The acute accent ( ´ ) is a mark in many written languages.  It is usually added above a vowel to show how to say it.  Acute accents are sometimes added to consonants too. Sometimes, the acute accent changes the sound of the whole word by giving it stress in a sentence. This accent is part of many modern languages that use Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek alphabets. The acute accent is one of many similar marks called diacritics.

History
The acute accent was first used in Ancient Greece. It told the speaker when to say a syllable with a high pitch. Another early accent mark was the apex. In Latin the apex marked long vowels.

Uses

Sounds
The acute accent is mainly used to tell readers about the sound of vowels in words. Sometimes it is very important to the meaning because it shows the difference between two similar words. For example, resume may mean to start again, but résumé is a summary of someone's work and school experience. Some languages use the accent to show the same changes in sounds, but others use it differently. The acute accent may show:
 the vowel is stressed;
 the vowel height of some stressed vowels in many Romance languages;
 long vowels;
 the tone in languages such as Vietnamese or Mandarin Chinese written in pinyin;
 or, the pitch, or high accent, in dictionaries or language learning textbooks.

Expanding the alphabet

Some languages use the accent to actually make new letters. Both Faroese and Icelandic add the acute accent to all of their vowels to make new letters. These letters, á, í, ó, ú and ý (plus é in Icelandic) are separate letters with different pronunciations. In Turkmen, the letter  is a consonant: .

French words in other languages
Many languages have borrowed words from French. Many Norwegian words which came from French keep an acute accent. Some examples are: allé, kafé, idé, komité.  Swedish examples include café and resumé (noun). Examples in English include: attaché, canapé, cliché, communiqué, café, décor, fiancé, passé, toupée and touché. However, sometimes writers forget or choose not to use the accent mark.

Writing other languages in English
Some languages such as Arabic, Persian, or Japanese do not use alphabets. Some writers use the acute accent to tell how the words should sound when words from these languages are written in English. This is more common in older books and less common today.

Technical notes
The ISO-8859-1 and Windows-1252 character encodings included á, é, í, ó, ú, ý. They also had how letters and accents looked when they were written as capital letters. Unicode has many more letters with the acute accent.

Microsoft Office
To make an accented letter in a Microsoft Office software (Word, PowerPoint, Excel, etc.), users hold the  key and press the apostrophe  key once. Then, let the  key go, and press the letter they want.

Macintosh OS X
On Apple Macintosh computers, users press option-e and then the vowel. Vowels can also be capitalised. For example, users make á by pressing option-e and then 'a'. Pressing Option-e and then Shift-a makes Á.

Web
On Wikipedia, users make these symbols by clicking on a link in a box. Some other websites work the same way.

Related pages
 Circumflex accent
 Font
 Grave accent
 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
 Typography

References

Other websites
Diacritics Project – All you need to design a font with correct accents
Keyboard Help – Learn how to create world language accent marks and other diacriticals on a computer
All Accent Letters - Get accent letters collection with ALT code

Alphabetic diacritics

Acute accent


Antonio de Ferraris (, ; c. 1444 – 12 November 1517), also known by his epithet Galateo (, ), was an Italian scholar, academic, doctor and humanist, of Greek descent.

Life

Antonius De Ferraris was born in 1444 in Galatone, located in Salento, in the province of Lecce (Apulia, in southern Italy) to a family of Greek descent. Both his great-grandfather and grandfather were priests in the Eastern Orthodox Church and were fluent in both Greek and Latin literature. His father was also fluent in both Greek and Latin. His family was part of the historical Greek community of Southern Italy. He later wrote of his pride to be descended from Greek ancestors and priests and of the Greek traditions of his province proclaiming: "We are not ashamed of our race, Greeks we are, and we glory in it"

He was commonly called "il Galateo", an epithet he took from the city of his origin Galatone. He used the nickname in almost every document, and the name was also inherited by his children and grandchildren, it ultimately replaced his original family name of "De Ferraris".

After receiving his education from a maternal uncle who was abbot of the monastery of St. Nicola Pergoleto, Galateus was sent to study in the Gymnasium of Nardò, a center of theological culture which also taught the humanities.  Here he  learned Greek and Latin texts, and hereinafter guidelines on philosophical and medical matters which came to characterize his cultural journey.

At sixteen he went to Naples on Etiquette for the first time, in order to pursue studies in medicine and philosophy and then to practice as a doctor.  In the following years he returned to Naples several times, and received medical training, and studies of humanism from some of the leading cultural representatives including Antonio Beccadelli, Giovanni Pontano and Giacomo Sannazaro.

Galateus first approached to the cultural environments of Catalan-Aragonese Naples in the 1460s and by 1471 was part of the Accademia Pontaniana, and during that period he became friends with the Venetian humanist Ermolao Barbaro. This student shared fully the method of investigation, the distrust of the sterile disputes of philosophers over the Alps, and he argued the need to read the classics in bare text, without the use of exegetical apparatus.

