Velorex was a manufacturing cooperative in Solnice, Czechoslovakia. Notable products included a small three-wheeled car, produced from the 1950s until 1971, and the Type 562 sidecar. The sidecar is still manufactured in the Czech Republic by Velorexport, the successor to Velorex.

History
Beginning in 1936, two brothers František (1914–1954) and Mojmír (1924–2011) Stránský, the owners of a bicycle repair shop in the market town of Parník (today part of Česká Třebová), began the design of a small, cheap three-wheeled car, inspired by three-wheelers from Morgan Motor Company. In 1943, they built their first prototype using steel tubing wrapped by dural sheet metal and some bicycle parts (later these would be replaced by parts from motorcycles). They named the vehicle Oskar ("kára na ose," or "cart on axle").

In 1945, the brothers built their first batch of cars, using leather cloth instead of sheet metal as the bodywork. Three vehicles were powered by  ČZ motorcycle engines, three with ,  PAL engines and six with  Jawa units. The price was about a quarter of the cost of a typical car.

The post-war Czechoslovakian auto industry was unable to meet popular demand for vehicles, resulting in long waiting periods and quotas. Several models of small cars had been built either by amateurs or in small runs (e.g., Kreibich, TRIGA Tripolino, JAB).

In 1950, the Stránský's workshop was transferred to Velo, a small manufacturing company in Hradec Králové, later renamed to Velorex. In 1951, the machinery and six workers were moved into a new plant in Solnice. During that year, 120 Oskar 54 vehicles were produced; a year later, 180; and in 1954, eighty workers produced 40 vehicles per month. On January 21, 1954, František Stránský died when a test prototype crashed. His brother, Mojmír, refused membership in the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and was fired. In 1956, the vehicle's name was changed to Velorex - Oskar and then just to Velorex. In 1959 the company produced 120 vehicles per month. In 1961 part of the production moved into a new plant in Rychnov nad Kněžnou. The maximum speed of the car was 30 km/h.

In 1963, production of the newly designed "Model 16" started (fitted with either ČZ 175 or Jawa 350 type 572 engines); and the model was modernized again in 1968. In 1971, production of three-wheeled cars stopped, and the company switched to production of a four-wheeler, the "Model 435-0", which featured the Jawa 350 type 572 - 04 engine. Problems in design and manufacturing, as well as the inability to compete with higher-category cars (including the cheap Trabants), made the four-wheeler a commercial failure, and its production was stopped in 1973. Plans to produce a small car similar to Fiat 500 or a rickshaw-like truck  did not materialize.

Spare parts for Velorex vehicles were first produced in the Solnice plant, and then in Rychnov nad Kněžnou after 1975. In the mid-1980s, India tried to obtain a license to produce the three-wheelers; the deal failed because the original tooling no longer existed.

Statistics

About half of the production was exported to Eastern Bloc countries (Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, East Germany) - 7,540 vehicles in total. In Czechoslovakia, the demand exceeded the supply and the new cars were sold only to the disabled after thorough examination by an official commission. Part of the production was allocated to companies and organizations.

As of 1996, 62.5% of the three-wheelers sold in Czechoslovakia were still registered. As of 2006 the vehicle can be still seen occasionally and it has obtained cult-like status among its owners. Several Velorex clubs exist in the Czech Republic. Rallies are regularly organized in Boskovice (last in 2007) and in Lipnice nad Sázavou, inside the Lipnice Castle. Until 2000 only the motorcycle  driving license (A) was required, afterwards the B1 license (car from age of 17).

Technical parameters
Velorex was built on a frame of welded steel tubing, with bodywork consisting of vinyl (called "Igelit") stretched over the cage  and attached by turnbutton fasteners. Like most of other three-wheeler types Velorex had two wheels in the front and one wheel at the back.

Oskar 54
 designed as a special car for the disabled,
 two seats,
 motorcycle engine Jawa 250, two-stroked, one cylinder, forced air cooling, 248.5 cm³, 9 HP with 4,250 rpm,
 fuel consumption: 3.6 L/100 km,
 weight: 205 kg unloaded, max 395 kg,
 length 3.1 m, width 1.4 m, height 1.25 m.

Oskar 16/250
 designed as a special car for the disabled,
 two seats,
 motorcycle engine Jawa 250, two-stroked, one cylinder, forced air cooling, 248.5 cm³, 9 HP (later 12 HP) with 4,250 rpm,
 fuel consumption: 3.6 L/100 km,
 weight: 205 kg unloaded, max 395 kg,
 length 3.25 m, width 1.38 m, height 1.25 m.
 tyres with smaller dimension than Oskar 54

Velorex 16/175
 designed as a special car for the disabled,
 two seats,
 motorcycle engine ČZ 175 - 505, two-stroked, one cylinder, forced air cooling, 171,8 cm³, 8.5 HP with 4,500 rpm,
 fuel consumption: 5 L/100 km,
 weight: 290 kg unloaded, max 490 kg,
 length 3.1 m, width 1.4 m, height 1.24 m.

Velorex 16/350
 designed as a special car for the disabled,
 two seats,
 motorcycle engine Jawa 350 - 572, two-stroked, two cylinders, forced air cooling, 344 cm³, 11.8 kW (16 HP) with 4750 rpm.
 cruising speed 60 km/h (max 85 km/h),
 weight: 310 kg unloaded, max 500 kg,
 length 3.1 m, width 1.4 m, height 1.24 m.

Velorex 453-0
 four-wheeler
 engine Jawa 350/572, forced air cooling, 17 HP with 4,750 rpm,
 weight: 385 kg unloaded, max 585 kg,
 fuel consumption: 6.5 L/100 km,
 max speed 80 km/h,
 length 2.89 m, width 1.15 m, height 1.365 m.

Velorex sidecars

Demand for motorcycle and sidecar combinations in the Soviet Union brought a requirement for Jawa to build a motorcycle capable of pulling a sidecar and Velorex to build a sidecar for it. In response, Jawa built their 354 motorcycle with enough strength and power for sidecar use, and Velorex built the Type 560 sidecar.

In 1974, Jawa built the 350cc Type 634 motorcycle, which was designed even more specifically for use in a sidecar combination in the Soviet Union. The Jawa Type 634 produced 28 BHP @ 5,252 RPM and an impressive 38 Foot / Pounds of Torque @ 3,800 RPM, equal to the original 750cc Triumph Boneville. The electrics were powered by a 6 Volt 75 Watt dynamo as opposed to the Jawa Type 354's 6 Volt 45 Watt dynamo system. In response, Velorex created the Type 562 sidecar, which was stronger than the Type 560, but was also simpler to assemble, thereby improving the production rate which had been a problem in manufacturing the Type 560. Velorex manufactured approximately 290,000 Type 562 sidecars from 1974 to the late 1990s.

In 1986 Jawa replaced the Type 634 motorcycle with the more powerful 350cc Type 638 motorcycle, which originally produced 34 BHP @ 6,500 RPM and 30 Foot / Pounds of torque @ 3,800 RPM, which was also available with the Velorex 562 sidecar attached.

The Type 638 was detuned, from 1988 onwards, to 25 BHP @ 5,252 RPM for European Union emissions considerations. For the Dutch market it was detuned further to 23 BHP @ 5,252 RPM to cater for Holland's unique emissions requirements at that time.

In 1990 Jawa reintroduced the Type 634 engine, now featuring a 12 Volt 228 Watt Magneton alternator, in the Type 638 motorcycle chassis as the Type 632. This proved to be a better sidecar machine than the now detuned Type 638 motorcycle.

In 1990 Velorex produced the Type 710 sidecar and this was marketed with the Type 632 motorcycle attached.

The Type 638 with a disc front brake and Velorex Type 710 sidecar attached was also marketed alongside the Type 632 combination as the Type 639 from 1990.

Jawa motorcycles built for sidecar use, as opposed to solo motorcycle use, feature smaller 15 or 16 tooth gearbox sprockets (18 teeth on solo bikes), an attachment on the rear brake cable pivot arm for the sidecar's own brake cable to attach, a left footrest with an attachment for the sidecar brake cable to fit into and modified wiring loom at the rear of the bike with electrical power coupling for the sidecar's lighting and accessories.

An adjustable friction type steering damper was fitted under the headstock on some machines, though this later proved to be unnecessary due to the good handling characteristics of the unit as a whole. This feature was occasionally fitted to the Type 634, Type 638, Type 632, Type 639 and Type 640 machines from 1974 to date.

The Velorex Type 710 featured a more streamlined shape, resembling a jet fighter cockpit with a large forward opening perspex windshield, plus an interior space with plenty of leg room. Stowage behind the now full height backrested seat was 3 times the capacity of the Type 562 sidecar. Because of this the Type 710 was and still is regarded as the best sidecar Velorex ever produced.

Both the Type 562 and Type 710 sidecars share the same chassis, with only the bodywork being different. Both feature either a 16 Inch or 18 Inch wheel with a 160mm. diameter single leading shoe drum brake, which is linked, when fitted to a Jawa motorcycle, to the rear brake mechanism to provide balanced braking.

Both the Velorex Type 562 and Type 710 sidecars were marketed separately worldwide with fitting kits for various foreign motorcycle types including Harley Davidson, Honda, Triumph, etc.

Currently Jawa still sells the 350cc Type 640 combination with the Velorex Type 562 sidecar in Europe and the United Kingdom, this currently being the only large 2 stroke motorcycle to meet current European Union emission regulations.

The cooperative collapsed shortly after the Velvet Revolution, but the sidecar production facilities have since been privatized and sidecar production has restarted under the Velorexport name.

"New Velorex"

Motoscoot, a motorcycle reseller from the Czech Republic, plans to produce modern three-wheeled sport car named "Velor-X-Trike" (initially "New Velorex"). The design was made public in March 2010 and the company expects to assemble about 5–10 vehicles per year.

The Velor-X-Trike model has nothing to do with the recent designs by Mojmír Stránský, author of the original Velorex.

