University of Primorska (Slovenian Univerza na Primorskem, Italian Università del Litorale) is a public university in Slovenia. It is located in Koper, Izola, and Portorož and is named for the Slovenian Littoral region, where it is located.

History
The very first efforts to found a Slovenian university in the Littoral were made almost one hundred years ago, whereas the first concrete steps towards the establishment of a new Slovene university were taken after the country had become independent. Thus 1992 saw the preparation of the expert study of the development of higher education in the Littoral, and a year later a letter of intent was signed envisioning the establishment of the University Study Centre. In 1995, the Slovene Science and Research Centre was founded in order to garner the intellectual potential of the future university, while 1996 witnessed the formation of the University Study Centre of Koper, which facilitated the development of higher education in the region and prepared the legal basis for founding the university. Two years later, the letter of intent was also signed by representatives of the regional economic sector and by regional chambers of commerce.

Finally, on 29 January 2003, the Slovene Parliament passed the University of Primorska Charter. Two months later, on 17 March 2003, the University of Primorska was entered into the register of legal entities kept by the District Court of Koper. The newly established university comprised three faculties, two colleges, and two research institutes.

Rectors

 Lucija Čok (2003–2007)
 Rado Bohinc (2007–2011)
 Dragan Marušič (2011–2019)
 Klavdija Kutnar (2019–present)

Organization
The university is divided into six faculties and one college:
Faculty of Education, Koper
Faculty of Humanities, Koper
Faculty of Management, Koper
Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information technologies - Koper
Faculty of Tourism Studies, Portorož
Faculty of Health Care, Izola
College of Design, Ljubljana

One institute is also part of the University of Primorska: the Andrej Marušič Institute.

Other universities in Slovenia
 University of Ljubljana
 University of Maribor
 University of Nova Gorica

References

External links
 University of Primorska Website

Educational institutions established in 2003
Universities in Slovenia
Koper
2003 establishments in Slovenia

University of Primorska


Roger de Balnebrich [de Balnebrech, de Balnebriech, de Ballinbreth] was a 14th-century Scottish churchman. Roger received a university education, being styled Magister ("Master") by August 1313, though it is not known where he took his degree; the degree, however, was almost certainly done in canon law. His name derives either from Ballinbreich in Fife or Balnabriech, in Brechin, Angus.

Biography

Canon lawyer
Roger was an active canon lawyer in the diocese of St Andrews. He was holding the parish church at Blairgowrie in the diocese of St Andrews, a church in the gift of the Bishop of St Andrews, on 13 November 1313. It was on that date that he was granted a pension by Arbroath Abbey for the services he had provided them.

He can be found on 3 August 1313, acting as a proctor for Henry Man, Abbot of Scone, before a hearing of two commissaries at St Andrews. He is found among a number of appointed arbiters settlings a dispute between Dunfermline Abbey and two residents of the Fithkil barony in Fife, though when that hearing met on 13 March 1320, Roger was not recorded as being present.

Elect of Dunblane
Sometime between 8 February 1319, the date at which Bishop Nicholas de Balmyle is last attested, and 5 March 1322, Roger was one of two different candidates elected by that cathedral chapter to succeed Nicholas as Bishop of Dunblane.

Litigation took place at the papal curia, in which Roger's rival Maurice, Abbot of Inchaffray, emerged victorious; Roger did not receive provision or consecration, and had resigned his claims before 5 March, when Maurice received papal provision. The sources say that by this point in time Roger was rector of Forteviot.

Roger, Bishop of Ross
Roger may have disappeared from the records after that, though this is now doubtful. Professor Donald Watt has argued that Roger de Balnebrich is the same as Roger, Bishop of Ross from 1325 until 1350, and who Watt suggests had remained at the papal curia for three years until provided to Ross.

This Roger was said to have been a canon of Abernethy,  which did lie in the diocese of Dunblane. Unfortunately, as Professor Watt acknowledged, because the scarce evidence has not as yet given Roger, as Bishop of Ross, a surname, and because it has not yielded any direct statement on the matter, it cannot be proven that Roger de Balnebrich and Roger (Bishop of Ross) were one and the same person.

Notes

References
 Cockburn, James Hutchison, The Medieval Bishops of Dunblane and Their Church, (Edinburgh, 1959)
 Dowden, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed. J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)
 Watt, D. E. R., A Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Graduates to A. D. 1410, (Oxford, 1977)
 Watt, D. E. R., Fasti Ecclesiae Scotinanae Medii Aevi ad annum 1638, 2nd Draft, (St Andrews, 1969)

13th-century births
14th-century deaths
Bishops of Dunblane

Roger de Balnebrich


The All-Russia industrial and art exhibition 1896 in Nizhny Novgorod was held from May 28 (June 9 N.S.) till October 1 (13 N.S.), 1896. The 1896 exhibition was the largest pre-revolution exhibition in the Russian Empire and was organized with money allotted by Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia. The All-Russia industrial conference was held together with the exhibition.

Exhibits
The exhibition demonstrated the best achievements of the industrial development in Russia that began in the latter part of the 19th century:
 an early radio receiver (thunderstorm register) designed by Alexander Stepanovich Popov;
 the first Russian automobile designed by Evgeniy Yakovlev and Pyotr Freze;
 the world's first hyperboloid steel tower-shell (Shukhov Tower) and the world's first steel lattice hanging and arch-like overhead covers-shells (8 exhibition pavilions with the total area of more than 25 thousand square meters, including the unique Shukhov Rotunda of Vladimir Shukhov (Russian Empire patents № 1894, 1895, 1896 dated March 12, 1899);
 many other technical inventions, technologies and artistic achievements.

Savva Mamontov, who at the time was interested in building a railway between Vologda and Arkhangelsk, decided to open a Far North pavilion. He asked Konstantin Korovin, one of the most notable Russian artists at the time, to design the pavilion. In addition, he sponsored a number of trips for Korovin and other Russian artists, so that they could familiarize themselves with the topic. Korovin designed the pavilion and in addition painted ten big canvasses for the pavilion as well, depicting various aspects of Northern and Arctic lifestyle. After the closure of the Exhibition, the canvasses were eventually placed in the Yaroslavsky Rail Terminal in Moscow. In the 1960s, they were restored and transferred to the Tretyakov Gallery.

The suburb of Kanavino, on the left bank of Oka River, was chosen as the place for the exhibition. It occupied the territory of around 84 hectares within a few hundreds meters southwest of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. Nearly 70 buildings and constructions were built in Nizhny Novgorod and at the exhibition with the money allotted by the Nicholas II Emperor of Russia. Also, more than 120 pavilions of private companies were built on the territory of the exhibition.

Photos

See also
 World's fair

References

Notes

Sources
 Photos of Shukhov's Towers

 "The Nijni-Novgorod exhibition: Water tower, room under construction, springing of 91 feet span", "The Engineer", № 19.3.1897, P.292-294, London, 1897.
 William Craft Brumfield, "The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture", University of California Press, 1991, .
 Rainer Graefe, Jos Tomlow, "Vladimir G. Suchov 1853-1939. Die Kunst der sparsamen Konstruktion.", 192 S., Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 1990, .

External links

Exhibitions in Russia
History of radio
Tensile architecture
Lattice shell structures by Vladimir Shukhov
Roof structures by Vladimir Shukhov
History of Nizhny Novgorod
1896 in the Russian Empire
19th century in radio
Culture in Nizhny Novgorod

All-Russia Exhibition 1896


Craigdarroch Castle in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, is a historic, Victorian-era Scottish Baronial mansion. It was designated a National Historic Site of Canada due to its landmark status in Victoria.

History
It was constructed in the late 19th century as a family residence for the wealthy coal baron Robert Dunsmuir and his wife Joan. Robert died in April 1889, 17 months before construction on the castle was completed. His sons Alexander and James took over the role of finishing the home after his death. James also commissioned the construction of Victoria's second "castle": Hatley Castle located in Colwood, British Columbia.

Upon the death of Robert Dunsmuir's widow, Joan, the Craigdarroch estate was sold to land speculator Griffith Hughes for $38,000 who subdivided the estate into building lots. To stimulate sales during a slow real estate market, Griffiths announced that the home would be the subject of a raffle, to be won by one of the purchasers of the residential parcels carved from the estate.  The winner, Solomon Cameron, mortgaged the home to finance other speculative ventures which failed, leaving him broke, and in 1919 ownership of the home passed to one of Cameron's creditors, the Bank of Montreal.

The building later served as a military hospital, college, offices, and a conservatory, before it was re-purposed into a historical museum in 1979. The museum is currently owned by the Craigdarroch Castle Historical Museum Society, which is a private non-profit society, and is open to the public. The building is a tourist attraction, and receives 150,000 visitors a year.

The building was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1992.

Since its completion in 1890, the building had six major occupants, including:

 The Dunsmuirs (1890–1908)
 Military Hospital (1919–1921)
 Victoria College (1921–1946)
 Victoria School Board Office (1946–1968)
 Victoria Conservatory of Music (1969–1979)
 Craigdarroch Castle museum (1979–Present)

Architecture
Craigdarroch Castle is believed to have cost as much as $500,000 when it was built, and included granite from British Columbia, tile from San Francisco, and an oak staircase prefabricated in Chicago.  When originally constructed Craigdarroch stood in grounds comprising  of formal gardens in Victoria's Rockland neighbourhood. Craigdarroch Castle has 39 rooms and over .

The four-story Craigdarroch Castle still has lavish furnishings from the 1890s and is known for its stained-glass and intricate woodwork. The Institute for Stained Glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at Craigdarroch Castle.

The initial architect of the castle, Warren Heywood Williams, also died before completion of the home. His work was taken over by his associate, Arthur L. Smith, in 1890.

Artwork

The castle contains many fine examples of paintings, sculpture, and carvings.

See also
 List of historic places in Victoria, British Columbia

References

External links

Historic buildings and structures in British Columbia
History of Victoria, British Columbia
Castles in Canada
National Historic Sites in British Columbia
Scottish baronial architecture
Museums in Victoria, British Columbia
Historic house museums in British Columbia
Houses in British Columbia

Craigdarroch Castle


The Battle of Magdala was the conclusion of the British Expedition to Abyssinia fought in April 1868 between British and Abyssinian forces at Magdala,  from the Red Sea coast. The British were led by Robert Napier, while the Abyssinians were led by Emperor Tewodros II.

In March 1866, a British envoy had been dispatched to secure the release of a group of missionaries who had first been seized when a letter Tewodros II had sent to Queen Victoria requesting munitions and military experts from the British, delivered by an envoy, Captain Cameron, had gone unanswered. They were released; however, Tewodros II changed his mind and sent a force after them and they were returned to the fortress and imprisoned again, along with Captain Cameron.

The British won the battle and, rather than being subjected to capture, Tewodros committed suicide as the fortress was finally seized.