On 3 August 1474 Galateus received his "Privilegium artibus et medicine" under the guidance of Girolamo Castelli in the Studio of Ferrara. Following this Galateus alternated his residence more or less between Naples, Gallipoli and Lecce. In the decade of 1470-1480 Galateus lived more permanently in Salento, where in 1478 he married Maria Lubelli dei baroni of Sanarica and together they had five children, Antonino, Betta, Galieno, Lucrezia and Francesca.  In 1480-81, during the Ottoman invasion of Otranto, Lecce, Galateus took refuge in the countryside and spent long periods in the villa he had purchased near Trepuzzi where he could concentrate on his study and contemplation.  Galateus observed how the inhabitants of Kallipoli (Gallipoli in Apulia) as still conversing in their original Greek mother tongue, he indicated that the Greek classical tradition had remained alive in this region of Italy and that the population is probably of Lacedaemonian (Spartan) stock.

In 1490 he once again returned to Naples at the invitation of King Ferdinand of Aragon, who offered him a job as a court doctor, there he associated with Giovanni Pontano. It was during this time that the French invaded under king Charles VIII. The fall of the Catalan-Aragonese dynasty followed and King Ferdinand of Aragon, a friend of Galatues was exiled, accusations of malice were made against him thus motivating Galatues to farewell the Neapolitan academics and return permanently to Salento.

Galateus tried to revive him education lessons in the Accademia lupiensis in Lecce or Bari in the small court of Isabella of Aragon, daughter of Alfonso II of Naples, there he exchanged letters in later years with the latest generation of academics including Belisario Acquaviva, Pietro Summonte, Crisostomo.

In 1510 Galateus visited Pope Julius II, in Rome with a manuscript copy of the donation Constantine extracted from the library of San Nicola di Casole in Otranto. Galateus returned to Salento for the final time where he spent his last years between Gallipoli and Lecce. And in Lecce, in his home indicated epigraph "Apollini Aesculapio et Musis". Antonio died in Lecce in his native province of Otranto on 12 November 1517.

Literary works

The most important of de Ferraris' works  is the De situ Japigiae, written between 1506 and 1511 but  first printed in 1558 in Basel at the expense of the Marquis of Oria Giovan Bernardino Bonifacio.  Reprinted in Naples in 1624, it amended some critical steps toward the Catholic Church hierarchy. Other editions and translations into various languages followed.

See also
Byzantine scholars in Renaissance
Griko language

References

1444 births
1517 deaths
People from the Province of Lecce
Greek Renaissance humanists
Italian people of Greek descent
Greek librarians
Italian librarians
Greek theologians
15th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians
15th-century writers in Latin
16th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians
15th-century Italian writers
16th-century Italian writers
16th-century male writers

Antonio de Ferraris


George Washington is a marble bust portrait of George Washington, done in the style of a Roman emperor, by the Italian sculptor Giuseppe Ceracchi. It was created as part of a campaign by Ceracchi to build a larger monument to Washington. The bust was thought by many to be one of the most lifelike. It was later used as a model of Washington for works by other sculptors and engravers.

History
In the spring of 1791, Ceracchi came to Philadelphia, then the seat of the United States government, in an attempt to get a commission from Congress for a "Monument designed to perpetuate the Memory of American Liberty" featuring an equestrian statue of Washington. While waiting for congressional action, he made bust portrait models of several of the founding fathers, such as John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, and Alexander Hamilton. Initially, Washington did not want to pose for the sculptor, but eventually did so in late 1791, early 1792. Ceracchi left for Europe in 1792, and then returned to Philadelphia in 1794. He then had Washington sit for him again in 1795 to finish the marble bust he sculpted while in Italy, copied from the earlier plaster portrait bust he sculpted from life late 1791, early 1792.

Description
Ceracchi portrayed Washington in the style of a Roman emperor, with short wavy hair, wearing a toga, which is pinned by a rosette brooch.

Inscription
The original work is inscribed on the back in Latin, "CERACCHI FACIEBAT PHILADELPHIAE, 1795" ("Ceracchi made this in Philadelphia, 1795").

Legacy
Washington refused to accept the gift of this bust from Ceracchi in 1795, though it was displayed in the president's residence until the sculptor presented him with a bill of $1,500 for it that spring, at which point the bust was sent back to Ceracchi. However, the bust was then bought by the Spanish minister, Josef de Jaudenes y Nebot, and shipped to Spain. It was next bought by Richard W. Meade, an art collector, who brought it back to Philadelphia. After his death, it was acquired by Gouverneur Kemble of Cold Spring, New York. Subsequently it was in the collection of the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. In 1904, it was purchased by John Lambert Cadwalader. After his death in 1914, it was bequeathed to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it is now displayed in the American Wing.

