SharePoint is a proprietary, web-based collaborative platform that integrates natively with Microsoft 365. Launched in 2001, SharePoint is primarily sold as a document management and storage system, although it is also used for sharing information through an intranet, implementing internal applications, and for implementing business processes.

According to Microsoft,  SharePoint had over 200 million users.

Editions
There are various editions of SharePoint which have different functions.

SharePoint Foundation

It was a free version with very basic functionalities, discontinued in 2016.

SharePoint Standard
Microsoft SharePoint Standard is a software product that extends the function of Microsoft SharePoint Foundation in several areas:
 Sites: Audience targeting, governance tools, secure store service, and web analytics.
 Communities: 'MySites' (personal profiles including skills management and search tools), enterprise wikis, organization hierarchy browser, tags, and notes.
 Content: Improved tooling and compliance for document and record management, word automation services, and content management.
 Search: Better search results, search customization, mobile search, 'Did you mean?', OS search integration, Faceted Search, and metadata/relevancy/date/location-based refinement options.
 Composites:  Pre-built workflow templates and Business Connectivity Services (BCS) profile pages.

SharePoint Standard licensing includes a CAL (client access license) component and a server fee. It can also be licensed through a cloud model.

SharePoint Server

SharePoint Server is a product offered by Microsoft that provides organizations with greater control over the behavior and design of the SharePoint. Unlike SharePoint Online, which is a cloud based service, SharePoint Server is installed on the customers' IT infrastructure, giving them greater customization and control over the platform.
SharePoint Server comes in two editions: Standard and Enterprise. The standard edition provides basic features for document management, collaboration, and content management. The Enterprise edition provides advance features for business intelligence, enterprise content management, and search capabilities.

SharePoint Server can be provisioned as a virtual/cloud server or as a hosted service. Hosted service allow organizations to use SharePoint Server without having to manage the infrastructure themselves.

SharePoint Enterprise
Built upon SharePoint Standard, Microsoft SharePoint Enterprise features can be unlocked by providing an additional license key.

Extra features in SharePoint Enterprise include:
 Search thumbnails and previews, rich web indexing, better search results.
 Business intelligence integration, dashboards, and business data surfacing.
 PowerPivot and PerformancePoint.
 Microsoft Office Access, Visio, Excel, and InfoPath Forms services.
 SharePoint Enterprise Search extensions.

SharePoint Enterprise licensing includes a CAL component and a server fee that must be purchased in addition to SharePoint Server licensing. SharePoint Enterprise may also be licensed through a cloud model.

SharePoint Online
Microsoft's hosted SharePoint is typically bundled in Microsoft 365 subscriptions, but can be licensed separately. SharePoint Online has the advantage of not needing to maintain one's own servers, but as a result lacks the customization options of a self-hosted installation of SharePoint.

It is limited to a core set of collaboration, file hosting, and document and content management scenarios, and is updated on a frequent basis, but is typically comparable with SharePoint Enterprise.
Currently, additional capabilities include:
 Support for SharePoint Framework extensions
 New "Modern" (Responsive) SharePoint UX (partially included in 2016  Feature Pack 1)
 Yammer Integration and Office 365 Groups
 Integration with Outlook Web App
 Newer versions of Online Office Document Editor Tools
 Removal of various file size/number limitations
 Apps Concept

Missing capabilities include:
 Some search and UI customizations
 Many web publishing capabilities
 Service Application administration options
 Many customization/solution types will not run
 No ability to read error (ULS) logs
 No ability to share a Site Page (ASPX) to external anonymous visitors; only documents (e.g., Word, Excel, Picture) may be shared as such

Applications
SharePoint usage varies from organization to organization. The product encompasses a wide variety of capabilities, most of which require configuration and governance.

The most common uses of the SharePoint include:

Enterprise content and document management

SharePoint allows for storage, retrieval, searching, archiving, tracking, management, and reporting on electronic documents and records. Many of the functions in this product are designed around various legal, information management, and process requirements in organizations. SharePoint also provides search and 'graph' functionality. SharePoint's integration with Microsoft Windows and Microsoft 365 (previously known as Office) allows for collaborative real-time editing, and encrypted/information rights managed synchronization.

This capability is often used to replace an existing corporate file server, and is typically coupled with an enterprise content management policy.

Intranet and social network

A SharePoint intranet or intranet portal is a way to centralize access to enterprise information and applications. It is a tool that helps an organization manage its internal communications, applications and information more easily. Microsoft claims that this has organizational benefits such as increased employee engagement, centralizing process management, reducing new staff on-boarding costs, and providing the means to capture and share tacit knowledge (e.g. via tools such as wikis, media libraries, team sites etc.).

Collaborative software
SharePoint contains team collaboration groupware capabilities, including: project scheduling (integrated with Outlook and Project), social collaboration, shared mailboxes, and project related document storage and collaboration. Groupware in SharePoint is based around the concept of a "Team Site".

File hosting service (personal cloud)
SharePoint Server hosts OneDrive for Business, which allows storage and synchronization of an individual's personal documents, as well as public/private file sharing of those documents. This is typically combined with other Microsoft Office Servers/Services, such as Microsoft Exchange, to produce a "personal cloud".

WebDAV can be used to access files without using the web interface. However, Microsoft's implementation of WebDAV doesn't conform to the official WebDAV protocol and therefore isn't compliant to the WebDAV standard. For example, WebDAV applications have to support the language tagging functionality of the XML specification which Microsoft's implementation doesn't. Only Windows XP to Windows 8 are supported.

Custom web applications

SharePoint's custom development capabilities provide an additional layer of services that allow rapid prototyping of integrated (typically line-of-business) web applications.  SharePoint provides developers with integration into corporate directories and data sources through standards such as REST/OData/OAuth. Enterprise application developers use SharePoint's security and information management capabilities across a variety of development platforms and scenarios. SharePoint also contains an enterprise "app store" that has different types of external applications which are encapsulated and managed to access to resources such as corporate user data and document data.

Content structure

Pages
SharePoint provides free-form pages which may be edited in-browser. These may be used to provide content to users, or to provide structure to the SharePoint environment.

Web parts and app parts
Web parts and app parts are components (also known as portlets) that can be inserted into Pages. They are used to display information from both SharePoint and third-party applications.

Content item, Content Type, Libraries, Lists, and "Apps"
 Content item is a resource in electronic form. Following are some examples:
 Document: always has a "Name".
 Contact: may have Email address and/or Phone number.
 Sales Invoice: may have Customer ID.
 Content Types are definitions (or types) of Content items. These definitions describe things like what metadata fields a Document, Contact, or Sales invoice may have. SharePoint allows you to create your own definitions based on the built-in ones. Some built in content types include: Contacts, Appointments, Documents, and Folders.
 SharePoint Library stores and displays Content items of type Documents and Folders.
 SharePoint List stores and displays data items such as Contacts. Some built-in content types such as 'Contact' or 'Appointment' allow the list to expose advanced features such as Microsoft Outlook or Project synchronization.

In SharePoint 2013, in some locations, Lists and Libraries were renamed 'Apps' (despite being unrelated to the "SharePoint App Store"). In SharePoint 2016, some of these were renamed back to Lists and Libraries.

Sites
A SharePoint Site is a collection of pages, lists, libraries, apps, configurations, features, content types, and sub-sites. Examples of Site templates in SharePoint include: collaboration (team) sites, communication sites, organization sites, wiki sites, blank sites, and publishing sites.

Configuration and customization

Web-based configuration
SharePoint is primarily configured through a web browser. The web-based user interface provides most of the configuration capability of the product.

Depending on your permission level, the web interface can be used to:
 Manipulate content structure, site structure, create/delete sites, modify navigation and security, or add/remove apps.
 Enable or disable product features, upload custom designs/themes, or turn on integrations with other Office products.
 Configure basic workflows, view usage analytics, manage metadata, configure search options, upload customizations, and set up integration.

SharePoint Designer
SharePoint Designer is a semi-deprecated product that provided 'advanced editing' capabilities for HTML/ASPX pages, but remains the primary method of editing SharePoint workflows.

A significant subset of HTML editing features were removed in Designer 2013, and the product is expected to be deprecated in 2016–7.

Microsoft SharePoint's Server Features are configured either using PowerShell, or a Web UI called "Central Administration". Configuration of server farm settings (e.g. search crawl, web application services) can be handled through these central tools.

While Central Administration is limited to farm-wide settings (config DB), it provides access to tools such as the 'SharePoint Health Analyzer', a diagnostic health-checking tool.

In addition to PowerShell's farm configuration features, some limited tools are made available for administering or adjusting settings for sites or site collections in content databases.

A limited subset of these features are available by SharePoint's SaaS providers, including Microsoft.

Custom development
 The SharePoint Framework (SPFx) provides a development model based on the TypeScript language. The technical stack is Node.js, Yeoman, Gulp, NPM, and Webpack. It is the only supported way to customize the new modern experience user interface (UI). It has been globally available since mid 2017. It allows a web developer to step into SharePoint development more easily.
 The SharePoint "App Model" provides various types of external applications that offer the capability to show authenticated web-based applications through a variety of UI mechanisms. Apps may be either "SharePoint-hosted", or "Provider-hosted". Provider hosted apps may be developed using most back-end web technologies (e.g. ASP.net, NodeJS, PHP). Apps are served through a proxy in SharePoint, which requires some DNS/certificate manipulation in on-premises versions of SharePoint.
 The SharePoint "Client Object Model" (available for JavaScript and .NET), and REST/SOAP APIs can be referenced from many environments, providing authenticated users access to a wide variety of SharePoint capabilities.
 "Sand-boxed" plugins can be uploaded by any end-user who has been granted permission. These are security-restricted, and can be governed at multiple levels (including resource consumption management). In multi-tenant cloud environments, these are the only customizations that are typically allowed.
 Farm features are typically fully trusted code that need to be installed at a farm-level. These are considered deprecated for new development.
 Service applications: It is possible to integrate directly into the SharePoint SOA bus, at a farm level.