Preparation and formation

Advance elements of the British military units arrived at Annesley Bay on 4 December 1867; but did not disembark until 7 December due to chaotic conditions on shore. Thousands of mules had been sent from Egypt and other countries before adequate arrangements had been made to feed and water them and the freshly arrived troops had to first obtain fresh feed and water for them.  A base camp was set up at Zula.

The British were dressed in new khaki drill jackets with a white cloth-covered cork helmet called a 'Topi'. They had been issued the new breech-loading Snider-Enfield rifles the previous year, which had increased the soldiers' firepower from three rounds per minute to ten rounds per minute.

Lord Napier arrived in early January 1868 and the expedition started from the advance camp at Senafe at the beginning of February. It took two months to reach their objective. The advancing British forces' route took them through rough terrain, traveling by way of Kumayli, Senafe, Adigrat, Antalo, passing west of Lake Ashangi, through the Wajirat Mountains and across the Wadla plateau, before finally arriving via the road Emperor Tewodros built through the Zhitta Ravine to move his heavy artillery to Magdala.

Composed of some 12,000 British and Indian troops, beside Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers, the field force comprised:

British: 3rd (The Prince of Wales's) Dragoon Guards, the 4th (King's Own) Regiment of Foot, 33rd Regiment of Foot (1st West Riding Regiment).  Six companies of infantry from the 45th Nottinghamshire Regiment (Sherwood Foresters) and a Royal Navy rocket battery.  The Armstrong Artillery Battery, complete with elephants carrying their guns, joined the expedition on the plain at Talanta on 5 April, just  from Magdala during a delay of four days waiting for supplies to arrive. Towards the end of the campaign the 26th (Cameronian) Regiment of Foot also arrived.

Indian: 10th Regt of Bengal Cavalry (Lancers), 12th Regt of Bengal Cavalry, 3rd Regt of Bombay Lt Cavalry, 21st Punjab Regt Bengal Native Infantry, 23rd Punjab Regt Bengal Native Infantry (Pioneers), 2nd Bombay Native Infantry (Grenadier), 3rd Bombay Native Infantry, 10th Bombay Native Infantry, 21st Bombay Native Infantry (Marine), 25th Bombay Native Light Infantry, 27th Bombay Native Infantry (1st Belooch), No 1 Company of Bombay Native Artillery,  Corps of Madras Sappers and Miners, Corps of Bombay Sappers and Miners.

While it is difficult to obtain an accurate order of battle of the Abyssinian forces, from British reports it appears to have consisted of a small amount of artillery and several thousands of light infantry lacking firearms.

The battle

Before the force could actually attack Magdala, they had to get past the plateau at Arogye, which lay across the only route to Magdala. It certainly looked formidable to attack. The British could see the way barred by many thousands of armed Abyssinians camped around the hillsides with up to 30 artillery pieces.

The British did not expect that the Abyssinian warriors would leave their defences to attack them and paid little regard to their defensive positions as they formed up to deploy. But the Emperor did order an attack, with many thousands of soldiers armed with little more than spears. The 4th Regiment of Foot quickly redeployed to meet the charging mass of warriors and poured a devastating fire into their ranks. When two Indian infantry regiments contributed their firepower, the onslaught became even more devastating. Despite this, the Abyssinian soldiers continued their attack, losing over 500 with more wounded during the ninety minutes of fighting, most of them at a point little over 30 yards from the British lines. During the chaotic battle, an advance guard unit of the 33rd Regiment overpowered some of the Abyssinian artillerymen and captured their artillery pieces. The surviving Abyssinian soldiers then retreated back onto Magdala.

The Anglo-Indian advance party involved in this first clash numbered between 600 and 700 men. One of the missionaries who observed the fighting noted that the breech-loading Snider rifles, firing six volleys a minute, were decisive.

In his despatch to London, Lord Napier reported:  "Yesterday morning (we) descended three thousand nine hundred feet to Bashilo River and approached Magdala with First Brigade to reconnoitre it.  Theodore opened fire with seven guns from outwork, one thousand feet above us, and three thousand five hundred men of the garrison made a gallant sortie which was repulsed with very heavy loss and the enemy driven into Magdala. British Loss, twenty wounded."

Two of the British soldiers wounded in the attack would later die from their injuries.

The following day the British force moved on to Magdala. Writing later, Clements Markham recalled "a curious phenomenon" that occurred on the day of the final assault: "Early in the forenoon a dark-brown circle appeared round the sun, like a blister, about 15° in radius; light clouds passed and repassed over it, but it did not disappear until the usual rain-storm came up from the eastward late in the afternoon. Walda Gabir, the king's valet, informed me that Theodore saw it when he came out of his tent that morning, and that he remarked that it was an omen of bloodshed."

Tewodros II sent two of the hostages on parole to offer terms. Napier insisted on the release of all the hostages and an unconditional surrender. Tewodros refused to cede to the unconditional surrender, but did release the European hostages.  The British continued the advance and assaulted the fortress. (The native hostages were later found to have had their hands and feet cut off before being sent over the edge of the precipice surrounding the plateau.)

The bombardment began with mortars, rockets and artillery. Infantry units then opened fire, covering the Royal Engineers sent to blow up the gates of the fortress. The path lay up a steep boulder-strewn track, on one side of which there was a sheer drop and on the other a perpendicular cliff face, leading to the main gateway, known as the Koket-Bir, which included thick timber doors set into a  stone archway. Each side of the gate was protected by a thorn-and-stake hedge. After this gate was a further uphill path to a second fortified gateway, which led onto the final plateau or amba.

On reaching the gate there was a pause in the advance, as it was discovered the engineer unit had forgotten their powder kegs and scaling ladders and were ordered to return for them. General Staveley was not happy at any further delay and ordered the 33rd Regiment to continue the attack. Several officers and the men of the 33rd, along with an officer from the Royal Engineers, parted from the main force and, after climbing the cliff face, found their way blocked by a thorny hedge over a wall. Private James Bergin, a very tall man, used his bayonet to cut a hole in the hedge and Drummer Michael Magner climbed onto his shoulders and through the gap in the hedge and dragged Private Bergin up behind him as Ensign Conner and Corporal Murphy helped shove from below. Bergin kept up a rapid rate of fire on the Koket-Bir as Magner dragged more men through the gap in the hedge.

As more men poured through and opened fire, advancing with their bayonets fixed, the defenders withdrew through the second gate. The party rushed the Koket-bir before it was fully closed and then took the second gate, breaking through to the amba. Ensign Wynter scrambled up onto the top of the second gate and fixed the 33rd Regimental Colours to show the plateau had been taken.  Private Bergin and Drummer Magner were later awarded the Victoria Cross for their part in the action.

Tewodros II was found dead inside the second gate, having shot himself with a pistol that had been a gift from Queen Victoria. When his death was announced, all resistance ceased. His body was cremated and buried inside the church by the priests. The church was guarded by soldiers from the 33rd Regiment although, according to Henry M. Stanley, looted of "an infinite variety of gold, and silver and brass crosses" along with filigree works and rare tabots.

Succession and power struggle

Magdala was formerly in the territory of the Muslim Gallas (Oromo) tribes, who had long ago taken it from the Amhara people; however Tewodros had won it back from them some years before. Two rival Galla queens, Werkait and Mostiat, who had both allied themselves with the British, claimed control of the conquered fortress as a reward. Napier much preferred to hand Magdala over to the Christian ruler of Lasta, Wagshum Gobeze, because if he were in control of the fortress, Gobeze would be able to halt the Muslim Gallas' advance and assume responsibility for over 30,000 Christian refugees from Tewodros' camp. Yet as Gobeze was unresponsive to these overtures, much preferring to acquire Tewodros' cannons, and the two Galla queens could not reach an arrangement, Napier decided to destroy the fortress.

For the victory in the campaign, Lieutenant-General Napier was ennobled by Queen Victoria, and became Baron Napier of Magdala.
Officers and soldiers who took part in the campaign were awarded the Abyssinian War Medal.

After the withdrawal of the British, fighting for the succession to Tewodros' throne raged in Ethiopia from 1868 to 1872. Eventually, it was Dajamach Kassai of Tigray, not least because of the British weapons that had been handed over to him by the withdrawing Magdala expedition, who was able to expand his power and prevail over his rivals. In July 1871, he won the Battle of Assam, near Adwa, even though he had far fewer troops, defeating his old rival Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta. Kassai had himself crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, taking the name Yohannes IV.

Two subsequent casualties of the affair were the Ethiopian Prince Alemayehu and the British soldier, John Kirkham. Tewodros had asked his wife, the Empress Tiruwork Wube, in the event of his death, to put his son, Alemayehu, under the protection of the British. This decision was apparently made in fear that his life would be taken by any aspirant for the empire of Abyssinia. In accordance with these wishes, Alemayehu was taken to London, where he was presented to Queen Victoria, who took a liking to the young boy. Alemayehu later studied at Cheltenham College, Rugby School and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. However, both the Queen and Napier were later concerned with the subsequent development of the young prince, who became increasingly lonely, unhappy and depressed during this time. In 1879, the prince died of illness at the age of 19. He was buried near St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle with a funeral plaque placed to his memory by Queen Victoria.

The soldier, Kirkham, stayed in Ethiopia and ultimately served as an advisor to Yohannes IV. Kirkham was instrumental in training Ethiopian troops to Western military standards, raising and drilling what became known as the Emperor's Disciplined Force. Kirkham's troops played a major role in the defeat of Yohannes' rival for the Ethiopian crown, Wagshum Gobeze, fighting with conspicuous success in the Battle of Assam on 11 July 1871. Kirkham had sacrificed the right to British protection by taking service with Yohannes, something which came back to haunt him when he was imprisoned in Massawa by Egyptian forces during the Ethiopian–Egyptian War. Despite being discovered by a group of British sailors from HMS Teazer, the sailors were not permitted to aid in his liberation. Kirkham died in captivity in 1876.

Looting
On 19 April, having first blown up the fortress and burned the city, Napier commenced the return march. According to historian Richard Pankhurst, fifteen elephants and almost two hundred mules were required to bear the loot across the Bashilo River to the nearby Dalanta Plain. A grand review was held, and then an auction of the loot; the money raised was distributed amongst the troops and no written list was made of who purchased the various items.

Many looted objects, cultural artefacts and art objects found their way into state and private collections, family possessions, and the hands of ordinary soldiers. Most of the books and manuscripts went to the British Museum or the Bodleian Library in Oxford University, while a few went to the Royal Library in Windsor Castle and to smaller British collections. Other looted objects ended up in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Museum of Mankind and the National Army Museum.

The scientific acquisitions and expropriated articles of the Magdala expedition are credited with stimulating and promoting an interest in the history and culture of Ethiopia within Europe, laying the foundations for modern Ethiopian Studies, and also for the research on the ancient Kingdom of Aksum.

From time to time, some of the looted treasure has been returned to Ethiopia; since 1999, the AFROMET (Association For the Return Of the Madgala Ethiopian Treasures) campaign has been lobbying for the further return of other looted objects.