In 1809, Thomas Appleton, an American consul in Italy, acquired the original plaster portrait bust. Later, this was used by the Italian sculptor Massimiliano Ravenna to create several marble copies. About 1816, one of these was bought by the White House for $80 and is now located there.

In December 1815, North Carolina commissioned a statue of Washington by Antonio Canova. Thomas Jefferson recommended that he use this bust by Ceracchi as a model for the head. The statue was delivered in 1821 and displayed in the rotunda of the North Carolina State House, but both were destroyed by fire in 1831.

The bust was also used as a model for engravings of Washington. One such engraving was included in the Life of George Washington by Washington Irving.

Gallery

References

External links

1795 sculptures
Washington
Busts of presidents of the United States
Ceracchi
Washington
Marble sculptures in New York City
Sculptures in the Metropolitan Museum of Art

George Washington (Ceracchi)


"Umbrella" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It features American rapper Jay-Z. It is the lead single from Rihanna's  third studio album, Good Girl Gone Bad. It was written by Jay-Z, Terius Nash and Christopher Stewart. It was released on March 29, 2007 as a single and digital download. It was very successful worldwide reaching number one in multiple countries. The song is 4 minutes and 35 seconds long.

Background and single release
The songwriters of "Umbrella" offered the song to a number of labels before Rihanna finally accepted and recorded it. The song was first offered by Britney Spears but she turned it down. Although it was released officially on March 29, 2007, it was released in some parts of the United States on March 28. In the United Kingdom, the single was released as a digital download on May 14 and as a physical single on May 28.

Music video
The music video for "Umbrella" was directed by Chris Applebaum on April 13, 2007. It premiered on April 26 at the thisisrihanna.com website. The video was released on May 11, and reached the number one spot for eight weeks.

The video features Jay-Z rapping in the beginning while in a rain of sparks. Rihanna is then shown singing in a steamy place. In the first chorus, Rihanna walks around en pointe while in the rain. In the second verse, she is seen dancing with an umbrella in a different place. Later, she is painted silver and posing in several positions while nude. At the end of the video, Rihanna is again dancing with an umbrella while in a shower of sparks falling like rain.

Remixes
A number of remixes were made for the song. Lil' Mama is featured in one remix. Chris Brown performed an answer song with different lyrics, called "Cinderella."

Chart performance
"Umbrella" reached the number one spot in a number of countries. It topped the charts in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Poland, Austria, Belgium, Norway and Switzerland at the same time. It peaked at the top spot in the United Kingdom for ten weeks in a row from May 20 to July 29, 2007. It was the longest running number one song since "Love Is All Around" by Wet Wet Wet in 1994 (that song spent 15 weeks). It was knocked off the number one spot in the UK by Timbaland's "The Way I Are".

The song's reign at number one in the UK happened when the country was hit by extreme rainfall and flooding, which led some people to jokingly suggest the two events were related, calling it the "Rihanna Curse". Interestingly in Greece (the single's worst performing market) "Umbrella" was released at a time when people were suffering through a summer of several heatwaves topping 45C/113F and the worst forest fires of modern history, killing 60. The song only reached number fourteen in the Greek singles chart.

"Umbrella" was at number one in the American Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks and in the Australian ARIA Charts for six weeks.

Other websites

2007 songs
Rihanna songs
Jay-Z songs
Manic Street Preachers songs
McFly songs
Pop songs
Hip hop songs
R&B songs
Billboard Hot 100 number one songs

Umbrella (song)


Hitopadesa is a collection of short stories. It was originally written in Sanskrit. It is very similar to another Sanskrit book named Panchatantra. It contains fables with both animal and human characters.

The book was written many centuries before. Its stories are now well known in different parts of the world.

The work has been translated into most of the major languages of the world. An English translation, rendered by Sir Edwin Arnold , then principal of Puna College, Pune, India, was published in London in 1861.

Short stories
Sanskrit
12th-century books
Indian literature

Hitopadesha


Peregrine White (16201704) was a child of William and Susanne White and the brother of Resolved White.  Peregrine was born in 1620  aboard the ship Mayflower.  He died in what is now known as Marshfield, Massachusetts on July 20, 1704 at the age of 83 years and 8 months.  White was the first baby born on the Mayflower as it was docked ouside Plymouth Colony.

White's parents came to America to be able to practice their religious beliefs. The name Peregrine name means: "one who journeys to foreign lands", "traveler", or "pilgrim."  White's father, William White, died in 1621 and his mother Susanna, married Edward Winslow, another Mayflower passenger.  The family grew and White had five step-brothers and sisters.  One of his step-brothers became Plymouth Colony Governor Josiah Winslow.

In Plymouth Colony
In 1636, the family, now numbering 6 - Edward and Susanna White Winslow, Resolved and Peregrine White, and the two children born to Edward and Susanna, Josias and Elizabeth Winslow - moved to the new settlement of Marshfield.