See also
List of microcars by country of origin
Microcar

References

Literature
 Ivo Fajman: Velorex: historie, vývoj, technika, současnost (Velorex: history, design, technology, present time), Grada, 2010, . The book was prepared, since 2006, by a group of Velorex enthusiasts. Among others it contains catalog of preserved cars.

External links

 Short overview
 Velorexy.cz (in Czech, also has English navigation) with directory of other Velorex related websites, huge amount of Velorexes in garage, hundreds of articles
 Velorex club in Boskovice  (in Czech)
 VELOREX in Germany

Microcars
Three-wheeled motor vehicles
Motor vehicle manufacturers of Czechoslovakia

Velorex


In linguistics, a mass noun is a common noun that refers to an amount, not an item or unit. Common mass nouns are water, chocolate, meat, time, and space. Mass nouns are always singular and uncountable. The set of uncountable nouns and mass nouns is not identical. There are uncountable nouns, such as scissors which refer to an item, are plural, and are not mass nouns.

In some languages like English, mass nouns have different grammar than countable nouns. Their requirements for determiners, for example differ. Other languages, such as Japanese, do not treat mass nouns in any special way.

Words

Mass noun


Basic Law: The Government () is a Basic Law of Israel, first legislated in the Sixth Knesset, on 13 August 1968 (, Hebrew calendar). It was substituted by an additional Basic Law: The Government of 1992, in the Twelfth Knesset on 18 March 1992 (), in order to change the electoral system, with the purpose of creating a direct prime ministerial elections system. After concluding the old parliamentary system of government was the best option for the complex composition of the Israeli society, it was once again substituted by an additional Basic Law: The Government of 2001, in the Fifteenth Knesset, on 7 March 2001 (), in order to cancel the previous additional law of 1992 that had replaced the original law of 1968, and with the purpose of restoring the old parliamentary system.

The basic law determines the composition of the Government, its roles and authorities.

Main provisions (2001)
 5–6: "The Government is composed of a Prime Minister and other ministers.... The Prime Minister shall be a member of the Knesset... A Minister need not be a member of the Knesset [he may be] ...  A Minister must be an Israeli citizen and a resident of Israel."
 7: "When a new Government has to be constituted, the President of the State shall, after consultation with representatives of party groups in the Knesset, assign the task of forming a Government to a Knesset Member who has notified him that he is prepared to accept the task; the President shall do so within seven days of the publication of the election results, or should the need arise to form a new government; and in the case of the death of the Prime Minister, within 14 days of his death."
28: "The Knesset may adopt an expression of no confidence in the Government... An expression of no confidence in the Government will be by a decision adopted by the majority of the Members of Knesset to request that the President assign the task of forming a Government to a certain Knesset member who gave his written consent thereto... If the Knesset has expressed no confidence in the Government, the Government shall be deemed to have resigned."
29: "the Prime Minister... may, with the approval of the President of the State, disperse the Knesset ... and the Government shall be deemed to have resigned."

See also
 Basic Laws of Israel
 Cabinet of Israel

External links
 The Existing Basic Laws: Full Texts, Knesset website

1968 in Israel
1968 in law
1992 in Israel
1992 in law
2001 in Israel
2001 in law
Government
Government of Israel
Politics of Israel
6th Knesset (1965–1969)
12th Knesset (1988–1992)
15th Knesset (1999–2003)

Basic Law: The Government


Henry I. Gourley (October 3, 1838 – May 27, 1899) was Mayor of Pittsburgh from 1890 to 1893

Early life
Henry Irvin Gourley was born in Juniata County, Pennsylvania in 1838 to a peasant family.  Because of his families inability to support themselves he was sent early in life to a farm in Pine Township, Pennsylvania in Allegheny County, where he displayed a great work ethic and eventually became a school teacher.

Pittsburgh politics
In 1876 he was elected to the City Council. Mayor Gourley took office in 1890 and his reputation for hard and honest work served him well in city hall.  His term was noted for the trust it engendered in Pittsburgh residents.  After he left office he served as city controller before his death in 1899 He is buried in Homewood Cemetery.

References

1838 births
1899 deaths
Mayors of Pittsburgh
Pennsylvania city council members
Burials at Homewood Cemetery
19th-century American politicians

Henry I. Gourley


A Mii is a customizable character created by the player, used on Nintendo's video game consoles. Miis made their first appearance on the Wii when it was released. They also appear on the Nintendo 3DS, Wii U and Nintendo Switch consoles, and in some games for the Nintendo DS. Miis allow players to create a caricature of themselves, other people, or of invented characters. They are created in the Mii Channel on the Wii, in the Mii Maker on the 3DS and Wii U, and in system settings on the Nintendo Switch. The Nintendo DS does not have a way to make Miis on the console itself, but the games that use Miis include a Mii Maker to let players create them.

The player can change the look of a Mii in many ways. They can give it different hairstyles, eyes, nose, and mouth shapes. They can change the eye and hair color of a Mii. (Players can only choose from a few colors on older consoles, but on the Nintendo Switch, a Mii's eye and hair color can be any color.) They can also give a Mii facial hair and wrinkles. Accessories such as hats and glasses can be added. The player can change the size of things like the Mii's eyes, nose, and mouth. The player can change a Mii's height and weight. On the 3DS and Wii U, the player can take a picture of their face, and the console creates a Mii for them. The player can then change their Mii.

When the player makes a Mii, they can use it in many different video games. Some games use Miis for all the characters, such as Wii Sports, Tomodachi Life, and Miitopia. Many other games use Miis with other characters, such as Mario Kart Wii and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. A lot of games on the Wii and 3DS use Miis as a profile picture, such as Rhythm Heaven Fever and Rhythm Heaven Megamix.

References

Nintendo video game characters
Wii
Nintendo 3DS

Mii


Verne Rheem Mason (August 8, 1889 – November 16, 1965) was an eminent American internist and associate of Howard Hughes. Mason was chairman of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute's  medical advisory committee.

Early years
Born at Wapello, Iowa, in 1889, Mason received a B.S. from University of California, Berkeley, in 1911, and an M.D. from Johns Hopkins University in 1915. As a medical resident at Hopkins in 1922 Mason gave the disease sickle cell anemia its name.

Internist
When motion picture director Frank Capra fell ill with a mysterious fever after completing It Happened One Night, Columbia Pictures chief Harry Cohn called in Mason to diagnose and treat Capra's illness. In 1938, Mason was one of the physicians called to the sickbed of General of the Armies John J. Pershing. The commander of the American Expeditionary Force in France in World War I was in a coma and sinking. Mason made the medical report on General Pershing, who recovered and lived for 10 years more. When Howard Hughes lay near death in Los Angeles in 1946, following the crash of his experimental plane, the XF-11, he summoned Mason and asked, "Am I going to live?" "I don't know," Mason replied. "Then give this message to the Army," Hughes said. "The accident was caused by the rear half of the right propeller, which suddenly switched into reverse pitch position."

Verne Mason became Hughes personal physician.

Final years
Mason was for many years a member of the medical faculty of the University of Southern California, a professor of clinical medicine, and an attending physician at Cedars of Lebanon Hospital. He was considered a leading internist and diagnostician. Highly decorated, he served in both World Wars. Mason was chairman of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute's  medical advisory committee.  He later divorced his first wife Lucy M. Ginn and married Ruth Menardi, former wife of American composer Hoagy Carmichael.  Mason died on November 16, 1965, in Miami, Florida.

References

1889 births
1965 deaths
People from Wapello, Iowa
Johns Hopkins School of Medicine alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Physicians of the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

Verne Mason


Robert Lacoste (5 July 1898 – 8 March 1989) was a French politician. He was a socialist MP of the Dordogne from 1945 to 1958, and from 1962 to 1967. He then served as senator from 1971 to 1980.

Biography
Robert Lacoste was born at Azerat (Dordogne).  He studied at the law school in Paris, and became a civil servant and CGT trade unionist.  He participated in the resistance.  In 1944, he was Joint Delegate General of the French Committee of National Liberation for occupied France, and become minister for industrial production in the provisional government of general De Gaulle.  A member of both houses of parliament, and socialist MP for the Dordogne, he was Minister of Industry until 1950.  He was Minister of Finance and the Economy in 1956.

After Guy Mollet's visit to Algeria, greeted by colons (French-Algerian colonists) throwing tomatoes at him, Lacoste replaced general Catroux in February 1956, becoming resident minister and governor general of Algeria.  He remained the minister of Algeria until May 1958. A proponent of forceful action, he played a principal role in the Algerian War. He also promoted accelerated social and economic programmes, highlighted by his efforts to "Algerianise" the administration. He increased Algeria's départements to twelve and drafted the Loi Cadre (enabling or framework law) designed to enhance internal autonomy and Muslim representation.

He sat in the National Assembly once more from 1962 to 1967.  From 1971 to 1980, he was elected socialist senator of the Dordogne, assuming from 1974 to 1979 the vice-presidency of the regional council of Aquitaine. President of the superior council of electricity and gas of France in 1950, he was mayor of Azerat until 1983.  He died, aged 90, at Périgueux.

Governmental Positions

He was Secretary General of Industrial Production from 26 August to 4 September 1944 and then Minister of Industrial Production from 10 September 1944 to 11 August 1947,
also serving as Minister of Work and Social Security (temporary) under the government of Paul Ramadier from 4 to 9 May 1947. He was then Minister of Industry and Commerce from 11 August 1947 to 7 February 1950. He served as Minister of Economic and Financial Affairs from 1 to 9 February 1956. He was Resident Minister in Algeria from 9 February 1956 to 13 June 1957 then Minister of Algeria from 13 June 1957 to 14 May 1958.

References

1898 births
1989 deaths
People from Dordogne
Politicians from Nouvelle-Aquitaine
French Section of the Workers' International politicians
Socialist Party (France) politicians
Government ministers of France
French Ministers of Commerce and Industry
French Ministers of Finance
Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1945)
Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1946)
Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Deputies of the 2nd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Deputies of the 2nd National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
French senators of the Fifth Republic
French Resistance members
French people of the Algerian War
Members of the General Confederation of Labour (France)
Senators of Dordogne
Governors general of Algeria

Robert Lacoste


The marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) is an iguana found only on the Galápagos Islands. It is the only modern lizard, to live and forage in the sea. Also unusually, it is a vegetarian. It only eats algae.

