruction); Tübingen 1868-73
 Arzneioperationen oder Darstellung sämtlicher Methoden der manuellen Applikation von Arzneistoffen; Tübingen 1869
 Die Laryngoskopie und laryngoskopische Chirurgie (Laryngoscopy and laryngoscopic surgery); Tübingen 1865, with atlas; second edition- 1873
 Die Galvano-Chirurgie (Electrosurgery); Tübingen 1870
 Die galvanokaustischen Apparate und Instrumente (Galvano-caustic apparatus and instruments); Tübingen 1878
 Die Amputation der Gliedmaßen durch Zirkelschnitt mit vordern Hautlappen; Tübingen 1879

References
 Parts of this article are based on a translation of the equivalent article from the German Wikipedia.
 NCBI Victor von Bruns (1812-1883) and his contributions to plastic and reconstructive surgery.

1812 births
1883 deaths
People from Helmstedt
Physicians from the Duchy of Brunswick
German surgeons
Technical University of Braunschweig alumni
Academic staff of the University of Tübingen

Victor von Bruns


The Object Data Management Group (ODMG) was conceived in the summer of 1991 at a breakfast with object database vendors that was organized by Rick Cattell of Sun Microsystems. In 1998, the ODMG changed its name from the Object Database Management Group to reflect the expansion of its efforts to include specifications for both object database and object–relational mapping products.

The primary goal of the ODMG was to put forward a set of specifications that allowed a developer to write portable applications for object database and object–relational mapping products.  In order to do that, the data schema, programming language bindings, and data manipulation and query languages needed to be portable.

Between 1993 and 2001, the ODMG published five revisions to its specification. The last revision was ODMG  version 3.0, after which the group disbanded.

Major components of the ODMG 3.0 specification
Object Model. This was based on the Object Management Group's Object Model. The OMG core model was designed to be a common denominator for object request brokers, object database systems, object programming languages, etc. The ODMG designed a profile by adding components to the OMG core object model.
Object Specification Languages. The ODMG Object Definition Language (ODL) was used to define the object types that conform to the ODMG Object Model. The ODMG Object Interchange Format (OIF) was used to dump and load the current state to or from a file or set of files.
Object Query Language (OQL). The ODMG OQL was a declarative (nonprocedural) language for query and updating. It used SQL as a basis, where possible, though OQL supports more powerful object-oriented capabilities.
C++ Language Binding. This defined a C++ binding of the ODMG ODL and a C++ Object Manipulation Language (OML). The C++ ODL was expressed as a library that provides classes and functions to implement the concepts defined in the ODMG Object Model. The C++ OML syntax and semantics are those of standard C++ in the context of the standard class library. The C++ binding also provided a mechanism to invoke OQL.
Smalltalk Language Binding. This defined the mapping between the ODMG ODL and Smalltalk, which was based on the OMG Smalltalk binding for the OMG Interface Definition Language (IDL). The Smalltalk binding also provided a mechanism to invoke OQL.
Java Language Binding. This defined the binding between the ODMG ODL and the Java programming language as defined by the Java 2 Platform. The Java binding also provided a mechanism to invoke OQL.

Status
ODMG 3.0 was published in book form in 2000. By 2001, most of the major object database and object-relational mapping vendors claimed conformance to the ODMG Java Language Binding. Compliance to the other components of the specification was mixed. In 2001, the ODMG Java Language Binding was submitted to the Java Community Process as a basis for the Java Data Objects specification. The ODMG member companies then decided to concentrate their efforts on the Java Data Objects specification. As a result, the ODMG disbanded in 2001.

In 2004, the Object Management Group (OMG) was granted the right to revise the ODMG 3.0 specification as an OMG specification by the copyright holder, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. In February 2006, the OMG announced the formation of the Object Database Technology Working Group (ODBT WG) and plans to work on the 4th generation of an object database standard.

ODMG Compliant DBMS
Orient ODBMS: http://www.OrienTechnologies.com
Objectivity/DB C++, Java and Smalltalk interfaces.

References
 The Object Data Standard: ODMG 3.0. Edited by R.G.G. Cattell and Douglas K. Barry, with contributions by Mark Berler, Jeff Eastman, David Jordan, Craig L. Russell, Olaf Schadow, Torsten Stanienda, and Fernando Velez. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc., 2000. .
 Object Storage Fact Books: Object DBMSs and Object–Relational Mapping. Douglas K. Barry and Joshua Duhl. Barry & Associates, Inc., 2001. Pages showing the ODMG compliance for both object database and object–relational mapping products in 2001.