White served in the militia at age 16.  White became a lieutenant and then a captain. He was also a farmer.  At some point he became a representative to the General Court.<ref>Pilgrim Hall Museum Peregrine White [http://www.pilgrimhall.org/whitep.htm] </ref> In 1637 and 1642 it is written Miles Standish shall lead those forces  and among the names of who will serve is Mr. Prince and Peregrine White''

In 1651, Lt. Peregrine White was elected surveyor of highways for Marshfield. In 1652 William Bassett Sr. of Duxburrow gave his son-in-law Lt. Peregrine White forty acres of land.  On the same day, June 3, 1652, Peregrine White became a freeman which meant he had the right to vote.

On October 2, 1658 White was chosen to the council of war. In 1659 Peregrine went to Kennebec Trading Post.  Peregrine White (was) one of the deputies able to supervise the trading at Kennebecke.  There was some troubles with the Indians

On June 16, 1662 William Bassett Sr. gave his lands to his two sons, Peregrine White and Nathaniel Bassett.

On 3 June 1662 Peregrine was chosen deputy for Marshfield. On October 3, 1665 Lt. Peregrine White was granted 200 acres because he was the first Englishman born in these parts. and on March 4, 1673/4 Lt. Peregrine White was granted another 100 acres.

On May 22, 1696 Captain Peregrine White was admitted into the Marshfield Church.  He was 78.  White traveled to England with Winslow, but returned to Massachusetts before his death.

Peregrine married Sarah Bassett. They had seven children together. The names of their children are:
Daniel, an unnamed child who died young, Jonathan, Peregrine, Sarah, Sylvanus and Mercy.

Sarah, the mother, died in 1711.

Peregrine White died in 1704, dying at what is now known as Marshfield, Massachusetts.

References

1620s births
1704 deaths
Mayflower passengers

Peregrine White


Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg (יעקב צבי מקלנבורג) was a Ashkenazi rabbi and scholar of the 19th century, best known as author of the Torah commentary Hakketav Vehakkabbalah (Haksav Vehakaboleh).

Biography
He was born in 1785 (5545 in the Hebrew calendar) in Lissa (Leszno), in the province of Posen, Germany, in the family of Rabbi Gamliel.  At the time, Lissa was a famous center of Torah studies, and Mecklenburg began studying Torah as a student of the local Rav, Zechariah Mendel, a friend and correspondent of Rabbi Akiva Eger. Zechariah Mendel was the son of David Tebla, the previous Rav of Lissa.

R. Mecklenburg initially thereafter went into business. In 1831, at the age of 46, following commercial difficulties, he decided to quit business and was offered the rabbinical position in the city of Königsberg, East Prussia. At that time, Königsberg Jews were under the increasing influence of the Haskalah, a reform movement, which Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg strongly opposed. Together with the Malbim, he publicly opposed Reform Judaism's 1844 Braunschweig convention. In the same period, he wrote Haketav VehaKabbalah, his own commentary to the Torah.

He served as Rabbi in Königsberg, for the rest of his life, for 34 years (1831–65). Before his death, he ordered that no eulogies be given at his funeral. In his will, he requested that Haketav VehaKabbalah be read after the public Torah reading, during the first 30 days of mourning.

In the opinion of others, Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi studied directly under Rabbi Akiva Eiger. He mentions in his Haketav VehaKabbaleh Rabbi A. Eiger a few times as 'my Mentor and Teacher'. Example: In Leviticus 27:32, he states: I asked my Mentor and Teacher Rabbi Akiva Eger, etc.

Works

Haketav VehaKabbalah (alt. HaKsav VeHaKabalah; Heb. הכתב והקבלה: The Written [Torah] and the [Oral] Tradition) was first published in 1839. Mecklenburg's intent was "to demonstrate the indivisibility of the written Torah and its counterpart, the oral Torah". His explanations thus connect the literal meaning (peshat) to the hidden meaning (derash), focusing on the traditional Jewish sources (the Mishna, the Talmud, and the Midrash). The commentary draws on that of the Vilna Gaon and Shadal and occasionally includes contemporary non-traditional sources such as Julius Fürst and the Biurists. See Oral Torah#In rabbinic literature and commentary.

Other works include:
Iyun Tefillah -  a commentary on the Siddur, usually coupled with Derech HaChaim written by R. Yaakov Lorberbaum of Lisa.
Hishtapchut HaNefesh  - viduy (confessional prayers) for the eve of Yom Kippur.

References

External links
Rabbi Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg - "The Author of Haketav Vehakabbalah", Hevrat Pinto
Jacob Tzvi Mecklenburg, Etz Hayim

19th-century German rabbis
Chief rabbis of cities
German Orthodox rabbis
Bible commentators
1785 births
1865 deaths
People from Königsberg

Yaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg


An agonist is a type of chemical known as a ligand. It binds to a receptor. It activates (switches on) the receptor to produce a response.