The iguana can dive over  into the water. It has spread to all the islands in the archipelago, and is sometimes called the Galápagos marine iguana. It mainly lives on the rocky Galápagos shore to warm from the comparably cold water. It can also be spotted in marshes and mangrove beaches. Charles Darwin described them:
"The black Lava rocks on the beach are frequented by large (2–3 ft [60–90 cm]),  disgusting clumsy Lizards. They are as black as the porous rocks over which they crawl & seek their prey from the Sea. I call them 'imps of darkness'. They assuredly well become the land they inhabit".

References

Iguania
Reptiles of South America

Marine iguana


The Tapada Nacional de Mafra was created in Mafra, Portugal, during the reign of king João V, following the building of the Mafra National Palace, as a park for royal and court recreation.

Covering over 8 square kilometres, the park holds different species of deer, wild boar, foxes, birds of prey and many others coexisting in an unusually rich and diversified natural habitat. A favourite of the Portuguese monarchy for hunting and other leisure pursuits, the Tapada de Mafra took on a noble connotation that has done much to aid its preservation and continuity.

Its natural heritage ensures it is an excellent location for fun environmental awareness and education programmes. The Tapada is also open for walking, mountain biking, horse riding, archery and crossbow shooting activities.

On 7 July 2019, the Royal Building of Mafra – Palace, Basilica, Convent, Cerco Garden and Hunting Park (Tapada) was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

References

External links

Tapada Nacional de Mafra

Palace of Mafra
Parks in Portugal
Mafra, Portugal
Geography of Lisbon District
Tourist attractions in Lisbon District
World Heritage Sites in Portugal

Tapada Nacional de Mafra


The Citadelle Laferrière (), commonly known as La Citadelle (), is a large early 19th-century fortress located in Minot in Nord, Haiti. It is situated on the Bonnet à l'Evêque mountaintop located approximately  uphill from the town of Milot,  south of the city of Cap-Haïtien, and  southwest of the Three Bays Protected Area.

The Citadelle Laferrière was commissioned by Haitian revolutionary Henri Christophe, for whom it is also named Citadelle Henri Christophe, and built by tens of thousands of former slaves. It was the main fortification of the newly independent First Empire of Haiti's defensive strategy against a potential French incursion. The Citadelle is one of few Africans in New World-derived military fortification in the New World, as well as the first example of African-derived colonial architecture. Designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1982 along with the Sans-Souci Palace, also commissioned by Christophe, the fortress is universally regarded as a landmark of Haiti.

History

The Citadelle was commissioned in 1805 by Henri Christophe and completed in 1820, the fortress was built as part of a system of fortifications designed to thwart potential foreign incursions; notably the French. During the stronghold's conceptual phase, Christophe was a general in the Haitian army and chief administrator of the country's northern regions. The ensuing power struggle he had with his rival and fellow revolutionary Alexandre Pétion, would result in his self-declaration as king of Northern Haiti in 1811.

The Citadelle, constructed by 20,000 ex-slaves and left 2,000 of them dead during the course of its construction, was built several kilometres inland atop the  Bonnet à l'Eveque mountain, as a means of providing the optimal military vantage point. The location enabled Haitian forces to strategically keep watch over a vast distance, from the nearby valleys to the coastline. Cap-Haïtien and the adjoining Atlantic Ocean are visible from the roof of the fortress. It is the largest fortress in Haiti and one of the largest in the New World; it continues to serve as a symbol of Haitian independence.

The Haitians outfitted the fortress with 365 cannons of varying size, assembled from the abandoned munitions left behind by the European forces that formerly occupied the island. The enormous stockpiles of cannonballs still sit in pyramidal stacks at the base of the fortress walls. Since its construction, the fortress has withstood numerous earthquakes, though a French attack never came and it was eventually abandoned.

In the event of an invasion, Christophe planned to have his military burn the valuable crops and food stocks along the coast, then retreat to the fortress, setting ambushes along the sole mountain path leading to the Citadelle.

Christophe suffered a stroke in 1820, and some of his troops mutinied. Shortly afterwards, he committed suicide—according to legend, by shooting himself with a silver bullet. Loyal followers covered his body in quicklime and entombed it in one of the Citadelle's interior courtyards to prevent others from mutilating the corpse.

Description
The colossal physical dimensions of the fortress have made it a Haitian national symbol, featured on currency, stamps, and tourist ministry posters. The fortress walls rise  from the mountaintop and the entire complex, including cannonball stocks but excluding the surrounding grounds, covers an area of . Workers laid the large foundation stones of the fortress directly into the stone of the mountaintop, using a mortar mixture that included quicklime, molasses, and the blood of local cows and goats—and cows hooves that they cooked to a glue and added to the mix to give the mortar added strength and bonding power.

Large cisterns and storehouses in the fortress's interior were designed to store enough food and water for 5,000 defenders for up to one year. The fortress included palace quarters for the king and his family, in the event that they needed to take refuge within its walls. Other facilities included dungeons, bathing quarters, and bakery ovens. Also visible is the tomb of Christophe's brother-in-law, killed when the gunpowder room he was in exploded.

The Citadelle's appearance from the trail leading up to its base has been likened to the prow of a great stone ship, jutting out from the mountainside. The structure is angular and assumes different geometric forms based on the viewer's orientation. Some of the angles on the Citadelle were intentionally put there by Christophe to deviate cannonballs if attacked and the Epaulette is a great example of using angles to deviate and deflect shots. Though most of the fortress has no roof as such (the interior top is a latticework of stone walkways), some slanted portions are adorned with bright red tiles. The fortress has been repaired and refurnished several times since its construction, including in the 1980s with help from UNESCO and the World Monuments Fund, though little of it has been replaced and its design remains the same.

Tourism
The Citadelle is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Haiti. Directions to and history of the fortress are provided by self-appointed guides from the town of Milot. Near the entrance to Sans-Souci Palace, which is at the start of the trail to the Citadelle, visitors may be asked to pay a small fee. Visitors are also encouraged to rent a horse for the uphill trek. The first portion of the 11 kilometre (7 mi) trail is navigable by 4WD vehicle, although infrequent landslides and construction projects sometimes make this unreliable. Numerous people live along the trail and sell souvenirs or drinks, such as fresh coconut juice, to travelers. Drinks are a necessity in the tropical heat. The trail is paved stone, generally smooth and in good condition. About three-quarters of the way up from the parking lot, visitors must complete the final portion on horseback or on foot. The entire 11-kilometre (7 mi) trail, starting in Milot, is almost completely uphill, but can be walked by experienced hikers who carry plenty of water. Most of the interior of the Citadelle fortress itself is accessible to visitors, who may also climb the numerous staircases to the fortress's roof, which is free of guardrails. On a clear day, the city of Cap-Haïtien and the Atlantic Ocean can be seen to the north. Because of its elevation the top of the Citadelle is used by United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) for a Radio repeater, with an antenna on the highest point.

Though the turbulent political situation in Haiti (principally in the central region) has deterred visitors in recent years, the regions of the north and south of the country remain largely peaceful, making travel to the Citadel less challenging or hazardous than travel within the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince.

Conservation and safety concerns

After visiting the Citadelle in July 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly heavily criticized the Haitian National Institute for Historic Preservation (ISPAN) — the organization tasked with preserving Haiti's cultural heritage sites — describing the site as in a state of disrepair and calling ISPAN's efforts "unacceptable". His visit was intended to assess the state of the Citadel for conservation, but he refused to visit its upper levels, deeming them unsafe for visitors.

The Global Heritage Fund, a California-based non-profit organization, has investigated the Citadelle for monument conservation, community development, training and cultural heritage revitalization. The project would focus on both the Citadelle and nearby Sans-Souci Palace, with hopes of preserving the structures as safe tourism sites to promote sustainable local economic growth.

Footnotes

External links

Google Satellite Pictures
Citadelle Laferrière on Global Heritage Network
Global Heritage Fund investigative summary of the Citadel(video)

Forts in Haiti
Military history of Haiti
World Heritage Sites in Haiti
Nord (Haitian department)
Infrastructure completed in 1820
Ruins in Haiti

Citadelle Laferrière


Franz Xaver Niemetschek (; ) (24 July 1766 – 19 March 1849) was a Czech philosopher, teacher and music critic. He wrote the first full-length biography of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart which has remained an important source of information about the composer.

Life

Born in Sadská, Bohemia, Niemetschek came from a large, musical family. He received his schooling in Prague at the Gymnasium and read philosophy at the university. He taught poetry and Latin at the Gymnasiums in Pilsen and started a music publishing business. In 1800 he was awarded a doctorate and in 1802 he became professor at Prague University, lecturing on logic, ethics and pedagogy. The composer Jan Václav Voříšek was one of his pupils. He was made a freeman of Pilsen and Prague for his many valuable contributions to the arts, e.g. as director of the institute for the deaf and dumb. He wrote books on music history. He lived near the residence of Josepha Duschekova in the Liechtenstein Palace in the Lesser Quarters of Prague, and was a frequent visitor at the musical gatherings in Bertramka. In 1820 he retired to Vienna after disagreements with the university authorities.

Niemetschek was one of the first music critics in Prague. He saw the Singspiel as the principal factor in the decline of musical standards in the city.

Niemetschek died in Vienna at the age of 82 and is buried in St. Marx Cemetery. Unfortunately his estate, which contained many valuable documents, is now lost.

Mozart biography

Mozart's widow Constanze made many documents available to him for his research. His book Leben des k.k. Kapellmeisters Wolfgang Gottlieb Mozart was published in 1798. Later, in 1808, it was published in an altered form with the title Lebensbeschreibung des k.k. Kapellmeisters Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Niemetschek claimed to have had a long association with Mozart, but the lack of direct quotations or citings of personal conversations leads some scholars to doubt his claims. However, he welcomed Mozart's two surviving sons, Karl and Wolfgang Jr., into his home in the Lesser Quarter and became a foster father figure to them.