External links
ODMG: http://www.odbms.org/odmg-standard/ now part of ODBMS.org

Standards organizations in the United States
Databases
Object-oriented programming
Organizations established in 1991
1991 establishments in the United States

Object Data Management Group


Jeu de paume was originally a French game similar to lawn tennis, but played without racquets. The players hit the ball with their hands as in volleyball.  Jeu de paume literally means: game of palm (of the hand).  After some time gloves replaced bare hands.  But even when bats, and finally racquets, became standard equipment for the game, the name did not change.  It became known as "tennis" in English (see History of tennis), and later "real tennis" after lawn tennis became more popular than the parent game.

Some important buildings in France are known by the name jeu de paume, in general because they are near to tennis courts or to sites on which courts once stood. Several works of art also bear this name, including the famous serment du jeu de paume ('the Tennis Court Oath') in the Palace of Versailles. It depicts the formal announcement of the French revolution made in the Royal Tennis Court there on 20 June, 1789.

Sports that developed from jeu de paume

 American handball
 Basque pelota
 Fistball
 Frisian handball
 Gaelic handball
 Longue paume
 Pallone
 Valencian pilota
 Volleyball
 Court tennis
 Tennis

Other websites

 Historical Picture: A Jeu de Paume Before a Country Palace
 Oratory Real Tennis Club
 Société Sportive du Jeu de Paume et de Racquets

Handball
Sport in France

Jeu de paume


Tiverton Castle is the remains of a medieval castle dismantled after the Civil War and thereafter converted in the 17th century into a country house. It occupies a defensive position above the banks of the River Exe at Tiverton in Devon.

Description
Once considerably larger, Tiverton Castle now comprises a group of ruined defensive perimeter walls, towers and buildings from various periods. A Norman motte was built in 1106.

History

Civil War

During the Civil War the Castle was a Royalist stronghold. Fairfax's Parliamentarian troops laid siege to a troop of Royalists within the Castle and set up his headquarters at Blundell's School and stationed his artillery on Skrink Hills (or "Shrink" Hills) just above him and below Cranmore Castle,  about half a mile from Tiverton Castle. The Culverin, the largest artillery piece used by the New Model Army, was capable of firing up to 2,000 yards. Whilst they were still finding their range a lucky shot hit one of the chains holding up the Castle's drawbridge and a small party of roundheads were able swiftly to gain entry and thus put an end to the siege almost before it had started. The bulk of the defensive structure was then demolished by Parliamentarian troops to prevent any military re-use of the structure.

The primary source is the 1645 narrative by John Rushworth (c.1612-1690) dated "Tiverton, Octob. 19. 1645. at nine a clock at night", entitled: The taking of Tiverton, with the castle, church, and fort, by Sir Thomas Fairfax, on the Lords-day last, Octob. 19. 1645. Wherein was taken Colonel Sir Gilbert Talbot, the governour. Major Sadler, major to Col. Talbot. 20. officers of note. 200. common souldiers. Foure peece of ordnance. 500. armes, with store of ammunition, provision, and treasure. Also the severall defeats given to Goring, by his Excellency, and all Gorings forces fled before him. Published according to order". The relevant passage is as follows:
Major Generall Massey did soone possesse himselfe of the Town of Tiverton, the Enemie marched away, onely those who were left in the Castle, and the Church, to keep those places. ... On Friday the 17. instant, our Generall Sir Thomas Fairfax sate downe before Tiverton-Castle and Church, to take them in, and summoned the enemy to deliver them up, of which being denied, we planted our batteries against them, which went forwards that day and the next. On Saturday Octob. 18. instant, our batteries were finished by the afternoone, and on this day being the Lord's day Octob. 19. instant, the Generall caused severall great pieces to be planted on the batteries against the Castle verie early, so that they were ready to play by breake of day, and all our Cannon began to play about seven a clocke in the morning, against the Castle, and the Enemie from thence answered us with their pieces, but did no execution upon us. And after many shot that we had made against them, a Cannonier by one shot gallantly performed this businesse, for he broke the chaine of the Draw-bridge with a bullet, which passeth over to the entrance of the Castle, which falling downe, the chaine being so broken, our Souldiers fell on without any further order from the Generall, they being loth to lose such an opportunitie, and loving rather to fight than to look on when God gives them such occasion, which took good effect, for they soone possessed themselves of all; they presently entred the Castle and Church, in which wee had foure men slaine: yet such is the mild and gentle carriage of the Generall, and his desire to spare the effusion of bloud, as much as may be, that notwithstanding they took it by storme, yet he himself gave command, that quarter should be given to all those who were alive: wee took in the castle Sir Gilbert Talbot who was Governour of the place, 20 other Officers, 200 Souldiers, four peece of Ordnance, good store of Armes and Ammunition, and abundance of treasure, which was divided amongst the Souldiers. The castle was verie strong, and the works all regular. ...    A List of what was taken at Tiverton.
Colonell Sir Gilbert Talbot, the Governour.
Major Sadler, Major to Col. Talbot.
20 Officers of note.
200 Common Souldiers.
Foure Peece of Ordnance.
500 Armes, with store of Ammunition, Provision, and Treasure.