Customization may appear through:
 Application-to-application integration with SharePoint.
 Extensions to SharePoint functionality (e.g. custom workflow actions).
 'Web Parts' (also known as "portlets", "widgets", or "gadgets") that provide new functionality when added to a page.
 Pages/sites or page/site templates.

Server architecture
SharePoint Server can be scaled down to operate entirely from one developer machine, or scaled up to be managed across hundreds of machines.

Farms
A SharePoint farm is a logical grouping of SharePoint servers that share common resources.  A farm typically operates stand-alone, but can also subscribe to functions from another farm, or provide functions to another farm. Each farm has its own central configuration database, which is managed through either a PowerShell interface, or a Central Administration website (which relies partly on PowerShell's infrastructure). Each server in the farm is able to directly interface with the central configuration database. Servers use this to configure services (e.g. IIS, windows features, database connections) to match the requirements of the farm, and to report server health issues, resource allocation issues, etc...

Web applications
Web applications (WAs) are top-level containers for content in a SharePoint farm. A web application is associated primarily with IIS configuration. A web application consists of a set of access mappings or URLs defined in the SharePoint central management console, which are replicated by SharePoint across every IIS Instance (e.g. Web Application Servers) configured in the farm.

Site collections
A site collection is a hierarchical group of 'SharePoint Sites'. Each web application must have at least one site collection. Site collections share common properties (detailed here), common subscriptions to service applications, and can be configured with unique host names. A site collection may have a distinct content databases, or may share a content database with other site collections in the same web application.

Service applications
Service applications provide granular pieces of SharePoint functionality to other web and service applications in the farm. Examples of service applications include the User Profile Sync service, and the Search Indexing service. A service application can be turned off, exist on one server, or be load-balanced across many servers in a farm. Service Applications are designed to have independent functionality and independent security scopes.

Administration, security, compliance
SharePoint's architecture enables a 'least-privileges' execution permission model.

SharePoint Central Administration (the CA) is a web application that typically exists on a single server in the farm; however, it is also able to be deployed for redundancy to multiple servers. This application provides a complete centralized management interface for web and service applications in the SharePoint farm, including AD account management for web and service applications. In the event of the failure of the CA, Windows PowerShell is typically used on the CA server to reconfigure the farm.

The structure of the SharePoint platform enables multiple WAs to exist on a single farm. In a shared (cloud) hosting environment, owners of these WAs may require their own management console. The SharePoint 'Tenant Administration' (TA) is an optional web application used by web application owners to manage how their web application interacts with the shared resources in the farm.

Compliance, standards and integration
 SharePoint integrates with Microsoft 365 (previously known as Microsoft Office).
 SharePoint uses Microsoft's OpenXML document standard for integration with Microsoft Office / 365. Document metadata is also stored using this format.
 SharePoint provides various application programming interfaces (APIs: client-side, server-side, JavaScript) and REST, SOAP and OData-based interfaces.
 SharePoint can be used to achieve compliance with many document retention, record management, document ID and discovery laws.
 SharePoint is compatible with CMIS  the Content Management Interoperability Standard, using Microsoft's CMIS Connector.
 SharePoint by default produces valid XHTML 1.0 that is compliant with WCAG 2.0 accessibility standards.
 SharePoint can use claims-based authentication, relying on SAML tokens for security assertions. SharePoint provides an open authentication plugin model.
 SharePoint has support for XLIFF to support the localization of content in SharePoint. Also added support for AppFabric.

History

Origins
SharePoint evolved from projects codenamed "Office Server" and "Tahoe" during the Office XP development cycle.

"Office Server" evolved out of the FrontPage and Office Server Extensions and "Team Pages". It targeted simple, bottom-up collaboration.

"Tahoe", built on shared technology with Exchange and the "Digital Dashboard", targeted top-down portals, search and document management. The searching and indexing capabilities of SharePoint came from the "Tahoe" feature set. The search and indexing features were a combination of the index and crawling features from the Microsoft Site Server family of products and from the query language of Microsoft Index Server.

GAC-(Global Assembly Cache) is used to accommodate the shared assemblies that are specifically designated to be shared by applications executed on a system.

Versions
Successive versions (in chronological order):

 Office Server Extensions
 SharePoint Portal Server 2001
 SharePoint Team Services
 Windows SharePoint Services 2.0 (free license)
 SharePoint Portal Server 2003
 Windows SharePoint Services 3.0 (free license)
 Microsoft Office SharePoint Server (MOSS) 2007
 SharePoint Foundation 2010 (free), SharePoint Server 2010 (commercial extension for Foundation), and SharePoint Enterprise 2010 (commercial extension for Server)
 SharePoint Foundation 2013 (free), SharePoint Server 2013 (extension on top of Foundation), and SharePoint Enterprise 2013.
 SharePoint Online (Plan 1 and 2).
 SharePoint Server 2016 and SharePoint Enterprise 2016.
 SharePoint Server 2019 and SharePoint Enterprise 2019.

Changes in SharePoint 2010
Changes in end-user functionality added in the 2010 version of SharePoint include:

 New UI with Fluent Ribbon, using wiki-pages rather than 'web-part pages' and offering multi-browser support.
 New social profiles, and early social networking features
 Central Administration rebuilt.
 Restructure of "Shared Service Providers" – Introduction of "Service Applications" SOA model.
 Sandboxed Solutions and a client-side object-model APIs for JavaScript, Silverlight, and .NET applications
 Business Connectivity Services, Claims-based Authentication, and Windows PowerShell support

Changes in SharePoint 2013
 Cross-browser drag & drop support for file uploads/changes, and Follow/Share buttons
 OneDrive for Business (initially SkyDrive Pro) replaces MySites and Workspaces.
 Updates to social network feature & new task aggregation tool.
 Database caching, called Distributed Cache Service
 Content-aware switching, called Management
 Audit center (service called eDiscovery)
 Rebuilt and improved search capabilities
 Removal of some analytics capabilities
 UI: JSLink, MDS, theme packs. No more WYSIWYG in SharePoint Designer (visual mode disabled, pages can be edited only in text mode, by directly modifying the source code, usually in ASP.NET or Javascript / CSS / HTML).

Changes in SharePoint 2016
Sources:

 Hybrid Improvements
 Single Sites View
 Unified Search
 Search Sensitive Information in Hybrid Search
 Unified UI (O365)
 Performance, Scaling & Deployment Improvements
 Search Scaling Capabilities
 Site Collection Enhancement
 Deterministic View Threshold – Removing 5000 Limit
 Durable Links and Large Files Support
 Deployment Improvements
 MinRole
 Zero Downtime Patching

Changes in SharePoint 2019
Sources:

 Modern sites and page layouts
 Communication sites
 Large File Support, Character Restrictions, and File/Folder Names

Changes in SharePoint Subscription Edition (SE)
Sources:

 Authentication and Identity Management
 Support for OpenID Connect (OIDC) 1.0
 Enhanced People Picker for modern authentication
 Improved Integrated Windows authentication over TLS
 Deployment and Upgrade
 Support for Windows Server 2022
 Support for Windows Server Core
 Support for "N  2" upgrade from SharePoint 2016 and SharePoint 2019 (and Project Server 2016 and 2019)
 AppFabric Cache integration
 Farm Administration
 Support for host header bindings on Central Administration web application
 Support for Server Name Indication (SNI) for host header bindings
 Support for changing web application bindings
 Easier AAM configuration for Central Administration
 Federated service applications support "N  2" consuming farms (SharePoint 2016, 2019, and Subscription Edition)
 Support for client certificate authentication to SMTP servers
 Health and Monitoring (new Health Analyzer rules)
 Certificate notification contacts haven't been configured
 Upcoming SSL certificate expirations
 SSL certificates are about to expire
 SSL certificates have expired
 Hybrid
 Better integration with Power Apps and Power Automate
 Improved hybrid search troubleshooting
 Search
 Search result page modernization
 Support for returning list content in the modern results page
 Thumbnails in the modern search result page
 Security
 SSL certificate management
 Support for TLS 1.3
 Strong TLS encryption by default
 Improved ASP.NET view state security and key management
 Sites, Lists, and Libraries
 Accessibility improvements
 Brick layout for document library thumbnails and image gallery web part
 Bulk check-in and check-out
 Bulk file download from document libraries and OneDrive personal sites
 Image and document thumbnails in document libraries and picture libraries
 Modern list and library web parts support adding, editing, and deleting content
 Modern document sets
 Storage
 New BLOB storage provider: Remote Share Provider
 Remote Share Provider diagnostic tool

See also
 Enterprise portal
 List of collaborative software
 List of content management systems

References

External links

SharePoint Roadmap

2001 software
Content management systems
Document management systems
Information management
Portal software
Proprietary database management systems
Proprietary wiki software
Records management technology
Microsoft Office servers
Android (operating system) software

SharePoint


The Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge is an important breeding area for mammals, birds, and other animals. The National Wildlife Refuge is located on land surrounding Lake Lowell, just outside Nampa, Idaho. It serves as a resting and wintering area for birds, including mallards and Canada geese, along the Pacific Flyway and was named a "Globally Important Bird Area" by the American Bird Conservancy.

The refuge consists of two sections which contains open water, edge wetlands, grasslands and riparian and forest habitats. The largest portion of the refuge consists of Lake Lowell and its environs, located in Canyon County, just west of Nampa, while the second comprises the Snake River islands located in non-contiguous localities along the river in Canyon, Owyhee, Payette, and Washington counties (Idaho) and Malheur and Baker counties (Oregon).

There is a visitor center at the Lake Lowell site, which is the hub of activity for visitors and those volunteers who donate their time and services to wildlife conservation projects.

Wildlife and Habitat
Wildlife has dynamic and unique needs that require a variety of habitats for food, shelter, and raising young. Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge is managed to improve and maintain wildlife habitat. Habitats at Deer Flat include wetlands, riparian forests, uplands, and croplands at the Lake Lowell sector, as well as the 101 Snake River Islands.