As the biography makes clear, Niemetschek was very proud of his Czech nationality, and he strongly emphasizes the warm reception that Mozart received during his visits to Prague. See Mozart and Prague.

Based on research by Austrian scholar , severe doubt has recently been cast on the veracity of Niemetschek's claim that he actually made Mozart's personal acquaintance.

Notes

References
 Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie; 1980;
 Salfellner, Harold (2003) Mozart and Prague. Vitalis. .

External links

Czech musicians
Czech philosophers
Czech non-fiction writers
Czech biographers
Mozart scholars
18th-century people from Bohemia
19th-century Czech people
1766 births
1849 deaths
People from Sadská

Franz Xaver Niemetschek


The 1st Canadian Women's Hockey League All-Star Game, took place on December 13, 2014 at Air Canada Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Admission was free, and 6,850 people attended the game. The game aired live on Sportsnet One in Canada, as well as on the NHL Network in the United States. The event featured three 15-minute periods which aired on television, and had a Skills Competition following the game.

This edition of the All-Star Game featured a "fantasy draft" format akin to the NHL All-Star Game in order to determine the rosters. Fan balloting determined the team captains, which were goaltender Charline Labonte from the Montreal Stars, and rookie forward Jessica Campbell of the Calgary Inferno. The captains each chose 5 players for their team, and picked the remainder of their teams via mini-stick draw.

While this game was promoted as the first All-Star Game, there were in fact two previous All-Star Games played during the 2008-09 season. These two games featured CWHL All-Stars against NHL Alumni.

Rosters

Fan balloting
Voting for CWHL all-star captains started on November 21, 2014. Online voting will require fans to vote on the CWHL.com web site. Fans were presented a list of 42 players.

Draft
The draft of the players took place on December 12, 2014 at 8:00 pm, Eastern time. It was held at the Delta Hotel in Toronto.

Brianna Decker of the Boston Blades and Courtney Birchard of the Brampton Thunder were selected for the All-Star Game, however both were unable to participate.

Game summary

Team White's Natalie Spooner of the Toronto Furies opened the scoring late in the first period, putting a loose puck behind Team Red Captain Charline Labonte. Haley Irwin picked up an assist on the opening marker. Team White added to their lead in the second period, as Kelli Stack scored on Christina Kessler. Stack's Boston Blades teammate Hilary Knight and Natalie Spooner got assists on the goal. Sami Jo Small of the Toronto Furies and Delayne Brian of the Calgary Inferno had shutouts for Team White in the first and second periods respectively.

Team Red came out quickly in the Third period, as Montreal Stars forward Lisa-Marie Breton-Lebreux scored early in the period on Team White's Genevieve Lacasse with Blake Bolden and Ann-Sophie Bettez assisting on the goal. Jamie Lee Rattray tied the game up a few minutes later for Team Red on a feed from Emmanuelle Blais. Rebecca Johnston of the Calgary Inferno would give Team Red the lead midway through the third, beating her Canada women's national ice hockey team teammate Geneviève Lacasse on a mini-breakaway. Jenelle Kohanchuk and Ann-Sophie Bettez assisted on the eventual game winner. Team Red's Jessica Wong from the Calgary Inferno picked up the only penalty of the game late in the third period for tripping, however Team White was unable to beat Team Red goalie Erica Howe on the 6-on-4 power play.

Skills competition
Following the game, Joe Bowen hosted the Skills Competition. The first part of the event was the Fastest Skater competition. Team White won the 5-heat event 3–2, with Jessica Campbell, Michelle Bonello and Carly Hill winning their heats. Rebecca Johnston and Jessica Wong won the two heats for Team Red. The second part of the Skills Competition was the Breakaway Relay, an elimination shootout featuring the skaters who didn't compete in the Fastest Skater event. Team Red won after Megan Bozek scored after everyone else had been eliminated. Genevieve Lacasse did take an attempt for Team White, however she was stopped by Erica Howe.

References

Canadian Women's Hockey League
2014 Canadian Womens Hockey League All-Star Game
All-Star Game
2014 in Ontario
2010s in Toronto


Acute severe asthma, also known as status asthmaticus, is an acute exacerbation of asthma that does not respond to standard treatments of bronchodilators (inhalers) and corticosteroids. Asthma is caused by multiple genes, some having protective effect, with each gene having its own tendency to be influenced by the environment although a genetic link leading to acute severe asthma is still unknown. Symptoms include chest tightness, rapidly progressive dyspnea (shortness of breath), dry cough, use of accessory respiratory muscles, fast and/or labored breathing, and extreme wheezing. It is a life-threatening episode of airway obstruction and is considered a medical emergency. Complications include cardiac and/or respiratory arrest. The increasing prevalence of atopy and asthma remains unexplained but may be due to infection with respiratory viruses.

Signs and symptoms
An exacerbation (attack) of asthma is experienced as a worsening of asthma symptoms with breathlessness and cough (often worse at night). In acute severe asthma, breathlessness may be so severe that it is impossible to speak more than a few words (inability to complete sentences).

On examination, the respiratory rate may be elevated (more than 25 breaths per minute), and the heart rate may be rapid (110 beats per minute or faster). Reduced oxygen saturation levels (but above 92%) are often encountered. Examination of the lungs with a stethoscope may reveal reduced air entry and/or widespread wheeze. The peak expiratory flow can be measured at the bedside; in acute severe asthma, the flow is less than 50% of a person's normal or predicted flow.

Very severe acute asthma (termed "near-fatal" as there is an immediate risk to life) is characterised by a peak flow of less than 33% predicted, oxygen saturations below 92% or cyanosis (blue discoloration, usually of the lips), absence of audible breath sounds over the chest ("silent chest" : wheezing is not heard because there is not enough air movement to generate it), reduced respiratory effort and visible exhaustion or drowsiness. Irregularities in the heartbeat and abnormal lowering of the blood pressure may be observed.

Severe asthma attack can cause symptoms such as:
 Shortness of breath
 Inability to speak in full sentences
 Feeling breathless even when lying down
 Chest feels tight
 Bluish tint to the lips
 Hunched shoulders, and strained muscles in stomach and neck
 Feeling the need to sit or stand up to breathe more easily

Cause
The cause for acute severe asthma attacks is still unknown and experts are also unsure of why it developed and why it does not respond to typical asthma treatments.
 Not seeing a doctor regularly, therefore asthma is not under good control
 Coming in contact with asthma triggers
 Allergies or severe allergic reactions
 Not using the peak flow meter and not taking asthma medication as directed by a primary care physician (PCP) correctly
 Not following an asthma action plan correctly
 Respiratory infections
 Severe stress
 Cold weather
 Air pollution
 Exposure to chemicals and other irritants
 Smoking

Mechanism
Inflammation in asthma is characterized by an influx of eosinophils during the early-phase reaction and a mixed cellular infiltrate composed of eosinophils, mast cells, lymphocytes, and neutrophils during the late-phase (or chronic) reaction. The simple explanation for allergic inflammation in asthma begins with the development of a predominantly helper T2 lymphocyte–driven, as opposed to helper T1 lymphocyte–driven, immune milieu, perhaps caused by certain types of immune stimulation early in life. This is followed by allergen exposure in a genetically susceptible individual.

Specific allergen exposure (e.g., dust mites) under the influence of helper Th2 helper T cells leads to B-lymphocyte elaboration of immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies specific to that allergen. The IgE antibody attaches to surface receptors on the airway mucosal mast cells. One important question is whether atopic individuals with asthma, in contrast to atopic persons without asthma, have a defect in mucosal integrity that makes them susceptible to penetration of allergens into the mucosa.

Subsequent specific allergen exposure leads to cross-bridging of IgE molecules and activation of mast cells, with elaboration and release of a vast array of mediators. These mediators include histamine; leukotrienes C4, D4, and E4; and a host of cytokines. Together, these mediators cause bronchial smooth muscle constriction, vascular leakage, inflammatory cell recruitment (with further mediator release), and mucous gland secretion. These processes lead to airway obstruction by constriction of the smooth muscles, edema of the airways, influx of inflammatory cells, and formation of intraluminal mucus. In addition, ongoing airway inflammation is thought to cause airway hyperreactivity characteristic of asthma. The more severe the airway obstruction, the more likely ventilation-perfusion mismatching will result in impaired gas exchange and low levels of oxygen in the blood.

Diagnosis
Severe acute asthma can be diagnosed by a primary care physician (PCP). A PCP will ask questions in regards to symptoms and breathing; they will also ask if fatigue or wheezing has been experienced when breathing in or out; and also test using a peak expiratory flow and an oxygen saturation.

Status asthmaticus can be misdiagnosed when wheezing occurs from an acute cause other than asthma. Some of these alternative causes of wheezing are discussed below.

Extrinsic compression
Airways can be compressed from vascular structures, such as vascular rings, lymphadenopathy, or tumors.

Congestive heart failure
Airway edema may cause wheezing in CHF. In addition, vascular compression may compress the airways during systole with cardiac ejection, resulting in a pulsatile wheeze that corresponds to the heart rate. This is sometimes erroneously referred to as cardiac asthma.

Differential diagnoses
 Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis
 Aspiration syndromes
 Bronchiectasis
 Bronchiolitis
 Bronchiolitis obliterans
 Chronic bronchitis
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
 Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg–Strauss syndrome)
 Croup
 Cystic fibrosis
 Emphysema
 Foreign bodies of the airway
 Gastroesophageal reflux disease
 Heart failure
 Idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension
 Inhalation injury
 Pulmonary artery sling
 Vocal cord dysfunction

Treatment
Interventions include intravenous (IV) medications (e.g. magnesium sulfate), aerosolized medications to dilate the airways (bronchodilation) (e.g., albuterol or ipratropium bromide/salbutamol), and positive-pressure therapy, including mechanical ventilation. Multiple therapies may be used simultaneously to rapidly reverse the effects of status asthmaticus and reduce permanent damage of the airways. Intravenous corticosteroids and methylxanthines are often given. If the person with a severe asthma exacerbation is on a mechanical ventilator, certain sedating medications such as ketamine or propofol, have bronchodilating properties. According to a new randomized control trial ketamine and aminophylline are also effective in children with acute asthma who responds poorly to standard therapy.