Returned items include:

 An edition of the Kebra Nagast, along with an icon of a picture of Jesus wearing the crown of thorns, returned to Emperor Yohannes IV in the 1870s
 Lady Valerie Meux's collection of Ethiopian manuscripts were bequeathed in 1902 to Emperor Menelik II in her will; however, shortly following her death in 1910, this was overturned.
 One of the two looted crowns of Tewodros was returned to Empress Zawditu in 1924, but the more valuable gold crown was retained by the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 In the 1960s, Queen Elizabeth II returned Tewodros' royal cap and seal to Emperor Haile Selassie while on a state visit to Ethiopia.
 In 2019, the National Army Museum announced the return of a lock of Tewodros' hair, taken after his death in battle.
 In 2021, numerous items including a Coptic bible, crosses, imperial shield, a set of horn beakers and a crown were bought by a British non-profit organisation to return them to Ethiopia. The items were purchased from a British auction house and a private collector in Belgium and were described as 'the single most significant heritage restitution in Ethiopia's history'.
 In 2023, artefacts including a lock of Prince Alemayehu's hair was handed over to the Ethiopian ambassador to the UK in London. Other artefacts handed over included the Holly Tabot tablet of 'Medhane'Alem, three silver cups with bronze plating, and a shield.
The Ethiopian government has called for the remains of Prince Alemayehu to be returned to Ethiopia from his burial place in Windsor Castle.

See also
 Sebastopol (cannon)

References

Works cited

1868 in Ethiopia
Battles involving Ethiopia
Battles involving the United Kingdom
Conflicts in 1868
19th-century history of the British Army
April 1868 events
British Expedition to Abyssinia

Battle of Magdala


Alan D. MacInnes, formerly a judge of the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba, was appointed to the Manitoba Court of Appeal on June 22, 2007. He replaced Glenn Joyal, who was appointed a judge of the Court of Queen's Bench.

MacInnes received his Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of Manitoba in 1966, in which year he was also admitted to the Manitoba Bar. He practised with the firm of Thompson Dorfman Sweatman in the field of civil litigation and developed an expertise in both criminal and civil litigation. In 1978, he was appointed a part-time judge of the Provincial Court of Manitoba, working in the Criminal Division. In 1992, he was appointed to the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba as a full-time superior court judge.

MacInnes has heard cases and written decisions arising out of civil and criminal law trials. He has also served as the Secretary of the Canadian Superior Courts Judges Association. Before his appointment to the Bench, he was a frequent speaker, lecturer and prominent member of the Law Society of Manitoba, the Federation of Law Societies of Canada and several charitable foundations in Winnipeg.

References

Government of Canada News Release (accessed July 26, 2007).

Judges in Manitoba
University of Manitoba alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

Alan MacInnes


Although Herodotus and Xenophon referred to the entire region as Susiana, the name Khuzestan is what has been referred to the southwesternmost province of Persia (Iran) from antiquity.

Etymology

In some instances, sugar and sugar cane have been given as the meaning of Khuz. The fertile soil of Khuzestan has optimal potential for growing this plant, making excellent harvests for sugar cane possible here.

However, most experts believe the name Khuzestan to be derived from Khūzī, the name of the original Elamite people who inhabited the region, whose distinctive language reportedly survived until Sassanid times.

Every author of the early Islamic period, whether Arabic, Persian, or African, referred to the entire region as Ahvaz.  The word "Khuzestan", however, seems to have been widely used to refer to the region by the 9th century.

Some scholars believe Ahvaz and Khuzestan are related to the name Ooksin, a city established during the era of the Elamite civilization, and are the altered forms of the words Ooks, Ookz, Hookz, Huz and Khuz. Iraj Afshar in his Nigāhī bih Khūzistān : majmū`ah´ī az awzā`-i tārīkhī, jughrāfiyā'ī, ijtimā`i, iqtisādī-i mintaqah states that Uxi was the Greek counterpart of the Elamite word Ūvja.

According to Jules Oppert, the word Ūvja, was pronounced as Xuz or Khuz in the Elamite language. The word Ūvja appears abundantly in many texts and on Achaemenid inscriptions at Naqsh-e Rustam, and on Darius's epigraphs at Persepolis and Susa among others Ūvja, or its Greek counterpart Uxi, were names used to refer to the land or the peoples inhabiting the land of Khuzestan.

Furthermore, Ibn Nadeem, in his book al-Fihrist (), mentions that all the Median and Persian lands of antiquity spoke one language. In his book  he quotes the Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa:

"The Iranian languages are Fahlavi, Dari, Khuzi, Persian, and Suryani."

He then adds that Khuzi is the unofficial language of the royalty and comes from Khuzestan.

In Majma-ul-Tawarikh wa al-Qesas ("The Collection of histories and Tales") written in 1126CE, Khuzestan appears with such names as Hajuestan, Hobujestan, and Ajar, which seem to be derived from Hobujestan and Hujestan in Pahlavi language. .

The Old Persian  word Hūjiya "Elam" appears abundantly in many texts and on Achaemenid inscriptions at Naqsh-e Rustam, and on Darius's epigraphs at Persepolis and Susa among others Hūjiya, or its Greek counterpart Uxi, were names used to refer to the land or the peoples inhabiting Susiana. In Middle Persian, Hūjiya "Elam, Susiana Province" became Huź "Susiana", and the modern form of this word is Xuz. As with istan, the common Persian ending -stan "land, region" was added at some point. The Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon by Roland G. Kent of the American Oriental Society, lists the following chains of derivation:

Ūvja → Awaz → Xuz
Ūvja → Ux → Xuz
Ūvja → Xuz → Hobuj
Ūvja → Hobuj → Xuz → Hoz
Ūvja → Hobuj → Xuz → Hoz → Ahvaz

Whereas in some Iranian dialects such as Luri and Bakhtiari (also based in and around Khuzestan), the sound "h" is sometimes used for pronouncing Kh, the words oo, hoo and Khuz have in the process of time been added to the suffix -estan, and the word oojestan has gradually changed to Hujestan, forming the word Khuzestan. Such conversions derive from the fact that in ancient Persian dialects and in Pahlavi language, the sound "oo" was changeable to "hoo" as in such words like Oormazd → Hoormazd or Ooshmand → Hooshmand. And Hoordad has also been pronounced Khordad and Khoortat.

Arabistan
Most Arabs such as the Bani Kaab tribe, came from the west and southwest of the Tigris and Euphrates outside of Khuzestan, beginning in the 15-16th centuries. During the succeeding centuries many more Arab tribes moved from southern Iraq to Khuzestan; as a result, Khuzestan gained the second name Arabistan, and became extensively Arabized.

In 1441, Muhammad ibn Falah, founder and leader of the Msha'sha'iya, initiated a wave of attacks on Khuzestan, and the cities of Hoveizeh, Khorramshahr, Ahvaz, and Susa started seeing large increases in Arab populations. The term Arabistan thus came into use to refer to the Arab populated areas of this region. At this time, many texts started using both Khuzestan and Arabistan as the region's name. Examples are Majalis Al-Mumineen written by Ghadhi Nurollah Shushtari in 1585, Giti Gosha by Mirza Muhammad Sadigh Musawi, Nasikh Al-Tawarikh by Lisan Malek Sepehr, Muntazam Naseri and Mar'at ul-Baladan by Sani ol molk, Sharh Waghi'a by Ismail Mirza Dorughi, and the Afsharid era work Jahan goshay-i Naderi. The Safavid era account History of Alam Aray Abbasi speaks of dispatching troops to "Khuzestan wa Arabistan" during the 8th year of Shah Abbas' reign.

The name Arabistan, however, became more prevalent over time as the British became gradually involved in the Persian Gulf region. By the time of the Qajar Mozaffareddin Shah, the name Arabistan was meant to completely refer to all of Khuzestan.

With the centralized Pahlavi government of Iran gradually strengthening, Reza Shah restored the name of the province to its original in 1923.

Supporting documentation

The following is a list of sources that specifically use, describe, or discuss the word "Khuzestan". Almost all are written in the Arabic language.

9th century and before
Khwarizmi's Mafatih Al-ulum.
The poetry of Al-Muzraji ibn Kulab, 699. (المضرجي بن کلاب)
Al-masalik wa al-mamalik by Abul Qasim Ubaidullah ibn Abdullah ibn Khurdad-bih a.k.a. Istakhri, 864.
I'laq al-nafisah (اعلاق النفيسه) by Abu Ali Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Rasteh, 902.
Kitab al-kharaj by Qudamah ibn Ja'far, 879.
Mukhtasar Kitab ul Baladan (مختصر کتاب البلدان) by Ahmad ibn al-Faqih Hamadani a.k.a. Ibn al-Faqih.
Ajayib Al-aqalim Al-sab'ah (عجايب الاقاليم السبعه) by Ibn Sarabiyun d.945.
Tarikh al-Yaqubi by the famous historian Al-Yaqubi.
Sahih Bukhari
Al-risalah Al-Wasiyah by Ala ul-dowlah Semnani, a mysticism treatise.

10th century
Ferdowsi's Shahnameh
Sowar al-Aqalim Masalik al-Mamalik (صور الاقاليم - مسالک الممالک) by Ahmad ibn Sahl Al-balkhi 920.
Surat ul-Ardh (صوره العرض) by Ibn Hawqal, 977.
Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Ma'rifat il-Aqalim (احسن التقاسيم في معرفه الاقاليم) by Shamsideen Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abu Bakr Al-Shami, a.k.a. Al-Muqaddasi, 985.
Moruj ul-dhahab wa ma'adin al-jawahir (مروج الذهب و معادن الجواهر) written in 943 by Masudi.
Masudi's Al-tanbih wa al-ashraf (التنبیه و الاشراف).
Hodud ul-'alam min al-mashriq ila al-maqrib (حدود العالم من المشرق الی المغرب) written by an unknown author in 982.
Al-risalah al-thaniyah by Abu Dalf mas'ar ibn muhalhal (ابو دلف مسعر بن مهلهل).
Tabari's Akhbar al-rusul wa al-muluk, 922.
Tajarib al-umam by Ibn Miskawayh.
Tajarib al-umam by Abu Shuja. d1002.

11th century
Nizam al-Mulk's famous Siyasat Nama.
The famous Tarikh al-Yamini by Muhammad ibn Abdul-jabbar Otbi (محمد عبد الجبار عتبی), d1305.
The Canon of Medicine by Avicenna

12th century
Nizami Ganjavi's works.
Majmal al-Tawarikh wa al-Qasas (مجمل التواریخ و القصص) written in 1126 by an unknown author.
al-Ansab (الانساب) by Abu Saeed Abdulkarim al-Tamimi al-Sama'ani, written in 1166.
Rahat al-Sodur wa Ayat al-Sorur (راحه الصدور و آیه السرور) by Najmideen Abubakr al-Rawandi, in 1173.
Ajayib al-Makhluqat (عجایب المخلوقات) by Muhammad ibn Mahmud ibn Ahmad al-Tusi.
Fars Nama by Ibn Balkhi, 1116.
Tadhkirat ul-Awliya by Farid al-Din Attar.