History
President Theodore Roosevelt created a national bird refuge at Deer Flat Reservoir, now Lake Lowell, with his February 25, 1909, executive order. The refuge was one of 17 federal reclamation projects referenced in the order, each of which used manmade aquifers to provide safe havens for migratory birds. The effort to include the Canyon County site was spearheaded by James H. Lowell, then-president of the Payette-Boise Water Users Association.

1902 Reclamation Act authorizes establishment of U.S. Reclamation Service, now the Bureau of Reclamation, to irrigate western lands. Survey for location of Deer Flat Reservoir conducted.
1905 James H. Lowell, begins securing contracts to purchase the lands that would become the Deer Flat Reservoir, now Lake Lowell.
1906 Work begins on the upper and lower embankments.
1907 Caldwell Interurban Railroad begins public route to Lower Dam
1908 Lower Embankment completed in January. Equalization trench in Deer Flat Reservoir excavated with steam shovel No. 1 from Upper Embankment. Earthwork at Upper Embankment completed.
1909 Outlet channel at Lower Embankment completed and water turned in to Lake Lowell from New York canal. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 1032 on February 25.
1913 Sebree Dance Pavilion completed at Lower Dam Recreation Area.
1926 Nampa-Meridian Irrigation District signs agreement with federal government stipulating that Board of Control is now in charge of the project.
1928 Sebree Dance Pavilion dismantled and moved to Caldwell.
1930 First Lake Lowell Boat Races held at Upper Dam.
1935 Civilian Conservation Corps BR-24 Co. 2506 charged with restoring dams eroded by waves and ice.
1937 President Franklin D. Roosevelt creates the Snake River Islands Refuge by executive order. Thomas Horn assigned as first refuge manager.
1938 Works Progress Administration workers help build refuge infrastructure (roads and buildings).
1939 WPA workers complete observation tower.
1943 Youth Aid Farm Camp for girls housed in Civilian Conservation Corps barracks at Lower Dam.
1948 Deer Flat Reservoir renamed Lake Lowell in honor of J.H. Lowell.
1957 Special-use permit issued to Canyon County for sanitary landfill on refuge property.
1963 Snake River Islands Refuge consolidated with Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge.
1967 Last of CCC barracks removed from Lower Dam Recreation Area.
1970 Environmental Education building constructed at the Lower Dam.
1971 Landfill closed. Marsing Job Corps starts construction of Visitor Center.
1975 Visitor Center completed and First Youth Conservation Corps formed.
1976 Bureau of Reclamation nominates embankments to National Register of Historic Places.
1979 Special-use permit issued to Clint Eastwood to film part of Bronco Billy at Upper Embankment.
2006 Friends of Deer Flat Wildlife Refuge formed.
2009 Centennial Trail installed across historic upper dam.

References

External links

Protected areas of Baker County, Oregon
Protected areas of Canyon County, Idaho
Protected areas of Malheur County, Oregon
Protected areas of Owyhee County, Idaho
Protected areas of Payette County, Idaho
Protected areas of Washington County, Idaho
National Wildlife Refuges in Idaho
National Wildlife Refuges in Oregon
Snake River
Civilian Conservation Corps in Idaho
Works Progress Administration in Idaho
Protected areas established in 1909
1909 establishments in Oregon
Wetlands of Idaho
Wetlands of Oregon
Landforms of Baker County, Oregon
Landforms of Canyon County, Idaho
Landforms of Malheur County, Oregon
Landforms of Owyhee County, Idaho
Landforms of Payette County, Idaho
Landforms of Washington County, Idaho
1909 establishments in Idaho

Deer Flat National Wildlife Refuge


Mount Vesuvius (, ) is a stratovolcano on the Gulf of Naples, Italy. It is about  east of Naples. It is the only volcano on the mainland of Europe that erupted in the last 100 years. The last major eruption was in 1944. Two other important active volcanos in Italy, Etna and Stromboli, are on islands.

Mount Vesuvius is best known for its eruption in A.D. 79 which destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. They were never built again. The towns were buried in ash so completely that later people who lived there forgot about them until they were accidentally discovered in the late 18th century.

The eruption also changed the way the Sarno River flowed, and raised the sea beach. Because of this, Pompeii was not on the river nor next to the coast anymore. Mount Vesuvius was also greatly changed. Many of the plants there died, and the top of the mountain looked different because of the strong eruption.

Vesuvius has erupted many times after that. Today, it is one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world. About 3 million people live near this explosive volcano. More people live near Mount Vesuvius than any other volcano in the world.

Vesuvius has a long tradition of history and literature. A serpent (snake) called "Vesuvius" has been used in frescos of many lararia (household temples) from Pompeii. In Capua, the words "IOVI VESVVIO" (Jupiter Vesuvius) show that he was worshipped as a power of Jupiter.

The historian Diodorus Siculus said that there was a story that Hercules once passed through the country of Cumae when he was going to Sicily. There, he found a place called "the Phlegraean Plain" (phlegraion pedion, "plain of fire"). It said that it was "from a hill which anciently (from a long time ago) vomited out  called Vesuvius." Giant "sons of the Earth" lived inside it. With the help of the gods, he helped the people there and went on. An ode by Martial in AD 88 suggests that Venus and Hercules were worshipped in the place that was destroyed by the eruption in AD 79.

Name
The volcano was often called "Vesuvius" in the late Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was also called Vesaevus, Vesevus, Vesbius, and Vesvius. Writers in ancient Greek called it "Οὐεσούιον" or "Οὐεσούιος". Many scholars think the word Vesuvius was related to the Greek word "οὔ" (not) and σβέννυμι (I quench), so that it would mean "unquenchable". Others think it might come from ἕω "hurl" and βίη "violence", "violence".

Appearance

Vesuvius has a large cone (Gran Cono) which is partly surrounded by the top of a caldera which was made when an earlier and much higher structure called Monte Comma collapsed. The Gran Cono was made during the eruption of AD 79. For this reason, the volcano is also called Somma-Vesuvius or Somma-Vesuvio.

Eruption of 79 AD
Before Mount Vesuvius exploded in 79 B.C.E people who lived nearby did not even know that it was a volcano, because it had not erupted for 600 years. At about 1 PM, on August 24, AD 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted violently. It showered ash and pumice on the town of Pompeii, which was 5 miles away.

Today, people think the eruption of 79 AD lasted more than 19 hours. It was noticed by Pliny the Younger who described the mushroom cloud from the volcano as being in the shape of umbrella pine, a tree commonly found in the region. Pliny the Younger was the only person to write the story down.

There were many ways that people died. One was that the smoke that they breathed in was deadly because it dried in their lungs and formed glass. They also were buried by powdery ash from the volcano, which was all over them. Over time this ash turned to a sort of rock, protecting the bodies and the city from the weather and from robbers.

Vesuvius erupted 50 more times after the eruption in 79 AD. Vesuvius was named a national park in 1995.

Related pages
 List of volcanos
 Dormant volcano

References

Bibliography

Other websites

Calderas
Volcanoes of Italy
VEI-6 volcanoes
Campania

Mount Vesuvius


Inline skating is a kind of skating. It involves a person moving across land using shoes that have wheels on the bottom. It is similar to roller skating, except that the wheels are smaller and are in a single line. Inline skating is also called rollerblading, after the Rollerblade brand of skates. .

Inline skates usually have between 2 and 5 polyurethane wheels. These wheels are arranged in a single line. This allows for faster speeds than roller skates.

Skating

Inline skating


Bartolomeo Sebastian "Bart" Ruspoli (born 8 November 1976 in London) is an Italian and English actor.

Career
Bart Ruspoli trained at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art, where he graduated in 1998. He is also the writer and Producer of two of the films he was in.

In 2022 he was nominated for a BAFTA for Outstanding British Film for "Boiling Point" which he produced.

Filmography
 2point4 Children (1 episode, "The Italian Job", 1998) .... Fabrizio
 Heartbeat (1 episode, "Wise Guys", 2000) .... Marco Mazzetti
 Fish (1 episode, "Another Shade of White", 2000) .... Antonio - pizza delivery boy
 Jack Brown and the Curse of the Crown (2001) .... Malook
 Dead Creatures (2001) (V) .... Christian
 Band of Brothers (3 episodes, "Carentan", "Currahee" and "Day of Days", 2001) TV mini-series .... Pvt. Edward Tipper
 The Long Night (2002) (V) .... Joe (also Writer and Producer)
 Four (2002) (TV) .... Nick (also Writer and Producer)
 Ghost Master (2003) (VG) .... Ghostmaster (Italian version)
 Venus Drowning (2005) .... John
 Empire (2005) TV mini-series .... Principe
 Rome (2 episodes, "The Stolen Eagle" and "How Titus Pullo Brought Down the Republic", 2005) .... Antony's Tribune
 Elizabeth David: A Life in Recipes (2006) (TV) .... Doctor
 I Said So Little (2006) (V) .... Postman
 EastEnders (5 episodes, 2007) .... Marco
 Mixed Up (2009) .... Mike
 The Devil's Playground (2010) .... Matt
 Genesis (2018) .... Matt

Personal life
He is the great-grandson of Mario Ruspoli, 2nd Prince of Poggio Suasa, great-great-nephew of Bartolomeo Ruspoli, and wife Pauline Marie Palma de Talleyrand-Périgord, great-great-great-niece of Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord. He is 6' 1" (1.85 m).
Ruspoli is also a fifth cousin of occasional actor Alessandro Ruspoli, 9th Prince of Cerveteri and once removed of his son director Tao Ruspoli, son of actress Debra Berger and used to be married to actress Olivia Wilde. He is the oldest son of Costantino Filippo Maria dei Principi Ruspoli dei Principi di Poggio Suasa, born in New York City, New York on 23 April 1947, by Maria Consuelo (Lily) Child-Villiers of the Earls of Jersey, born on 21 August 1953, a former niece by marriage of Virginia Cherrill and paternal granddaughter of George Child Villiers, 8th Earl of Jersey, who despite their equal aristocratic birth never married to each other. Bart married Dr Vanessa Schjelderup in June 2012.

