The Phantom of the Opera (1925) is a silent horror movie. It is based on a novel of the same name by Gaston Leroux. The movie was directed by Rupert Julian. It stars Lon Chaney as the Phantom and Mary Philbin as his love, Christine. The movie is famous for Chaney's horrific, self-applied make-up.

Plot
The story is about a disfigured man named Erik who haunts the Paris Opera. He wants the managers to make the woman he loves, named Christine, a star. In order to do this, he terrorizes everyone by doing things such as dropping a chandelier and wearing a scary disguise in the middle of a large party.  When he learns that Christine is in love with a man named Raoul, he kidnaps her. Raoul eventually rescues her, and a group of angry people chase the Phantom until he falls into the Seine river.

Cast
 Lon Chaney as Erik, The Phantom of the Opera
 Mary Philbin as Christine
 Norman Kerry as Raoul
 Arthur Edmund Carewe as Ledoux

Critical reception and legacy
The movie was a great success. The critics liked it. Executives at Universal Pictures were pleased. They put a string of horror movies into production. These movies included Bela Lugosi's Dracula and Boris Karloff's Frankenstein. Phantom was chosen for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

Two major versions of the film survive today. The original film (today) comes from bad quality "show at home" film prints which are entirely black and white. The more common version is a 1929 silent version using different takes and camera angles. The 1929 silent version exists because of a lost 1929 sound version in which new scenes were shot in sound.

American horror movies
American silent movies
English-language movies
1925 movies
1920s horror movies
Universal Pictures movies
United States National Film Registry movies
Movies based on books

The Phantom of the Opera (1925 movie)


The International Typeface Corporation (ITC) was a type manufacturer founded in New York in 1970 by Aaron Burns, Herb Lubalin and Edward Rondthaler. The company was one of the world's first type foundries to have no history in the production of metal type. It is now a wholly owned brand or subsidiary of Monotype Imaging.

History
The company was founded to design, license and market typefaces for filmsetting and computer set types internationally. The company issued both new designs and revivals of older or classic faces, invariably re-cut to be suitable for phototypesetting and later digital use and produced in families of different weights. Although it is claimed that the designers took care to preserve the style and character of the original typefaces, several ITC revivals, such as ITC Bookman and ITC Garamond in particular, have received criticism that the end result was related in name only to the original faces. Among the company's notable type designers was Ed Benguiat the creator of Tiffany and Benguiat fonts.

ITC's revival designs frequently followed a formulary of increased x-height, multiple weights from light to ultra bold, multiple widths and unusual ligature combinations, sometimes with alternate characters such as swashes.

Critics sometimes complain that, while the dramatically higher x-height increased legibility in smaller point sizes, in normal text sizes the extreme height of the lowercase characters imparted a commercial, subjective voice to texts.

ITC typefaces were widely distributed. Gene Gable commented "You could easily say that ITC designs put a face on the '70s and '80s...You couldn't open a magazine or pass a billboard in the '70s without seeing [them]."

Fonts

ITC American Typewriter
ITC Anna
ITC Arecibo
ITC Arid
ITC Atelier Sans
ITC Avant Garde Gothic
Avenida
ITC Ballerino
ITC Barcelona
ITC Batak
ITC Bauhaus
ITC Beesknees
ITC Benguiat and Benguiat Gothic
ITC Berranger Hand
ITC Better
ITC Binary
ITC Blair
ITC Blackadder
ITC Black Tulip
ITC Blaze
ITC Bodoni
ITC Bolt
ITC Bookman
ITC Bradley Hand
ITC Braganza
ITC Busorama
ITC Caslon
ITC Century type family
ITC Cerigo
ITC Charter
ITC Cheltenham
ITC Chivalry
ITC Conduit
ITC Cushing
ITC Dartangnon
Data 70
ITC Django
ITC Edwardian Script
ITC Elan
ITC Ellipse
ITC Eras
Eras Demi ITC
ITC Esprit
ITC Fenice
ITC Flora
ITC Fontoon
ITC Forkbeard
ITC Franklin Gothic
ITC Freestyle Script
ITC Friz Quadrata
ITC Garamond
ITC Gamma
Gigi
ITC Giovanni
ITC Golden Cockerel
ITC Golden Type
ITC Goudy Sans
ITC Grimshaw Hand
ITC Handel Gothic
ITC Highlander
ITC Humana Sans
ITC Isadora
ITC Jokerman Hellenic
ITC Johnston
ITC Juanita
ITC Juice
ITC Kabel
ITC Kahana
ITC Keefbats
ITC Kendo
ITC Klepto
ITC Kloegirl
ITC Korigan
ITC Korinna
ITC Kristen
ITC Leawood
ITC Legacy Sans and Serif
ITC Lubalin Graph
ITC Luna
ITC Machine
ITC Matisse
ITC Mendoza Roman
ITC Migration Sans
ITC Mixage
ITC Modern No. 216
ITC Mona Lisa
ITC Motter Corpus
ITC Musclehead
Neue Aachen
ITC New Baskerville
ITC Newtext
ITC New Winchester
ITC Novarese
ITC Obelisk
ITC Obliqua
ITC Officina Sans and Serif
ITC Ozwald
ITC Panache
Papyrus
ITC Pioneer
ITC Pious Henry
ITC Plaza
ITC Portago
ITC Posterboy
ITC Quay Sans
ITC Quorum
Rage
ITC Redonda
ITC Ronda
ITC Serif Gothic
ITC Slimbach
ITC Souvenir
ITC Snap
ITC Stenberg
ITC Stone Sans
ITC Stone Informal
ITC Stylus
ITC Styleboy
ITC Symbol
ITC Tabula
ITC Tetra
ITC Tiepolo
ITC Tiffany
ITC Tempus Sans
ITC University of California Old Style
ITC Usherwood
ITC Veljovic
ITC Vineyard
ITC Vintage
ITC Weber Hand
ITC Weidemann
ITC William Hamilton Page
ITC Willow
ITC Zapf Chancery
ITC Zapf Dingbats
ITC Zemke Hand

U&lc magazine

The company published U&lc (Upper and Lower Case), a typographic magazine dedicated to showcasing their traditional and newer typefaces in particularly creative ways, originally edited and designed by Herb Lubalin until his death in May, 1981. Because of its extraordinary blend of typographic design, illustration and cartoons (sometimes by world-renowned artists and cartoonists such as Lou Myers), verse and prose extolling the virtues of well-designed type, as well as contributions by amateur or semi-professional typographers, the magazine was avidly read by type enthusiasts and sought after by collectors the world over.

A web version of the magazine started in 1998, along with a brand-new sans-serif logo by Mark van Bronkhorst (replacing the famous swash lettered logo by Herb Lubalin). In an editorial, John D. Berry wrote: "There'll be plenty of overlap between the print magazine and the online magazine, but they won't be identical: some things are best done with ink on paper, others are best done on screen." Yet the paper edition, which in 1998 had shrunk in format from tabloid pages to 8.5" x 11", did not survive for long. The final printed edition was vol. 26 no. 2, dated fall 1999. The last numbered U&lc issue is 42.1.1, issued in 2010.

A book celebrating U&lc, U&lc: Influencing Design & Typography by John D. Berry (the magazine's final editor) , was published by Mark Batty in 2005.

In October 2010 Allan Haley announced on the Fonts.com blog that the complete run of U&lc had been digitized and would be made available, one year's worth per month, via PDF download from that same blog.

As part of Fonts.com redesign in 2012, access to U&lc were moved to fonts.com blog, and Learn About Fonts & Typography for various U&lc web edition articles.

Acquisitions and mergers
In 1986 the company was acquired by Esselte Letraset, who had taken over Letraset, originally makers of the first dry transfer lettering, and later to become developers of new typefaces for filmsetting and computer applications. In 2000, Agfa Monotype Corporation announced the acquisition of the capital stock of International Typeface Corporation (ITC) from Esselte. The transaction included ITC's complete library of over 1600 typefaces, all typeface subscriber and distributor agreements, the itcfonts.com Web site, and typographic software. At this point ITC ceased to operate as an independent entity.

In November 2005 Agfa Monotype was incorporated as Monotype Imaging, with a focus on the company's traditional core competencies of typographic design and professional printing. Famous contemporary typographers associated with Monotype include Adrian Frutiger, Hermann Zapf and Matthew Carter.

References
Blackwell, Lewis. 20th Century Type. Yale University Press: 2004. .
Fiedl, Frederich, Nicholas Ott and Bernard Stein. Typography: An Encyclopedic Survey of Type Design and Techniques Through History. Black Dog & Leventhal: 1998. .

External links

ITC homepage
Monotype Imaging

Type foundries
Design companies established in 1970
Design companies disestablished in 1986
1970 establishments in New York (state)
1986 disestablishments in New York (state)

International Typeface Corporation


Jason Renyt Tyner (born April 23, 1977) is a former Major League Baseball outfielder. His MLB career spanned nine seasons from 2000 through 2008 for the New York Mets (2000), Tampa Bay Devil Rays (2000-2003), Minnesota Twins (2005-2007), and Cleveland Indians (2008). He bats and throws left-handed and played all three outfield spots, with the majority of his playing time coming in left field.

College and high school
Tyner attended West Brook Senior High School in Beaumont, where he was named Beaumont Student Athlete of the Year and was a member of the National Honor Society as a junior and senior. Following high school, he attended Texas A&M University, graduating in 1998. At A&M, he was named All-Big 12 (along with Jason Jennings) and second team All-American in . He finished his collegiate career first on A&M's all-time list for hits and stolen bases, was second in batting average, and third in at-bats. Making the feat even more remarkable was that he set the records in only three seasons. He also made the United States National Team in .

New York Mets
After three years at Texas A&M, Tyner was the New York Mets' first round draft pick, and twenty-first overall pick in the 1998 Major League Baseball Draft. The outfielder rose quickly through the Mets' minor league system, making his major league debut on June 5, .

Tampa Bay Devil Rays
On July 28, 2000 Tyner's stint in New York ended quickly though, as he was dealt to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays along with pitcher Paul Wilson for pitcher Rick White and outfielder Bubba Trammell.

In , he established himself as a good baserunner, collecting a then club record and personal career best 31 stolen bases. His bat, however, was not nearly as quick as his feet. He hit .280 with 111 hits, only 13 of which went for extra bases. These numbers along with 105 games, 396 at-bats, and 21 RBI are all career highs.