An agonist causes an action. There are also antagonists which block the action of the agonists, and there are inverse agonists which cause an action opposite to that of the agonist.

This is typical of the systems which regulate the body. Being able to control activity is the basis of homeostasis.

Types of agonists
Receptors can be activated by either endogenous or exogenous agonists. Both types result in a biological response. Endogenous agonists include hormones and neurotransmitters. Exogenous agonists include drugs.

A substance which causes the same bodily responses, but does not bind to the same receptor is called a physiological agonist.

Examples
The endogenous agonist for serotonin receptors is serotonin, and the endogenous agonist for dopamine receptors is dopamine.
Morphine is an exogenous agonist. It mimics the actions of endorphins at certain receptors in the central nervous system.

References

Biochemistry
Physiology

Agonist


Francesc Palou (in Catalan) or Francisco Palóu (1723–1789) was a Spanish Franciscan missionary, administrator and historian on the Baja California Peninsula and in Alta California. Palóu made significant contributions to the Alta California and Baja California mission systems. Along with his mentor, Junípero Serra, Palóu worked to build numerous missions throughout Alta and Baja California, many structures of which still stand today. A member of the Franciscan Order, Palóu became "Presidente" of the missions in Baja California, and later of missions of Alta California. Palóu's work in the Spanish mission system spans from his early twenties to his death at the age of 66.

According to biographer Herbert E. Bolton, "Fray Palóu was a diligent student, devout Christian, loyal disciple, tireless traveler, zealous missionary, firm defender of the faith, resourceful pioneer, successful mission builder, able administrator, and fair minded historian of California". Palóu is particularly noted for his pious biography of Serra and for his multi-volume early history of the Californias.

Biography
Francesc Palou was born in Petra, Majorca, where he joined the Franciscan Order. Together with Juníper Serra, he traveled to New Spain in 1740 and served as a missionary in the Sierra Gorda region of Querétaro. When the Jesuits were expelled from Baja California in 1768, the Franciscans under Serra were sent to replace them. Palóu was assigned to the mission of San Javier. The following year, Serra went north to find the new mission province of Alta California, and Palóu succeeded him as head of the Baja California missions. When the Dominicans took over the peninsular Baja California missions in 1773, Palóu, being Franciscan, moved on to Upper California, marking the geographical boundary between the two orders' fields. He assisted in the exploration of the site of San Francisco and administered Mission San Francisco de Asís. When Serra died, Palóu was briefly acting head of the Baja California missions, but soon returned to central Mexico.

Missionary travels
As a missionary of the Spanish colonization of the Americas, Palóu traveled and proselytized in the Spanish colonial empire. His extensive travels left him knowledgeable of world matters, and well-respected as a scholar. Coming from simple beginnings, Palóu was born in 1723 at Palma, on the Island of Majorca, and began religious work early in his life as he entered the Franciscan Order around the age of seventeen in 1739. After developing a mentor/student relationship with Junípero Serra, they both eagerly joined the Spanish mission system in Alta California. They, along with several other missionaries, reached Veracruz, New Spain in 1749. Palóu worked in New Spain for many in missions such as Sierra Gorda. He was later recalled, along with Serra, to work in the San Saba region of Texas. However, the biggest part of Palóu's journey would not begin until 1767, when he and fourteen other Franciscan friars were sent north to extend their efforts and replace many of the Jesuit missionaries who had been previously expelled from Spain. Much of Palóu's life would be spent in Alta California, and many of his notable endeavors occurred there as well.

Alta California missions
Palóu and the other friars reached Loreto in Lower California in the spring of 1768. Palou was given control of Mission San Francisco Javier. The following year, Junipero Serra left for Alta California to proceed with the further establishment of missions in that region. This left the office of "president" or superior of all missions in Lower California for Palóu to control until 1773. When the Lower Californian missions were turned over to the Dominican missionaries, Palóu was able to rejoin his brethren and mentor in Upper California. He first went to San Diego, then continued onwards to Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (in present-day Carmel), which Serra had been using as his headquarters. Palóu greatly assisted in the placement of friars and recorded historical data, the only surviving account of some aspects of the early California missions.

Expeditionary travel and later career
In 1774, Palóu accompanied Captain Rivera's expedition to the Bay of San Francisco, and on December 4 planted the cross on a hill he named "Lobos" (wolves), which sits in clear view of the Golden Gate and Pacific Ocean. The name lives on as Lobos Creek, within the Presidio of San Francisco.

The Rivera expedition returned to the Presidio of Monterey via the coastal route first explored by the Portolà expedition of 1769. At the north end of Monterey Bay, Rivera and Palóu inspected the area around today's Santa Cruz, described by friar Juan Crespí (who accompanied Portolà) and recommended by Crespí as a future mission site. Palóu agreed, and on December 9 selected a location where Mission Santa Cruz was later founded by Fermín Lasuén, in 1791.