His second cousin (first cousin once removed) is actor, writer and producer William Villiers, 10th Earl of Jersey.

See also
 Ruspoli

References

External links

1976 births
Living people
Alumni of the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art
Bart
English male film actors
Italian male film actors
English male television actors
English people of Italian descent
Italian male television actors
Italian untitled nobility

Bart Ruspoli


Madaba (Arabic مادبا) is one of the governorates of Jordan. It is located southwest of Amman, the capital of Jordan, and its capital is Madaba. The governorate is ranked 8th (of 12 governorates) by population and by area. It is bordered by Balqa Governorate to the north, The Capital Governorate to the east, Karak Governorate to the south and the Dead Sea to the west.

History

Many civilizations existed on the soils of Madaba, most prominent are the Moabites, Nabateans, Romans, and the Arab Muslim empires.

The city of Madaba is best known for its Byzantine and Umayyad mosaics, especially the Madaba Map, a large Byzantine-era mosaic map of Palestine and the Nile delta.

Biblical and ancient history
Many sites in Madaba Governorate are considered biblical sites, some of which are:
 Mount Nebo: according to the Bible, is the site where Moses viewed the Promised Land.  Mount Nebo, just west of Madaba city, formed part of the Madaba Diocese during Byzantine times. Here the mosaics discovered at the Moses Memorial together with those in the churches in the village of Nebo, in the 'Uyun Musa valley and at 'Ayn al-Kanisah carry inscriptions which date them to the times of the Bishops of Madaba from the late fifth century to the middle of the eighth century AD.
 Um er-Rasas (Kastron Mefaa): lies on the southeastern steppes, also formed part of the diocese, laying as it is close to the Wadi Mujib (Arnon river), a natural boundary of the Province. Here were brought to light the splendid mosaics of the Saint Stephen Complex together with the Church of the Lions (sixth-eighth centuries AD), which complement the eighth-century mosaic discovered in the village of Ma'in.
 Mukawer: 15 km south of Madaba city, is where the Body of Saint John the Baptist supposedly lies after he was beheaded at the request of King Herod Antipas' niece. The site is located on top of a big mountain rising from the shores of the Dead Sea and overlooking most of the Dead Sea and ancient Israel.
 Madaba Map: The only complete mosaic map of Jerusalem from the Byzantine era.

Many archeological excavations with pre-Biblical and Biblical emphases take part during the summer months in Madaba Governorate; new discoveries are being made each year.

Geography
Madaba Governorate is bordered by Capital Governorate from the east and Balqa Governorate from the north, the West Bank across the Jordan River, and the Dead Sea from the west, and Karak Governorate from the south. Ma'in is a village in Madaba that is the site of a natural thermal waterfall. Its therapeutic effects are utilized by those with aching joints and skin irritations. a new tourist industry is growing around the site with the building  of a new hotel and spa.

The climate ranges significantly in the governorate due to the difference in altitude of the governorate's regions, the capital city of Madaba is at 798 meters above sea level, while the Dead Sea is at about 300 meters below sea level, resulting in a double digit difference in temperature between the two locations.

Economy

Tourism
Due to its richness of historic sites, and natural sites such as the Ma'in Hot Springs and the Dead Sea, Madaba Governorate depends mainly on tourism as a main source of income. The governorate is the fifth touristic destination following Petra, Jerash, Aqaba, and Amman.

Agriculture
The northern region of the governorate is agricultural, with a total area of 59 km2 of fruit and olive farms. The governorates production of olives and fruits is eighth on the kingdom (after Balqa, Irbid, Mafraq, The Capital, Ajloun, Jerash, and Zarqa governorates).

Administrative divisions

Article 12 of the Administrative Divisions law of the Jordanian Ministry of Interior divides Madaba into two departments:
Capital Department: with its administrative center in the city of Madaba, this department also includes 26 other towns and villages.
Dhiban Department: Includes 44 towns and villages, with its administrative center in Dhiban

Demographics

The population of districts according to census results:

Gallery

References

Governorates of Jordan

Madaba Governorate


Marcus Peter Stoinis (born 16 August 1989) is an Australian cricketer who plays limited overs cricket for the Australian national team. He is contracted to Western Australia and Melbourne Stars domestically, and has previously also played for Perth Scorchers and Victoria as an all rounder. Stoinis  was a member of the Australian team that won the 2021 T20 World Cup.

Early life
Stoinis is an Australian of Greek heritage, he was born in Perth, and represented Western Australia at both under-17 and under-19 level. Stoinis played for the Australian under-19 cricket team at the 2008 ICC Under-19 World Cup. The following year, he represented Australia at the Hong Kong Sixes.

Domestic and T20 career
After playing several Futures League matches for the state under-23 side, Stoinis made his List A debut for Western Australia in the 2008–09 Ford Ranger Cup. Both his one-day debut and his Sheffield Shield debut (two days later) came against Queensland at the Gabba. Stoinis played one more Sheffield Shield game and two more Ford Ranger Cup matches during the 2008–09 season, and one in each competition during the 2009–10 season, but was not regularly selected.

In Australia, Stoinis has played club cricket for Scarborough in the Western Australian Grade Cricket competition and for Northcote in the Victorian Premier Cricket. He spent part of the 2012 English season playing for the Peterborough Town Cricket Club in the Northampton Premier League, and in one match took a hat-trick. Stoinis also played five Second XI Championship matches for Kent County Cricket Club during his time in England.

In December 2012, Stoinis was selected in the Perth Scorchers' squad for the 2012–13 Big Bash League season, replacing the injured Mitchell Marsh. In the 2013, Stoinis began representing Victoria domestically, before returning to Western Australia for the 2017–18 season.

He was signed by the Delhi Daredevils ahead of the 2015 edition of the Indian Premier League. He was then picked up by the Kings XI Punjab for the 2016 season in the auction for INR 5.5 million. On 13 May 2016 he achieved his career best T20 figures in a game for Kings XI against Mumbai Indians, taking 4/15 from his four overs.

Stoinis was promoted to permanently open the batting for the Melbourne Stars in 2018, and the move paid dividends. Signing a four-year deal at the start of the season, Stoinis was the leading run scorer for the Stars in the 2018-19 Big Bash League, scoring 533 runs at an average of 53.30, while also taking 14 wickets. He was released by the Royal Challengers Bangalore ahead of the 2020 IPL auction. In the 2020 IPL auction, he was bought by the Delhi Capitals ahead of the 2020 Indian Premier League.

In the Melbourne derby on 5 January 2020, Stoinis was fined $7,500 for a homophobic slur directed at Renegades bowler Kane Richardson. He expressed remorse for the incident, saying he got "caught in the moment and took it too far".

On 12 January 2020, Stoinis scored 147 from 79 balls against Sydney Sixers, setting the new highest individual score in the Big Bash League. In July 2020, he was named in the Barbados Tridents squad for the 2020 Caribbean Premier League. In 2021, Marcus Stoinis played for the Delhi Capitals in the Indian Premier League. He scored 71 runs at an average of 23.66 and took 2 wickets, at an average of 54.50 before the IPL was postponed

In April 2022, he was bought by the Southern Brave for the 2022 season of The Hundred in England.

In March 2023, he was signed by the San Francisco Unicorns for the first edition of Major League Cricket in the United States.

International career
Stoinis made his Twenty20 International debut against England on 31 August 2015. His One Day International debut came against the same team on 11 September 2015. On 30 January 2017, in his second ODI against New Zealand, Stoinis took three wickets and scored 146 not out. This was the highest ODI score from seventh in the batting order by an Australian batsman. Stoinis was awarded man of the match, despite his team losing.

In March 2017, he was added in the Australia Test squad for the third and fourth Tests against India as a replacement for the injured Mitchell Marsh, although he did not play in either match.

In April 2018, he was awarded a national contract by Cricket Australia for the 2018–19 season. In January 2019, he was added to Australia's Test squad for the second Test against Sri Lanka. In April 2019, he was named in Australia's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup.
In the 2019 World Cup, after playing the first four games, Stoinis picked up a side strain injury.

On 16 July 2020, Stoinis was named in a 26-man preliminary squad of players to begin training ahead of a possible tour to England following the COVID-19 pandemic. On 14 August 2020, Cricket Australia confirmed that the fixtures would be taking place, with Stoinis included in the touring party.

In August 2021, Stoinis was named in Australia's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup.

References

External links

1989 births
Australia One Day International cricketers
Australia Twenty20 International cricketers
Australian cricketers
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Australia
Cricketers at the 2019 Cricket World Cup
Australian people of Greek descent
Punjab Kings cricketers
Royal Challengers Bangalore cricketers
Living people
Melbourne Stars cricketers
People educated at Hale School
Perth Scorchers cricketers
Cricketers from Perth, Western Australia
University of Western Australia alumni
Victoria cricketers
Western Australia cricketers
Kent cricketers
Delhi Capitals cricketers
Lucknow Super Giants cricketers
Southern Brave cricketers

Marcus Stoinis


Kare-kare is a Philippine stew (kare derives from "curry") that features a thick savory peanut sauce.  It is generally made from a base of stewed oxtail, beef tripe, pork hocks, calves' feet, pig's feet or trotters, various cuts of pork, beef stew meat, and occasionally offal. Vegetables, such as eggplant, Chinese cabbage, or other greens, daikon, green beans, okra, and asparagus beans, are added. The stew is flavored with ground roasted peanuts or peanut butter, onions, and garlic. It is colored with annatto and can be thickened with toasted or plain ground rice. Variations of kare-kare can be made with seafood, such as prawns, squid, and mussels, or exclusively from vegetables.

Condiments and other flavorings are usually added. It is often eaten with bagoong (shrimp paste), sometimes spiced with chili, ginisáng bagoóng (spiced and sautéed shrimp paste), and sprinkled with calamansi juice. Other seasonings are added at the table. Variants may include goat meat or (rarely) chicken.