Recent research
A recent study proposed that the interaction between host airway epithelial cells and respiratory viruses is another aspect of innate immunity that is also a critical determination of asthma. It was also proposed that a rationale for how antiviral performance at the epithelial cell level might be improved to prevent acute infectious illness and chronic inflammatory disease caused by respiratory viruses.

Another study aimed to show that experimental asthma after viral infection inmate depended on Type I IFN-driven up-regulation of the high-affinity receptor for IgE (FcεRI) on conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) in the lungs. The study found that a Novell PMN-cDc interaction in the lung is necessary for a viral infection to induce atopic disease.

Epidemiology
Status asthmaticus is slightly more common in males and is more common among people of African and Hispanic origin. The gene locus glutathione dependent S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNOR) has been suggested as one possible correlation to development of status asthmaticus.

See also
 Status epilepticus
 Status angiotensus

References

External links

Asthma
Medical emergencies
Chronic lower respiratory diseases

Acute severe asthma


ગુપ્ત રોગ  અથવા જાતીય રોગ    મૈથુન સંક્રમણો (sexually transmitted infections, STI) કે મૈથુન ચેપ કે   વેનેરીયલ ડીસીઝ (venereal diseases, VD), એ એવા રોગો કે બિમારીઓ છે કે જેમનો ચેપ મોટ ભાગે માનવીય સંભોગ કે જાતીય સંભોગ ક્રિયાઓ દ્વારા ફેલાતો હોય છે.  આ રોગ કે સંક્રમણો  યૌન મૈથુન, મુખ મૈથુન તથા ગુદા મૈથુન. પ્રાચીન સમયમાં તેને જાતીય રોગો કહેવાતાં પણ હવે તેને જાતીય સંક્રમણો કહેવાય છે.  રોગ કરતાં સંક્રમણ એ શબ્દ વધુ વ્યાપક અર્થ ધરાવે છે. કોઈ એક રોગી ન હોતાં વ્યક્તિ સંક્રમિત હોઈ શકે છે જે અન્યોને પણ ચેપ લગાડી શકે છે. અમુક રોગ દવાના ઈન્જેક્શન દ્વારા, બાળકના જન્મ દ્ધારા કે સ્તનપાન દ્વારા પણ ફેલાઈ શકે છે.  હજારો વર્ષોથી જાતીય રોગો કે સંક્રમણના અસ્તિત્વની જાણ માનવ સમુદાયને છે.

વર્ગીકરણ
૧૯૯૦ સુધીના દશક સુધી જાતીય સંક્રમણને જાતીય રોગ કે વેનેરીયલ ડિસીઝ કહેવાતા હતાં. વેનેરિયલ આ શબ્દ લેટિન શબ્દ પ્રાચીન રોમન દંતકથા ના પ્રેમના દેવીના નામ વિનસ પરથી પડ્યું હતું. આને સામાજિક રોગ પણ કહેવાય છે.

જાતીય સંક્રમણ એ જાતીય રોગ કરતાં ઘણી વ્યાપક વ્યાખ્યા છે.
સંક્રમણએ પરોપજીવી જીવાણુંઓ વસાહત સ્થિતી છે, કોઈ વ્યક્તિમાં જીવાણું ઓની આવી વસાહત તેને કોઈ નુકશાન  નથી પહોંચાડતી. જ્યારે સંક્રમણ ને કારણે વ્યક્તિના અવયવોની કાર્ય પ્રણાલી પર હાનિકારક સર પહોંચે છે આ પરિસ્થિતીને રોગ કહે છે. એવું પણ બની શકે છે કે સંક્રમણ અને રોગ આ બંને પરિસ્થિતીમાં કોઈ ચિન્હો હોઈ પણ શકે અને ન પણ હોઈ શકે. એચ.પી.વી. જેવા સંક્રમણો એવા સંક્રમણો છે કે જે પ્રાયઃ સર્વ જાતીય રીતે સક્રીય એવા મોટા ભાગના લોકોને લાગે છે પણ તે સૌમાં રોગ નું સ્વરૂપ નથી લેતો. આવા સંક્રમણની ઓળખને કારણે રોગને બદલે સંક્રમણ શબ્દ પ્રચલિત બન્યો છે.     સ્વાસ્થ્ય અધિકારીઓ દ્વારા સૌ પ્રથમ આ શબ્દ રોગી અને સંક્રમિત લોકોને  જુદા તારવવા વપરાયો હતો.

મોટા ભાગના લોકોને જ્યાં સુધી લક્ષણો ન દેખાય  કે પરીક્ષણ અહેવાલ ન આવે ત્યાં સુધી જાતીય રોગ હોવાની જાણ થતી નથી. ઘણા લોકો સંક્રમણને પણ જાતીય રોગ તરીકે જ ઓળખતા હોય છે.

Moreover, the term sexually transmissible disease is sometimes used since it is less restrictive in consideration of other factors or means of transmission.  For instance, meningitis is transmissible by means of sexual contact but is not labeled as an STI because sexual contact is not the primary vector for the pathogens that cause meningitis. This discrepancy is addressed by the probability of infection by means other than sexual contact. In general, an STI is an infection that has a negligible probability of transmission by means other than sexual contact, but has a realistic means of transmission by sexual contact (more sophisticated means—blood transfusion, sharing of hypodermic needles—are not taken into account). Thus, one may presume that, if a person is infected with an STI, e.g., chlamydia, gonorrhea, genital herpes, it was transmitted to him/her by means of sexual contact.

The diseases on this list are most commonly transmitted solely by sexual activity. Many infectious diseases, including the common cold, influenza, pneumonia, and most others that are transmitted person-to-person can also be transmitted during sexual contact, if one person is infected, due to the close contact involved. However, even though these diseases may be transmitted during sex, they are not considered STDs.

Cause

Bacterial
 Chancroid (Haemophilus ducreyi)
 Chlamydia (Chlamydia trachomatis)
 Granuloma inguinale or (Klebsiella granulomatis)
 Gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)
 Syphilis (Treponema pallidum)

Fungal
Candidiasis (yeast infection)

Viral

Viral hepatitis (Hepatitis B virus)—saliva, venereal fluids.  (Note: Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E are transmitted via the fecal-oral route; Hepatitis C is rarely sexually transmittable, and the route of transmission of Hepatitis D (only if infected with B) is uncertain, but may include sexual transmission.)
Herpes simplex (Herpes simplex virus 1, 2) skin and mucosal, transmissible with or without visible blisters
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)—venereal fluids, semen, breast milk, blood
HPV (Human Papillomavirus)—skin and mucosal contact. 'High risk' types of HPV cause almost all cervical cancers, as well as some anal, penile, and vulvar cancer.  Some other types of HPV cause genital warts.
Molluscum contagiosum (molluscum contagiosum virus MCV)—close contact

Parasites
Crab louse, colloquially known as "crabs" or "pubic lice" (Pthirus pubis)
Scabies (Sarcoptes scabiei)

Protozoal
Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas vaginalis)

Transmission probability
The risks and transmission probabilities of sexually transmitted diseases are summarized by act in the table below.

Pathophysiology
Many STDs are (more easily) transmitted through the mucous membranes of the penis, vulva, rectum, urinary tract and (less often—depending on type of infection) the mouth, throat, respiratory tract and eyes. The visible membrane covering the head of the penis is a mucous membrane, though it produces no mucus (similar to the lips of the mouth). Mucous membranes differ from skin in that they allow certain pathogens into the body.  Pathogens are also able to pass through breaks or abrasions of the skin, even minute ones.  The shaft of the penis is particularly susceptible due to the friction caused during penetrative sex.  The primary sources of infection in ascending order are venereal fluids, saliva, mucosal or skin (particularly the penis), infections may also be transmitted from feces, urine and sweat.  The amount of contact with infective sources which causes infection varies with each pathogen but in all cases a disease may result from even light contact from fluid carriers like venereal fluids onto a mucous membrane.

This is one reason that the probability of transmitting many infections is far higher from sex than by more casual means of transmission, such as non-sexual contact—touching, hugging, shaking hands—but it is not the only reason. Although mucous membranes exist in the mouth as in the genitals, many STIs seem to be easier to transmit through oral sex than through deep kissing. According to a safe sex chart, many infections that are easily transmitted from the mouth to the genitals or from the genitals to the mouth, are much harder to transmit from one mouth to another. With HIV, genital fluids happen to contain much more of the pathogen than saliva. Some infections labeled as STIs can be transmitted by direct skin contact. Herpes simplex and HPV are both examples. KSHV, on the other hand, may be transmitted by deep-kissing but also when saliva is used as a sexual lubricant.

Depending on the STD, a person may still be able to spread the infection if no signs of disease are present. For example, a person is much more likely to spread herpes infection when blisters are present (STD) than when they are absent (STI). However, a person can spread HIV infection (STI) at any time, even if he/she has not developed symptoms of AIDS (STD).

All sexual behaviors that involve contact with the bodily fluids of another person should be considered to contain some risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases. Most attention has focused on controlling HIV, which causes AIDS, but each STD presents a different situation.

As may be noted from the name, sexually transmitted diseases are transmitted from one person to another by certain sexual activities rather than being actually caused by those sexual activities. Bacteria, fungi, protozoa or viruses are still the causative agents. It is not possible to catch any sexually transmitted disease from a sexual activity with a person who is not carrying a disease; conversely, a person who has an STD got it from contact (sexual or otherwise) with someone who had it, or his/her bodily fluids. Some STDs such as HIV can be transmitted from mother to child either during pregnancy or breastfeeding.