13th century
Wafiyat al-A'yan wa anba' ul-Zaman (وفیات الاعیان و انبا الزمان) by Abul Abbas Shamsuddin Ahmad Khalkan a.k.a. Ibn Khalkan, written in 1282.
Al-mu'arrib (المعرب) by Abu Mansur Marhub ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khizr ibn Hasan ibn Jawalighi Al-Baghdadi, d1247.
Mujem al-baladan (معجم البلدان) written in 1226 by Yaqut al-Hamawi.
al-Mushtarak wadh'āa wa al-Muftaraq Sa'qāa (المشترک وضعا و المفترق صعقا), also by Yaqut al-Hamawi.
Athar al-Bilad wa Akhbar al-Ibad (آثار البلاد و اخبار العباد) by Zakariya ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Qazwini.
Uyun al-Anba' fi Tabaqat al-Atba''' (عیون الانبا فی طبقات الاطبا), by Ibn Abi Asiba'ah, written in 1230.Al-Kamil fi Tarikh by Ibn al-AthirSirat Jalaliddin Minakbarni () by Shahabiddin Muhammad Nasawi.Tarikh-i Jahangushay-i Juvaini () by Ata-Malik Juvayni.Tarikh Shahi Gharakhtaian () by an unknown author.Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Dawal (تاریخ مختصر الدول) by Ibn 'Ibri.

14th centuryLisan ul-Arab (لسان العرب) by Muhammad ibn Mukrim ibn Ali ibn Ahmad Ansari Ifriqi Misri aka Ibn Manzur d1311.Diwan Nizari by the Ismaili poet Nizari Quhistani, d1320.Taqwim al-Buldan (تقویم البلدان) by Imad al-Din Ismail ibn Ali ibn Mahmud, a copy of which was printed by Reinaud in 1848.Nezhat ol-Qolub by Hamdollah Mostowfi.Tarikh Gozideh, also by Hamdollah Mostowfi.Suwar al-Aqalim (صور الاقالیم) by unknown author. Written in 1347, this geographic treatise was dedicated to the Muzaffarid ruler Amir Mubarizeddin Muhammad.Marasid al-Ittila' ila Asma' al-Imkanah wa al-Bagha' (مراصد الاطلاع الی اسما الامکنه و البقاع) by Safideen Abdulmumin al-Baghdadi.Nukhbat ul-Dahr fi Ajayib al-Bir wa al-Bahr (نخبه الدهر و فی عجائب البر و البحر) by Shaikh Shamsuddin Abi Abdullah Muhammad ibn Abitalib al-Ansari, a copy of which was printed in 1928 by A. Meher in Leipzig.Tarikh Fakhri by Safiddin Muhammad ibn Ali a.k.a. Ibn Taghtaghi, written in 1301.Jami' al-Tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.Rawdhah Ulā al-Albab fi Marifah al-Tawarikh wa al-Ansab (روضه اولی الالباب فی معرفه التواریخ و الانساب) by Fakhriddin Abu Suleiman Dawud al-Banakuti, written in 1317.Shiraz nama by Abul Abbas Mo'in-uddin Ahmad Shirazi, written in 1356.Tabaqat al-Shafi'iyah al-Kubra (طبقات الشافعیه الکبری) by Tajiddin Abi Nasr Abdul wahab ibn Ali ibn Abdul Kafi Asbaki a.k.a. Ibn Sabki, d1326.

15th centuryAl-Qamus Almuhit (القاموس المحيط) by Muhammad ibn Yaqub ibn Muhammad Firouzabadi, d1414.Kitab al-ibr by Ibn KhaldunZafar nama by Sharafiddin Ali Yazdi.Anis ul-nas (انیس الناس) by Shuja', written in 1426.Majmal al-Tawarikh (مجمل التواریخ) by Faish-iddin Ahmad, written in 1441.Matla al-Sa'dayn wa Majma' al-Bahrain (مطلع السعدین و مجمع البحرین) by kamaliddin Abdal-razzaq Samaqandi, d1482.

16th centurySharaf nama by Abul Barakat Muniri, 1596.Lubab ul-Albab by Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi.Habib ul-Sayr fi Akhbar Afrad Bashar (حبیب السیر فی اخبار افراد بشر) by Khandmir, written in 1520 by for Khajah Habibullah Savoji.Ahsan al-Tawarikh by Hasan Beyk Romlu, d1577.Tafawut al-Athar fi dhikr al-ikhyar (تفاوه الآثار فی ذکر الاخیار) by Mahmud ibn Hidayat al-Natanzi, written in 1589.Sharaf nama by Amir Ashraf-khan Badilisi, written in 1596.

17th centuryMajma 'ul-Bahrain wa Matla 'ul Nayrein (مجمع البحرين و مطلع النيرين) by Fakhroddin ibn Muhammad ibn Ali Tarihi, d1674.Farhang Burhan Qati' (فرهنگ برهان قاطع) by Muhammad Husayn ibn Khalaf Tabrizi of India, 1672.Jami' Mufidi by Muhammad Mufid Mostowfi Bafghi, written in 1066.Firdaws dar Tarikh Shushtar by Ala'ul Mulk Husayni Shushtari Mar'ashi.Khulasat al-Baladan (خلاصه البلدان) written by Safiddin Muhammad ibn Hashim Husayni Qumi, in 1668.

18th century and afterTaj al-Arus Min Jawahir al-Qamus (تاج العروس من جواهر القاموس) by Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Abdul-razzaq Hussayni Yamani Zubaidy, 1790.Farhang Anandraj (فرهنگ آنندراج) by Muhammad Padhsha ibn Ghulam Muhyiddin, India, 1888.Lughat Nama of Ali Akbar Dehkhoda.Haqayiq al-Akhbar Naseri (حقایق الاخبار ناصری) by Mirza Sayyid Jafar.Dareh Na Darreh (دره نا دره) by Mirza Mehdi Khan Astarabadi, d1759.Da'irat ul-Ma'arif al-Qarn al-Rabi' al-Ashar (دائره المعارف القرن الرابع العشر) by Muhammad farid Mustafa Wajdi, b1878.

See also
Khuzestan
Ahvaz
Iran
Arabs of Khuzestan
Timeline of the name Palestine
History of the name Azerbaijan

References

Further references used
 Najafī, Muhammad Bāqir. Khuzistan dar manabi' Iran-shinasi. Tehran. 1983. Library of The National Museum of Iran. This study documents in 5 chapters and 162 pages, the sources of the names Khuzestan and Ahvaz'' in the most extensive detail.
Encyclopædia Iranica

Khuzestan Province
Khuzestan
Khuzestan

Etymology of Khuzestan


Property law covers two types of property in the common law legal system, real property and personal property. In the civil law system, there is a division between movable and immovable property. Movable property is more or less the same as personal property. It includes money, stocks, notes, copyrights and patents.

History
The idea behind all property law is property. In some jurisdictions, historically all property was owned by the monarch. Land ownership was through land tenure in feudal systems. The first legal right of absolute ownership was under Roman law and was called dominion.

The Napoleonic Code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute. But protection of personal property rights was present in medieval Islamic law.

References

Property law

Property law


The Digital Millennium Copyright Act is a copyright law that protects copyright on the internet in the U.S.A. This Act was passed by the United States Congress in 1998.

It puts into effect two 1996 treaties of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It criminalizes production and distribution of technology, devices, or services intended to circumvent (get around) measures which control access to copyrighted works. These "measures" are commonly known as digital rights management or DRM.

The WIPO Copyright Treaty is the basis of protecting copyright on the web.

References

United States federal legislation
IT law
Copyright

Digital Millennium Copyright Act


Carsten Jensen (born 24 July 1952, Marstal, Denmark) is a Danish author and political columnist. He first earned recognition as a literary critic for the Copenhagen daily, Politiken. His novels, including I Have Seen the World Begin (1996), deal with knowledge of the world. For this novel he won the Danish booksellers award De Gyldne Laurbær (The Golden Laurel) in 1996. The year 2006 saw the publication of his novel Vi, de druknede (We, the Drowned), a chronicle about the birth of modern Denmark, seen through the history of his hometown Marstal.

In 2009, he was awarded the Olof Palme Prize. In 2012 he was awarded the Søren Gyldendal Prize.

In 2015, Den første sten (The First Stone) appeared, a monumental novel about the experiences of a group of Danish soldiers who have volunteered for service in Afghanistan. Through their eyes, we are presented with a wide and disturbing panorama of the war in Afghanistan. As of March 2018, the novel has been translated into German, Der erste Stein, as well as into Norwegian and Swedish. The English translation was released on 1 September 2019.

Bibliography
 Salg, klasse og død (1975)
 Sjælen sidder i øjet (1985)
 På en mørkeræd klode (1986)
 Souvenirs fra 80'erne (1988)
 Kannibalernes nadver (1988)
 Jorden i munden (1991)
 Af en astmatisk kritikers bekendelser (1992)
 Forsømmelsernes bog (1993)
 Jeg har set verden begynde (1996)
 Jeg har hørt et stjerneskud (1997)
 År to & tre (1999)
 Oprøret mod tyngdeloven (2001)
 Jorden rundt (2003)
 Livet i Camp Eden (2004)
 Det glemte folk – en rejse i Burmas grænseland (2004)
 Vi, de druknede (2006)
 Sidste rejse (2007)
 Vi sejlede bare – virkeligheden bag Vi, de druknede (2009)
 Ud (2010)
 Den første sten (2015)
 Krigen der aldrig ender. News stories from Afghanistan. Co-author: Anders Hammer. (Gyldendal 2016)
 Kældermennesker. (Politikens Forlag 2018)

References

External links
 Official website (English version).
 Carsten Jensen talks about his epic book We, the Drowned (Vi,de Druknede) in an audio slideshow on The Interview Online (In English).
 Finnish review about Vi, de druknede in Opettaja magazine 33/2009

1952 births
Living people
People from Ærø Municipality
Danish people of Romani descent
Danish male writers
Olof Palme Prize laureates
Politiken writers
Danish newspaper writers

Carsten Jensen


Murray Chass (born October 12, 1938, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania)  is an American baseball blogger. He previously wrote for The New York Times and before that the Associated Press on baseball and sports legal and labor relations. In 2003 the Baseball Writers' Association of America honored him with the J. G. Taylor Spink Award. He took a buyout from the Times, along with Supreme Court writer Linda Greenhouse and dozens of others, in April 2008.

Chass graduated from the University of Pittsburgh in 1960 with a bachelor's degree in political science where he was a writer and editor for the Pitt News. In 1956 he "audaciously" made an appointment with the editor of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette to pursue his "future of a newspaperman". He joined the Baseball Writers' Association of America in 1962, when he worked for the Associated Press in Pittsburgh. He joined the New York Times in 1969, and started covering the New York Yankees the following year. In 1986, he was made the paper's national baseball writer. Chass was also inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 2013 and the Western Pennsylvania Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in Pittsburgh in 2004.