In a crowded Tampa Bay outfield, his lack of power and plate discipline cost him playing time in  and cost him a job in the majors for . He was the final out of Derek Lowe's no-hitter on April 27, 2002.

Tyner was noted for a failed promotional giveaway by the Devil Rays. The ballclub had arranged to honor him by presenting his bobblehead to the first 10,000 fans attending a game versus the Oakland Athletics at Tropicana Field on June 2, 2002. The bobbleheads were never distributed because he had been demoted to the Durham Bulls five days prior on May 28. After sitting in storage for a while, they were given to the Pinellas County Education Foundation, who distributed them students in their business and commerce program.

Texas Rangers
On December 8, 2003, he was claimed off waivers by the Texas Rangers. The Rangers released him in April .

Atlanta Braves
Tyner signed with the Atlanta Braves as a free agent. The Braves released him in July 2004.

Cleveland Indians
Tyner again found a home, this time with the Cleveland Indians. Tyner failed to make the majors with either Texas, Atlanta, or Cleveland.

Minnesota Twins
He resurfaced with the Minnesota Twins in late 2004. After a solid  season with the Twins' Triple-A affiliate, the Rochester Red Wings, Tyner made it back to the big leagues as a September call-up collecting 18 hits in 56 at-bats. He signed another minor league deal with Minnesota on October 14. Tyner returned to the Twins during the summer of , as a replacement for injured All-Star center fielder Torii Hunter. His scrappy play, swift speed, and small ball mentality fit well with much of the Twins' mantra.

Nicknamed "The Piranhas" by Chicago White Sox manager Ozzie Guillén, the Twins came to embrace the term as affirmation of their selfless, aggressive play. Formerly, Luis Castillo, who was traded to the New York Mets on July 30, , Jason Bartlett, who was traded to the Tampa Bay Rays in late November 2007, and Nick Punto who left for the St. Louis Cardinals via free agency in 2011, were also known by that nickname.

Cleveland Indians Again
On February 21, , Tyner signed a minor league deal with the Cleveland Indians. On May 11, Tyner's contract was bought from the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons by the Indians. Five days later, on May 16, Cleveland designated Tyner for assignment. The Indians released him on July 25.

Chicago White Sox
Tyner signed with the Chicago White Sox. He became a free agent at the end of the 2008 season

Houston Astros
Tyner signed a minor league contract with the Houston Astros in January . He was released during spring training.

Milwaukee Brewers
Tyner signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers in March 2009.

Detroit Tigers
On April 22, 2009 Tyner was traded to the Detroit Tigers. The Tigers released Tyner on June 17, 2009.

The home run drought
Prior to 2004, Tyner had a severe home run drought until he hit one in a minor league game in Richmond in 2004.

Tyner finally hit his first (and only) major league home run against the Cleveland Indians on July 28, 2007, against Jake Westbrook. This home run came after 1,220 major league at bats in 390 career games and traveled 352 feet. At the time, Tyner had the longest home run drought in the major leagues. When he hit the home run, ex-teammate Luis Castillo took over the major league lead for a home run drought, not having hit one in 612 at-bats.

Of MLB players who made their debut in 2000 or later, Tyner has the most at bats with exactly 1 career home run.

Personal life
Tyner is married to his high school sweetheart, Annie. The couple have three daughters; Payton, Presley and Parker. They also have a son, Reid.

He awards $1,500 scholarships to southeast Texas scholar-athletes under the Juliet Tyner Memorial Scholarship Foundation. The foundation was created in honor of his mother, who died from breast cancer in 1998.

Along with former Pittsburgh Pirates minor leaguer Morgan Walker, Tyner operates the Southeast Texas Baseball Academy, which runs baseball programs for 8–12-year-olds.

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Baseball players from Texas
Major League Baseball outfielders
New York Mets players
Tampa Bay Devil Rays players
Minnesota Twins players
Cleveland Indians players
Sportspeople from Beaumont, Texas
Texas A&M Aggies baseball players
St. Lucie Mets players
Binghamton Mets players
Norfolk Tides players
Durham Bulls players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
Richmond Braves players
Rochester Red Wings players
Charlotte Knights players
Toledo Mud Hens players
Nashville Sounds players

Jason Tyner


Content Management Interface (CMI) in computer software is an Open Mobile Alliance enabler that provides a standardized way for content providers to interact with service providers (network operators).

CMI is an interface between content providers and service providers, which does not directly involve the end user. The scope of the standard covers the entire off-deck content management lifecycle but does not include implementation or behavior beyond the API. Therefore, it can accommodate a broad range of services and service policies.

As of December 2009, CMI is publicly available as a Candidate 1.0 release.

References

External links
 OMA Content Management Interface V1.0

Content management systems

Content Management Interface


Alice Whealey is an independent historian specializing in the intellectual history of Europe, she received an M.A. in history in 1988, A M.A. in Demography in 1992,  and Ph.D. in history in 1998 from U.C. Berkeley.

In 2003 she published "Josephus on Jesus, The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times" critically analyzing the Testimonium Flavianum, the disputed passage from Josephus that mentions Jesus Christ. The book was published by Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

In her article "Pseudo-Justin's De Resurrectione: Athenagoras or Hippolytus?" published in "Vigiliae Christianae" by Brill publishing, she argues that Pseudo-Justin's "de resurrectione"  was not composed by Athenagoras, but was more likely by Hippolytus.

References

Living people
Intellectual historians
Year of birth missing (living people)
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni

Alice Whealey


Václav Kliment Klicpera (23 November 1792 – 15 September 1859) was a Czech playwright, writer, and poet. He was one of the first presenters of Czech drama, and was especially influential in the foundation of comedic Czech theatre.

Klicpera was born in Chlumec nad Cidlinou. After graduating from a gymnasium (a European secondary school) in 1813, he moved to Prague.  There he studied philosophy in 1816 and medicine in 1818. In June 1819 he was made a professor at a gymnasium in Hradec Králové. In 1850 he became schoolmaster of a Prague gymnasium.

He was skilled in writing chivalric plays and patriotically-themed historical dramas that became the foundation of modern Czech drama. He is also recognized for his farces (in Czech frašky), in the Plautine tradition. He also wrote historical romance stories, plays from his own era, and plays with fairy tale motifs. Klicpera supported the advancement of Czech theatre through the publication of plays in the Klicpera's theatre edition.

He died in Prague and is buried in the city's Olšany Cemetery.

Works
 Divotvorný klobouk, 1820
 Hadrián z Římsů, 1821
 Ján za chrta dán, 1829
 Rohovín Čtverrohý, 1825
 Zlý jelen, 1849

External links
 2001 "Czechs in History" article on Radio Praha website

1792 births
1859 deaths
Czech male dramatists and playwrights
Czech male poets
Czech schoolteachers
People from Chlumec nad Cidlinou
19th-century Czech poets
19th-century Czech dramatists and playwrights
19th-century male writers
Burials at Olšany Cemetery

Václav Kliment Klicpera


Lissette Martinez (born 1971), is the lead electrical engineer for the Space Experiment Module program at the Wallops Flight Facility, which is part of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

Life
Martinez was born in Brooklyn, New York to Puerto Rican parents. She was raised in Yauco, Puerto Rico where her family had moved when she was still a child. In Puerto Rico she went to school from k-8th grade. When she was in 8th grade, she was given a homework assignment to study the moon which. She spent a lot of time on the roof of her house every night for a month. She wrote down and detailed everything about the moon, the way the moon looked. That report made her interested in the moon.

Education
After she graduated from high school, she studied at the University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez. During her third year as an electrical engineering student she was accepted into the NASA Cooperative Education Program. She was started working at NASA right away. Martinez earned, finished, her degree in electrical engineering in 1993 and was offered a job in NASA.

Work
Martinez was part of the team that launched a rocket from White Sands, New Mexico to gather information on the Hale-Bopp Comet, a comet. She is responsible for providing, giving electrical engineering support to Code 870 Space Experiment Module (SEM) program. She is also responsible for the testing of ground and flight hardware. Martinez works with students around the world, helping them with science experiments that will actually ride along on Space Shuttle missions and blast into space.
Martinez continues to work at Wallops Flight Facility located in Virginia. She lives with her son in Salisbury, Maryland.

Living people
1971 births
Scientists from New York City
Puerto Rican engineers
Engineers from New York (state)

Lissette Martinez


Chinese Rail DF4 is a kind of diesel locomotive used in China. It was built by Dalian Locomotive & Rolling Stock Works. It has been in production since 1969 and is still produced as of 1984.

Models

DF4
The first DF4 was built in 1969 in Dalian. The first 108 locomotives used the 16V240ZJ engine. It took seven years to build all 108 locomotives of this type.

But the first ever is a permanent exhibition at the Beijing Railway Museum, and the second "Mao Zedong" is a permanent exhibition at the Fengtai Yard, Beijing Railway Bureau.

DF4A
The DF4A used an improved engine, the 16V240ZJA. Production started in 1976 and lasted until 1984.

Manufacturers
DF4s have been manufactured by several companies:
 CSR Ziyang Locomotive Works (DF4A:3001~3042)
 Dalian Locomotive & Rolling Stock Works(DF4A:0001~0771,2001~2031)

References

Co-Co locomotives
Locomotives of China

Chinese Rail DF4


The AN/FPS-7 Radar was a Long Range Search Radar used by the United States Air Force Air Defense Command.

In the mid-1950s General Electric developed a radar with a search altitude of 100,000 feet and a range of 270 miles. This radar was significant in that it was the first stacked-beam radar to enter into production in the United States. The antenna was fed signals from several feed horns arranged in a vertical stack, producing a series of horizontal beams separated vertically in space. By comparing the returns from the different feeds, altitude information could be determined without the need for a separate height-finder radar.

Designed to operate in the L-band at 1250 to 1350 MHz, the radar deployed in late 1959 and the early 1960s. The AN/FPS-7 was used for both air defense and air traffic control in New York, Kansas City, Houston, Spokane, San Antonio, and elsewhere.

In the early 1960s a modification called AN/ECP-91 was installed to improve its electronic countermeasure (ECM) capability. About thirty units were produced.  Another modification was the AN/FPS-107 which also operated in the L-Band which was manufactured by Westinghouse.

References

 AN/FPS-7, 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D @ radomes.org
 AN/FPS-7 @ fas.org
  Winkler, David F. (1997), Searching the skies: the legacy of the United States Cold War defense radar program.  Prepared for United States Air Force Headquarters Air Combat Command.