Traditionally, any Filipino fiesta is not complete without kare-kare.

A more modern twist to the classic Filipino kare-kare uses a different dish as the main meat for this dish. Pork is one of the most economical and easiest meats to cook.  The most common meats repurposed for kare-kare are lechon (which is also used for lechon kawali) and crispy pata (crispy pork shank). Alternative main proteins are tofu, beef chuck, beef shank, and maskara ng baka or cartilage from the cow's face, and tripe.

History
Kare-kare's history as a Filipino food goes back centuries. There are four stories as to the origins of kare-kare. The first one is that it came from Pampanga (the province which became known all over the country as the "culinary capital of the Philippines"). The Kapampangan people often have a reputation for cooking to their hearts' content and coming up with deliciously rich fare. The second is that the dish, specifically the sauce, from the galleon ships of Acapulco.  Its key ingredient, the mani or peanut, was widely transported in it just like corn, also from the Aztec Empire and from a distant land. Mexico's Costa Pacifica provinces of Jalisco and Guerrero continue to serve Lomo Encacahuatado, practically the same dish.  The only difference is the type of pork part.  In Mexico it is the loin/ Lomo or Maciza.  In the Philippines, it is the pork tail or oxtail.  The word "Kare-Kare" is supposedly a diminutive of "Cari" which was a term to denote "golden brown"--- in fact it was what the Spaniards and Portuguese called the brown natives they saw at their ports of call. The third comes from the regal dishes of the Moro elite who settled in Manila before the Spanish arrival (in Sulu and Tawi-Tawi, kare-kare remains a popular dish). The fourth story is from Indian sepoys from Southern India that settled in Philippines during the British occupation of Manila. Homesick, they improvised their own cuisine with available materials. They called it kari-kaari, curry, and now, kare-kare. Its name derived from a reduplication of . Kare-kare has a similar flavor to satay because of the peanuts in the sauce.

Preparation

The oxtail (with the skin on) is cut into 2-inch lengths. The ox tripe is boiled until tender. Sometimes pieces of ox feet or shins are added. When the meat is tender, the soup becomes gelatinous. Ground roasted peanuts (or peanut butter) and ground roasted glutinous rice are added to make the soup thicker. Annatto is added to give color. The vegetables used for kare-kare include young banana flower bud or "heart" (puso ng saging), eggplant, string beans, and Chinese cabbage (pechay).

Kare-kare is often served hot with special bagoong alamang (sauteed salted shrimp paste).

See also

 Adobo
 Afritada
 Balbacua
 Dinuguan
 Escabeche
 Kaldereta
 Mechado
 Menudo (stew)
 Sarsiado
 Tinola
 List of peanut dishes
 List of Philippine dishes
 List of stews

References

External links

Philippine stews
Peanut dishes

Kare-kare


Founded in Kansas City, Missouri in 1908, the American Automobile Manufacturing Company acquired the Jonz Automobile Company of Beatrice, Nebraska in 1910 with a planned initial capitalization of $1,000,000. In early news releases, the company claimed "$100,000 of the stock has been subscribed for by Chicago and Kansas City men". Initial plans called for the establishment of factories in Kansas City and Louisville, Kentucky.

The company settled on moving its offices to Louisville, Kentucky in December, 1910, and began manufacturing in an abandoned woolen mill across the Ohio River from Louisville in New Albany, Indiana. The factory buildings were two and three stories in height, located on a six-acre tract on Vincennes Street in New Albany. The factory was reported in 1914 to be "one of the very largest factories in the state of Indiana... and is equipped with machinery, tools, raw materials, parts and accessories for the manufacture of motor cars."

Promising huge potential profits, the company sold stock using catalogs, pamphlets and an extensive magazine and newspaper ad campaign reaching as far as Great Britain. The company did produce a limited number of cars which were marketed as the Jonz (automobile), named after the "Jonz Tranquil Motor" developed by the three Jones brothers in Kansas. The American Automobile Manufacturing Company built the two-stroke engine "American" from 1911 to 1912 in New Albany.

American Automobile Corporation went bankrupt, and Ferdinand N. Kahler purchased its assets, forming the Ohio Falls Motor Company, largely to protect the assets of his woodworking business, The Kahler Company.

References

1910s cars
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
Defunct companies based in Indiana
New Albany, Indiana

American (1911 automobile)


Sir Soulden Lawrence (1751–1814), judge, son of Thomas Lawrence, M.D., president of the College of Physicians, by Frances, daughter of Charles Chauncy, M.D., of Derby, was born in 1751, and educated at St. Paul's School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1771 as seventh wrangler, and proceeded M.A. and was elected fellow in 1774. At college he was a contemporary of Edward Law, afterwards Lord Ellenborough.

He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in June 1784, and to the degree of serjeant-at-law on 9 February 1787, and in March 1794 succeeded Sir Henry Gould the younger [q. v.] as justice of the common pleas, being at the same time knighted. In the following June he was transferred to the court of King's bench on the resignation of Sir Francis Buller [q. v.] He was a member of the special commission that tried Thomas Hardy, Horne Tooke, and other partisans of the French republic for high treason in 1794–6, and concurred with Lord Kenyon in dismissing the prosecution for libel brought by Tooke after his acquittal against the printer and publisher of a report of the House of Commons, which reflected on him and his colleagues as disaffected to the government.

Lawrence was a judge of great ability and independence of mind, and sometimes differed from Lord Kenyon, notably in the case of Haycraft v. Creasy in 1801, an action for damages for false representation made in good faith, when Kenyon gave judgment for the plaintiff. Kenyon's vexation at being overruled — for the other members of the court agreed with Lawrence — is supposed to have hastened his death. Lawrence's extreme scrupulousness is evinced by the fact that his will contained a direction for the indemnification out of his estate of the losing party in a suit in which he considered that he had misdirected the jury.

In consequence of a difference with Lord Ellenborough, he resigned his seat on the king's bench in March 1808, and returned to the common pleas, succeeding to the place vacant by the death of Sir Giles Rooke. His health failing, he retired in Easter term 1812, and was succeeded by Sir Vicary Gibbs He died unmarried on 8 July 1814, and was buried in the church of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, where there is a monument to him. He was something of a connoisseur in art, and had a small collection of pictures, including works by Spagnoletto, Franz Hals, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Opie, Morland, and other celebrated artists, which was sold after his death.

References

Knights Bachelor
1814 deaths
Serjeants-at-law (England)
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
Members of the Inner Temple
English barristers
Justices of the Common Pleas
Justices of the King's Bench
English art collectors

Soulden Lawrence


In late Egyptian Mythology Wepwawet (also rendered Upuaut) was originally a war deity whose cult centre was Asyut in Upper Egypt. His name means opener of the ways and he is often depicted as a wolf standing at the prow of a solar boat. Some interpret that Wepwawet is seen as a scout going out to clear routes for the army to proceed forward. One inscription from the Sinai states that Wepwawet "opens the way" to king Sekhemkhet's victory.

Over time, the connection to war, and thus to death, led to Wepwawet also being seen as one who opened the ways to, and through, Duat, for the spirits of the dead.

Egyptian mythology

Wepwawet


Real Life with Jane Pauley was a newsmagazine television program aired in the United States by NBC from 1990 to 1991. Real Life with Jane Pauley seemed to be presented as an answer to both critics and members of the general public to the frequently-repeated viewpoint that "television news never seems to show anything positive". The opening credits featured Jane Pauley on-location at Lawrence Hall of Science, then Boeddeker Park. Real Life focused on positive, human interest-type stories and occasional celebrity profiles.  Jane Pauley also presented less uplifting but still-lightweight features as well, such as a feature focusing on how less than 20% of the people who owned VCRs at the time actually knew how to program them.  Boyd Matson was also featured as a correspondent; his reports featured stories on out of the way places.

Real Life with Jane Pauley began as an hour-long program aired on Tuesday nights in the summer of 1990.  It was put on hiatus in September of that year, returning in January 1991 as a mid-season replacement. At this time it was reduced to a half hour, the length it was to remain throughout the balance of its run, but was then ill-paired with NBC's Exposè, a newsmagazine which was fully opposite of Real Life, with a Hard Copy-esque tabloid focus.  The last broadcast was on November 1, 1991.

Although the series was one of over a dozen attempts by NBC to launch a newsmagazine, Pauley and the network prevailed in 1992 with Dateline NBC.

References
Brooks, Tim and Marsh, Earle, The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows

NBC original programming
1990s American television news shows
1990 American television series debuts
1991 American television series endings
NBC News

Real Life with Jane Pauley


In mathematical logic and computer science, lambda calculus, also λ-calculus, is a formal system (a system that can be used to figure out different logical theories and ideas). It was made to explore different ways of creating and using mathematical functions, and it lays out rules for doing this. It is also a tool for exploring recursion, and it has been used to explain what a computable function is. It was made by Alonzo Church and Stephen Cole Kleene in the 1930s. In 1936, Church used lambda calculus to show that there is no solution to the Entscheidungsproblem.

Lambda calculus can be called the smallest universal programming language. At its core, lambda calculus is made up of just one transformation rule (something called variable substitution) and just one way to define a function. Each function definition has a list of the function's parameters, which are all of the variables that can be used in that function. Variable substitution is where specific variables in a function are replaced by other values (for example, the value  could take the place of every spot in a function where the variable  appears). This is called a transformation rule because it can be used to transform lambda expressions by changing around their values.

Lambda calculus is considered "universal" because it can be used to both create and find the answer to any computable function. This is exactly what a Turing machine can do, so lambda calculus and Turing machines are said to be equivalent. However, lambda calculus focuses more on the use of transformation rules. It does not care about the actual machine that puts those rules into place. It is an approach more related to software than to hardware.