From 1979–1980 he served as chairman of the New York chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America. Chass has authored numerous books on the business, labor and legal relations of sports, baseball in particular, among his works: The Yankees: The Four Fabulous Eras of Baseball's Most Famous Team, which was published by Random House in 1979; Power Football, published by Dutton in 1973, and Pittsburgh Steelers: The Long Climb, published by Prentice Hall in 1973. He has contributed to Great Pro Football Games and Greatest Basketball Games. He also authored several articles in Dutton's Best Sports Stories series.

During his nearly 40 years writing for The New York Times, Chass covered the entirety of the George Steinbrenner regime, covering the Yankees daily until the end of the 1986 season.

Chass made some other significant contributions to baseball writing. For one, he created the coverage of contracts. Salaries in sports had been largely guess work before he began reporting contracts of baseball's free agents once free agency began in 1976. For another, he pioneered the intensive coverage of baseball labor negotiations, later covering labor matters in the other three major sports as well.

Chass was one of the early authors of a Sunday baseball notebook and was unique in writing the notebook throughout the year, not just during the baseball season. From August 1984, through March 2008 he wrote 1,155 Sunday notebooks, developing more than 4,000 items ranging in length from one paragraph to more than 1,000 words.

In January 2004 he switched from reporting baseball news to writing baseball columns, writing from two to five columns a week.

Chass is a noted baseball traditionalist who laments the shift in baseball news coverage from daily beat-report biographies to more statistics-driven analysis like sabermetrics. In 2007, Chass asserted that, among "certain topics that should be off-limits," are "statistics mongers promoting VORP and other new-age baseball statistics." Chass particularly believes that in "their attempt to introduce these new-age statistics into the game," these "statistics mongers" threaten "to undermine most fans' enjoyment of baseball and the human factor therein." Baseball Prospectus editor Nate Silver published an open letter responding to Chass' comments.

In 2008, Chass started a blog, "Murray Chass on Baseball" where he has written nearly 1,000 columns similar to what he has written for The New York Times.

Chass is a voter for the Baseball Hall of Fame, and turned in a blank ballot for the 2017 HOF class and 2022 HOF class.

References

Further reading
 This chapter in Ruttman's history, based on a November 17, 2009 interview with Chass conducted for the book, discusses Chass's American, Jewish, baseball, and life experiences from youth to the present.

External links
 Murray Chass on Baseball
 2003 J.G. Taylor Spink Award Winner Murray Chass, Baseball Hall of Fame

Sportswriters from New York (state)
Baseball culture
1938 births
Living people
The New York Times writers
University of Pittsburgh alumni
Writers from Pittsburgh
BBWAA Career Excellence Award recipients
Journalists from Pennsylvania
Taylor Allderdice High School alumni
Sportswriters from Pennsylvania

Murray Chass


"Larry's Wife" is the third episode of the fifth season of the American sitcom Modern Family, and the series' 99th overall. It was aired on October 2, 2013. The episode was written by Bill Wrubel and directed by Jeffrey Walker.

Plot
Phil (Ty Burrell) finds a new target group for new clients; newly divorced women. He does everything to help them get over their divorce by being a very good friend to them and be there anytime they ask him, in hope that they will also buy a new house from him. Claire (Julie Bowen) is not really happy with all this since now that she has to work too she does not have time to do the stuff she was doing before at home (like going to the grocery store) and she needs Phil's help. She tells him that what he is doing is not the best idea and she proves it at the end when Phil is caught up in the middle of three of his clients.

Mitchell (Jesse Tyler Ferguson) and Cameron (Eric Stonestreet), after accepting each other's proposal, are now up to plan their wedding. After two friends of theirs had broken up because they could not agree on things in matter of their wedding, Mitchell and Cameron decide to leave Cameron in charge so they will not end up fighting.

Lily's (Aubrey Anderson-Emmons) cat, Larry, has been missing for few days and Lily starts asking where he is. Mitchell and Cameron do not want to upset her, so they tell her that Larry will get back home, despite the fact that they are convinced that Larry is dead. Mitchell disagrees with Cameron about lying to Lily and that they have to tell her the truth. Later, when Cameron tries to tell Lily that Larry is not coming back, he tells her the reason: he got married and left with his wife. While saying that, Larry is back home and he changes his story by telling Lily that Larry's wife died. Cameron plans a funeral for Larry's wife but goes overboard and it ends up being a disaster, making Cameron have second thoughts about planning the wedding alone.

Mitchell tries to convince himself that he is not nervous about leaving Cameron in charge for the wedding. He leaves to go the gym but he stops by his office first. At the office, he starts cleaning everything, due to his stress about the wedding, and he ends up trapped in the ventilation system. A co-worker happens to be at the building and he helps him get out. After this, Mitchell realizes that he wants to get involved in the wedding. He gets back home and both, Cameron and Mitchell, agree to plan the wedding together.

At the Pritchett-Delgado home, Gloria (Sofía Vergara) is worried about Joe being tough and aggressive and she tells Jay (Ed O'Neill) that Joe is acting like that because of the curse in her family. Jay tells her not to be worried and that there is no such thing as a curse, but Gloria calls Father Marquez (Efrain Figueroa) to ask for his help.

In the meantime, Luke (Nolan Gould) hangs out with some friends at his home for a poker game. One of his friends has not kissed a girl before and Luke tricks Alex (Ariel Winter) so his friend can kiss her. Haley (Sarah Hyland) tries to get into the poker game because as she says she always wins but both, her and Luke, end up losing all their money plus Haley's computer and they ask for Alex's help to get them back.

Reception

Ratings
In its original American broadcast, "Larry's Wife" was watched by 11.12 million; down 0.52 from the two previous episodes that aired together as season's premiere.

Reviews
"Larry's Wife" received mixed reviews with most critics criticizing that there were too many stories in a 30-minute episode.

Leigh Raines from TV Fanatic rated the episode with a 4/5 saying about the wedding plans of Mitch and Cam: "I loved watching Cam and Mitchell try and balance the wedding planning. [...] Can't wait to see more wedding planning with those two. They make what I normally find a painful task seem amusing."

Joe Reid of The A.V. Club gave a C- to the episode saying that even though this season started so well with the two premiere episodes, in this episode he was "trying very hard" to find something to like. "Five storylines in 30 minutes, one of which was even passably enjoyable. It is really not my intention to use this show as a punching bag, and I eagerly await a return to last week's form of middlebrow decency."

Britt Hayes from Screen Crush also commented on the many stories of the episode but she also stated that this week's episode "covers all the basics of relationships: trust, shared responsibility, and what happens when you neglect what's important." About the many stories she said: "What 'Modern Family' can do really well is tie its plots together not with a single, unifying thread, but by having several threads that all bleed into one another in a way that makes the episode thematically coherent. Unfortunately, with so many stories fighting for screen time, it feels like a case of quantity over quality." She closes her review by saying that even the episode felt way too busy, it was a passable half-hour but it might become forgettable in the scheme of the entire season.

Nora Williamson of TV and Film Review said that the episode was over the top, ridiculous and unfunny and she closed her review saying: "Modern Family works so much better when the families mix and there was none of that in "Larry's Wife." I really hope that this episode is just a fluke and that the rest of the season is full of funny, heartfelt episodes that make me understand why I am still watching."

References

External links

 "Larry's Wife" at ABC.com

Modern Family (season 5) episodes
2013 American television episodes
Television episodes about funerals

Larry's Wife


Sunil Mukhi is an Indian theoretical physicist working in the areas of string theory, quantum field theory and particle physics.  Currently he is Adjunct Professor at the International Centre for Theoretical Sciences of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and Honorary Professor Emeritus at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune.

Career
He obtained a B.Sc. degree at St. Xavier's College, Mumbai and a Ph.D. in Theoretical Physics in 1981 from Stony Brook University (also called the State University of New York at Stony Brook). After spending two years as a post-doctoral fellow at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics at Trieste, Italy, he returned to India where he worked at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Mumbai, India from 1984 to 2012. In 2012 he left the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research to join the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune as the head of the Physics Department, a position he held until 2018. In 2019 he became Dean, Faculty at the same institute. He retired from IISER Pune in August 2022.

Research
His major publications deal with fundamental properties of string theories, and include the conformal invariance of supersymmetric two-dimensional field theories which describe the world-sheet dynamics of strings, the study of supersymmetric solitons using index theorems, the discovery of a new duality between string theory and M-theory, the identification of string networks as supersymmetric states and the discovery of a novel Higgs mechanism in the worldvolume theory of M-theory membranes.

Other activities
In 2002, he played a role in exposing a series of instances of plagiarism by the Vice-Chancellor of Kumaon University in India. The Vice-Chancellor was eventually found guilty by a national committee and subsequently resigned.

Mukhi has a number of interests in addition to physics, notably Indian Classical Music on which he maintains a webpage , science popularisation which he carries out through seminars at schools and colleges as well as newspaper articles, and cinema, cooking and meditation. Within the field of Indian Classical Music he has spent considerable effort archiving classic recordings, particularly those of notable vocal artist Pandit Kumar Gandharva on whom he also maintains a webpage . He has previously written a blog, named "Tantu-jaal". During 2018-2020 he was lead vocalist of the progressive heavy metal band Let's Keep Thinking, based on the IISER Pune campus.

Honors
Mukhi is a Fellow of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Indian National Science Academy and The World Academy of Sciences, and a recipient of the S.S. Bhatnagar Award for Physical Sciences, 1999 and the J.C. Bose Fellowship, 2008. He has been an Editor of the Journal of High Energy Physics since its inception in 1997. He is Chair of the Panel on Scientific Values of the Indian Academy of Sciences.

Mukhi was an invited speaker at the international conferences Strings 2000 in Michigan, Strings 2002  in Cambridge and Strings 2008 in Geneva. He was one of the organisers of Strings 2001 in Mumbai — a conference that attracted much publicity because of the participation of David Gross, Stephen Hawking and Edward Witten. He has also lectured at advanced schools in theoretical physics, notably at Cargèse and Les Houches in France, at the SERC school series in India, and at the first PITP School at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton during his sabbatical year there. He was a Visiting Fellow Commoner at Trinity College, Cambridge during the Lent Term, 2012.

References

External links
 Sunil Mukhi's Home Page
Sunil Mukhi's scientific publications

Academic staff of the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune
20th-century Indian physicists
Indian string theorists
Living people
1956 births
Stony Brook University alumni
Scientists from Mumbai

Sunil Mukhi


The chickpea (Cicer arietinum)  is a yellow edible legume (bean). It can be used for cooking. The peas can be bought canned or dried. It was one of the earliest fruits to be grown. The first chickpea was grown in the Middle East about 7,500 years ago.

The most popular place for chickpeas to grow is in Pakistan. In 2008, nearly 6 million tonnes of chickpeas were produced there. Because the growth is so popular there, it is also known as the Indian pea.

Chickpeas contain a great deal of protein, zinc and folic acid. They can be an important part of a vegetarian or vegan diet, since they come from a plant.