External links

Ground radars
Radars of the United States Air Force
General Electric radars
Military equipment introduced in the 1950s

General Electric AN/FPS-7 Radar


Johann Jacoby (1 May 1805 – 6 March 1877) was a left-liberal German-Jewish politician.

Biography

The son of a Königsberg (now Kaliningrad) merchant, Gerson Jacoby, and his wife, Lea Jonas, Jacoby studied medicine at the Albertina University of Königsberg and in 1830 started practicing in his native city, but soon became involved in political activities in a liberal interest, which involved him in prosecutions and made him well known throughout Germany.

His first published brochures called for Emancipation of the Jews. Unlike some other contemporary writers on that subject, he vehemently held that granting equal right to Jews was not a special favor, but their natural right as human beings.

In later writings he called for reform of the medical services in Prussia, attacked the judicial system which he considered oppressive as well as the state censorship, and upheld "The Right of the Prussian People for a Constitution". These writings got him prosecuted on charges of Lèse majesté, but he was eventually acquitted.

His reputation as a man of fearless honesty was greatly enhanced during the revolutionary upheaval of 1848–1849. He was a delegate in both the Prussian National assembly and the All-German Frankfurt Parliament, and was reckoned among the conspicuous leaders of the Left in both of them.

A particular event connected with his name was when King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused to listen to the criticism made by deputies of the Prussian National assembly during an audience in 1848. Jacoby, one of the deputies (some accounts described him as leader of the delegation) had the courage to say to the King: It is the misfortune of Kings that they will not listen to the truth!, a saying which got widely published and soon made him very popular in the public.

After the Frankfurt Parliament was dissolved and its members driven out of Frankfurt, Jacoby was among the most radical members, who fled to Stuttgart and there set up a rump parliament with the aim of proclaiming a German republic – considered at the time a highly revolutionary idea. After this body was dissolved by the Württemberg military, Jacoby was prosecuted again for his membership in it, but was acquitted.

Later, Jacoby distinguished himself as an outspoken opponent of Otto von Bismarck. As a member of the Prussian Legislature he was in the radical left of the German Progress Party. In 1864 he delivered, in the presence of the King, a strong anti-Bismarck speech calling for tax refusal. For that, he was prosecuted and served six months behind bars.

Unlike other German Liberals, whose attitudes towards the "Iron Chancellor"  were mollified after Bismarck's success in achieving the Unification of Germany, Jacoby remained steadfast in opposing Bismarck's warlike policies and was especially conspicuous in protesting against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, for which he was again imprisoned.

After the creation of the new German Empire, he joined the German Social Democratic Party. In 1874, three years before his death, he was elected on its behalf to the Reichstag but demonstratively refused to take his seat as an act of political protest.

Jacoby was also involved in internal Jewish affairs. Among other things, in 1838 he had been a member of a commission appointed by the Königsberg Jewish Community to look into reforms in public worship at the synagogue. However, his reputation is mainly as a Prussian and German political activist dealing with general German political and social issues. He died in Königsberg.

Jacoby on Direct Democracy
Jacoby's contributions to direct democracy are not well documented but several sources can be found. In general he had a positive view on direct democracy e.g. in his speeches (Gesammelten Reden und Schriften von 1872):
 According to his view, final decisions must be made by the whole sovereign/population (Bd. 2, S. 25)
 Citizens have a right to participate decisively in every aspect of lawmaking (Bd. 2, S. 56)
 He wanted: selfgovernment, participation on all public affairs, generall and direct participation in lawmaking and government by the people (May, 28th 1868, Bd. 2, Sl 336–339)
 Citizens are sovereign if the law and administration depends on the direct approval and decision (June, 17th 1868, Bd. 2, S. 340–342)
 Self-government is not the discussion on each phrase of a law and its formulation but the right to adopt or repeal or revise a law! (Bd. 2, S. 341)

Literature in German
 Adam, R.: "Johann Jacobys politischer Werdegang". In: Historische Zeitschrift 143, 1931.
 Engelmann, Bernt: Die Freiheit. Das Recht. Johann Jacoby und die Anfänge unserer Demokratie. Goldmann München 1987
 ibid., "Johann Jacoby. Ein Radikaler im öffentlichen Dienst". In: Barmer, Wilfried (Hrsg.): Literatur in der Demokratie. Für Walter Jens zum 60. Geburtstag, München 1983, S. 345–354.
 Hamburger, Ernst:  Tübingen, 1968.
 Helms, Hans G.: "Johann Jacoby – ein liberaler Politiker des Vormärz in der Bismarck-Ära". In: Zeitschrift für Marxistische Erneuerung. Vierteljahresschrift. Forum Marxistische Erneuerung e. V. (FFM), IMSF e. V. (Hrsg.), Heft 35, S. 97–109, 1998.
 Matull, Wilhelm: "Johann Jacoby und Eduard von Simson. Ein Vergleich". In: Jahrbuch der Albertus-Universität zu Königsberg/Pr., von Hoffmann, Friedrich/ Selle, Götz von. Bd. 21, 1971, S. 18–35)
 Mayer, Dr. Gustaf, "Die Anfänge des politischen Radikalismus im vormärzlichen Preußen". In: Zeitschrift für Politik (1913), Bd. 6, Berlin, S. 1–91.
 Silberner, Edmund: Johann Jacoby. Politiker und Mensch. Bonn-Bad Godesberg: Neue Gesellschaft 1976
 Weber, Rolf: Johann Jacoby. Eine Biographie. Köln, 1988.

External links
Jacoby at the Jewish Encyclopedia
Biography of Jacoby

1805 births
1877 deaths
Prussian politicians
19th-century German Jews
19th-century German physicians
Politicians from Königsberg
German tax resisters
Members of the Frankfurt Parliament
University of Königsberg alumni
Direct democracy activists
German socialists
Jewish socialists
Members of the Prussian National Assembly

Johann Jacoby


Mac McDonald (born Terence McDonald; June 18, 1949) is an American actor. He is known for playing Captain Hollister on the BBC TV series Red Dwarf and frequently plays American characters in other British TV shows. He has also had many movie roles in films such as Aliens, Batman and The Fifth Element, all of which were filmed in London.

Life and career
McDonald was born on Long Island, New York. After leaving school, McDonald pursued a stage career, with a preference for comedy and music. In 1968, he was in Shreveport, Louisiana as the local TV station's Bozo the Clown. Later he moved to San Francisco, working as a cycle courier and joining the AAA Acting Company.

He developed an interest in the teachings of George Gurdjieff but in 1974 turned down an invitation to attend the movement's training school, deciding instead to travel in Europe, armed only with a fool's hat and a melodica. In Amsterdam, he met a fellow American and accepted an invitation to stay in a commune in Kentish Town, North London. There he stayed for some years, taking over a leatherworking business from another departing American and running a leather goods stall in the newly opened Camden Lock Market.

There he hit upon a novel idea for busking, the "Human Jukebox", in which he waited in a large silver box until, when prompted by the insertion of a coin and the selection of a song, he opened a window and delivered his (unaccompanied) rendering. This was quite a success since McDonald's tenor voice was reinforced by a showbizzy, faux-sincere personality that was by turns endearing, ironical and corny. As the "Human Jukebox", he made his first UK TV appearance, standing in for Elton John's part with Kiki Dee in the hit duet "Don't Go Breaking My Heart".

At about this time, McDonald joined another company, this time presenting children's shows in conjunction with the Inner London Education Authority. In 1982, he and another member, Hilary, left to form a three-person musical comedy troupe, The Cheap Shots, with McDonald's close friend Sakal providing the music. The threesome developed "The Chip Shop Show", a series of spoof musicals popular on the newly burgeoning London alternative comedy circuit, making many appearances at London's The Comedy Store alongside Ronnie Golden, John Hegley and others, including several future Red Dwarf players.

This format led to further TV work and McDonald acquired an agent, bringing appearances in TV commercials and other parts requiring an American. After a few minor film roles, his appearance in Red Dwarf raised his profile and brought more and better roles.

Filmography

Film
Rollerball (1975) – Executive (uncredited)
Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back (1980) – Rebel Pilot (uncredited)
Top Secret! (1984) – German Soldier
Death Wish 3 (1985) – Police Detective
Aliens (1986) – Commander Simpson (extended version only)
Superman IV: The Quest for Peace (1987) – Prison Guard
Batman (1989) – Goon I
Nightbreed (1990) – Lou Rickman
Memphis Belle (1990) – Les
The Russia House (1990) – Bob
Hardware (1990) – Newsreader
There's No Business... (1994) – Mort Clayton, manufacturer of "Pinkies" kitchen gloves
Fierce Creatures (1997)
The Fifth Element (1997) – Skycop
Stiff Upper Lips (1998)
The Barber of Siberia (1998) – Sergeant "Mad Dog" O'Leary
The 51st State (2001) – Harley Davidson
Control (2004)
Tara Road (2005) – Jerry
Flyboys (2006) – Sheriff Detweiler
Transsiberian (2008) – Minister Miller
The Descent Part 2 (2009) – Mayor O'Reilly
Wrong Turn 3: Left for Dead (2009) – Warden Ladew

TV
Red Dwarf – Captain Frank Hollister (1988, 1999, 2017)
The New Statesman – Sheriff (Series 2, Episode 5, "California Here I Come", 1989)
French and Saunders (1990)
Jeeves and Wooster – "Birdsberger" (Series 3, 1992)
The Tomorrow People – "Twitch" (Series 2, 1994)
Oh, Doctor Beeching! – Joe (Series 2, Episode 6 "Love is a Very Splendid Thing", 1997)
The Man Who Made Husbands Jealous – Elmer Winterton (1997)
Black Books – American tourist (2004)
My Family – Scott Taylor (Series 2, Episode 11, "The Last Supper", 2001)
Spooks – "Hard-Faced Man" (CIA Agent) (Season 2, Episode 10, "Smoke & Mirrors", 2003)
Little Britain Abroad – "Phil" (2006)
Shakespeare & Hathaway: Private Investigators – Martin Mariner (2018)

Music videos
Park ranger in New Order's "60 Miles an Hour" (2001)
Sneaker Pimps' "Post-Modern Sleaze" (1996)

Video games
Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing – Announcer (2010)

References

External links

1949 births
Male actors from New York (state)
American expatriate male actors in the United Kingdom
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Living people
People from Long Island

Mac McDonald


Atkinson friction factor is a measure of the resistance to airflow of a duct. It is widely used in the mine ventilation industry but is rarely referred to outside of it.