Palou returned to Lobos in 1776 with the De Anza expedition and, on June 28, offered up the first mass at the future site of Mission Dolores, which Palóu founded but a few weeks later. Palóu remained at the new mission until he was called to give his mentor and close friend, Junípero Serra, his last rites in 1784 at Mission San Carlos.

With Serra's death, Palóu became the acting presidente of the Upper California missions until the formal appointment of Lasuén as successor to Serra. Palou remained at Mission San Carlos until failing health and old age led him to retire in 1785 to the missionary College of San Fernando de Mexico. He was elected guardian of the college and held this office until his death in Mexico, where he had completed his biography of Serra, most of which he had written while still in California.

Legacy
Francisco Palóu played many key roles and offices vital to the establishment of several of the missions in California and many of those in Mexico. He compiled a standard history of the California missions from 1767 to 1784 in his "noticias" as a four-volume set. He also wrote of his teacher, Junípero Serra. Both works provide key information about early California and the missionary system established there.

Works

 Palou, Francisco. 1926. Historical Memoirs of New California. Edited by Herbert E. Bolton. 4 vols. University of California Press, Berkeley.
 Palou, Francisco. 1955. Life of Fray Junípero Serra. Edited by Maynard J. Geiger. Academy of American Franciscan History, Washington, D.C.
 Palou, Francisco. 1994. Cartas desde la península de California (1768-1773). Edited by José Luis Soto Pérez. Editorial Porrúa, Mexico City.
 Palou, Francisco. Noticias de la Nueva California (Volume II). Translated by Miguel Venegas. California: University Microfilms Inc., 1966.

References

External links
 Francisco Palou Catholic Encyclopedia article
 Perspectives in American Literature, Chapter 2, Early American Literature: 1700-1800 (Francisco Palou [1723-1789])
 Lauter, Paul and others, eds. The Heath Anthology of American Literature (Fourth Edition). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002.
 Noticias De La Nueva California, online edition (Spanish) at HathiTrust Digital Library

1723 births
1789 deaths
People from Palma de Mallorca
People of Alta California
Spanish Franciscans
History of Baja California
Religious workers from California
Priests of the Spanish missions in California
Spanish Roman Catholic missionaries
18th-century Spanish people
Roman Catholic missionaries in New Spain
Franciscan missionaries
Junípero Serra

Francisco Palóu


Abílio Manuel Guerra Junqueiro (, 17 September 1850 – 7 July 1923) was a Portuguese top civil servant, member of the Portuguese House of Representatives, journalist, author, and poet. His work helped inspire the creation of the Portuguese First Republic. Junqueiro wrote highly satiric poems criticizing conservatism, romanticism, and the Church leading up to the Portuguese Revolution of 1910. He was one of Europe's greatest poets. Junqueiro studied law at the University of Coimbra.

Life
Born in Freixo de Espada à Cinta, Trás-os-Montes, Portugal to José António Junqueiro Júnior, a supply trader and farmer, and wife Ana Maria Guerra. His mother died when he was only three years old.

He made secondary studies in Bragança and at sixteen, he enrolled at the University of Coimbra, to study theology. Two years later he left to study law, that he concluded in 1873.
Then he became secretary of the governor of Angra do Heroísmo, Azores, and later of Viana do castelo. In 1878, he was elected to the House of Representatives.

In 1885 he published at Porto A velhice do Padre Eterno, that generated strong criticism from Portuguese Catholic Church. After the British Ultimatum and the political crisis associated, he was involved in the political debate in 1891, writing some best-sellers that had huge impact in public opinion, contributing to the discredit of the Portuguese monarchy and the success of the Portuguese Republican Party in the 1910 Portuguese Revolution. He translated into Portuguese short stories by Hans Christian Andersen.

He married Filomena Augusta da Silva Neves on 10 February 1880, the couple had two children; Maria Isabel Guerra Junqueiro on 11 November 1880, second wife without issue of Luís Augusto de Sales Pinto da Mesquita de Carvalho (1868–1931) and Júlia Guerra Junqueiro in 1881, unmarried and without issue. He died in Lisbon at the age of 72.

In 1940 Junqueiro's daughter donated his estate in Porto that became the Guerra Junqueiro Museum.