The dried bean is boiled and served whole or mashed, such as in the popular dish hummus. Chickpeas are ground into a flour, called "besan" or "gram" flour, used in South Asian cooking.

References

Beans
Faboideae

Chickpea


Arthur Clyde "Hack" Engle (March 19, 1884 – December 26, 1939) was a utility player who played in Major League Baseball between  and . Listed at 5' 10", 190 lb., Engle batted and threw right-handed. He was born in Dayton, Ohio.

Engle was a sort of super-utility man at all positions but pitcher and catcher, playing mainly at first base and third. He entered the majors in 1909 with the New York Highlanders of the American League, playing for them one and a half seasons before joining the Boston Red Sox (1910–14). In his rookie year for New York, he hit for a .278 batting average with a career-highs of 20 doubles and 71 RBI in 135 games. His most productive season came with Boston in 1913, when he posted career-numbers in average (.289), runs (75), triples (12) and stolen bases (28). He was also a member of the Boston Red Sox 1912 World Series champion team which defeated the New York Giants in eight games.

During the 1914 midseason, Engle joined a significant number of players who jumped to the Buffalo teams of the outlaw Federal League (1914–15), returning to the American League with the Cleveland Indians in 1916, his last major league season.

In an eight-season career, Engle was a .265 hitter (748-for-2822) with 12 home runs and 318 RBI in 836 games, including 373 runs, 101 doubles, 39 triples, 128 stolen bases, and a .335 on-base percentage. He made 748 appearances as a fielder at first base (255), third base (163), left field (142), center field (111), second base (81), right field (25) and shortstop (9).

Following his majors career, Engle was the athletic director and coached the University of Vermont football team, and he later coached the freshman baseball team at Yale University, where the coach of the varsity squad was his former teammate and close friend Smoky Joe Wood. In 1921, the Vermont baseball team needed an umpire for its season. Engle wrote his friend Dolly Stark and invited him to take the position. Stark had not previously umpired, but he accepted the position, and would go on to umpire in the National League from 1927 to 1940.

Engle died in Boston, Massachusetts at age 55.

The 1912 World Series
Engle will be known forever as the man who hit the ball that Fred Snodgrass missed in the eight and final game of the 1912 World Series. The Series lasted eight games, due to a 6–6 tie in Game 2 when the game was called by darkness after 11 innings. Engle had appeared twice before during the Series in pinch-hitting duties. In Game 6, he hit a two-run RBI double off Giants pitcher Rube Marquard that scored Boston's only runs in a 5–2 losing effort. The decisive Game 8 at Fenway Park faced Joe Wood for Boston and Christy Mathewson for the New York Giants, who had broken a 1–1 tie by scoring a run in the first half of the 10th inning. The Red Sox started its half and manager Jake Stahl sent Engle to pinch-hit for pitcher Wood. Then, he hit a fly ball off Mathewson that came toward CF Snodgrass, who dropped the ball. Snodgrass made a fine catch on the next batter, Harry Hooper, but Mathewson walked Steve Yerkes, gave up a single to Tris Speaker, and Engle went on to  score the tying run. Another walk to Duffy Lewis and a sacrifice fly by Larry Gardner scored Yerkes with the winning run to give Boston the game and the series.

References

External links

1884 births
1939 deaths
Boston Red Sox players
Buffalo Blues players
Buffalo Buffeds players
Cleveland Indians players
Cleveland Naps players
New York Highlanders players
Major League Baseball infielders
Major League Baseball outfielders
Minor league baseball managers
Dayton Veterans players
Augusta Tourists players
Newark Sailors players
Newark Indians players
Topeka Savages players
Vermont Catamounts baseball coaches
Baseball players from Dayton, Ohio

Clyde Engle


Saint Botvid was a Christian missionary in Sweden during the 11th and early 12th centuries.

Biography
Botvid, who was born in Södermanland, Sweden, went on a trade trip to England where he came into contact with Christianity and was converted to the Christian faith. Botvid was sent back as a missionary to Sweden by Saint Sigfrid of Växjö along with Saint David and Saint Eskil. The missionaries preached chiefly in Södermanland and Västmanland, in the area of Lake Mälaren. According to legend, Botvid was killed with an axe while boating near Rågö in the archipelago of Södermanland. Botvid was buried in Salem Church (Salems kyrka) around the year 1120 which led to the church becoming a pilgrimage church.

Legacy
Saint Botvid is shown on the seal and coat of arms of Botkyrka Municipality, where he carries an axe and a fish. Botkyrka is Swedish and short for "Botvid's Church". Saint Botvid is one of the guardian saints of Södermanland along with Saint Eskil who had his base in the city of Eskilstuna in eastern Södermanland.

Saint Botvid's Spring

Saint Botvid is associated with Saint Botvid's Spring (Sankt Botvids källa), an artesian spring where the water flows out under its own pressure. The spring is located at the southeastern tip of Lake Bornsjöns in Salem Municipality (Salems kommun) in Stockholm County.

In a medieval tradition, a spring would always be found in connection to the death of a saint. According to legend, when the remains of Saint Botvid were transported to the church in today's Botkyrka, the casket was temporarily put down near the shore of Lake Bornsjön, where a spring welled up. It continues to provide clear water to this day.

References

12th-century deaths
Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions
Swedish Roman Catholics
12th-century Christian saints
Medieval Swedish saints
Year of birth unknown
12th-century Swedish people

Saint Botvid


Ernest Loring "Red" Nichols (May 8, 1905 – June 28, 1965) was an American jazz cornetist, composer, and jazz bandleader.

Biography

Early life and career
Nichols was born in Ogden, Utah, United States. His father was a college music professor, and Nichols was something of a child prodigy, playing difficult set pieces for his father's brass band by the age of 12. Young Nichols heard the early recordings of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band and later those of Bix Beiderbecke, and these had a strong influence on him. His style became polished, clean, and incisive.

In the early 1920s, Nichols moved to the Midwest and joined a band called the Syncopating Seven. When that band broke up, he joined the Johnny Johnson Orchestra and went with it to New York City in 1923. In New York, he met trombonist Miff Mole, and the two were inseparable for the next decade. Before signing with Brunswick, Nichols and Mole recorded for Pathé-Perfect under the name the Red Heads.

Brunswick Records era
Nichols could read music and easily gained studio work. In 1926, Mole and he began recording with a variety of bands as Red Nichols and His Five Pennies. Few of these groups were quintets; the name was a pun on "nickel". With the Five Pennies, he recorded more than 100 sides for Brunswick. He also recorded as the Arkansas Travelers, the California Red Heads, the Louisiana Rhythm Kings, the Charleston Chasers, Red and Miff's Stompers, and Miff Mole and His Little Molers. During some weeks in this period, Nichols and his bands were recording 10 to 12 two-sided records.

Nichols' band started with Mole on trombone and Jimmy Dorsey on alto saxophone and clarinet. Other musicians in his bands in the following decade included Benny Goodman (clarinet), Glenn Miller (trombone), Jack Teagarden (trombone), Pee Wee Russell (clarinet), Joe Venuti (violin), Eddie Lang (banjo and guitar), and Gene Krupa (drums). The Five Pennies' version of "Ida, Sweet as Apple Cider" was a surprise hit record. It sold over a million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of America. His composition "Nervous Charlie Stomp" was recorded by one of the top jazz bands of the 1920s, Fletcher Henderson's orchestra, and released as a 78 single.

In the next decade, more structured swing eclipsed the improvisational hot jazz Nichols loved to play. He tried to follow the changes and formed a swing band, but his recording career seemed to stall in 1932. Music critic Michael Brooks wrote,

What went wrong? Part of it was too much, too soon. Much of his vast recorded output was released in Europe, where he was regarded by early jazz critics as the equal, if not the superior, of Louis Armstrong and Bix Beiderbecke. People who make fools of themselves usually find a scapegoat, and when the critics were exposed to the music of Duke Ellington, Benny Carter, Coleman Hawkins, and others, they turned on Nichols and savaged him, trashing him as unfairly as they had revered him. Nichols' chief fault was an overly stiff, academic approach to jazz trumpet, but he did recognize merit as far as other jazz musicians were concerned and made some wonderful small-group recordings.

Other labels Nichols recorded for included Edison 1926, Victor 1927, 1928, 1930, 1931 (individual sessions), Bluebird 1934, 1939, back to Brunswick for a session in 1934, Variety 1937, and OKeh in 1940.

Later career
Nichols survived the Great Depression by playing in show bands and pit orchestras. He led Bob Hope's orchestra for a while, moving to California. Nichols married Willa Stutsman, a "stunning" George White's Scandals dancer, and they had a daughter. In 1942, their daughter contracted polio, which was misdiagnosed at first as spinal meningitis, and Nichols left Glen Gray and the Casa Loma Orchestra to work in the wartime shipyards. On May 2, 1942, Nichols left his band to take an army commission after completing an engagement at Lantz's Merry-Go-Round in Dayton, Ohio.

Drawn back to music after the war, Nichols formed another Five Pennies band and began playing in small clubs in Los Angeles. Club dates turned into performances at bigger venues, such as the Zebra Room, the Tudor Room of the Palace Hotel in San Francisco, and the Huntington-Sheraton Hotel in Pasadena, California. He toured Europe as a goodwill ambassador for the State Department. Nichols and his band performed in the 1950 film Quicksand starring Mickey Rooney. In 1956, he was the subject of an episode of the television program This Is Your Life in which he reunited with Miff Mole, Phil Harris, and Jimmy Dorsey, who praised Nichols as a bandleader who ensured everyone was paid.

In 1965, Nichols took his Five Pennies band to the Mint Hotel in Las Vegas. On June 28, 1965, a few days after he began performing, he had chest pains while he was sleeping. He phoned the front desk. but when the ambulance arrived, he was dead. The band performed as scheduled with a spotlight on Nichols' empty chair.

Biographical film and film career
In 1929, he appeared in the Vitaphone film short (reel #870) with his band the Five Pennies along with Eddie Condon and Pee Wee Russell.

In 1935, he appeared in the Paramount Pictures film short The Parade of the Maestros along with Ferde Grofe performing "In the Middle of a Kiss".

Red Nichols performed in and is also mentioned in the 1950 Mickey Rooney and Jeanne Cagney film Quicksand. Rooney's character asks out Jean Cagney; he asks if she likes "Red Nichols and his outfit?" and she responds, "I think they're great!" They then go to the club to watch Red Nichols and his band perform.

The 1959 Hollywood film The Five Pennies, the film biography of Red Nichols, starring Danny Kaye as Red Nichols, was loosely based on Nichols' life and career. Nichols played his own cornet parts for the film and appeared briefly as one of the "Clicquot Club Eskimos" on screen. The Paramount Pictures movie received four Academy Award nominations. Jazz contemporary Louis Armstrong also appeared in the film. The Five Pennies movie theme song and other songs for the film were composed by Sylvia Fine, Danny Kaye's wife.