Atkinson friction factor is represented by the symbol  and has the same units as air density (kilograms per cubic metre in SI units, lbfmin^2/ft^4 in Imperial units).  It is related to the more widespread Fanning friction factor by

in which  is the density of air in the shaft or roadway under consideration and  is Fanning friction factor (dimensionless).  It is related to the Darcy friction factor by

in which  is the Darcy friction factor (dimensionless).

It was introduced by John J Atkinson in an early mathematical treatment of mine ventilation (1862) and has been known under his name ever since.

See also

 Atkinson resistance

References

 NCB Mining Dept., Ventilation in coal mines: a handbook for colliery ventilation officers,  National Coal Board 1979.

Further reading
 1999 paper giving the derivation of
 Atkinson, J J, Gases met with in Coal Mines, and the general principles of Ventilation Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, Vol. III, p.218, 1862

Fluid dynamics
Mine ventilation

Atkinson friction factor


Kenneth George Boothe OD (born 22 March 1948) is a Jamaican vocalist known for his distinctive vibrato and timbre. Boothe achieved an international reputation as one of Jamaica's finest vocalists through a series of crossover hits that appealed to both reggae fans and mainstream audiences.

Biography
Ken Boothe was born in Denham Town, Kingston. He attended Denham Primary Elementary School and during this period developed an interest in music after receiving encouragement from his eldest sister, Hyacinth Clover, who was an established vocalist. Boothe cites singer Owen Gray as a major influence, particularly after hearing Gray perform the Leiber and Stoller rhythm and blues version of the 1920s blues standard, "Kansas City Blues", written by E L Bowman and notably performed by Jim Jackson in 1927. Stranger Cole, who was an established artist and neighbor to Boothe, had already worked with Boothe on the Sir Percy sound system as well as recording two songs for independent producer Sir Mike though Boothe's major breakthrough came in 1963 after Cole arranged an audition at Duke Reid's studio. The audition with Cole and Boothe performing the song "Uno Dos Tres" was a success and Boothe and Cole formed the duo 'Stranger & Ken' with the first track released by them being "Hush Baby" on the B-side of Cole's Island Records single "Last Love". This was followed by the singles "Thick in Love" both released in 1963 on R&B Records. They released several more popular singles between 1963 and 1965, including "World's Fair", "Hush", and "Artibella". Boothe also recorded as a duo with Roy Shirley (as Roy & Ken), which resulted in the release of the single "Paradise" in 1966.

Boothe's first solo tracks were recorded in 1966 after Clement "Coxsone" Dodd had signed him to his Studio One Label. He also recorded material for Phil Pratt and Sonia Pottinger the same year. He had almost immediate success with songs including "The Train Is Coming" (on which he was backed by the Wailers), the first, ska version, of later reggae song You're No Good with Soulettes (the group Bob Marley's future wife Rita Anderson was in) on B-side, and "Lonely Teardrops". The following year, Boothe and Alton Ellis had a successful UK tour with the Studio One session group, the Soul Vendors. Boothe was promoted as "Mr. Rock Steady" by Dodd during this period. The rocksteady classic "Moving Away" was released in 1967 or 1968 on the Coxsone label. "Moving Away" is a song still popular today, and covered or sampled by many artists, among them Dennis Brown, Jackie Mittoo ("Macka Fat"), Jack Radics I-Roy, U-Roy ("African Message"), Janet Key, Jaime Hinckson, Romain des Bois, Bruno Mars, Al Campbell ("Dress Black" Garnett Silk ("It's Growing"), Half Pint ("Substitute Lover"), Wayne Wonder ("Time To Say Good Bye"), Leroy Smart ("Talk About Friends"), Sanchez ("Don't Worry"), Admiral Tibet ("Nuthin Nah Run" among many others. Many of Boothe's songs have been reused in one way or another. On the B-side of the single "Moving Away" was the instrumental "Streets of Gold" by the Skatalites. Boothe continued to record for Dodd until 1970, when he switched to producer Leslie Kong's Beverley's Records and reggae, where his success continued with hits such as "Freedom Street" and "Why Baby Why".

After Kong died, Boothe recorded for many of Jamaica's top producers during the early 1970s, including Keith Hudson, Herman Chin Loy, Vincent "Randy" Chin, and Phil Pratt. He then formed the group Conscious Minds with B. B. Seaton.

Under a new direction from record producer Lloyd Charmers, Boothe released "Everything I Own" on Trojan Records, which reached Number One in the UK Singles Chart in 1974. The song, written by David Gates, was given a sympathetic light reggae feel and it received airplay and an appreciative audience in the West Indies and was regularly played on the radio stations of the UK due to its "crossover" appeal. David Gates' own group, Bread, had had a minor UK hit with the song in the spring of 1972, but it had only reached No. 32. Boothe's reggae version of the song "Everything I Own" reached Number One in the UK Singles Chart on 26 October 1974, and stayed at the top of the charts for three weeks. It featured Lloyd Parks on bass guitar, Paul Douglas a.k.a. Paul Williams on drums, Willie Lindo on guitar, and Lloyd Charmers on organ, piano and percussion. The recording was produced by Lloyd Charmers.

Boothe had one more hit in the UK Singles Chart during the 1970s, "Crying Over You", which made No. 11, with Trojan Records' collapse and a split with Charmers losing much of the momentum built up by his two hits. Boothe recorded a reggae version of the standard "When I Fall in Love" which was released in 1974 on the Studio One label.

In 1978, along with Dillinger, Leroy Smart, and Delroy Wilson, Boothe was referenced by lyricist Joe Strummer in the Clash's song, "(White Man) In Hammersmith Palais". Boothe reunited with Charmers in the late 1970s when a revived Trojan Records released the albums Blood Brothers (first issued on LTD in 1976) and Who Gets Your Love, but the reunion proved to be short-lived. He continued to record during the 1980s and had a few hits during 1986 and 1987.

In more recent times, Boothe has recorded for Bunny Lee, Phil Pratt, King Jammy, Pete Weston, Jack Ruby, Hugh "Red Man" James, Castro Brown and Tappa Zukie. In 1995 a version of "The Train Is Coming", re-worked with Shaggy, was used in the soundtrack for the film Money Train.

A two-disc set of Boothe's recordings for Trojan, Crying Over You, was released in 2001.

Boothe was awarded the Order of Distinction for his contribution to Jamaican music by the Jamaican government in 2003.

Discography

Albums
Mr Rock Steady (1967)
More of Ken Boothe (1968)
Freedom Street (1970)
Boothe Unlimited (1972)
Black Gold and Green (1973)
Let's Get It On (1974), Trojan
Everything I Own (1974)
Blood Brothers (1976)
Disco Reggae (1978)
Showcase (1978)
Who Gets Your Love (1979)
I'm Just a Man (1979)
Reggae For Lovers (1979)
Got To Get Away Showcase (197?)
Imagine (1986)
Don't You Know (1987)
Talk to Me (1990)
Power of Love (1993)
Natural Feeling (1995)
Acclaimed (1996)
Gospel Door 2 Door (2001)
Love is the Ultimate (2003)
Journey (2012)

Compilation albums
A Man and His Hits (1974)
Live Good (1978)
The Ken Boothe Collection (Trojan 1987)
The Ken Boothe Collection (Rhino 1995)
Crying Over You - Anthology 1963 to 1978 (2001)
Everything I Own - The Definitive Collection (2007)

UK hit singles
"Everything I Own" - (1974) - UK No. 1
"Crying Over You" - (1974) - UK No. 11

References

External links

1948 births
Living people
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
Jamaican reggae singers
20th-century Jamaican male singers
Island Records artists
Trojan Records artists
Recipients of the Order of Distinction
21st-century Jamaican male singers

Ken Boothe


Florance Constantine Broadhurst (1861–1909) was a 19th-century Western Australian businessman who is most notable for successfully taking over the management of a number of business ventures of his ill-fortuned, yet extremely creative and hard-working father, Charles Edward Broadhurst, and turning a profit. The best known of these is the guano mining venture in the Houtman Abrolhos.  While his entrepreneur father had recognised the potential of the industry and began mining, eventually to obtain a monopoly on the extraction of the guano, he proved unsuccessful in managing the concern. This situation continued until Florance, who had a mercantile education, joined the concern and began managing the venture under the name Broadhurst MacNeil and Company.  MacNeil was initially a backer and a partner, but he took no part in the management of the venture.  With his accountancy training F.C. Broadhurst proved enormously successful exporting to Europe and winning a gold medal at the Paris Exposition.

While working the deposits on Gun Island, his labourers found a large number of artifacts that he believed to be relics of the 1629 Batavia shipwreck. He developed an interest in the wreck, and eventually obtained a copy of Isaac Commelin's 1647 , the Dutch publication that first popularised the Batavia incident. He commissioned Willem Siebenhaar to translate it, and this resulted in what is still the only English translation, entitled The Abrolhos tragedy. Broadhurst maintained a catalogue of his finds, which he donated to the state. These were eventually shown to be related not to the Batavia, but  the VOC ship Zeewijk, which was wrecked off Gun Island in 1727. A friend of his children, Henrietta Drake-Brockman, came to learn of the Dutch wrecks while around the family home, and she became an acknowledged force in the eventual location of the Batavia wreck and its survivor's campsite. Though a great success, in 1904 Broadhurst lost the monopoly to the guano industry.

References

1861 births
1909 deaths
People from Western Australia
19th-century Australian businesspeople

Florance Broadhurst


In programming languages, a label is a sequence of characters that identifies a location within source code.  In most languages, labels take the form of an identifier, often followed by a punctuation character (e.g., a colon).  In many high-level languages, the purpose of a label is to act as the destination of a GOTO statement.  In assembly language, labels can be used anywhere an address can (for example, as the operand of a JMP or MOV instruction).  Also in Pascal and its derived variations. Some languages, such as Fortran and BASIC, support numeric labels.  Labels are also used to identify an entry point into a compiled sequence of statements (e.g., during debugging).

C
In C a label identifies a statement in the code. A single statement can have multiple labels. Labels just indicate locations in the code and reaching a label has no effect on the actual execution.

Function labels

Function labels consist of an identifier, followed by a colon. Each such label points to a statement in a function and its identifier must be unique within that function. Other functions may use the same name for a label. Label identifiers occupy their own namespace – one can have variables and functions with the same name as a label.

void foo(int number)
{
    if (number < 0)
        goto error;
    bar(number);
    return;
error:
    fprintf(stderr, "Invalid number!\n");
}

Here error is the label. The statement goto can be used to jump to a labeled statement in the code. After a goto, program execution continues with the statement after the label.