There is no way to answer the question of whether two lambda calculus expressions are the same as each other (in more specific words, there is no general algorithm that can show that two lambda expressions are equivalent). This was the first problem where the idea of undecidability could be proven. Later, undecidability was also proven for the halting problem, where it was shown that there is no general way to show whether or not a program will keep running forever. Lambda calculus has had large effects on lots of functional programming languages, such as LISP, ML, and Haskell.

Calculus
Recursion

Lambda calculus


A lampshade is a fixture that envelops the lightbulb on a lamp to diffuse the light it emits. Lampshades can be made out of a large variety of materials like paper, glass, fabric or stone. Often times conical or cylindrical in shape, lampshades can be found on floor, desk, tabletop, or suspended lamps.  The term can also apply to the glass (or other materials) hung around many designs of ceiling lamp.  Beyond its practical purpose, significant emphasis is also usually given to decorative and aesthetic features. A lamp shade also serves to "shade" human eyes from the direct glare of the light bulbs used to illuminate the lamp. Some lamp shades are also lined with a hard-backed opaque lining, often white or gold, to reflect as much light as possible through the top and bottom of the shade while blocking light from emitting through the walls of the shade itself. In other cases, the shade material is deliberately decorative so that upon illumination it may emphasize a display of color and light emitting through the shade surface itself.

History

In the late 17th-century in Paris the first public lanterns made their appearance in the centre of the streets. They lit the road during the night. In 1763, the réverbères made their appearance. These were oil lamps with reflectors that were hung above the center of streets. The first public oil lamps in Milan, financed by revenues from a lottery, date from 1785. These were lanterns containing an oil lamp with a number of wicks. A semi-spherical reflector above the flame projected the light downwards, while another reflector, slightly concave and near the flame, served to direct the light laterally.

Friedrich Albert Winsor initially had the idea of industrializing lighting by producing gas in a factory and distributing it through a pipeline. In the first decades of the 19th century, competing gas companies laid the first gas mains in major cities. But there were fears of explosion and toxicity.

The flame fed by the gas coming out of the nozzle was intense, uniform and adjustable, white and brilliant instead of the reddish or orange of oil lamps or candles.

The drawbacks of gas lighting were overheating of the air and extremely high oxygen consumption, making it necessary to ventilate the room or isolate the flame by separating the room where the combustion took place from the room being lit. Theatre audiences regularly suffered from headaches and the sulphur and ammonia formed during combustion of the gas ruined furniture.

Gas light had to be filtered by opal glass or light fabric shades. Lampshades were no longer used to direct the light but to attenuate it.

In 1879, Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison independently developed—combining and perfecting existing elements deriving from the research of Humphry Davy, De Moleyn and Göbel—the incandescent filament electric light bulb.

To disguise the intense electric light, lampshades were used. Some were made by Tiffany in colored glass. The great advantage of the electric light bulb was the absence of flame and traces of combustion, thus avoiding all risks of intoxication, explosion or fire. In the beginning, the filament was made of carbonised vegetable fibres, then bamboo fibres and finally metal alloys until, in the early 20th century, the tungsten filament invented in 1904 became established.

Lampshade types
Modern lampshades can be classified by shape, by material, by fitter, or by function.

Shades by shape
Lampshades are classified in four basic shapes:  drum, empire, bell or coolie depending on their shape. A drum or cylinder shade typically features vertical sides, sometimes with a very slight incline where the top of the shade is slightly smaller than the bottom. A slightly greater incline produces a "floor" shade which is not far from the "true" drum profile. As the slope of the side of the shade increases, the design moves through the classic empire shade (or variation with straight or bell-curved sides) on towards the more pyramidal-style shape of a coolie shade.

Beyond the basics, lampshade shapes also include square, cut-corner, hexagon, gallery, oval, or scalloped shapes. Square, rectangular and oval shades appear to have these shapes when viewed from above or below. This also includes hexagonal shades and cut-corner shades which appear like square or round shades with the "corners cut off" or indented. A shade with a gallery can be of any shape but has a distinct strip around the bottom of the shade.

Some of the lampshades are as follows:

 Rustic: simple elements like linen, cork, and cotton in muted earth tones complement rustic farmhouse or cottage interiors
 Traditional: often linen, paper shades, and silk shades inside pleated and box pleated shapes
 Modern: innovative shapes like drum, square, and cylinder
 Antique & Vintage Inspired: antique reproduction lamp shades demonstrate even past era, often in textures like glass, fringe, and beaded that are not generally found in current designs

Lampshades by material
Lampshades are made of fabric, parchment, glass, Tiffany glass, paper or plastic. Common fabric materials include silk, linen and cotton. Fabric shades are reinforced by metal frames to give the lampshades their shape, while paper or plastic shades can hold their shape without support. For this reason, paper shades can be more fragile than fabric shades. Darker shades sometimes add a reflective liner such as gold or silver in order to maximize light output.

Lampshade fitters
A "fitter" describes how the lampshade connects to the lamp base. The most common lampshade fitter is a Spider fitter. Spider fitters are set on top of a lamp harp, and secured with a finial. The harp is typically seated below the socket and two arms rise up around the light bulb and join at the top, where it provides resting support for the spider fitter itself. The fitter is built into the lamp shade frame itself and sits on top of the harp. Other fitters include clip-on (for either regular bulbs or candelabra bulbs), Uno fitters which are attached to the lamp itself below the light bulb, and notched-bowl fitters which support the use of a glass reflector bowl.

Consideration of light bulb heat
A lamp shade's surfaces have varying proximity to the light bulb or light source itself, depending on the size and shape of the shade. With larger shades this is less of a problem, since the shade provides an ample funnel for the movement of air up through the shade, whereby heat from the bulb leaves the top of the shade through the opening. However, with smaller shades consideration has to be given to proximity of the shade surface to the bulb, especially in miniature shades used on chandeliers. Here, and especially with shades which have sloped sides, the distance between the surface and the bulb reduces making the risk of overheating a concern. The heat generated by incandescent light bulbs can scorch fabric lampshades and can crack glass shades. All of these problems can be avoided by the simple expedient of installing LED lights.  These save energy, last longer and emit very little heat.

References

External links

Light fixtures

Lampshade


Tone deafness is the inability to hear that a musical instrument produces tones of different pitch. In music, relative pitch is used for different musical notes. Very often the condition results from damage in the brain. People with this problem do not seem to have a problem to hear or reproduce intonation in human speech.

Human communication
Hearing problems

Tone deafness


Equus is a fictional comic book supervillain, a cyborg mercenary in the DC Comics universe who serves as an opponent of Superman.  Created by writer Brian Azzarello and artist Jim Lee, he first appeared in Superman (vol. 2) #206, which was published in June 2004 as part of the "For Tomorrow" storyline.

Publication history
Equus first appears in the third issue of the year-long "For Tomorrow" storyline that ran in Superman in 2004 and early 2005. A prototype for the OMAC Project, he comes into conflict with Superman when the superhero discovers that "The Vanishing", an event in which one million people completely disappeared from the face of the Earth (including his wife, Lois Lane), is traced to an unspecified country in the Middle East. Investigating, Superman intervenes in a civil war by using his speed to snatch all the guns from a group of men fighting one another. The fighting continues however, and in his continued quest to put an end to it, Superman confronts Equus, a large, monstrous, cybernetically enhanced humanoid creature whose claws are capable of piercing Superman's skin. General Nox, the leader of the rebels, puts an end to the fight between the two beings, telling Superman that his side has won the war, and showing him that the people outside the palace where Superman and Equus had fought were now cheering Nox's name.

Although Superman initially stands down, he later appears before Nox, who has captured an advanced-looking device from the deposed regime, which his lieutenant informed him was, according to the confession of a minister of that regime, the weapon that was responsible for The Vanishing. Although still operational, it lacks any accuracy, functioning like a shotgun. Superman then appears, demanding to know of the weapon's origins, and when Nox informs him that the former king had intended to use it against Nox, and that the King is to be executed, along with more than a dozen other members of the king's regime, Superman intervenes, feeling that the condemned men deserve a trial, again coming to blows with Equus, who carries out the execution. During the fight, Superman rips the claws right out of Equus' right arm, and seemingly defeats him. Superman then returns to Nox's palace, confronting him with the question of what he intends to do with the weapon, but Equus also appears, and ignores Nox's orders to stand down, saying that he is not being paid by Nox. Nox reminds him that Equus is there to aid him, but Equus brushes Nox aside, and attacks Superman. Superman is less forgiving in this rematch, using his X-ray and microscopic visions to learn much about Equus' enhancements, and physically disabling much of their exterior components. Equus escapes by activating the weapon, causing not only himself to vanish, but another 300,000 other people from across the planet. Superman subsequently learns that Equus has been working for a mysterious mustached man named Mr. Orr, who explains to Superman that Orr's employers financed Nox's war, and loaned Equus to them. Eventually, Superman tracks all the victims of the Vanishing to Metropia, an artificial paradise within the Phantom Zone, where he again encountered Equus, who has allied himself with General Zod, who is on a campaign to destroy Metropia. Equus, whose chestplate bears the Roman numeral "III", was the third version of a program to create super-soldiers. Equus, or "Vee Three" as he was designated, is said to be psychotic, due to the enlargement of the amygdalae to which the OMAC candidates were subjected.

Equus III later appears in Titans/Outsiders Secret Files 2005, stored alongside the Wildebeest, who had been captured in the same story.

Equus reappeared under Mr. Orr's command in Countdown #36 (2007), clashing with Karate Kid and Triplicate Girl. After receiving a beating from Karate Kid, Equus was enraged that Mr. Orr, under Desaad's orders, would let them go. Equus severs the railroad tracks on which Karate Kid and Triplicate Girl's train is traveling, after having phoned the police, telling them that the derailment is a metahuman attack, and that the metahumans themselves are bio-weapons, leading the officers to shoot first and not ask questions. Karate Kid and Una eventually are able to beat Equus, disabling him and leaving him without an arm. The arm is retrieved for attachment, and Orr sets the Legionnaires on Buddy Blank's tracks.