Although the likelihood of transmitting various diseases by various sexual activities varies a great deal, in general, all sexual activities between two (or more) people should be considered as being a two-way route for the transmission of STDs, i.e., "giving" or "receiving" are both risky although receiving carries a higher risk.

Healthcare professionals suggest safer sex, such as the use of condoms, as the most reliable way of decreasing the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases during sexual activity, but safer sex should by no means be considered an absolute safeguard. The transfer of and exposure to bodily fluids, such as blood transfusions and other blood products, sharing injection needles, needle-stick injuries (when medical staff are inadvertently jabbed or pricked with needles during medical procedures), sharing tattoo needles, and childbirth are other avenues of transmission. These different means put certain groups, such as medical workers, and haemophiliacs and drug users, particularly at risk.

Recent epidemiological studies have investigated the networks that are defined by sexual relationships between individuals, and discovered that the properties of sexual networks are crucial to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. In particular, assortative mixing between people with large numbers of sexual partners seems to be an important factor.

It is possible to be an asymptomatic carrier of sexually transmitted diseases. In particular, sexually transmitted diseases in women often cause the serious condition of pelvic inflammatory disease.

Prevention

Prevention is key in addressing incurable STIs, such as HIV & herpes. Sexual health clinics fight to promote the use of condoms and provide outreach for at-risk communities.

The most effective way to prevent sexual transmission of STIs is to avoid contact of body parts or fluids which can lead to transfer with an infected partner. Not all sexual activities involve contact: cybersex, phonesex or masturbation from a distance are methods of avoiding contact. Proper use of condoms reduces contact and risk. Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure, some disease transmission may occur even with a condom.

Ideally, both partners should get tested for STIs before initiating sexual contact, or before resuming contact if a partner engaged in contact with someone else.  Many infections are not detectable immediately after exposure, so enough time must be allowed between possible exposures and testing for the tests to be accurate.  Certain STIs, particularly certain persistent viruses like HPV, may be impossible to detect with current medical procedures.

Many diseases that establish permanent infections can so occupy the immune system that other diseases become more easily transmitted.  The innate immune system led by defensins against HIV can prevent transmission of HIV when viral counts are very low, but if busy with other viruses or overwhelmed, HIV can establish itself.  Certain viral STI's also greatly increase the risk of death for HIV infected patients.

Vaccines
Vaccines are available that protect against some viral STIs, such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, and some types of HPV.  Vaccination before initiation of sexual contact is advised to assure maximal protection.

Condoms
Condoms and female condoms only provide protection when used properly as a barrier, and only to and from the area that it covers.  Uncovered areas are still susceptible to many STDs.  In the case of HIV, sexual transmission routes almost always involve the penis, as HIV cannot spread through unbroken skin, thus properly shielding the insertive penis with a properly worn condom from the vagina or anus effectively stops HIV transmission.  An infected fluid to broken skin borne direct transmission of HIV would not be considered "sexually transmitted", but can still theoretically occur during sexual contact, this can be avoided simply by not engaging in sexual contact when having open bleeding wounds.  Other STDs, even viral infections, can be prevented with the use of latex, polyurethane or polyisoprene condoms as a barrier.  Some microorganisms and viruses are small enough to pass through the pores in natural skin condoms, but are still too large to pass through latex or synthetic condoms.

Proper usage entails:
Not putting the condom on too tight at the end, and leaving 1.5 cm (3/4 inch) room at the tip for ejaculation.  Putting the condom on snug can and often does lead to failure.
Wearing a condom too loose can defeat the barrier.
Avoiding inverting, spilling a condom once worn, whether it has ejaculate in it or not.
Avoiding condoms made of substances other than latex, polyisoprene or polyurethane that do not protect against HIV.
Avoiding the use of oil based lubricants (or anything with oil in it) with latex condoms, as oil can eat holes into them.
Using flavored condoms for oral sex only, as the sugar in the flavoring can lead to yeast infections if used to penetrate.

Not following the first five guidelines above perpetuates the common misconception that condoms are not tested or designed properly.

In order to best protect oneself and the partner from STIs, the old condom and its contents should be assumed to be infectious.  Therefore the old condom must be properly disposed of.  A new condom should be used for each act of intercourse, as multiple usage increases the chance of breakage, defeating the effectiveness as a barrier.

Nonoxynol-9
Researchers had hoped that nonoxynol-9, a vaginal microbicide would help decrease STD rates.  Trials, however, have found it ineffective.  In fact, the use of nonoxynol-9 can put women at a higher risk of HIV infection.

Diagnosis
STI tests may test for a single infection, or consist of a number of individual tests for any of a wide range of STIs, including tests for syphilis, trichomonas, gonorrhea, chlamydia, herpes, hepatitis and HIV tests. No procedure tests for all infectious agents.

STI tests may be used for a number of reasons:
 as a diagnostic test to determine the cause of symptoms or illness
 as a screening test to detect asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections
 as a check that prospective sexual partners are free of disease before they engage in sex without safer sex precautions (for example, when starting a long term mutually monogamous sexual relationship, in fluid bonding, or for procreation).
 as a check prior to or during pregnancy, to prevent harm to the baby
 as a check after birth, to check that the baby has not caught an STI from the mother
 to prevent the use of infected donated blood or organs
 as part of the process of contact tracing from a known infected individual
 as part of mass epidemiological surveillance

Not all STIs are symptomatic, and symptoms may not appear immediately after infection. In some instances a disease can be carried with no symptoms, which leaves a greater risk of passing the disease on to others. Depending on the disease, some untreated STIs can lead to  infertility, chronic pain or even death.  Early identification and treatment results in less chance to spread disease, and for some conditions may improve the outcomes of treatment.

There is often a window period after initial infection during which an STI test will be negative.  During this period the infection may be transmissible.  The duration of this period varies depending on the infection and the test.

Diagnosis may also be delayed by reluctance of the infected person to seek a medical professional. One report indicated that afflicted people turn to the Internet rather than to a medical professional for information on STIs to a higher degree than for other sexual problems.

STD Wizard

The STD Wizard is a publicly available expert system for determining which screening tests, vaccinations, and evaluations are recommended, related to sexually transmitted diseases. The information included within the STD Wizard is based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention "Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines - 2006". The system has English and Spanish language interfaces.

The STD Wizard runs in a web browser. The program asks a series of questions, related to demographics, behaviors, and symptoms. There are potentially over 100 questions, but most users get asked about 20. The exact questions asked depend on the user's responses. Typical questions include:
 Demographics - How old are you, in years?
 Behaviors - Have you had more than one sex partner within the past six months?
 Symptoms - Are you having a discharge from your penis or burning during urination?

Typical recommendations include:
 Screening tests - e.g., HIV screening test
 Vaccinations - e.g., Hepatitis B vaccination
 Evaluations - e.g., Seek medical attention in the next week for rash

Management
High risk exposure such as that which occurs in rape cases may be treated prophylacticly using antibiotic combinations such as azithromycin, cefixime, and metronidazole.

An option for treating partners of patients (index cases) diagnosed with chlamydia or gonorrhea is patient-delivered partner therapy, which is the clinical practice of treating the sex partners of index cases by providing prescriptions or medications to the patient to take to his/her partner without the health care provider first examining the partner.

Epidemiology

STD incidence rates remain high in most of the world, despite diagnostic and therapeutic advances that can rapidly render patients with many STDs noninfectious and cure most. In many cultures, changing sexual morals and oral contraceptive use have eliminated traditional sexual restraints, especially for women, and both physicians and patients have difficulty dealing openly and candidly with sexual issues. Additionally, development and spread of drug-resistant bacteria (e.g., penicillin-resistant gonococci) makes some STDs harder to cure. The effect of travel is most dramatically illustrated by the rapid spread of the AIDS virus (HIV-1) from Africa to Europe and the Americas in the late 1970s.

In 1996, the World Health Organization estimated that more than 1 million people were being infected daily. About 60% of these infections occur in young people <25 years of age, and of these 30% are <20 years. Between the ages of 14 and 19, STDs occur more frequently in girls than boys by a ratio of nearly 2:1; this equalizes by age 20. An estimated 340 million new cases of syphilis, gonorrhea, chlamydia and trichomoniasis occurred throughout the world in 1999.

Commonly reported prevalences of STIs among sexually active adolescent girls both with and without lower genital tract symptoms include chlamydia (10–25%), gonorrhea (3–18%), syphilis (0–3%), Trichomonas vaginalis (8–16%), and herpes simplex virus (2–12%). Among adolescent boys with no symptoms of urethritis, isolation rates include chlamydia (9–11%) and gonorrhea (2–3%). At least one in four U.S. teenage girls has a sexually transmitted disease, a CDC study found. Among girls who admitted ever having sex, the rate was 40%.

AIDS is the single largest cause of mortality in present-day Sub-Saharan Africa. The majority of HIV infections are acquired through unprotected sexual relations between partners, one of whom has HIV. Approximately 1.1 million persons are living with HIV/AIDS in the United States, and AIDS remains the leading cause of death among African American women between ages 25 and 34. Hepatitis B is also classed as a sexually transmitted disease because it can be passed on sexually. The disease is found globally, with the highest rates in Asia and Africa and lower rates in the Americas and Europe. Worldwide, an estimated two billion people have been infected with the hepatitis B virus.

History

The first well-recorded European outbreak of what is now known as syphilis occurred in 1494 when it broke out among French troops besieging Naples. From this centre, the disease swept across Europe, killing more than five million people. As Jared Diamond describes it, "[W]hen syphilis was first definitely recorded in Europe in 1495, its pustules often covered the body from the head to the knees, caused flesh to fall from people's faces, and led to death within a few months," rendering it far more fatal than it is today. Diamond concludes,"[B]y 1546, the disease had evolved into the disease with the symptoms so well known to us today."

Prior to the invention of modern medicines, sexually transmitted diseases were generally incurable, and treatment was limited to treating the symptoms of the disease. The first voluntary hospital for venereal diseases was founded in 1746 at London Lock Hospital. Treatment was not always voluntary: in the second half of the 19th century, the Contagious Diseases Act was used to arrest suspected prostitutes.