Switch labels

Two types of labels can be put in a switch statement. A case label consists of the keyword case, followed by an expression that evaluates to integer constant. A default label consists of the keyword default. Case labels are used to associate an integer value with a statement in the code. When a switch statement is reached, program execution continues with the statement after the case label with value that matches the value in the parentheses of the switch. If there is no such case label, but there is a default label, program execution continues with the statement after the default label. If there is no default label, program execution continues after the switch.

switch (die)
{
default:
    printf("invalid\n");
    break;

case 1:
case 3:
case 5:
    printf("odd\n");
    break;

case 2:
case 4:
case 6:
    printf("even\n");
    break;
}

Within a single switch statement, the integer constant associated with each case label must be unique. There may or may not be a default statement. There is no restriction on the order of the labels within a switch. The requirement that case labels values evaluate to integer constants gives the compiler more room for optimizations.

Examples

Javascript
In JavaScript language syntax statements may be preceded by the label:
top: //Label the outermost for-loop.
for (var i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
    for (var j = 0; j < 4; j++) {
        if (j === 3 && i === 2) {
            alert("i=" + i + ", j=" + j); //i=2, j=3
            break top;
        }
    }
}

alert("i=" + i + ", j=" + j); //i=2, j=3

It also possible to use break statement to break out of the code blocks:

top: {
  console.log("foo")
  console.log("bar")
  break top
  console.log("baz")

}
// Which would output:
// > foo
// > bar

Common Lisp

In Common Lisp two ways of defining labels exist. The first one involves the tagbody special operator. Distinguishing its usage from many other programming languages that permit global navigation, such as C, the labels are only accessible in the context of this operator. Inside of a tagbody labels are defined as forms starting with a symbol; the go special form permits a transfer of control between these labels.

(let ((iteration NIL))
  (tagbody
    start
      (print 'started)
      (setf  iteration 0)
    increase
      (print iteration)
      (incf  iteration 1)
      (go    check)
    check
      (if (>= iteration 10)
        (go end)
        (go increase))
    end
      (print 'done)))

A second method utilizes the reader macros #n= and #n#, the former of which labels the object immediately following it, the latter refers to its evaluated value. Labels in this sense constitute rather an alternative to variables, with #n= declaring and initializing a "variable" and #n# accessing it. The placeholder n designates a chosen unsigned decimal integer identifying the label.

(progn
  #1="hello"
  (print #1#))

Apart from that, some forms permit or mandate the declaration of a label for later referral, including the special form block which prescribes a naming, and the loop macro that can be identified by a named clause. Immediate departure from a named form is possible by using the return-from special operator.

(block myblock
  (loop for iteration from 0 do
    (if (>= iteration 10)
      (return-from myblock 'done)
      (print iteration))))

(loop
  named myloop
  for   iteration from 0
  do    (if (>= iteration 10)
          (return-from myloop 'done)
          (print iteration)))

In a fashion similar to C, the macros case, ccase, ecase, typecase, ctypecase and etypecase define switch statements.

(let ((my-value 5))
  (case my-value
    (1         (print "one"))
    (2         (print "two"))
    ((3 4 5)   (print "three four or five"))
    (otherwise (print "any other value"))))

(let ((my-value 5))
  (typecase my-value
    (list      (print "a list"))
    (string    (print "a string"))
    (number    (print "a number"))
    (otherwise (print "any other type"))))

See also
 Goto
 Line number
 Switch statement

References

Source code
Control flow
Programming language concepts

Label (computer science)


Katherine Megan McArthur (born August 30, 1971) is an American oceanographer and a National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronaut. She has served as a Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) for both the space shuttle and space station. Megan McArthur has flown one space shuttle mission, STS-125, where she served as Mission Specialist in repairing the Hubble Space Telescope. McArthur has served in a number of positions including working in the Shuttle Avionics Laboratory (SAIL). She is currently in space as the Commander of the NASA SpaceX Crew-2 mission to the ISS. She launched on 23 April 2021.

Childhood
Megan McArthur was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, to Don and Kit McArthur. Her father was a career naval aviator, and the McArthur family later relocated to the Moffett Field Naval Air Station, which shares the same base as NASA's Ames Research Center. This is where her inspiration of become an astronaut grew. McArthur attended St. Francis High School in Mountain View, CA. She holds a Bachelor of Science in Aerospace Engineering from the University of California, Los Angeles, and a Ph.D. in Oceanography from the University of California, San Diego where she performed research activities at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

Megan enjoys SCUBA diving, backpacking, and cooking. She is married to fellow astronaut Bob Behnken, and together they have one child.

Oceanography Career
At the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, McArthur conducted graduate research in nearshore underwater acoustic propagation and digital signal processing. Her research focused on determining geoacoustic models to describe very shallow water waveguides using measured transmission loss data in a genetic algorithm inversion technique. She served as Chief Scientist during at-sea data collection operations, and has planned and led diving operations during sea-floor instrument deployments and sediment-sample collections. While at Scripps, she participated in a range of in-water instrument testing, deployment, maintenance, and recovery, and collection of marine plants, animals, and sediment. During this time, McArthur also volunteered at the Birch Aquarium at Scripps, conducting educational demonstrations for the public from inside a 70,000 gallon exhibit tank of the California Kelp Forest.

NASA Career
Selected as a Mission Specialist by NASA in July 2000, McArthur reported for training in August 2000. Following the completion of two years of Astronaut Candidate training and evaluation, she was assigned to the Astronaut Office Shuttle Operations Branch working technical issues on shuttle systems in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL). She has also worked in the International Space Station and Space Shuttle Mission Control Centers as a Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) and has served as a Crew Support Astronaut for Expedition Crews during their six-month missions aboard the International Space Station. McArthur was the Astronaut Office Lead for visiting vehicles during the first commercial cargo missions to the International Space Station. Currently, she provides support to crews in training and aboard the International Space Station, as Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office ISS Operations Branch.

Megan McArthur was a member of the STS-125 mission to service the Hubble Space Telescope. McArthur was the ascent and entry flight engineer and was the lead STS-125 (May 11 through May 24, 2009). This was the fifth and final Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission. McArthur worked as the flight engineer during launch, rendezvous with the telescope, and landing. She also carefully retrieved the telescope, using the shuttle's robotic arm, and placed it in the shuttle's cargo bay. The 19-year-old telescope then spent six days undergoing an overhaul during 5 days of spacewalks. The spacewalkers were supported by McArthur operating the robotic arm. The team overcame frozen bolts, stripped screws, and stuck handrails. The refurbished Hubble Telescope then had four new or rejuvenated scientific instruments, new batteries, new gyroscopes, and a new computer. The STS-125 mission was accomplished in 12 days, 21 hours, 37 minutes and 9 seconds, traveling 5,276,000 miles in 197 Earth orbits.

McArthur is currently assigned as the Commander of the NASA SpaceX Crew-2 mission to the ISS, scheduled to launch in April 2021 and return in the fall 2021.

References

1971 births
Living people
People from Honolulu
Scientists from Hawaii
Scientists from California
American astronauts

K. Megan McArthur


Nathan Guy is a New Zealand politeecian, an a member o the kintra's pairlament in Wellington, representin the Naitional Pairty.  He is a leet member o the pairlament unner the proportional representation seestem.

1970 births
Livin fowk
Local poleetical office-hauders in New Zealand
New Zealand Naitional Pairty MPs
fowk frae Levin, New Zealand
New Zealand fermers
New Zealand leet MPs
Members o the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives
New Zealand MPs for North Island electorates
Govrenment meenisters o New Zealand
Members o the Cabinet o New Zealand
21st-century New Zealand politeecians
Candidates in the New Zealand general election, 2017

Nathan Guy


Airport is a 1970 American drama movie. It is based on a novel by Arthur Hailey. It is about an airport almost being closed because of a snow storm while a mad suicide bomber is trying to blow up an airliner in flight.

Cast
 Burt Lancaster as Mel Bakersfeld, airport manager
 Dean Martin as Captain Vernon Demerest
 Jean Seberg as Tanya Livingston
 Jacqueline Bisset as Gwen Meighen, stewardess
 George Kennedy  as Joe Patroni, chief mechanic
 Helen Hayes as Mrs. Ada Quonsett, stowaway
 Van Heflin as D. O. Guerrero, airplane bomber
 Maureen Stapleton as Inez Guerrero, wife of D.O. Guerrero
 Barry Nelson as Captain Anson Harris
 Dana Wynter as Cindy Bakersfeld, wife of Mel Bakersfeld
 Lloyd Nolan as Harry Standish
 Barbara Hale as Sarah Demerest (sister of Mel Bakersfeld, wife of Vern Demerest)
 Gary Collins as Cy Jordan
 Christopher Lloyd as Patron in diner (uncredited)

Awards
Academy Awards
Oscar Award - Best Actress in a Supporting Role: Helen Hayes
Golden Globe Awards (1971)
Golden Globe Award - Best Supporting Actress: Maureen Stapleton (Tied with Karen Black)
Laurel Awards (1971)
Golden Laurel - Best Supporting Female Performance: Helen Hayes

Sequels
Airport has three sequels: Airport 1975, Airport '77, and The Concorde... Airport '79.

Other websites

1970 drama movies
Academy Award winning movies
1970s American drama movies
Disaster movies
1970s English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies about aviation accidents or incidents
Movies about terrorism
Movies directed by Henry Hathaway
Movies directed by George Seaton
Universal Pictures movies

Airport (1970 movie)


The Haudenosaunee (also known as The Iroquois Confederacy) was formed around the Great Law of Peace Kaianere'kó:wa, a constitution detailing a shared value system which informs the policy and economics of their society.

Historically, the Haudenosaunee economy was based on communal production and combined elements of both horticulture and hunter-gatherer systems. Some have described the Iroquois economy as primitive communism. The tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy and other Northern Huron had their traditional territory in what is now New York State and the southern areas bordering the Great Lakes. The confederacy was originally composed of five tribes; the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca, who had created an alliance long before European contact. The Tuscarora were added as a sixth nation in the early eighteenth century after they migrated from North Carolina. The Huron peoples, located mostly in what is now Canada, were also Iroquoian-speaking and shared some culture, but were never part of the Iroquois.