Nichols also made cameo appearances in the 1951 film Disc Jockey with Tommy Dorsey, and The Gene Krupa Story in 1959.

His recording of "Poor Butterfly" is heard in the 1994 Woody Allen film Bullets Over Broadway and his recording of "(Back Home Again in) Indiana" in Allen's 1999 film Sweet and Lowdown.

Awards and honors
In 1986, Red Nichols was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame.

Compositions
He wrote or co-wrote the following songs: "Hurricane" with Paul Mertz, "You're Breakin' Me Down" with Glenn Miller, "Five Pennies", "Sugar" with Jack Yellen, Milton Ager, and Frank Crum, "Bug-A-Boo", "The Parade of the 'Pennies'", "The King Kong", "Trumpet Sobs", "Get Cannibal", "Junk Man's Blues", "Delta Roll", "Corky", "Bugler's Lament", "Nervous Charlie Stomp" (recorded by Fletcher Henderson), "Last Dollar", "That's No Bargain", and "Blues at Midnight".

Discography
 Red Nichols Classics. Volume One (Brunswick, 1943)
 Red Nichols Classics. Volume Two (Brunswick, 1946)
 Jazz Time (Capitol, 1950)
 Hot Pennies (Capitol, 1956)
 In Love With Red (Capitol, 1956)
 Red Nichols and His Five Pennies (Tops, 1957)
 Parade of the Pennies (Capitol, 1958)
 Meet the Five Pennies (Capitol, 1959)
 Dixieland Supper Club (Capitol, 1962)
 Sessions, Live (Calliope, 1976)

References

External links
 Red Nichols: Profiles in Jazz at The Syncopated Times
 Red Nichols and his Five Pennies at the Red Hot Jazz Archive
 Red Nichols recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.

1905 births
1965 deaths
Musicians from Ogden, Utah
American jazz cornetists
American jazz bandleaders
Big band bandleaders
Capitol Records artists
Vocalion Records artists
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
20th-century American musicians
The California Ramblers members
The Charleston Chasers members

Red Nichols


Ruth Hill Useem (31 May 1915 – 10 September 2003) was an American sociologist and anthropologist who introduced the concept of Third Culture Kid (TCK) to describe children who spent part of their developmental years in a foreign culture due to their parents' working abroad. Her work was the first to identify common themes among various TCKs that may affect them throughout their lives. After her retirement in 1985, Useem focused her research on Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs).

Third Culture Kids include military brats, missionary kids, diplomatic kids, and business kids. Many books have been written on Third Culture Kids and  "Global Nomads"  based on the concept originally proposed and defined by Useem.

Ruth Useem graduated with a PhD in sociology and anthropology from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1947. She taught at Michigan State University from 1952 to 1985.

References

External links
Third Culture Kids World Biography on Ruth Hill Useem
American Sociological Association Obituary for Ruth Hill Useem

1915 births
2003 deaths
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
American sociologists
American women sociologists
Modern nomads
21st-century American women

Ruth Hill Useem


Robert of Lexinton or Lessington (died 29 May 1250) was a British judge and administrator.

Biography
Robert of Lexinton was a son of Richard of Lexinton (probably the first son, according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, probably the second according to the Dictionary of National Biography.

His father for a time administered the manor of Laxton in Nottinghamshire (formerly Lexington, from whence the family's name derived).
Robert's brothers included Henry of Lexington, sometime Bishop of Lincoln, and Stephen of Lexington, a Cistercian monk and abbot of Clairvaux abbey. He made his start as a clerk to a successor of his father as keeper of the manor of Laxton, one Brian de Lisle.

In 1214 he was appointed as a prebendary of the collegiate church of Southwell, and later succeeded to the barony of his father, who was alive in 1216. By 1221, he was acting as a justice in seven counties, and comes to notice in February 1221 as the author of a letter to Hubert de Burgh informing him of the route taken by the rebel Earl of Aumale and of the measures that he had adopted to secure the safety of the border. He continued to be employed in a like capacity in later years, being in 1225 the head of six judicial commissions.

He was warden of the honour and castle of Peak and governor of Bolsover Castle in Derbyshire, and also had charge of Orford Castle. He is described as a justice 'de banco' in 1226, and as one of the chief members of the king's court, or bench, in 1229, when he sat with other judges at Westminster to hear the case between the convent and the townsmen of Dunstable. There is reason to suppose that in 1234 he was the senior of the justices of the king's bench. In 1239 he is said to have been elected to the see of Lichfield, but, the right of election being then in dispute between the canons of Lichfield and the monks of Coventry, to have declined it.

When in 1240 Henry III sent justices itinerant through the whole kingdom in the hope of raising money by fines and the like, he appointed Robert chief of the justices for the northern division of England. When he and his brother-justices sat at Lincoln they were denounced by the dean of Christianity (or 'rural dean') for trying capital cases on Sunday. In return they abused the dean, and caused his goods and the lands of his nieces, his wards, to be seized on behalf of the crown. Bishop Robert Grosseteste wrote him a sharp rebuke for his presumption in dealing thus with a clerk. He again acted as a justice itinerant the following year.

After having gained a high reputation and large possessions, he was seized with paralysis, and retired from office a few years before his death, spending the remainder of his life in prayer and almsgiving. He died on 29 May 1250, and was succeeded by his elder brother John. He founded three chantries in the chapel of St. Thomas the Martyr in Southwell Minster.

References

Attribution

1250 deaths
Chief Justices of the Common Pleas
Justices of the Common Pleas
Year of birth unknown

Robert of Lexinton


T24 (Techno 24, Russian: "Техно 24") - Russian scientific educational TV channel of male`s interests. It is devoted to the achievements of science in the civil and military technologies, development of engineers and designers; it explains the newest types of weapons, space exploration, sports science, engineering and strategic sites. It is a part of the "Digital TV" package of media holding VGTRK

History

The 24TECHNO TV channel began broadcasting on June 18, 2007. It was the sixth TV channel of "ArtMedia Group", the leading manufacturer of TV channels for basic cable and satellite broadcasting.

At first, T24 provided documentary television programming focused primarily on popular science: technique, technology and incredible experiments. The main idea of the channel was to bring together the best scientific programs of Russian and overseas production.

Half of the content was Russian, including the channel's original content. The other 50% of broadcasting was filled with Western programs and films which met the channel`s subject . 24TEHNO TV used to buy programs from companies such as BBC, Electric Sky, F For Films, World Wide Entertainment and others. Categories: "Man", "Technology", "Discovery", "Space", "The X-Files", "Curiosities" and "Evolution" explained the latest scientific developments in different science branches, as well as the history of discoveries. By 2008, the audience of the channel had reached two million people from Russia, CIS and Baltic countries. At 2011, entered media holding "NCC Media".

On February 1, 2015 former 24TECHNO entered the thematic channels package "Digital TV" (subsidiary RTR and "Rostelecom"). There was a full restart of the channel. The channel got the name " TEHNO 24" or "T24", a new logo and corporate identity, and a new programming lineup. The main idea of the channel was also changed. Oleg Ternovoy became an editor of the "24T". After restarting, the updated "T24" will offer its viewers a few special projects dedicated to tanks, modern armies armament , as well as will make shows about men, enthusiastic restoration of military equipment. Two "T24" projects are devoted to military and civil engineering. The basis of "T24" is the channel's own content. In 2015, viewers saw 500 hours of original content. The audience of the channel at the time of start-up was 15.2 million subscribers in Russia, the Baltics and the CIS.

Other websites
http://techno24.tv/

Television networks
2015 establishments in Asia
Television stations
Moscow

T24


Lithification (from the Ancient Greek word lithos meaning 'rock' and the Latin-derived suffix -ific) is the process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel connate fluids, and gradually become solid rock.  Essentially, lithification is a process of porosity destruction through compaction and cementation. Lithification includes all the processes which convert unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rocks. Petrifaction, though often used as a synonym, is more specifically used to describe the replacement of organic material by silica in the formation of fossils.

See also

References

Geological processes
Petrology
Sedimentary rocks

Lithification


Robert Fawcett (1903–1967) was an English artist.  He was trained as a fine artist but achieved fame as an illustrator of books and magazines.

Born in England, he grew up in Canada and later in New York. His father, an amateur artist, encouraged Robert's interest in art. While in Canada, he was apprenticed to an engraver. He attended the Slade School of Art in London, then returned to the United States to pursue a career in fine arts, although he had to work as a commercial artist to support himself. He soon became disenchanted with the poor pay and political infighting of the fine arts world and decided to commit himself to commercial art, where he was successful. He was the author of On the Art of Drawing.

As he was slightly color blind, Fawcett did not excel as a painter, but he was an excellent draftsman and designer, with a strong eye for detail. He produced story illustrations and full-page ads that appeared in The Saturday Evening Post, Collier's, Holiday, and Cosmopolitan bringing a superb sense of composition to his advertisement work. His work for Collier's magazine included  detailed illustrations accompanying a series of Sherlock Holmes stories. He later produced documentary-type illustrations for Look. In 1948, Fawcett was recruited by Albert Dorne to be one of the founding artists at the Famous Artists School. In 1964, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician.

References

Sources
Robert Fawcett biography – retrieved July 30, 2006
Robert Fawcett, The Illustrator's Illustrator, Auad Publishing, 2011

American illustrators
1903 births
1967 deaths
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
British expatriates in Canada
British emigrants to the United States

Robert Fawcett


The 1896 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the I Olympiad, were held at Athens in Greece.

The  games took place from April 6 to 15, 1896. It was the first international Olympic Games held in the Modern era. As Ancient Greece was the birthplace of the Olympic Games, Athens was an appropriate choice to stage the inaugural modern Games. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was also instituted during this congress.

The 1896 Olympics were regarded as a great success even though there were many obstacles and setbacks. The Games had the largest international participation of any sporting event to that date. The Panathinaiko Stadium, the only Olympic stadium used in the 19th Century, overflowed with the largest crowd ever to watch a sporting event. The highlight for the Greeks was the marathon victory by Spyridon Louis. The most successful competitor was German wrestler and gymnast Carl Schuhmann, who won four events.

After the Games, Rhys Coubertin and the IOC were petitioned by several prominent figures including Greece's King George and some of the American competitors in Athens, to hold all the following Games in Athens. However, the 1900 Summer Olympics were already planned for Paris and, except for the Intercalated Games of 1906, the Olympics did not return to Greece until the 2004 Summer Olympics, some 108 years later.

The stories about the events and people of these Games were in the 1984 NBC miniseries, The First Olympics: Athens, 1896 – starring David Ogden Stiers as William Milligan Sloane and Louis Jourdan as Pierre de Coubertin.