In the 2008 Cyborg miniseries, the Titans are forced to fight numerous clones of Equus and the Wildebeest to prevent them from helping Victor Stone battle Mr. Orr's "Cyborg Revenge Squad".

Powers and abilities
Equus is a human being who has undergone extensive genetic engineering, cybernetic enhancements, hormone therapy, and trans-species implantation as part of the One Man Army Corps (OMAC) project, which selected cancer patients as its subjects. Equus was the project's third version (or V3), immediately preceding his successor, Father Daniel Leone. Cancer was the platform on which the enhancements were based, as the cellular mutation responsible for the disease provided a stable environment for "massive intrusion and acceleration".

Equus stands approximately twice as tall as other humans, and possesses massive musculature on his upper torso. He has white skin composed of crocodilian skin cells laced with self-healing hinge molecules. His internal cybernetics are built upon a haptic interface, through which the numerous cables attached along various points of his body, and covering his head, are connected. His circulatory system includes webs of titanium-reinforced biometric arteries, and his endocrine system is filled with synthetic steroids, adrenaline, and endorphins. The artificial portions of his anatomy include three grades of soft plastic that Superman had never seen before prior to his first encounter with Equus. Equus' mechanical components are powered by a system of oligotronic solar powered fuel cells controlling seven different senses, and his nervous system is powered by enough electricity to power a city block.

He is capable of extending five razor-sharp claws from the knuckles of both of his hands, in a manner similar to the character of Wolverine. The claws corresponding to his fingers are approximately a foot long (with those corresponding to his thumbs considerably smaller), and while their composition is unknown, they are capable, given the physical strength Equus is capable of exerting with them, of piercing Superman's skin.

Equus, the third version of the One Man Army Corps project, along with his predecessor, the second version, had their amygdalae enlarged as part of their genetic modifications, though this was scaled back for the subsequent versions, according to Mr. Orr, because this made the subjects psychotic. Specimens from the project that produced Equus were also said to have the wingbones of a fallen angel within their forearms.

Equus has a wide face with two small eyes (alternately depicted as yellow or red), a small, snout-like nose, a row of large, shark-like teeth, and no hair. Where his ears would be are two ports into which several cables from his cybernetics connect. Exterior enhancements include two spectacle-like devices on his eyes. He is capable of quickly regenerating entire limbs that are severed from his body.

Beginning with vol. 4 The OMAC Project, in addition to reducing the subjects' amygdalae enlargement, added nanoparticle magneto-rheological fluids, housed in a carbon nanotubular vasculature system, to give the subjects the ability to continue functioning after death.

In other media
A hologram of Equus appears in the Superman & Lois episode "Of Sound Mind".

References

External links

Characters created by Brian Azzarello
Characters created by Jim Lee
Comics characters introduced in 2005
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics cyborgs
Superman characters

Equus (comics)


Hopewell pottery is the ceramic tradition of the various local cultures involved in the Hopewell tradition (ca. 200 BCE to 400 CE) and are found as artifacts in archeological sites in the American Midwest and Southeast. The Hopewell were located around the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers during the Middle Woodland Period, and the Hopewell Interaction Sphere spanned from the Gulf of Mexico to Ontario, Canada.

Uses
This pottery was used in a variety of ways: from storage and cooking to holding offerings during burial ceremonies. Ceremonial pottery was noticeably more delicate and elaborate than pottery for domestic use.

Techniques
Although there are many techniques and methods of pottery production, the method most likely used in the Hopewell culture was the coiled method. After making the initial form of the vessel a paddle and anvil would then be used to further shape and smooth the pot. The final two steps are decoration and firing.

Before firing, Hopewell pottery was often incised, stamped, or zone-stamped, in which different "zones" of the pot were delineating by incised, then stamped, leaving the surrounding areas smooth for contrast. "Hopewell ware" is characterized by crosshatching, bands with cambered rims, and highly stylized bird motifs.

See also
 Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas
 Fort Ancient culture pottery
 Mississippian culture pottery
 Plaquemine culture pottery
 Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas

Notes

References
Berlo, Janet C. and Ruth B. Phillips. Native North American Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. .
Seeman, Mark F. "Hopewell Art in Hopewell Places." Richard F. Townsend and Robert V. Sharp, eds. Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004. .

Hopewellian peoples
Native American pottery

Hopewell pottery


"Education for Leisure" is a poem by Poet Laureate Carol Ann Duffy which explores the mind of a person who is planning to commit a murder. Until 2008 the poem was studied at GCSE level in England and Wales as part of the AQA Anthology, a collection of poems by modern poets such as Duffy and Seamus Heaney.

Description
The poem begins with the lines "Today I am going to kill something. Anything.
I have had enough of being ignored and today I am going to play God." The individual in the poem feels undervalued and gradually progresses into insanity by experimenting progressively with violence beginning with killing a fly and a goldfish before terrifying a budgie and going outside armed with a bread knife; the last line of the poem is "I touch your arm" indicating the poet intends to take their first human life and at the same time creating an illusion to the reader they are under threat. The narrator's identity is never fully revealed however there are lines that allude to some facts on the character, one being the narrator is on the dole ("signing on" on a regular basis is mentioned) and it is also twice implied the narrator maybe craved recognition or even celebrity status after leaving school (the character mentions the dole office does not appreciate their autograph and towards the end of the poem tells someone over the phone in a radio station that they are "talking to a superstar").

Teachit.co.uk compares the subject of the poem to the incident where Brenda Ann Spencer carried out a shooting spree in an American school and explained her actions by stating "I don't like Mondays". The killings inspired the Boomtown Rats song I Don't Like Mondays. The poem is set against a backdrop of rising social problems in the United Kingdom during the 1980s and can be considered critical of Thatcherism. The poem references Gloucester's lines in Act 4 of King Lear, "As flies to wanton boys are we to the Gods/ They kill us for their sport", lines which show how humankind is at the whim of the gods.

Censorship
In 2008 concerns about the levels of teenage knife crime in the United Kingdom led to complaints about the inclusion of the poem in a GCSE textbook. Exam Board AQA were accused of censorship after it removed the poem from its AQA Anthology after three complaints about the poem. The most vocal complainant was Lutterworth Grammar School's exam invigilator Pat Schofield who described the poem as "absolutely horrendous".

Duffy responded to the ban by citing the level of violence in the plays of Shakespeare and by stating that she considered the message of the poem to be pro-learning and anti-violence. Some teachers stated that they would continue to teach the poem. The BBC reported that schools had been told to destroy copies of the Anthology which contained the poem. In 2002 a school in Hull refused to teach the poem.

Since the censorship, the new editions of the AQA Anthology contain a page where the poem was with the words "This page is left intentionally blank" as a placeholder.

References

External links
Education for Leisure
Mrs Schofield's GCSE
Short film adaptation by director Dan Allen

Poetry by Carol Ann Duffy

Education for Leisure


The white-tailed shrike (Lanioturdus torquatus) is a small passerine bird from the family Platysteiridae. It is also known as the chatshrike or ground batis. It occurs only in western Angola and Namibia in thorn scrub. It forages from ground level, where it hops about in large bounds and upright posture, to 25m above ground, scanning for insects. The very short tail, with a small black mark at the tip of the central two feathers, is always carried down, never sticking up. Its range of calls includes loud ringing territorial whistles.

This curious bird, which some consider to have close affinities with the batises and others the  bushshrikes, was discovered in 1837 by James Edward Alexander in the Naukluft Mountains of Namibia. Waterhouse subsequently described it in 1838, the name Lanioturdus ('shrike-thrush') reflecting the uncertainty of its classification, and torquatus denoting 'collared'. The sexes have a similar appearance.

It is a common, endemic, breeding resident in the region, small seasonal migrations taking place. Its favoured habitat is scrub-savanna, thornbush and mopane-veld. It is found singly or in pairs during the breeding season, and in small groups at other times. It is a clumsy flier with shallow and rapid wingbeats like other batises.

Nests are usually located in thorny acacias and are constructed by both sexes. Nests are deep, neat well-moulded cups incorporating spider-web and placed about 3 metres above ground. The usual clutch is 2-3 eggs pale-green to white with sparse reddish-brown spots. Only the female incubates the eggs.

References

Shrikes of Southern Africa - Tony Harris & Graeme Arnott (Struik Winchester 1988)

External links
 White-tailed Shrike - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.

white-tailed shrike
Birds of Southern Africa
white-tailed shrike

White-tailed shrike


An inflation swap is an agreement between two counterparties to swap fixed rate payments on a notional principal amount for floating rate payments linked to an inflation index, such as the consumer price index.

An inflation swap is the linear form of an inflation derivative, and used to transfer inflation risk from one counterparty to another.

Example
An investor takes out a 5 year loan that is repaid at LIBOR+1%.  He considers this rate as the sum of real LIBOR plus a credit spread (1%) plus a floating inflation component.  He would like to pay real LIBOR, the credit spread, and a fixed rate.  So he enters into an inflation swap agreement where for the next 5 years he is paying a fixed rate on his loan's principal while receiving  year-on-year inflation on the same amount.

See also
Year-on-Year Inflation-Indexed Swap
Zero-Coupon Inflation-Indexed Swap

References

Inflation
Derivatives (finance)
Swaps (finance)

Inflation swap


Hadashot (, lit. News) was a Hebrew-language daily newspaper published in Israel between 1984 and 1993.

History
On 4 March 1984 Haaretz Group CEO Amos Schocken announced that a new daily newspaper, Hadashot was to be launched, with Yossi Klein as editor. It was one of the first Israeli newspapers to use colour printing.

The paper was soon hit by a scandal as it published details of the Kav 300 affair in violation of the Israeli Military Censor. Having decided not to join the Editors Committee, Hadashot published a story stating that an investigative committee had been formed to look into the incident. As a result, the censor closed the paper for three days from 29 April 1984 for not sending the information about the article. Although the paper was cleared of all charges in 1993, the closure damaged the momentum the paper had gained.