The Iroquoian people were predominantly agricultural, harvesting the "Three Sisters" commonly grown by Native American groups: corn, beans, and squash. They developed certain cultural customs. Among these developments were ideas concerning the nature and management of property. The Iroquois developed a system very different from the now-dominant Western variety. This system was characterized by such components as common ownership of land, division of labor by gender, and trade mostly based on gift economy.

Contact with Europeans in the early 17th century had a profound impact on the economy of the Iroquoians. At first, they became important trading partners, but the expansion of European settlement upset the balance of the Iroquois economy. By 1800, following the American Revolutionary War, in which most of the nations supported the British and had to share their defeat, the Iroquois were reduced to reservations, primarily in New York in the United States, and Quebec and Ontario in Canada. They had to adapt their traditional economic system to dramatic changes. In the 20th century, some of the Iroquois nations in the United States have benefited from their sovereign status by founding gambling and recreation facilities, which have yielded greater revenues than some other enterprises. Individually, Iroquois has  also become part of the larger economies in cities off the reservation.

Land ownership

The Iroquois had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals. The Huron had "as much land as they need[ed]." As a result, the Huron could give families their own land and still have a large amount of excess land owned communally. Any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate and tend the fields. Once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. While the Huron did seem to have lands designated for the individual, the significance of this possession may be of little relevance; the placement of corn storage vessels in the longhouses, which contained multiple families in one kinship group, suggests the occupants of a given longhouse held all production in common.

The Iroquois had a similar communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation. The land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers' Council gathered. Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned and eventually punished by the Clan Mothers' Council by having the land redistributed to another clan. Land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the women's job to cultivate food and not the men's.

The Clan Mothers' Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans. Food from such lands, called kěndiǔ"gwǎ'ge' hodi'yěn'tho, would be used at festivals and large council gatherings.

Division of labor: agriculture and forestry
The division of labor reflected the complementary aspects common in Iroquois culture: The twin gods Sapling (East) and Flint (West) embodied the two complementary halves. Each gender had defined roles in labor to support the people, which complemented each other. Women did all work involving the field, including planting, cultivating and harvesting the crops; while men did all work involving the forest, including the manufacture of anything involving wood. The Iroquois men carried out hunting and fishing, trading, and fighting, while the women took care of farming, food gathering and processing, rearing of children, and housekeeping. This gendered division of labor was the predominant means of dividing work in Iroquois society. At the time of contact with Europeans, Iroquois women produced about 65% of the goods and the men 35%. The combined production of food made famine and hunger extremely rare; early Europeans settlers often envied the success of Iroquois food production.

The Iroquois system of work reflected their communal land system. Since the Iroquois owned property together, they worked together as well. The women performed difficult work in large groups, going from field to field helping one another work each other's land. Together they would sow the fields as a "mistress of the field" distributed a set amount of seeds to each of the women. The Iroquois women of each agricultural group would select an old but active member of their group to act as their leader for that year and agree to follow her directions. The women performed other work cooperatively as well. The women individually cut wood for family use, but their leader would oversee the collective carrying of the wood back to the village. The women's clans performed other work. According to Mary Jemison, a white woman who assimilated with the Seneca while young, the collective effort averted "every jealousy of one having done more or less work than another."

The Iroquois men also organized in a cooperative fashion. The men acted collectively during military actions. The other jobs of men, such as hunting and fishing, also involved cooperative elements. The men more often organized as a whole village rather than as a clan. The men organized hunting parties where they used extensive cooperation to kill a large amount of game. One firsthand account told of a hunting party that built a large brush fence in a forest to form a V. The hunters set a fire across from the open side of the V, forcing the animals to run towards the point where the hunters awaited them. They could kill one hundred deer at a time by such a plan.

The men also fished in large groups. Fishing expeditions included men in canoes using weirs and nets to cover entire streams and harvest large amounts of fish, sometimes a thousand in half of a day. A hunting or fishing party's takings were considered common property; they were divided among the party by the leader or taken to the village for a feast. Hunting and fishing were not always cooperative efforts, but the Iroquois generally did better in parties than as individuals.

Trade
The Iroquois traded excess corn and tobacco for the pelts from the tribes to the north and the wampum from the tribes to the east. The Iroquois used present-giving more often than any other mode of exchange. Present-giving reflected the reciprocity in Iroquois society. The exchange would begin with one clan giving another tribe or clan a present with the expectation of some sort of needed commodity being given in return. This form of trade ties to the Iroquois culture's tendency to share property and cooperate in labor. In all cases no explicit agreement is made, but one service is performed for the community or another member of the community's good with the expectation that the community or another individual would give back. External trade offered one of the few opportunities for individual enterprise in Iroquois society. A person who discovered a new trading route had the exclusive right to trade along the same route in the future. Often clans collectivized trading routes to gain a monopoly on a certain type of trade.

The arrival of Europeans created the opportunity for greatly expanded trade. Furs were in demand in Europe, and they could be acquired cheaply from Indigenous Peoples in exchange for manufactured goods the Indigenous Peoples could not make themselves. Trade did not always benefit the Natives. The British took advantage of the gift-giving culture. They showered the Iroquois with European goods, making them dependent on such items as rifles and metal axes. For a time, the access to guns gave the Mohawk and other Iroquois advantages over other tribes, and they entered trading seriously. The British primarily used these gifts to gain support among the Iroquois for fighting against the French.

The Iroquois also traded for alcohol, which the Europeans introduced. Eventually, this would have a very negative influence on their society, as they suffered a high rate of alcoholism. By 1753 Scarouady, an Oneida chief, petitioned the Governor of Pennsylvania to intervene in trade:
"Your Traders now bring scarce anything but Rum and Flour; they bring little powder and lead, or other valuable goods . . . and get all the skins that should go to pay the debts we have contracted for goods bought of the Fair Traders; by this means we not only ruin ourselves but them too. These wicked Whiskey Sellers, when they have once got the Indians in liquor, make them sell their very clothes from their backs. In short, if this practice be continued, we must be inevitably ruined."

Effect on Iroquois culture and society
The structure of the Iroquois economy created a unique property and work ethic. The threat of theft was almost nonexistent, since little was held by the individual except basic tools and implements that were so prevalent they had little value. The only goods worth stealing would have been wampum. In order for the Iroquois to succeed without an individual incentive, they had to develop a communal work ethic. Virtue became synonymous with productivity. The idealized Iroquois man was a good warrior and productive hunter while the perfect woman excelled in agriculture and housekeeping. By emphasizing an individual's usefulness to society, the Iroquois created a mindset that encouraged their members to contribute even though they received similar benefits no matter how hard they worked.

As a result of their communal system, the Iroquois had a strong tradition of autonomous responsibility. Iroquois men were taught to be self-disciplined, self-reliant, and responsible as well as stoic. The Iroquois attempted to eliminate any feelings of dependency during childhood and foster a desire for responsibility. At the same time, the child would have to participate in a communal culture, children were taught to think as individuals but work for the community.

Land management after the Europeans arrived
The Iroquois system of land management changed somewhat after encounter with the Europeans. The Mohawk were the first to deal with them and "sold" some land to settlers, although it is unlikely either side understood the other's conception of property.

After the American Revolutionary War, the victorious Americans forced the nations into reservations much reduced in size from their former territories, even those two, the Oneida and Onondaga, that had supported them. Most of the other Iroquois nations were forced to give up their territory and retreated to Canada, where they received some land in compensation from the Crown, in addition to existing settlements along the St. Lawrence River.

The Iroquois had a system of collectively owned land free to be used as needed by their members. While this system was not wholly collective, as land was distributed for use to individual family groups, the Iroquois lacked the Western conception of property as a commodity. Despite the influence of Western culture, the Iroquois have maintained a unique view of property over the years.

The contemporary Mohawk Doug George-Kanentiio sums up his perception of the Iroquois property view: The Iroquois have
"no absolute right to claim territory for purely monetary purposes. Our Creator gave us our aboriginal lands in trust with very specific rules regarding its uses. We are caretakers of our Mother Earth, not lords of the land. Our claims are valid only so far as we dwell in peace and harmony upon her."

In 1981 the Iroquois Council of Chiefs (or Haudenosaunee) expressed similar ideas. The Council distinguished the
"Western European concepts of land ownership" from the Iroquois view that "the earth is sacred" and "was created for all to use forever—not to be exploited merely for this present generation." Land is not just a commodity and "In no event is land for sale." The statement continues, "Under Haudenosaunee law, 'Gayanerkowa,' the land is held by the women of each clan. It is principally the women who are responsible for the land, who farm it, and who care for it for the future generations. When the Confederacy was formed, the separate nations formed one union. The territory of each nation became Confederacy land even though each nation continued to have a special interest in its historic territory." The Council's statement reflects its unique view of property among the Iroquois.

The system of the Grand River Iroquois (two Iroquois reservations in Canada) integrated the traditional Iroquois property structure with the new way of life after being confined to a reservation. The reservation was established under two deeds by the Crown in the 18th century following the American Revolutionary War. These deeds gave corporate ownership of the lands to the Six Nations of the Iroquois. Individuals were granted leases for a specific plot by the Confederacy. The Iroquois idea that land came into one's possession if cared for and reverted to public control if left alone was used in reservation property law. In one property dispute case, the Iroquois Council sided with a claimant who had made improvements and cultivated the land over one who had left it alone.

The natural resources of the land are considered to belong to the tribe as a whole and not to those who possessed the particular parcel. The Iroquois leased the right to extract stone from the lands in one instance and fixed royalties on all the production. After natural gas had been discovered on the reservation, the Six Nations took direct ownership of the natural gas wells. They paid persons who had wells on their land compensation only for damages done by gas extraction. This setup closely resembled the precontact land distribution system where the tribes owned the land and distributed it for use, but not unconditional ownership.

Modern economy

Many Iroquois have been fully integrated into the surrounding Western economy of the United States and Canada. For others, their economic involvement is more isolated in the reservation. Whether directly involved in the outside economy or not, most of the Iroquois economy is now greatly influenced by national and world economies. The Iroquois have been involved in the steel construction industry for over a hundred years, with many men from the Mohawk nations working on such high-steel projects as the Empire State Building and the World Trade Center.

Inside the reservations, which are sometimes isolated from larger cities, the economic situation has often been bleak. For instance, the U.S. side of the Mohawk St. Regis reservation in northern New York has had unemployment as high as 46 percent. However, in April of 1999, the St Regis Mohawks opened the Akwesasne Mohawk Casino. It was renovated in 2011 and 2012 to enlarge the hotel, amenities and gaming floor. The casino also employs tribal members and local community members.