Descent

Redvers
In 1106 the large and important manor of Tiverton was granted by King Henry I (1100–1135) to Richard de Redvers ( 1066–1107), who built the castle. His son Baldwin de Redvers (died 1155), was created 1st Earl of Devon by the Empress Matilda during The Anarchy, probably in early 1141. Mary de Redvers, called "de Vernon" probably after the place of her birth, Vernon, a daughter of William de Redvers, 5th Earl of Devon (died 1217), married as her second husband Robert de Courtenay, whose mother was Hawise de Courci (died 1219), the heiress of the feudal barony of Okehampton. The 7th Redvers Earl died in 1262, without progeny, whereupon his sister, Isabella de Forz (died 1293), (Latinised to de Fortibus) the widow of  William de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle, became Countess of Devon in her own right.

Courtenay

Isabella de Forz died in 1293 without surviving progeny and her heir was found to be her second cousin once removed, Hugh de Courtenay (1275/6-1340), feudal baron of Okehampton, the great-grandson of Robert de Courtenay by Mary de Vernon. He was summoned to Parliament in 1299 as Lord Courtenay, which created him a baron by writ, although he was already a feudal baron. In 1335 he was declared to be 1st Earl of Devon, of the second creation. Tiverton Castle was the principal seat of the Courtenay Earls of Devon throughout the mediaeval period including William Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon whose wife Catherine of York was during her lifetime, daughter to Edward IV, sister to Edward V, niece to Richard III, sister-in-law to Henry VII and aunt to Henry VIII. However these connections did not save Catherine's son Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter, 2nd Earl of Devon (1498–1539) from being implicated in a plot and executed in 1539 by King Henry VIII. The Courtenays also held from the 13th-century Okehampton Castle, their original seat in England, and later built Colcombe Castle, both in Devon.

Russell, Seymour, Gates
After the attainder and execution of Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter, 2nd Earl of Devon (1498–1539) in 1539, King Henry VIII granted Tiverton to John Russell, 1st Earl of Bedford, whom the contemporary historian John Leland stated to have been holding it, amongst his other vast possessions, in 1540. After the death of King Henry VIII, the manor and castle of Tiverton were granted by the infant King Edward VI (1547–1553) to his uncle and the Lord Protector of the kingdom, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (c. 1500–1552), apparently the result of an exchange of lands between Russell and Seymour. The Duke was executed in 1552 by his nephew the king, who re-granted the manor and castle to Sir Henry Gates (1515–1589), MP, gentleman usher of the privy chamber and brother of Sir John Gates, knighted at the coronation of Edward VI, whom he served as captain of the guard. Sir John was an associate of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland (1504–1553) and a supporter of the claim to the throne of his daughter-in-law Lady Jane Grey and thus his brother Sir Henry Gates also fell under suspicion. On the accession of Queen Mary (1553–1558) in 1553 Sir Henry Gates was tried for treason and attainted but escaped execution. Later that year of 1553 he was pardoned, but his lands were not restored to him.

Restored to Courtenay
Queen Mary restored Tiverton to Edward Courtenay (d.1556), the only son of the executed Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter, 2nd Earl of Devon, and created him Earl of Devon, under a new creation. On the death in 1556 of Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (1527–1556) (1st Earl of the 5th creation of the Earldom of Devon granted by Queen Mary), without progeny, the manor and Castle of Tiverton devolved to his distant cousins, descended from the four sisters of his great-grandfather Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (d.1509), KG.  These sisters had married into the West Country families of Arundell of Talvern, Trethurfe, Mohun and Trelawney, and thus the Courtenay estates had been divided into four parts. Some of the heirs sold their shares.