Hadashot initially had a young, left-wing, anti-establishment image, and was written in youthful Hebrew, bordering on slang. The paper's approach was inconsistent; sometimes yellow, sometimes highbrow. In later years it became more conservative. Circulation remained low and at a press conference on 29 November 1993, Schocken announced the closure of the paper. The last edition was published on 29 December 1993, with the paper having made a cumulative loss of around $20 million.

Senior journalists at the newspaper included Amnon Dankner, Dudu Geva, Dahn Ben-Amotz and Irit Linur. Photojournalist Alex Levac also contributed to the newspaper.

References

1984 establishments in Israel
1993 disestablishments in Israel
Newspapers established in 1984
Publications disestablished in 1993
Hebrew-language newspapers
Defunct newspapers published in Israel
Daily newspapers published in Israel

Hadashot


The Independent Party () was founded in 1987 by Denis Worrall and Wynand Malan. Its purpose was to protest against the National Party's shift in policy from reform to security. It contested the 1987 election as the Independent Movement and Malan, its founder, won its only seat. Disappointed by this result, Malan left to form the National Democratic Movement (NDM), and Worrall assumed the leadership.

Unlike most other legal non-racialist parties of the Apartheid era, the IP's membership was mainly composed of Afrikaners rather than English-speakers. The IP absorbed many members of the New Republic Party after its dissolution. In 1989, it merged with the Progressive Federal Party (and others including Malan's NDM) to form the Democratic Party (DP), now known as the Democratic Alliance (DA). The Afrikaner support melted away, and Worrall and Malan left the DP soon after its formation.

References

Political parties established in 1987
Defunct political parties in South Africa
1987 establishments in South Africa
Liberal parties in South Africa

Independent Party (South Africa)


The Huxley family is an English family. Members of the family had top careers in science, medicine, art, and literature. Some family members were also high level public servants in the United Kingdom.

Thomas Henry Huxley (THH) was the oldest male in the family. He was a zoologist and comparative anatomist. He was one of Charles Darwin's main supporters.

Thomas had several grandsons including Aldous, Julian, and Andrew. Aldous Huxley wrote the books Brave New World and Doors of Perception. Julian Huxley studied evolution, wrote Evolution: the New Synthesis, and was the first director of UNESCO. Andrew Huxley was a Nobel prize winning physiologist and was appointed to the Order of Merit. Thomas and Andrew both served as President of the Royal Society, a century apart.

Many of their relatives succeeded in other walks of life.

Family tree

Related pages
 Darwin–Wedgwood family

Huxley family


This is a list of Polish rabbis, who either lived in Poland or were born there.

Hassidsm

The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond has had a great influence on the rise of neo Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence that has been felt from the inception of the Hasidic movements and its dynasties by famous rebbes until the present time. The following are noteworthy:

 Aleksander Hasidism
 Belz Hasidism
 Bobov Hasidism
 Ger Hasidism
 Nadvorna Hasidism
 Sassov Hasidism

Polish Rabbis

Some famous Polish and Polish-born rabbis include:

 Avraham Mordechai Alter, 4th Gerer Rebbe (the Imrei Emes)
 Pinchas Menachem Alter, 7th Gerer Rebbe (the Pnei Menachem)
 Simcha Bunim Alter, 6th Gerer Rebbe (the Lev Simchah)
 Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter, 3rd Gerer Rebbe (the Sfas Emes)
 Yaakov Aryeh Alter, 8th (and current) Gerer Rebbe ()
 Yitzchak Meir Alter, 1st Gerer Rebbe (the Chidushei HaRim)
 Baruch Ashlag ()
 Yehuda Ashlag ()
 Zvi Hirsch Chajes ()
 Avraham Danzig ()
 Elimelech of Lizhensk ()
 Joshua Falk ()
 Yaakov Gesundheit ()
 Avraham Gombiner ()
 Kalonymus Haberkasten ()
 Yitzchok Hutner ()
 Pinchas Menachem Justman (the Sifsei Tzadik)
 Yisrael Meir Lau (later Chief Rabbi of Israel)
 Menachem Mendel of Kotzk ()
 Shlomo Hakohen Rabinowicz, first Radomsker Rebbe ()
 Shlomo Chanoch Hakohen Rabinowicz, fourth Radomsker Rebbe ()
 Shalom Rokeach of Belz ()
 Yaakov Yitzchak of Lublin ()

Rabbis philosophers born on Posen, West Prussia, etc
 Ismar Elbogen
 Abraham Joshua Heschel
 Samuel Holdheim
 Kaufmann Kohler
 Moritz Lazarus
 Hermann Tietz (rabbi)
 Joseph Case

 See also List of German Jews;

Rabbis and philosophers born in Austrian Galicia
 Rabbi Jacob Avigdor
 Rabbi Salo Wittmayer Baron
 Salomon Buber
 Zwi Perez Chajes
 Rebbe Aharon Rokeach of Belz
 Rebbe Shalom Rokeach of Belz
 Rebbe Yissachar Dov Rokeach of Belz
 Friedrich Weinreb

 See also List of Austrian Jews;

Rabbis philosophers born on Silesia, Brandenburg, Pomerania & Eastern Prussia
 See List of German Jews;

See also
 List of Polish Jews, List of North European Jews (Lithuania, etc), List of East European Jews (Southern Lithuania - Belarus), List of Ukrainian Jews (Ukraine - Galicia, Volhynia, et al.)
 List of Hasidic dynasties

Rabbis
Rabbis
Lists of rabbis

List of Polish rabbis


The Cappella Giulia, officially the Reverend Musical Chapel Julia of the Sacrosanct Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican, is the choir of St. Peter's Basilica that sings for all solemn functions of the Vatican Chapter, such as Holy Mass, Lauds, and Vespers, when these are not celebrated by the Pope (for functions celebrated by the Pope, the Sistine Chapel Choir sings instead). The choir has played an important role as an interpreter and a proponent of Gregorian chant and sacred polyphony.

History
Pope Gregory I (590–604) is credited with establishing the first papal schola cantorum at the Basilica of St. Peter, after the model of the guild-like papal schola at St. John Lateran. This choir remained in Rome during the Avignon Papacy (1309–1378) and was merged with the Avignon papal choir upon the Pope's return to Rome. Sixtus IV (1471–1484) transferred all papal functions and the papal choir to his newly built chapel, now known as the Sistine Chapel, while providing for a small choir of eight singers for the chapter functions at St. Peter's. On 19 February 1512, Julius II (1503–1513) issued a Bull completely reorganizing the Vatican capella (hence the name "Julia" in Latin, "Giulia" in Italian). He enlarged its revenue and its size to twelve men and twelve boys, so that it could serve as a sort of preparatory school for the papal choir, on the plan of the ancient schola.

Among the Cappella Giulia's choir masters were esteemed names such as Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1551–1554 and 1571–1594), Giovanni Animuccia, Francesco Soriano, Stefano Fabri, Orazio Benevoli, Domenico Scarlatti, Niccolò Jommelli, Pietro Raimondi, Salvatore Meluzzi, and Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli.

The capella was disbanded in 1980 and replaced temporarily by a choir directed by the Spanish Monsignor Pablo Colino Paulis (Magister ad nutum) to continue to perform the key functions of the previous choir. In this new choir, called the Musical Chapel of the Sacrosanct Patriarchal Vatican Basilica, unlike the previous capella, the boy choristers were replaced by female voices, when they sang on major holidays (Easter, Christmas, and Saints Peter and Paul). In 2006 the choir was again reorganized, retaining the addition of women's voices, under the current choir master, the Canadian Father Pierre Paul, O.M.V. In May 2008 the original title "Cappella Giulia" was newly restored by the Vatican Chapter, and Rev. Pierre Paul was officially appointed as Choir master (Magister ad nutum Capituli) with a formal act. "

On 7 April 1994, the Cappella Giulia participated in the Papal Concert to Commemorate the Shoah with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Gilbert Levine in the Sala Nervi at the Vatican. The concert was broadcast throughout the world.

See also
Index of Vatican City-related articles

References

Culture of Vatican City
Italian choirs
Catholic music
St. Peter's Basilica
Pope Julius II

Cappella Giulia


Battenberg Castle () is a castle ruin near Battenberg in the county of Bad Dürkheim in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

Location

The castle stands on a foothill of the Haardt range of sandstone hills which rises abruptly from the Rhine Plain on the north-eastern edge of the Palatinate Forest. Together with the small village of the same name, immediately to the west, it is  above sea level, above the right bank of the Eckbach stream.

Below the castle, by the ochre-coloured rocks bordering the winding approach road, the so-called Blitzröhren (literally "lightning pipes") reach the surface. These are not true fulgurites caused by lightning strikes, but columns of hard, iron-rich mineral exposed by erosion and sintering of the softer sandstone. The Haardtrand-Im Baumgarten nature reserve borders the eastern slopes of the castle hill.

History
It is presumed that the castle was constructed by Count Frederick III of Leiningen (d. 1287), and it remained a possession of the House of Leiningen - until 1689, when it was destroyed during the War of the Palatine Succession by French troops. Together with Neuleiningen Castle, on the opposite hillside  metres to the north, it controlled access to the Eckbach valley. To the south-east,  upstream, stands the Leiningen family seat of Altleiningen.

Layout

On three sides the outer walls of the castle follow the edge of the steep-sided hill spur. The wall on the fourth side was protected by a moat, now completely filled in. Surviving structures include: the outer walls, a gate tower on the western side near the northwest corner of the site, a battery tower with embrasure in the centre of the south side, and the vaulted cellar and foundations of a large dwelling. Attached to this is a staircase tower, erected in the 16th century, which is still standing.

The ruins are in private ownership but there is limited public access. A visit is repaid with views across the Rhine Plain, the Bergstrasse and the Odenwald.
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References

Literature

External links

 Website of Battenberg parish with sights in text and images

Landmarks in Germany
Castles in Rhineland-Palatinate
Ruined castles in Germany

Battenberg Castle