But many reservations have successful businesses. The Seneca reservation contains the City of Salamanca, New York, a center of the hardwoods industry. The Seneca make use of their sovereignty to sell gasoline and cigarettes tax-free and run high-stakes bingo operations. The Senecas have also opened several Indian casinos, the Seneca Niagara Casino in Niagara Falls, New York and one in Salamanca. In 2007 the Seneca opened a third in Buffalo, the Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino.

The Oneida also operate casinos on their reservations in New York and Wisconsin. The Oneida are one of the largest employers in northeastern Wisconsin with over 3,000 employees, including 975 people in tribal government. The Tribe manages more than $16 million in federal and private grants, and a wide range of programs, including those authorized by the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act. The Oneida business ventures have brought millions of dollars into the community and improved the standard of living in the region.

See also
 Erie (tribe)
 Neutral Nation
 Primitive communism

Notes

References

External links
Encyclopedic entry on the Iroquois – contains decent economic information and links to the Iroquois nations
Carnegie Museum of Natural History – The Iroquois of the Northeast – Information on Iroquois including agriculture and steel construction.
A Mohawk Iroquois Village: An Exhibit at the New York State Museum – Dioramas of Iroquois Villages online with text

Iroquois-owned enterprises
Oneida Enterprises – businesses owned by the Oneida nation
Turning Stone Casino – run by the Oneida in Verona, NY.
Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel – run by the Seneca in Niagara Falls, NY
Seneca Allegany Casino – run by the Seneca in Salamanca, NY.

Iroquois
Economic systems

Economy of the Iroquois


Li Zicheng (22 September 1606 – 1645), born Li Hongji, nicknamed "Dashing King"or "Chuang King", Li was a Chinese Uprising leader. He was born in Mizhi County, Yulin, Shaanxi in the late Ming Dynasty.

In 1644, he entered and conquered Beijing.He enthroned in Beijing and became the Emperor of the Shun Dynasty.His dynasty didn't last a long time. In May 27 the same year, Manchu regent Dorgon defeated Uprising leader Li Zicheng of the Shun Dynasty at the Battle of Shanhai Pass, allowing the Manchus to enter and conquer Beijing. Li died in 1645, aged 39.

Li Zicheng


A model organism is a non-human species that is studied over many years, building up a lot of knowledge about it in order to understand fundamental biological phenomena. The hope is that discoveries made in the model will give insight into how other organisms work.

In particular, model organisms are widely used in animal testing to explore potential causes and treatments for human disease when experimenting on humans would be impossible or less ethical.

This strategy is made possible by the similarities of all living organisms. They are similar because of their common descent and the conservation of metabolic and developmental pathways and genes  over the course of evolution.

Model organisms in genetics

Drosophila melanogaster
Drosophila melanogaster was one of the first animals used for genetics. Today it is one of the most widely used and genetically best-known of all eukaryotic organisms.

All organisms use common genetic systems; understanding  transcription and replication in fruit flies helps to understand these processes in other eukaryotes, including humans.

Studies of X-linked traits confirmed that genes are found on chromosomes. Studies of linked traits led to the first maps of genetic loci on chromosomes. The first maps of Drosophila chromosomes were done by Alfred Sturtevant.

Drosophila melanogaster is one of the most studied organisms in biological research, particularly in genetics and developmental biology. Its complete genome was sequenced and first published in 2000.

Because great deal is known about its development from egg to larva to adult, it is a key model for developmental genetics, or evo-devo. The hox genes, or homeobox, which control development in metazoa, were worked out first of all in Drosophila.

Escherischia coli
In 1946, Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum first described the phenomenon known as bacterial conjugation using Escherichia coli as a model bacterium.

E. coli was an integral part of the first experiments to understand phage genetics, and early researchers, such as Seymour Benzer, used E. coli and phage T4 to understand the topography of gene structure. Before Benzer's research, it was not known whether the gene was a linear structure, or if it had a branching pattern.

E. coli was one of the first organisms to have its genome sequenced; the complete genome of E. coli K12 was published by Science in 1997.

The long-term evolution experiments using E. coli, begun by Richard Lenski in 1988, have allowed direct observation of major evolutionary shifts in the laboratory.

Other model organisms
 Viruses
 Phage Lamda
 Tobacco Mosaic Virus
 Protists
 Emiliania huxleyi: coccolithophore alga, extensively studied as a model phytoplankton species
 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
 Fungi
 Aspergillus nidulans
 Neurospora crassa
 Plants
 Arabidopsis thalliana
 Zea mays Maize
 Pisum sativum, Pea
 Animals
 Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode
 Tribolium castaneum, flour beetle
 Drosophila melanogaster
 Mus musculus, the mouse
 Rattus norvegicus, the Norwegian rat

References

Cell biology

Model organism


Alberto Socarrás Estacio, (Manzanillo, 19 September 1908 – New York City, 26 August 1987), was a Cuban-American flautist who played both Cuban music and jazz.

Socarras started learning the flute in 1915 with his mother, Dolores Estacio, and later joined the provincial music conservatory at Santiago de Cuba. He completed his studies at the Timothy Music Conservatory in New York, gaining the equivalent title to a doctorate in music. In the middle 1920s he moved to Havana to join the theatre orchestra of Arquimedes Pous, where his sister Estrella was playing the violin. He also played in one or two early Cuban jazz bands (Early Cuban jazz) before moving to the United States in 1927.

In the US he recorded with Clarence Williams in 1927 with his first flute solo taking place on "Shooting the Pistol" on the Paramount label that year, making him the earliest known jazz flute soloist (earlier even than Wayman Carver). He played with The Blackbirds revue between 1928 and 1933, and plays on Lizzie Miles's 1928 recording "You're Such a Cruel Papa to Me". In 1933 he played with Benny Carter, then led the all-female Cuban band Anacaona on a tour of Europe in 1934. In 1935 he played with Sam Wooding and led his own bands from 1935 into the 1940s; his sidemen included Edgar Sampson and Mongo Santamaría, and Cab Calloway as a singer. He also played with Erskine Hawkins in 1937. He made one recording session in 1935, with four numbers. He also recorded for RCA Victor in 1947 and SMC Pro-Arte c. 1950. He recorded again in 1955, cutting Afro Cuban versions of four Duke Ellington compositions. In 1956, he recorded two LPs for Decca. In 1959, he appeared on the exotic "Tambo!" LP by Tito Puente for RCA Victor.

In the 1950s he took part in Rod Serling's The Twilight Zone on TV, and offered concerts of cult music at the Carnegie Hall in New York. In the 60s he dedicated himself to teaching, but also made some recordings. In 1983 he was filmed by Gustavo Paredes playing the flute in a TV documentary Música.

References

Scott Yanow, [ Albert Socarras] at Allmusic
Leonard Feather and Ira Gitler, The Biographical Encyclopedia of Jazz. Oxford, 1999, p. 516.

1908 births
1987 deaths
Cuban jazz musicians
Jazz flautists
Cuban flautists
Cuban bandleaders
20th-century flautists

Alberto Socarras


The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (/tʌsˈkiːɡiː/) was a clinical study. The study was done between 1932 and 1972 by the United States Public Health Service. Its goal was to study how syphilis progressed (got worse) if it was not treated. The study's subjects (the people who were being studied) were poor African American sharecroppers. They were told that they were receiving free health care from the U.S. government.

This experiment is infamous because none of the men being studied were told that they had syphilis.  Even after the 1940s, when doctors realized that penicillin could cure syphilis, the men were not given this cure, or any other treatment. The men were not told that they were not getting real treatment, or that a cure was available. This study raised many important questions about medical ethics.

Background
In the 1930s, when the study started, syphilis was a very serious health problem in the United States.  In fact, syphilis had been a serious health problem throughout all of history. Syphilis gets worse over time. It can be very painful. If it is not treated, it causes brain damage and death. In the 1930s, there was no cure for syphilis. The treatments that were used did not work well and some were poisonous. Doctors did not understand syphilis. Because of this they did not have any way to help people with the disease.

There had been very few studies done on how syphilis affected people. One study was done in Norway in 1928, but it studied only white men. In the 1930s, people believed that syphilis affected people of different races in different ways. Doctors thought that African Americans' cardiovascular system was more affected by syphilis than the central nervous system. The Tuskegee study group decided to study how syphilis affected African Americans.  They reasoned that they could not cure or treat people with syphilis anyway, and that they would learn things that would help doctors understand syphilis better.

The experiment

Beginnings
The Public Health Service started working on the Tuskegee syphilis experiment in 1932 during the Great Depression.  Tuskegee University, a college in Alabama that was open to African-American students, also helped with the study. They helped because they thought the study would improve public health for poor people in the area.

For the study, researchers signed up a total of 600 African American men from Macon County, Alabama. A total of 399 of these men had syphilis before the study began. The remaining 201 did not have syphilis.  (In research, this healthy group is called a "control group"). Researchers wanted to compare the difference between people with and without syphilis. The men were given free health care, meals, and free burial insurance for being in the study.

The researchers' original goal was to study the effects of syphilis for just six months. At first, they studied the men in the experiment for six to eight months. They were then given the only treatments that were known at the time. These included arsphenamine (which is now used as a chemotherapy), ointments made of mercury and bismuth. These treatments were all very poisonous. Some treatments helped a little while others made things worse.

Money for treatment
The Tuskegee study received money to treat the men in the study from the Rosenwald Fund. This was a major organization from Chicago whose purpose was philanthropy. Specifically, they supported improving black education and developing communities in the South.

In 1928, the Rosenwald Fund had worked with Public Health Services in a study of over 2,000 black workers in Mississippi's Delta Pine and Land Company. The study's goal was to see how common syphilis was in this group. The Rosenwald Fund helped provide treatment for 25% of the workers who had tested positive for syphilis. However, in 1929, the Stock Market Crash happened. The Great Depression also began. The Rosenwald Fund said they could no longer pay for medicine to treat the Tuskegee men.

The study continues without treatment
After funding (money) for treatment was lost, the study was continued.  The study's subjects were never told that they would never get treatment.  In fact, the men were told they were being treated for "bad blood."  "Bad blood" was a local word that people used to describe different diseases, including syphilis, anemia, and fatigue.