Works
Viagem À Roda Da Parvónia
A Morte De D. João (1874)
Contos para a infância (1875)
A Musa Em Férias (1879)
A velhice do Padre Eterno (1885)
Finis Patriae (1890)
Os Simples (1892)
Oração Ao Pão (1903)
Oração À Luz (1904)
Gritos da Alma (1912)
Pátria (1915)
Poesias Dispersas (1920)
Duas páginas dos quatorze anos
O Melro

See also
Guerra Junqueiro's Museum

External links

 Junqueiro (2009) A Velhice do Padre Eterno

Original Books by Guerra Junqueiro at the Portuguese National Library :

 Junqueiro (1885) A velhice do Padre Eterno
 Junqueiro (1877) Contos para a infância
 Junqueiro (1892) Os simples
 Junqueiro (1925) Pátria

19th-century Portuguese lawyers
Portuguese journalists
Male journalists
20th-century Portuguese poets
Portuguese male poets
Ambassadors of Portugal to Switzerland
1850 births
1923 deaths
University of Coimbra alumni
Legislators in Portugal
People from Freixo de Espada à Cinta
19th-century Portuguese writers
19th-century male writers
20th-century male writers

Guerra Junqueiro


La donna gravida (or simply La gravida; Italian for "The Pregnant Woman") is an oil on wood portrait by the Italian High Renaissance artist Raphael. It was painted between 1505 and 1506, during Raphael's stay in Florence, Italy. It is now in the Palazzo Pitti in Florence.

The portrait depicts a woman who is pregnant sitting with her left hand resting on her stomach. Paintings of pregnant women were unusual in the Renaissance period.

History
The work is mentioned for the first time in an early 18th-century inventory of Palazzo Pitti, as from an unknown artist. In 1813 it was transferred to the Grand Ducal wardrobe of the Uffizi, before returning again to Palazzo Pitti where it should replace several works  robbed by the French. In the 1815 inventory it is attributed to   Innocenzo da Imola, while in that of 1829 it is again listed as by an unknown painter.   It was first ascribed to Raphael in 1839: it is now nearly unanimously considered by the Umbrian painter, with the exception of Italian 19th century  art historian Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle, who assigned it to Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio.

The identification of the portrayed woman is disputed.  She could be a member of the Bufalini family of   Città di Castello, or  Emilia Pia da Montefeltro, due to similarities with the Portrait of Emilia Pia da Montefeltro, now at Baltimore Museum of Art in the United States.

See also
List of paintings by Raphael

References
Page at the Web Gallery of Art.  Retrieved April 16, 2007.

External links

16th-century portraits
Portraits by Raphael
Paintings in the Galleria Palatina
1506 paintings
Portraits of women
Pregnancy in art

La donna gravida


Ibrahim Gaidam is a Nigerian politician who is the incumbent Minister of Police Affairs. During the 2023 General election, he was re-elected the Senator representing the Yobe East Senatorial District within the state of Yobe. He was the immediate past governor of Yobe State, succeeded by the Former APC National Secretary, Mai Mala Buni on 29 May 2019.

Background
Ibrahim Gaidam was born on 15th September, 1956 in Bukarti village, Yunusari local government area in the old Borno, now Yobe state. He attended the Borno Teachers' College (BTC), Maiduguri from 1974 to 1979, where he obtained a Teachers' Certificate. He attended Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria from 1981 and 1983, earning a Diploma in Accountancy. Later he returned to Ahmadu Bello University, earned a BSc in Accountancy Degree in 1990 and became a member of the Certified Public Accountants of Nigeria.

Public service career
As an accountant, Ibrahim Gaidam worked in several government ministries in the old Borno State, later Yobe State. He was assistant director of Finance in the Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural Infrastructure, acting Director of Finance and Supplies in the Yobe Information and Culture Ministry.
Ibrahim Gaidam left the civil service in 1995 when he was appointed the Commissioner for Youths and Sports, and then Commissioner of Commerce and Industries.
He returned to the civil service and from 1997 to 2007, he was a Director in the State Finance Ministry and Permanent Secretary in various other ministries.

Political career

In April 2007, Ibrahim Gaidam was elected Deputy Governor of Yobe State on the All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) platform, and was sworn into office on May 29, 2007. He was sworn in as Executive Governor on January 27, 2009, following the death of Governor Mamman Bello Ali in Florida of a liver problem. Alhaji Abubakar Ali, brother of Mamman Ali, was named as the new deputy governor.

Ibrahim Gaidam was appointed chair of the ANPP tactical committee for the 2011 elections.

Following violence and rioting incited by the Boko Haram radical Islamic sect in July 2009 in northern Nigeria, the Northern Governors' Forum (NGF) called an emergency meeting in Kaduna to discuss security matters. Of the nineteen governors of northern Nigeria, only Mu'azu Babangida Aliyu of Niger, Mohammed Namadi Sambo of Kaduna and Ibrahim Gaidam of  Yobe attended in person.

In November 2009, Ibrahim Gaidam gave a Sallah goodwill message to the people of Yobe State on the occasion of the Eid el-Kabir celebration. In his speech, he cautioned youths against being incited to violence by selfish religious teachers and rumour mongers, referring to the violence in July, 2009. He called on all Muslims to cooperate with each other and to co-habit peacefully with followers of other religions in the state.