Giffard

One of the earliest purchasers of a share was Roger Giffard (1533-1603), who made Tiverton Castle his family home, and who was in the words of the Devonshire biographer John Prince "A worthy and eminent person, though it must be acknowledged the history of those actions which made him so is for the most part perished".

Roger Giffard was the 5th son of Sir Roger Giffard (d.1547), who was born at Halsbury, the family's ancient seat in the parish of Parkham, but who married the heiress of Brightley in the parish of Chittlehampton, Margaret Coblegh (d.1548), daughter and sole heiress of John Coblegh of Brightley, whose monumental brass can be seen in Chittlehampton Church. Margaret Coblegh brought many estates to the Giffards of Brightley, including Stowford Snape, Wollacombe Tracy (near Braunton, where her son Roger Giffard was baptised and married), Bremridge (near South Molton) and Nymet St George (George Nympton), of which she was seized at her death. John Giffard (d.1622) of Brightley, the nephew of Roger Giffard (d.1603) of Tiverton Castle, is commemorated by an effigy in Chittlehampton Church. The armorials of Giffard and Coblegh of Brightley are visible on this elaborate monument at Chittlehampton and also appear above the porch of Brightley Barton. These also appear on the mural monument in Tiverton Church to Roger Giffard (d.1603) of Tiverton Castle. The line of Giffard which remained at Halsbury still owned that estate in about 1630, according to the Devon historian Tristram Risdon who was writing at that time. Halsbury was sold by the Giffards to the Benson family and then to the Davie's of Orleigh Court,  in the adjacent parish of Buckland Brewer. In about 1800 Joseph Davie Bassett sold the estates of Halsbury and Orleigh to Edward Lee.

Roger Giffard (d.1603) of Tiverton Castle married Audrey Stucley, daughter of Sir Hugh Stucley (1496-1560) who lived at Affeton Castle and his wife Jane Pollard, on 27 January 1563 at Braunton and was one of the feoffees under the will of Peter Blundell, the founder of Blundell's School in Tiverton. To this position were subsequently elected his son George Giffard in 1617, and his grandson Roger Giffard in 1633 .  He purchased a quarter share of the manor of Tiverton, which was not incorporated as a town until 1615,  and all the buildings comprising Tiverton Castle, which became known for a while as "Giffard's Court". He built the projecting tower porch situated within the courtyard in the angle where the gatehouse range meets the 17th-century north range, as evidenced by a date-stone set into the wall inscribed with the date "1588" and the initials "RG" (Roger Giffard). He lived through the devastating fire in Tiverton which broke out in the daytime of 3 April 1598 which killed 33 people, destroyed 400 houses and several chapels and destroyed merchandise valued at £150,000. His son George Giffard, named on his monument, was baptised at Braunton on 27 September 1564, matriculated at Exeter College, Oxford on 11 October 1583 aged 17 and died aged 58 on 26 June 1622.  His son, named by Dunsford as Roger Giffard, died without male progeny and left a daughter his sole heiress who married Roger Burgoyne (or Burgoin, Esquire. In 1663 Burgoyne was elected feofee of Blundell's Charity to occupy the former position held by the Giffards. He had two sons Robert and William Burgoyne, who sold the Castle and their quarter of the manor of Tiverton to Peter West, Esquire, who made it his home and served as Sheriff of Devon in 1707.

West

In about 1605 Sir Reynell Mohun sold his quarter share to Mr John West (d.1630),  a Tiverton merchant, whose monument exists in Tiverton Church. The West family had also purchased the Trelawney share. It appears that the Wests lived in the Castle until it was dismantled after the Civil War,  but part was later rebuilt by the Wests for their residence.