Researchers started using tricks and lying to the men in the study, without caring about medical ethics or the men's rights.  For example, researchers wanted to do lumbar punctures ("spinal taps") on the men to measure the effects of syphilis.  These spinal taps were dangerous and very painful.  To make sure that the men would come get the spinal taps, the researchers sent all 400 subjects a letter titled "Last Chance for Special Free Treatment."  This was a lie; the spinal taps were not treatment.

All of the study's participants also had to have an autopsy after death in order to receive funeral benefits (money given to their families to pay for a funeral).

After penicillin was discovered as a cure in the 1940s, researchers did not give penicillin to any study participants.  They also did not tell any of the participants about penicillin.  Many patients were lied to and given placebo treatments so that researchers could keep studying how syphilis affected the men.  The researchers did this even though they knew that without treatment, the syphilis would eventually kill the men.

Researchers keep patients from getting treatment
During World War II, 250 of the Tuskegee men registered for the draft.  These men were given medical exams by the military, and were diagnosed as having syphilis.  They were ordered to get treatment for syphilis before they could be taken into the military. But the Tuskegee study's researchers tried to keep these men from getting treatment.  A Public Health Service worker was quoted at the time saying: "So far, we are keeping the known positive patients [the men with syphilis] from getting treatment."

By 1947, penicillin had become the normal treatment for syphilis.  It was not just a treatment, but a cure.  The United States government created several public health programs to help people get the cure.  The government formed "rapid treatment centers" where people could go for penicillin.  The governments goal was to eradicate syphilis (to make it not exist any more).  But when these programs came to Macon County, study researchers kept the Tuskegee men from participating.

End of the study
The study continued until 1972, when Peter Buxton, who also worked for the Public Health Service, gave information about the experiment to a reporter. This caused the study to end, on November 16, 1972. By that time, all of the Tuskegee men with syphilis had gotten no real treatment for 40 years.

By the end of the study in 1972, only 74 of the test subjects were alive. Of the original 399 men, 28 had died of syphilis. Another 100 were dead of related complications. A total of 40 of their wives had been infected and 19 of their children were born with congenital syphilis.

Related pages
 Syphilis
 Medical ethics
 Penicillin

References

Public health
Research methods

Tuskegee syphilis experiment


Events during the year 1111 in Italy.

Deaths
 Roger Borsa
 Richard II of Gaeta
 Berthold of Parma
 Felicia Cornaro

Sources
Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016-1130. Longmans: London, 1967.
Norwich, John Julius. The Kingdom in the Sun 1130-1194. Longman: London, 1970.
Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Cambridge University Press: 1992.
Chronology of the ipati, consuls, dukes, princes, kings, and emperors who governed Gaeta from the 9th to the 13th Century.
The Coins of Gaeta.
Gregorovius, Ferdinand. Rome in the Middle Ages Vol. IV Part 1. 1905.
  Staley, Edgcumbe: The dogaressas of Venice : The wives of the doges. London : T. W. Laurie

Years of the 12th century in Italy
Italy
Italy

1111 in Italy


A land grant  is a gift of real estate - land or privileges - made by a government or other authority as a reward for services to an individual, especially as rewards for military service. Grants of land are also awarded to individuals and companies to help develop unused land in relatively unpopulated countries.

Roman soldiers were given rewards at the end of their service including cash or land (praemia). Augustus fixed the amount in AD 5 at 3000 denarii and by the time of Caracalla it had risen to 5000 denarii.

In old California, the King of Spain frequently gave land to people he liked, or who helped him.

References

Business
Property

Land grant


A duvet is a type of bedding used as a blanket, on a bed. They are normally made of a cotton cover, filled with feathers and down or man-made fibres such as polyester, microfibre and hollowfibre. They are soft and comfortable, and keeps the person who's under it warm when sleeping. Additional bed throws (sometimes called a 'snug') may be added in the autumn/fall to add an extra layer of warmth.

Togs

The thickness of the duvet is measured by a tog rating. The higher the tog, the warmer the duvet will be. The warmest duvet on the market is currently a 15 tog. Most people who have heated houses will use a 4.5 tog duvet all year round, but sometimes in the autumn/winter people will upgrade to either a 7.0 or a 9.0 tog.

References

Cloth

Duvet


Thornapple Township is a civil township of Barry County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 7,884 at the 2010 census. It is the most populous township in Barry County.

Geography
Thornapple Township is located in the northwest corner of Barry County. It includes the village of Middleville, population 3,319. Michigan state highway M-37 passes through the center of the township, leading southeast  to Hastings, the county seat, and  north to downtown Grand Rapids. The Thornapple River, a tributary of the Grand River, flows from south to north through the middle of the township.

According to the United States Census Bureau, Thornapple Township has a total area of , of which  is land and , or 1.80%, is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,685 people, 2,292 households, and 1,835 families residing in the township.  The population density was .  There were 2,383 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the township was 96.89% White, 0.15% African American, 0.42% Native American, 0.46% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.63% from other races, and 1.39% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.41% of the population.

There were 2,292 households, out of which 43.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.1% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.9% were non-families. 16.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.91 and the average family size was 3.29.

In the township the population was spread out, with 31.7% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 21.2% from 45 to 64, and 7.6% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.7 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.6 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $53,333, and the median income for a family was $58,171. Males had a median income of $44,212 versus $26,861 for females. The per capita income for the township was $20,782.  About 3.7% of families and 4.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.8% of those under age 18 and 9.8% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
Thornapple Township official website

Townships in Barry County, Michigan
Grand Rapids metropolitan area
Townships in Michigan

Thornapple Township, Michigan


Digitalcourage – known until November 2012 as FoeBuD () – is a German privacy and digital rights organisation. Under the motif of preserving "a world worth living in the digital age", Digitalcourage campaigns for civil and human rights, consumer protection, privacy, freedom of information and related issues. The group has links with organisations such as the German Working Group against Data Retention () and the Chaos Computer Club, and it is a member of the umbrella organisation European Digital Rights.

Campaigns

The group is known for organising the German Big Brother Awards. These negative awards recognise "companies, institutions and persons who act in a prominent and sustained way to invade people's privacy or leak (personal) data to third parties". An annual award ceremony featuring "winners" in various categories is organised by Digitalcourage.

To highlight the privacy implications of bonus or customer "loyalty" cards, the organisation issued the so-called "Privacy Card". Its design mirrored the popular "Payback" card and it bore the number of a regular card registered in FoeBuD's name. Users collected bonus points on behalf of FoeBuD, sharing one and the same customer profile. After 2,000 of these cards were being used, Payback disabled FoeBuD's registration and card contract.

Since October 2003, Digitalcourage has been active on the issue of RFID and founded a campaign called "StopRFID" to accompany the introduction of this technology from a critical perspective.

FoeBuD has organised or supported various complaints at the German Constitutional Court against disputed laws, such as those on data retention, a central database for employees' wages, or Internet blocking.

FoeBuD was a co-founder of the German Working Group against Data Retention and supports an annual demonstration focusing on security measures that restrict civil liberties, under the name "Freedom Not Fear".

In response to the threat to anonymity posed by data retention, Digitalcourage is running a Tor exit node on a rented server. The organisation also makes and sells the PrivacyDongle, a USB pen drive that can be used to run Tor Browser as a portable app, i.e. without installing it under Windows or MacOS.
As part of the campaign against the now abandoned law to introduce Internet blocking (Zugangserschwerungsgesetz), which would have been implemented by DNS poisoning, Digitalcourage is operating a public "anti-censorship" DNS server. Since 2018, its IP address is 184.108.40.206 (= dns2.digitalcourage.de). Since December 2020, they have provided a third DNS server (IP address 220.127.116.11 = dns3.digitalcourage.de, port 853) exclusively for encrypted/private DNS according to the DNS over TLS standard.

Earlier activities: mailbox systems

In 1987, a mailbox (bulletin board) system named BIONIC was created and operated by FoeBuD members. Objectives were to run a mailbox without censorship and to deny unlimited rights to the system's administrators, regulating conflicts through the community instead. BIONIC became the birthplace of several early mailbox networks. The mailbox and linked networks were an early "home on the net" for many groupings in the left or "alternative" political spectrum.

Eric Bachman, a BIONIC user and FoeBuD member, instigated the ZaMir Transnational Network in 1991 in response to the Yugoslav wars, which were beginning at the time. Za mir means "for peace", and the network served as a low-cost and simple link between peace groups in that region, as a form of nonviolent resistance. The BIONIC software proved useful under the limited resources available; e.g. in Sarajevo, 1,500 users were served using just 3 telephone lines. Other mailboxes existed in Ljubljana (Slovenia), Zagreb (Croatia), Belgrade (Serbia), Tuzla (Bosnia) and Priština (Kosovo).

Origins and name

FoeBuD co-founders Rena Tangens and padeluun had been active in the punk rock and media art scenes and established a gallery named Art d'Ameublement in Bielefeld in 1984. The gallery hosted the Chaos Computer Club as an exhibit in 1985, and a group of local enthusiasts for then-current forms of computer communication, hacking and social or philosophical matters formed around the gallery. This led to a monthly event called "Public Domain" that was both a meeting for practical research and a talk and discussion series.

Eventually, an association with charity status was formed. The organisation's full name, "association for the promotion of public mobile and immobile data exchange" (), and the acronym FoeBuD were conceived as a parody of the language used by the telecommunications operator Deutsche Bundespost, which was then the state authority and monopolist for telephone and postal communications. Telecommunications equipment was heavily regulated on the German network, and the devices that were available often had names and acronyms that appeared bureaucratic and cumbersome. As FoeBuD's activities and reputation spread outside the hacker scene and the historic background has largely been lost, the name was often perceived as just obscure.

As the organisation was nearing its 25th anniversary, it was perceived that the name FoeBuD had turned from an in-joke into an obstacle for the group's publicity. A new name was sought, and eventually "Digitalcourage" was chosen and announced on 17 November 2012.

Recognition

The ZaMir network was chosen for an award named "sense/information" () by the Green parliamentary party in the German parliament (Bundestag) in 1998. FoeBuD received a nationally reputed award, the Theodor Heuss medal, for its civil rights activities in 2008.

Sources

Organizations established in 1987
Computer law organizations
Political advocacy groups in Germany
Bielefeld
Privacy organizations
Politics and technology
Internet-related activism
Intellectual property activism
Civil liberties advocacy groups
Internet privacy
Freedom of expression organizations
Access to Knowledge movement
1987 establishments in Germany

Digitalcourage