The first effective treatment for a sexually transmitted disease was salvarsan, a treatment for syphilis. With the discovery of antibiotics, a large number of  sexually transmitted diseases became easily curable, and this, combined with effective public health campaigns against STDs, led to a public perception during the 1960s and 1970s that they have ceased to be a serious medical threat.

During this period, the importance of contact tracing in treating STIs was recognized. By tracing the sexual partners of infected individuals, testing them for infection, treating the infected and tracing their contacts in turn, STI clinics could be very effective at suppressing infections in the general population.

In the 1980s, first genital herpes and then AIDS emerged into the public consciousness as sexually transmitted diseases that could not be cured by modern medicine. AIDS in particular has a long asymptomatic period—during which time HIV (the human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS) can replicate and the disease can be transmitted to others—followed by a symptomatic period, which leads rapidly to death unless treated. HIV/AIDS entered the United States in about 1969 likely through a single infected immigrant from Haiti. Recognition that AIDS threatened a global pandemic led to public information campaigns and the development of treatments that allow AIDS to be managed by suppressing the replication of HIV for as long as possible. Contact tracing continues to be an important measure, even when diseases are incurable, as it helps to contain infection.

References

Further reading

External links
CDC Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010
 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines - 2006
STD photo library  at Dermnet
UNFPA: Breaking the Cycle of Sexually Transmitted Infections at UNFPA
Sexually Transmitted Infections from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
STDs In Color: Sexually Transmitted Disease Facts and Photos
: Sexually Transmitted Diseases in the U.S.

Human sexuality

ગુપ્તરોગ


Sir Frederick Nathaniel Ballantyne, GCMG (5 July 1936 – 23 January 2020) was the Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines from 2002–2019. A trained cardiologist and former chief medical officer of the country, he was appointed governor-general on 22 June 2002. He succeeded Dame Monica Dacon, who had been acting in the position after the death of Charles Antrobus.

Early life and medical career
Ballantyne was born on 5 July 1936, an only child. His father owned a small hotel, and he has described himself as "from a business family". Ballantyne was the first member of his family to attend high school. On the advice of an acquaintance who had studied medicine in the United States, he chose to attend university in that country (rather than in Britain or Canada, as was usual for Vincentians at the time). He completed an initial degree in chemistry at Howard University (in Washington, D.C.), and then went on to the SUNY Upstate Medical University (in Syracuse, New York) to study medicine. The "sole black individual" enrolled in the medical school, Ballantyne was elected to student government in every year of his degree, and in his final year was elected student body president. He interned in at the Montreal General Hospital after graduation, and then completed his residency in internal medicine in Rochester, New York, followed by a fellowship in cardiology.

Upon returning to Saint Vincent in 1971, Ballantyne was "the most highly trained physician on the island". He was consequently appointed chief of medicine at the newly constructed Kingstown General Hospital (now called the Milton Cato Memorial Hospital). Ballantyne oversaw upgrades in the facilities of both the hospital and regional health clinics, with one of his first priorities being to expand the hospital's immunisation program. He also instituted the hospital's Visiting Specialist Program, which recruited overseas medical specialists to volunteer in Saint Vincent's hospitals in exchange for free accommodation in the country's resorts. In 1985, Ballantyne was appointed Saint Vincent's chief medical officer, serving in the position until 1992. He remained involved in medicine after his official retirement from practising, in a consulting role.

Outside of his career in the medical field, Ballantyne had business interests in several other areas. Prior to being appointed governor-general, he served as president of the Millennium Bank, an offshore bank registered in Saint Vincent, and also as president of Dimethaid International Inc., a pharmaceutical company registered in Barbados. He was also the founder of International Business Services Limited (IBS), a financial services provider now run by his son, Marcus, and a co-owner of the Young Island Resort, a tourist resort on a small island off Saint Vincent's southern coast.

Governor-General
Ballantyne was sworn in as Governor-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on 22 June 2002, having been nominated to the position by the country's prime minister, Ralph Gonsalves. He replaced Dame Monica Dacon, who had been acting governor-general since the death of Sir Charles Antrobus in 3 June 2002. Later in the year 2002, in connection with his new appointment, he was created a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George by Queen Elizabeth II. In June 2009, Ballantyne was also awarded a Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree by the University of the West Indies (UWI), as one of sixteen regional figures being recognised for their contributions with honorary degrees.

References

External links
 The Governor General: Official Website of the Government of St. Vincent & the Grenadines

1936 births
2020 deaths
Governors-General of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines expatriates in the United States
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines cardiologists
Howard University alumni
State University of New York Upstate Medical University alumni
People from Saint Andrew Parish, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines healthcare managers
Afro-Vincentians

Frederick Ballantyne


The Temple of Minerva () is an ancient Roman building in Assisi, Umbria, central Italy. It currently houses a church, , built in 1539 and renovated in Baroque style in the 17th century.

The temple was built in the 1st century BC by will of Gnaeus Caesius and Titus Caesius Priscus, who were two of the city's quattuorviri and also financed the construction. The attribution to the goddess Minerva derives from the finding of  a female statue, although a dedication stone to Hercules has been found, and the temple was likely dedicated to this male demi-god. In the Middle Ages the temple housed a tribunal with an annexed jail, as testified by one of Giotto's frescoes in the St. Francis Basilica, which portrays the church windows with bars.

Of the ancient temple, the façade has been preserved, with six Corinthian columns supporting the architrave and a small pediment. The columns were originally covered by a very strong plaster, which was perhaps colored. The cella was completely demolished during the church's construction, in the 16th century, while a small section of the temple was found in the 20th century near the altar.

The temple was visited and described by the German poet Goethe during his travels in Italy, as the first ancient structure in good condition seen during his life (1786).

See also
 List of Ancient Roman temples

References

External links
Page at Travelitalia website

Maria Minerva
1st-century BC religious buildings and structures
Temples in Italy
Temples of Minerva

Temple of Minerva, Assisi


Areopagitica is a book written by English poet John Milton in 1644.  He wrote it to protest against censorship. Its full title is Areopagitica: A speech of Mr. John Milton for the liberty of unlicensed printing to the Parliament of England. Today, his book is called a tract. In the tract, Milton tries to defend the freedom of expression. Today, many people see it as one of the best defenses of the freedom of press ever written.

The tract is named after a speech by Isocrates, a Greek orator of the 5th century. The Areopagus is a hill in Athens, where many councils and tribunals were held. Isocrates wanted to restore one of these tribunals when he wrote the speech. In the  speech,Milton argued that the Licensing Order of 1643 should be abolished; censorship had not been part of Greek or Roman societies. Milton uses many passages from the Bible to strengthen his argument. Milton had been censored himself when he tried to publish tracts which were in favor of allowing people to get divorced.

In Areopagitica, Milton argues that the status that was there before had worked best: By this law, all publications needed an authors name or that of a publisher. According to Milton, it is easy to find the authors or the publishers with this system. So if anything libelous is published, the books can still be destroyed after the fact.

17th-century books
Non-fiction books
1640s works

Areopagitica


Superstars and Cannonballs is a DVD/VHS released in 2001 after the Superstars & Cannonballs tour in Brisbane by Savage Garden. It predominantly consisted of tour footage, however also contained a short documentary, "Parallel Lives".
The DVD is approximately 110 minutes in duration and, as well as the tour and short documentary, includes 3 bonus music videos ("I Knew I Loved You", "Crash and Burn" and "Affirmation"). The footage of 11 cameras, eventually lent clips to the music video of the single "Affirmation". The name Superstars and Cannonballs is taken from a part of "The Animal Song" lyrics.

Tagline
The Complete Concert. The Unedited Documentary. The World Premiere of the "Music Video" Event of the Year.

Listing
 "The Best Thing"
 "Break Me Shake Me"
 "To the Moon and Back"
 "The Lover After Me"
 "I Don't Know You Anymore"
 "Santa Monica"
 "Two Beds and a Coffee Machine"
 "You Can Still Be Free"
 "The Animal Song"
 "Hold Me"
 "Gunning Down Romance"
 "Crash and Burn"
 "Truly Madly Deeply"
 "Chained to You"
 "I Want You"
 "I Knew I Loved You"
 "Affirmation"

Credits
 Executive producer: David Wilson (on behalf of Worldstar)
 Director: Mark Adamson
 Producer: Cathie Scott
 Production manager: Sarah Harold
 Audio director: John Simpson
 Director's assistant: Lynda Threlfall
 Documentary produced by: Ephiphany Productions
 Producer/Director: Pip Mattiske
 Production manager: Claire Davidson
 Savage Garden recorded for: JWM Productions (John Woodruff Management)

Savage Garden video albums
2001 video albums

Superstars and Cannonballs


The Church of God, International (CGI) is a nontrinitarian Christian denomination based in the United States, an offshoot of the Worldwide Church of God (WCG) founded by Herbert W. Armstrong. It is one of many Sabbatarian Churches of God to separate from WCG.

Foundation
CGI was founded in 1978 by four former members of the Worldwide Church of God, including evangelist Garner Ted Armstrong (1930-2003) after his father, Herbert W. Armstrong, excommunicated him from the WCG and fired him from all roles in the church over disagreements about operations and certain doctrinal positions. CGI established its headquarters in Tyler, Texas, and also founded the Garner Ted Armstrong Evangelistic Association.

The church logo features a breastplate, helmet, crossed swords, and a banner inscribed with Ephesians 6:11-17. It is based on a wall hanging Garner Ted assembled from a suit of armor presented to him as a gift from his father.

Governance

CGI was led by Armstrong until 1998. Armstrong and the ministerial leadership aimed to develop a "servant-leadership type of ministry" in contrast to the "one man, top down leadership", of the WCG—this was an important point of departure for the founders after what was perceived to be years of ministerial abuse of power within the WCG, even though Ted himself continued to be very authoritarian.