Carew
On the death of John West, Esquire, in 1728, his family had amassed shares amounting to 6/8ths of the original manor, and as he died without male progeny, the property passed via one of his daughters and co-heiresses, Dorothy West, to her husband Sir Thomas Carew, 4th Baronet (c. 1692-c. 1746) of Haccombe. In 1822 Lysons wrote that the then possessor of the Castle was Sir Henry Carew, 7th Baronet (1779–1830)
who had increased the family's share in the manor to 7/8ths, the additional 1/8th having been purchased by Dorothy, Lady Carew from the Rev. Mr Spurway, whose family had owned it for a considerable time. The Carews had seemingly let it to the tenant of the adjoining Barton, but it was repossessed and fitted up as a residence for Lady Carew, the mother of Sir Henry Carew, and it was her home in 1822 as reported by Lysons. The remaining 1/8th. in 1822 was held by Rev. Dr. Short, Archdeacon of Cornwall, who had purchased it from Edward Colman, Esquire, Serjeant of Arms to the House of Lords, whose family lived locally at Gornhay and had held the share for more than two hundred years.

Campbell
Carews descendants sold Tiverton Castle in 1923 and following various changes of ownership, it was purchased in 1960 by Ivar Campbell, whose nephew Angus Campbell inherited it in 1985.

Sources
Lysons, Daniel & Samuel, Magna Britannia, Vol 6, Devonshire, 1822, pp. 496–520
Dunsford, Martin, Historical Memoirs of the Town of Tiverton, 1836 edition
Listed building text, Tiverton Castle

References

Further reading
Oman, Charles, Castles, 1926, Tiverton Castle: Courtenay StrongholdGatehouse Gazetteer, Tiverton Castle
Heathcote, Henry Thomas, Tiverton Castle, or, The Siege of Tiverton in 1645: an historical romantic play in three acts interspersed with songs first acted at Tiverton on Wednesday evening March 11th 1829, Tiverton, 1829
Harding, Lt-Col. William, The History of Tiverton in the County of Devon,
Volume I, Books I & II, Tiverton, 1845
Historical Memoirs etc., Book I, General History and Remarkable Occurrences, pp. 1–273
Historical Memoirs etc., Book II, Lords of the Manor, pp. 1–119
Volume II, Books III & IV, Tiverton, 1847
Historical Memoirs etc., Book III, Public Donations, pp. 1–280
Historical Memoirs etc., Book IV, Antiquities, Public Buildings, And Biographical Notices'', pp. 1–94, esp. pp. 102–3  (Index for Books I-IV, pp. 95 et seq )

External links

Tiverton Castle Website

Country houses in Devon
Castles in Devon
Tiverton, Devon
Grade I listed buildings in Devon
Historic house museums in Devon

Tiverton Castle


The Eden Express: A Memoir of Insanity () is a 1975 memoir by Mark Vonnegut, son of American writer Kurt Vonnegut, about Mark's experiences in the late 1960s and his major psychotic breakdown and recovery. After his recovery, he undertook the study of medicine and orthomolecular medicine, although he later disavowed the latter.

The foreword was written by Kurt Vonnegut, who said, "his [Mark Vonnegut's] wish is to tell people who are going insane something about the shape of the roller coaster they are on."

The Eden Express is an autobiographical account of Mark's years immediately after college, his thoughts, experiences and descent into and eventual emergence from mental illness. It starts with the words, "June 1969: Swarthmore Graduation. The night before, someone had taken white paint and painted "Commence What?" on the front of the stage." It continues with an account of his journey in a VW Bug to the wilds of British Columbia to build a commune with his girlfriend and college friends. The book continues until two years later, on Valentine's Day, 1971, Vonnegut had suffered from a psychotic episode and was committed to Woodlands Psychiatric Hospital in New Westminster, about 10 days after taking mescaline, which left him unable to sleep and uninterested in eating. He was diagnosed as having paranoid schizophrenia.

The New York Times describes the book as:
Mark Vonnegut's depiction of his descent into, and eventual emergence from, mental illness. As a recent college graduate, self-avowed hippie, and son of a counterculture hero, Vonnegut begins to experience increasingly delusional thinking, suicidal thoughts, and physical incapacity. In February 1971 he is committed to a psychiatric hospital… (an) honest, thoughtful, and moving account of the illness of schizophrenia. Required reading for those who want to understand insanity from the inside.

The book was translated into Swedish as Express till paradiset. It was also translated into Polish as Eden express (transl. Sherill Howard Pociecha i Lech Janerka, Wrocław/Breslau 1992) and into German as Eden Express - Die Geschichte meines Wahnsinns (transl. Johann Christoph Maass), Berlin 2014.

References

External links
Edited extract at The Guardian

Psychology books
1975 non-fiction books
American memoirs

The Eden Express