Reviving the Games

In the 18th century, several small-scale sports festivals in Europe were named after the Ancient Olympic Games. The 1870 Olympics at the Panathenaic stadium had 30,000 people.  Coubertin took Dr William Penny Brooke's idea to have a multi-national and multi-sport event—the ancient games were in a sense international, because various Greek city-states and colonies were represented, but only free male athletes of Greek origin were allowed to participate. In 1890, Coubertin wrote an article in La Revue Athletique, which talked about the importance of Much Wenlock—a rural market town in the English county of Shropshire. It was here that, in October 1850, the local physician William Penny Brookes started the Wenlock Olympian Games, a festival of sports and recreations that included athletics and team sports, such as cricket, football and quoits. Coubertin also took inspiration from the earlier Greek games organized under the name of Olympics by businessman and philanthropist Evangelos Zappas in 1859, 1870 and 1875. The 1896 Athens Games was funded by the legacies of Evangelos Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas and by George Averoff who had been specifically requested by the Greek government, through crown prince Constantine, to sponsor the second refurbishment of the Panathinaiko Stadium. The Greek government did fix the stadium even though the cost of refurbishing the stadium in marble had already been funded in full by Evangelos Zappas forty years earlier.

On June 18, 1894, Coubertin put together a group at the Sorbonne, in Paris, to present his plans to representatives of sports societies from 11 countries. After his proposal's acceptance by the congress, a date for the first modern Olympic Games needed to be chosen. Coubertin suggested that the Games be held at the same time as the 1900 Universal Exposition of Paris. Concerned that a six-year wait might lessen public interest, congress members instead chose 1896. With a date established, members of the congress turned to the choice of a host city.  Since Greece was the original home of the Olympics, all the congress approved the decision of Athens. Vikelas was then elected the first president of the newly established International Olympic Committee (IOC).

Venues

Opening ceremony

On April 6 (March 25 according to the Julian calendar then in use in Greece), the games of the First Olympiad were officially opened; it was Easter Monday for both the Western and Eastern Christian Churches and the anniversary of Greece's independence. The Panathinaiko Stadium was filled with an estimated 80,000 spectators, including King George I of Greece, his wife Olga, and their sons. Most of the competing athletes were aligned on the infield, grouped by nation. After a speech by the president of the organizing committee, Crown Prince Constantine, his father officially opened the Games:

"I declare the opening of the first international Olympic Games in Athens. Long live the Nation. Long live the Greek people."

Afterwards, nine bands and 150 choir singers performed an Olympic Hymn, composed by Spyridon Samaras, with words by poet Kostis Palamas. Thereafter, a variety of musical offerings provided the backgrounds to the Opening Ceremonies until 1960, since which time the Samaras/Palamas composition has become the official Olympic Anthem (decision taken by the IOC Session in 1958). Other elements of current Olympic opening ceremonies were started later: the Olympic flame was first lit in 1928, the first athletes' oath was sworn at the 1920 Summer Olympics, and the first officials' oath was taken at the 1972 Olympic Games.

Events
At the 1894 Sorbonne congress, a large roster of sports were suggested for the program in Athens. The first official announcements regarding the sporting events to be held featured sports such as football and cricket, but these plans were never finalized, and these sports did not make the final list for the Games. Rowing and yachting were scheduled, but had to be canceled due to poor weather on the planned day of competition.

Athletics
The athletics events had the most international field of any of the sports. The major highlight was the marathon, held for the first time in international competition. Spyridon Louis was the only Greek athletics champion and a national hero. Although Greece had been favored to win the discus or the shotput, the best Greek athletes finished just behind the American Robert Garrett in both events.

No world records were set, as few top international competitors had elected to compete. In addition, the curves of the track were very tight, making fast times in the running events hard. Despite this, Thomas Burke, of the United States, won the 100 meter race in 12.0 seconds and the 400 meter race in 54.2 seconds.  was the only one who used the "crouch start" (putting his knee on soil), confusing the jury. Eventually, he was allowed to start from his "uncomfortable position".

Cycling

The rules of the International Cycling Association were used for the cycling competitions. The track cycling events were held at the newly built Neo Phaliron Velodrome. Only one road event was held, a race from Athens to Marathon and back (87 kilometers).

In the track events, the best cyclist was Frenchman Paul Masson, who won the one lap time trial, the sprint event, and the 10,000 meters. In the 100 kilometers event, Masson entered as a pacemaker for his compatriot Léon Flameng. Flameng won the event, after a fall, and after stopping to wait for his Greek opponent Georgios Kolettis to fix a mechanical problem. The Austrian fencer Adolf Schmal won the 12-hour race, which was completed by only two cyclists, while the road race event was won by Aristidis Konstantinidis.

Fencing

The fencing events were held in the Zappeion, which, built with money Evangelos Zappas had given to revive the ancient Olympic Games, was not used before. Unlike other sports (in which only amateurs were allowed to take part at the Olympics), professionals were allowed to compete in fencing, though in a separate event. These professionals were considered gentlemen athletes, just as the amateurs.

Four events were scheduled, but the épée event was cancelled for unknown reasons. The foil event was won by a Frenchman, Eugène-Henri Gravelotte, who beat his countryman, Henri Callot, in the final. The other two events, the sabre and the masters foil, were won by Greek fencers. Leonidas Pyrgos, who won the latter event, became the first Greek Olympic champion in the modern era.

Gymnastics

Gymnastics was at the infield of the Panathinaiko Stadium. Germany sent an 11-man team, which won five of the eight events, including both team events. In the team event on the horizontal bar, the German team was unopposed. Three Germans added individual titles: Hermann Weingärtner won the horizontal bar, Alfred Flatow won the parallel bars; and Carl Schuhmann, who also competed successfully in wrestling, won the vault. Louis Zutter, a Swiss gymnast, won the pommel horse, while Greeks Ioannis Mitropoulos and Nikolaos Andriakopoulos were victorious in the rings and rope climbing events, respectively.

Shooting
Held at a range at Kallithea, the shooting competition was five events—two using a rifle and three with the pistol. The first event, the military rifle, was won by Pantelis Karasevdas, the only competitor to hit the target with all of his shots. The second event, for military pistols, was dominated by two American brothers: John and Sumner Paine became the first siblings to finish first and second in the same event. In order to avoid embarrassing their hosts, the brothers decided that only one of them would compete in the next pistol event, the free pistol. Sumner Paine won that event.

The Paine brothers did not compete in the 25 meter pistol event, as the event judges determined that their weapons were not of the required caliber. In their absence, Ioannis Phrangoudis won. The final event, the free rifle, began on the same day. However, the event was not completed due to darkness and was finalized the next morning, when Georgios Orphanidis was crowned the champion.

Swimming

The swimming competition was held in the open sea. Nearly 20,000 spectators lined the Bay of Zea off the Piraeus coast to watch the events. The water in the bay was cold, and the competitors suffered during their races. There were three open events (men's 100 metre freestyle, men's 500 metre freestyle, and men's 1200 metre freestyle), in addition to a special event open only to Greek sailors, all of which were held on the same day (April 11).

For Alfréd Hajós of Hungary, being on the same day meant he could only compete in two of the events.  He won the two events in which he swam, the 100 and 1200 meter freestyle. Hajós later became one of only two Olympians to win a medal in both the athletic and artistic competitions, when he won a silver medal for architecture in 1924. The 500 meter freestyle was won by Austrian swimmer Paul Neumann, who defeated his opponents by more than a minute and a half.

Tennis
Although tennis was already a major sport by the end of the 19th century, none of the top players turned up for the tournament in Athens. The competition was at the courts of the Athens Lawn Tennis Club, and the infield of the velodrome used for the cycling events. John Pius Boland, who won the event, was entered in the competition by a fellow-student of his at Oxford. In the first round, Boland defeated Friedrich Traun, a promising tennis player from Hamburg, who had been eliminated in the 100 meter sprint competition. Boland and Traun decided to team up for the doubles event, in which they reached the final and defeated their Greek and Egyptian opponents after losing the first set.

Weightlifting

The sport of weightlifting was still young in 1896, and the rules differed from those in use today. Competitions were held outdoors, in the infield of the main stadium, and there were no weight limits. The first event was held in a style now known as the "clean and jerk". Two competitors stood out: Scotsman Launceston Elliot and Viggo Jensen of Denmark. Both of them lifted the same weight; but the jury, with Prince George as the chairman, ruled that Jensen had done so in a better style. The British delegation, unfamiliar with this tie-breaking rule, lodged a protest. The lifters were eventually allowed to make further attempts, but neither lifter improved, and Jensen was declared the champion.

Elliot won in the one hand lift event, which was held immediately after the two-handed one. Jensen had been slightly injured during his last two-handed attempt, and was no match for Elliot, who won the competition easily. The Greek audience was charmed by the Scottish victor, whom they considered very attractive. A curious incident occurred during the weightlifting event: a servant was ordered to remove the weights, which appeared to be a difficult task for him. Prince George came to his assistance; he picked up the weight and threw it a considerable distance with ease, to the delight of the crowd.

Wrestling

No weight classes existed for the wrestling competition, held in the Panathinaiko Stadium, which meant that there would only be one winner among competitors of all sizes. The rules used were similar to modern Greco-Roman wrestling, although there was no time limit, and not all leg holds were forbidden (in contrast to current rules).

Apart from the two Greek contestants, all the competitors had previously been active in other sports. Weightlifting champion Launceston Elliot faced gymnastics champion Carl Schuhmann. The latter won and advanced into the final, where he met Georgios Tsitas, who had previously defeated Stephanos Christopoulos. Darkness forced the final match to be suspended after 40 minutes; it was continued the following day, when Schuhmann needed only a quarter of an hour to finish the bout.

Closing ceremony
On the morning of Sunday April 12, King George organized a banquet for officials and athletes (even though some competitions had not yet been held). During his speech, he made clear that, as far as he was concerned, the Olympics should be held in Athens permanently. The official closing ceremony was held the following Wednesday, after being postponed from Tuesday due to rain. Again the royal family attended the ceremony, which was opened by the national anthem of Greece and an ode composed in ancient Greek by George S. Robertson, a British athlete and scholar.

Afterwards, the king awarded prizes to the winners. Unlike today, the first-place winners received silver medals, an olive branch and a diploma. Athletes who placed second received copper medals, a branch of laurel and a diploma. Third place winners did not receive a medal. Some winners also received additional prizes, such as Spyridon Louis, who received a cup from Michel Bréal, a friend of Coubertin, who had conceived the marathon event. Louis then led the medalists on a lap of honor around the stadium, while the Olympic Hymn was played again. The King then formally announced that the first Olympiad was at an end, and left the Stadium, while the band played the Greek national hymn and the crowd cheered.

Like the Greek king, many others supported the idea of holding the next Games in Athens; most of the American competitors signed a letter to the Crown Prince expressing this wish. Coubertin, however, was heavily opposed to this idea, as he envisioned international rotation as one of the cornerstones of the modern Olympics. According to his wish, the next Games were held in Paris, although they would be somewhat over-shadowed by the concurrently held Universal Exposition.

Participating nations
A total of 14 nations sent athletes to compete at the Athens games.

Notes

References

More reading

Other websites

 IOC page for the 1896 Summer Olympics

Olympics
19th century in Greece
Summer Olympic 1896
Summer Olympics in Europe
1890s in Europe

1896 Summer Olympics