In 1995, amid accusations of sexual assault involving an incident at a massage parlor, Armstrong  was asked to resign. No charges were ever filed.  Armstrong left CGI and founded the Intercontinental Church of God. Citing health reasons, prominent church leader Ronald L. Dart had previously left CGI to found his own religious service organization, Christian Educational Ministries, in 1995. After significant ministerial reorganization, the church made an effort to put the incident behind them and focus on continuing "the work". Currently, there is a sharing of administration and leadership among church pastors through a board of directors. The chairman's position is subject to re-election every three years. Charles Groce served as chief executive officer for the church until June 27, 2015, when he announced his retirement. Vance Stinson was elected to replace him to serve in this role.

The Ministerial Council has also developed a mentoring program called MAP (Ministerial Apprentice Program) for training new church leaders, replacing Imperial Academy, which had been established in the fall of 1994.

CGI has actively sought to maintain a positive relationship with many of the offshoots of the Worldwide Church of God whenever possible, and is in "Ministry Partnership" with a number of them, including Life Resource Ministries, The Living God Ministries, Church of God Big Sandy, United Christian Ministries, Common Ground Christian Ministries, Church of God Cincinnati, Church of God in Miami, Dynamic Christian Ministries, and Haggai 1:14 Ministries.

Doctrine
The CGI follows and believes in many of the basic doctrinal principles shared by other Christian churches such as the inspiration of the scriptures, Christ's bodily resurrection, and the three ordinances of baptism. The church agrees with Protestant theology regarding the tenets of sola scriptura, the priesthood of all believers, and that Justification is a gift given freely by God. Like many Christian churches, it also expresses a belief in the resurrection of the dead, millennialism, baptism by immersion, Gap creationism, and continuationism. However, some of its teachings differ significantly from Catholic and Protestant doctrine in a number of key areas:

Restorationism
Like many churches in the Restorationist movement, CGI believes that a number of today's traditional Christian teachings stem from doctrinal corruption under the influence of Greco-Roman philosophy, Gnosticism, anti-Semitism and mistranslation which occurred early in the history of the church, and believes that the major Christian churches, under the weight of tradition, now teach various pagan ideas and practices that have been synchronized or "syncretised" with Christianity. CGI equates paganism with demonolatry, and teaches that God forbids syncretism with the occult. Much of CGI doctrine that is distinct from mainstream Christianity is the outgrowth of an effort to separate these influences and traditions from what is believed to be the beliefs and practices of the original Apostolic church. For example, CGI teaches that the ancient pagan origins of Christmas, Halloween, and Easter render them inappropriate for Christians because they are offensive to God. This also applies to Valentine's Day and New Year's Day celebrations.

Nontrinitarianism
Doctrinally, CGI is binitarian, believing that the Holy Spirit is the spirit/power of God and of Jesus Christ, rather than a separate entity within the Godhead. God "the Father" and Jesus Christ are viewed as distinct "God beings" in the "God family". This is held to be in agreement with the beliefs of the original Apostolic church.

Purpose of man
CGI teaches that Christians are begotten into the family of God, and at their resurrection will experience theosis, being "changed into spirit as a son of God", in the process of God reproducing Himself after His own likeness.

Mortality of the soul
CGI rejects the doctrine of the immortality of the soul as is taught by Catholicism and most major Protestant denominations, in that the soul is not believed to remain conscious after death (until resurrection). CGI believes that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul resulted from doctrinal corruption early in the history of the church.

Kingdom of God
CGI maintains that the core of Jesus Christ's message concerned the coming of a literal earthly kingdom, and that the saved will not go on to heaven, but will live and rule with Jesus on earth during the Millennium after his Second Coming, and will eventually share ruler-ship over the entire universe as part of the "God Family".

Grace, Law and Justification
CGI believes Justification is a free gift given by God after repentance and baptism, but holds that obedience to God's law is necessary even after Justification, because Jesus Christ is said to have come to relieve mankind from sin and the penalty of the law, not from the law itself. It is taught basic Old Testament law carries over into the New Covenant and applies to Christians today, because the Tanakh describes them as "God's laws", not "Jewish laws", and because they are upheld by New Testament scripture and practice. This includes the observance of the seventh-day Sabbath (from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset), abstaining from unclean meats, and observing Holy Day festivals, including removing leavening and eating unleavened bread during the Days of Unleavened Bread, and living in "temporary dwellings" during the Feast of Tabernacles. and condemnation of all sexual sins. This does not include observance of ancient Israelite civil laws, the necessity for physical circumcision, and parts of the law that have to do with approach to God, i.e., sacrificial, temple, and priesthood laws which are believed to have been brought to fulfillment in Jesus Christ. The church observes these laws mostly apart from Jewish tradition (except Jewish calendar calculations, which it views as authoritative) and maintains that this interpretation of law to be historically in agreement with the practice and beliefs of the early Apostolic church. The church rejects replacement theology (supersessionism), i.e., the doctrine that God has rejected the Jewish people and replaced them with the New Testament church. CGI believes that in matters of law and justification, mainstream Christian doctrine misinterprets Pauline theology and is essentially antinomian, and is the result of doctrinal corruption and anti-Semitism which occurred in the early history of the church following the apostolic era.

Christ's sacrifice is viewed as being able to cover any inevitable failed attempts at obedience, except the Unpardonable Sin, i.e., willful impenitence. God's law is not viewed as being of itself punitive, but as having educative value, and it is believed that Jesus magnified the law and its value by applying its spiritual intent, and that Jesus showed how the commandments are far more binding in their spiritual application than in their mere physical application. Obedience to God's law is also seen as being able to build moral character and to significantly improve one's quality of life and to improve society at large, because it is seen as an expression of the mind and character of God. Despite criticism of legalism, CGI staunchly maintains that obedience is not viewed as a "work" to "earn" salvation, but that salvation is a freely given gift from God.

Pre-Siniatic Decalogue
CGI teaches that the Ten Commandments were in force long before Moses, and predated the Flood by centuries, and that this is proven circumstantially in the Old Testament, (though not in precisely the same form as those given at Sinai) thus nullifying arguments that God intended them for Israel only.

Doctrine of Hell
CGI believes that the idea of an ever-burning Hell stems from the influence of paganism and Hellenistic philosophy on rabbinic thought and on Christian doctrine early in the history of the church, and that the scriptures actually teach that the final destination of the unrepentant wicked is literal death, i.e. annihilation or permanent destruction, as opposed to an "eternal life of torture in hell."

Multiple resurrections
CGI holds that people who do not know or understand the truth of the Bible during their lifetime will be given time to learn these teachings after the "Second Resurrection" to a new physical life. After living again in the Millennial world under God's kingdom, those who continue to reject God's Holy Spirit and way of life will be annihilated after the "Third Resurrection", along with unrepentant former believers who had turned away from God. They are destroyed in the Lake of fire.

Tithing
Like many Christian churches, CGI supports the doctrine of Biblical tithing as a personal act of worship; 10 percent of a member's income is given to the church to fund the organization's gospel mission. It is also taught that each member should personally set aside an additional 10 percent of their income, a Second tithe, for personal observance of annual religious festivals, particularly the Feast of Tabernacles.

British Israelism
CGI asserts a belief in British Israelism. This belief is not used to assert racial or ethnic superiority, but solely to interpret End Time prophecies which are believed to be directed at the United States and Europe.

Doctrinal departures from WCG
CGI departs from the original WCG in matters of church government and does not assign its own administration as the "one true church". The WWCG gradually came to teach that the Kingdom of God included the ruler-ship of the ministry in the lives of the congregation. CGI believes that the Kingdom of God is the ruler-ship of Jesus Christ in the individual lives of its members, and that it will include the future ruler-ship of Christ on Earth during the Millennial period. The ministry is considered the servants of the people towards that goal.

The WCG taught that the God of the Old Testament was, in fact, Jesus Christ, and that Christ came to reveal the Father who was previously unknown. The CGI has more recently distanced itself from this doctrine, asserting that both Father and Son are referenced in the Old and New Testament.

Like other Adventist churches, CGI believes that the Second Coming of Christ is imminent and it interprets contemporary events in the light of bible prophecy, but it is also deliberately less dogmatic about prophetic speculative ideas, rejecting the practice of setting dates for the return of Christ, rejecting the WCG's interpretation of the doctrine of Church Eras as proposed by Dr. Herman Hoeh, and rejecting its interpretation of the doctrine of the Place of Safety during the Great Tribulation.

Message and media
With congregations in the United States, Canada, Jamaica, Ireland, Australia and the Philippines, CGI produces a television program titled Armor of God and Prevail Magazine, which cover topics related to Christian living. The church publishes a quarterly newspaper, The International News containing doctrinal articles, world events as they relate to bible prophecy, and church news, and offers children's education through Buckaroo Bob's Neighborhood programming. Twentieth Century Watch, a full-color glossy magazine, was discontinued in 1998.

In 2013, the church decided to push for a more aggressive presence on the internet, and built a new studio to broadcast in high-definition television. The church also hosts a multimedia website and has a presence on YouTube along with a dedicated Roku channel.

The church also supports a program for young adults ages 18–30 called Infuse, which includes a quarterly magazine, a website, and service activities for local churches and communities. The program is run by volunteers and includes older adults who support the program, and is also open to young people in other churches.

See also
 Armstrongism
 Christian observances of Jewish holidays
 Christian views on the Old Covenant

References

Bibliography

External links
Official website: Church of God, International
Prevail Magazine
infuse Magazine

Ministry Partners
Life Resource Ministries
The Living God Ministries
Church of God, Big Sandy
Common Ground Christian Ministries
Church of God, Cincinnati
Church of God in Miami
Dynamic Christian Ministries
Haggai 1:14 Ministries

Separations
Intercontinental Church of God
Born To Win (Christian Educational Ministries)
Churches of God Outreach Ministries

Seventh-day denominations
Nontrinitarian denominations
Church of God denominations
Church of God (Armstrong)
Christian organizations established in 1978
Christian denominations established in the 20th century

Church of God International (United States)