Gaidam was elected on 26 April 2011 for a second term as governor.

Gaidam was also elected on 11 April 2015 for a third term as governor.

Geidam was elected as senator representing Yobe East in 9th NASS on 23 March 2019.

See also
• list of governors of Yobe State

References

1956 births
Living people
Governors of Yobe State
All Nigeria Peoples Party politicians
Nigerian Muslims
Ahmadu Bello University alumni
Kanuri people

Ibrahim Gaidam


An adjustment is when something is changed in a small way. This is usually to make it better. The word can be used as a verb, as in "Bill needs to adjust his tie".

Examples of adjustments:

 The wrong word is written on a piece of paper.  By erasing the word and writing the right one, an adjustment has been made to the paper.
 A picture hung on a wall is not straight.  It can be adjusted by moving it and making it straight.

Basic English 850 words

Adjustment


Jean Nocret (December 1615/17, Nancy- November 1672, Paris) was a French painter who is best known for his portraits of the French royal family. Many portraits of uncertain origin have been attributed to him.

Biography
He was a student of Jean LeClerc. Later, he traveled to Rome, where he met Nicolas Poussin and did some work for Poussin's patron, Paul Fréart de Chantelou. Poussin, however, thought that Nocret was a pretentious young man and complained that he left his work unfinished because he had received better offers.

Nocret returned to Paris in 1644. Five years later, he managed to obtain an appointment as painter to King Louis XIV and Gaston, Duke of Orléans. He also served as the King's valet de chambre. In 1657, he accompanied the Bishop of Comminges on a diplomatic mission to Portugal, and executed portraits of the Portuguese Royal Family. Back in Paris, in 1660, he was commissioned by the new Duke of Orléans to decorate the interiors of the Château de Saint-Cloud with scenes from Greek mythology. The Château was later destroyed, during the Franco-Prussian War. Three years later, his painting of "The Repentance of Saint Peter" earned him a place in the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture. He became a Professor there in 1664.

Between 1666 and 1669, he decorated the Queen's apartments at the Tuileries, under the direction of Charles Le Brun. These decorations also disappeared during the Franco-Prussian War, when the Tuileries were burned. Most of them depicted scenes relating to the goddess Minerva.

His son, Jean-Charles (1648-1719), was also a portraitist, but did history painting as well. After his father's death, he was called upon to decorate the Queen's apartments at Versailles.

References

Further reading
 Édouard Meaume, Jean Nocret, peintre lorrain, Grosjean-Maupin, 1886

External links

ArtNet: More paintings by Nocret

1615 births
1672 deaths
French painters
Portrait painters
People from Lorraine

Jean Nocret


Organ Cave is an unincorporated community in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. Organ Cave is located along U.S. Route 219 and West Virginia Route 63 at the Organ Cave,  southeast of Ronceverte.

As might seem obvious from the name of the town, the principal attraction here is Organ Cave, the ninth longest mapped cave in the United States.  Organ Cave was mined for saltpeter, the principal ingredient of gunpowder, during the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, and the Civil War.  Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his troops held a church service in the main entrance room of the cave during the war.  Remains of the Civil War mining are in an excellent state of preservation and are seen on the commercial tour.

The early saltpeter miners discovered the bones of a large, unknown animal.  The owner of the cave sent some of the bones (a forearm and a hand with giant claws) to Thomas Jefferson.  Thomas Jefferson described them as "Megalonyx" (Latin for Giant Lion).  This was the first reported find of a giant ground sloth in the United States.  Jefferson soon determined that the animal was actually an extinct sloth, not a lion, but the Genus name "Megalonyx" is retained to this day.  This particular genus is now known as Megalonyx jeffersoni.

References

Humphreys, Blanche (1928), History of Organ Cave Community (Greenbrier County, West Virginia); Agricultural Extension Division.

Unincorporated communities in Greenbrier County, West Virginia
Unincorporated communities in West Virginia

Organ Cave, West Virginia


A greenway is usually a shared-use path along a strip of undeveloped land, in an urban or rural area, set aside for recreational use or environmental protection. Greenways are frequently created out of disused railways, canal towpaths, utility company rights of way, or derelict industrial land. Greenways can also be linear parks, and can serve as wildlife corridors. The path's surface may be paved and often serves multiple users: walkers, runners, bicyclists, skaters and hikers. A characteristic of greenways, as defined by the European Greenways Association, is "ease of passage": that is that they have "either low or zero gradient", so that they can be used by all "types of users, including mobility impaired people".

In Southern England, the term also refers to ancient trackways or green lanes, especially those found on chalk downlands, like the Ridgeway.

Definition

Greenways are vegetated, linear, and multi-purpose. They incorporate a footpath and/or bikeway within a linear park. In urban design, they are a component of planning for bicycle commuting and walkability. The British organisation Sustrans, which is involved in creating cycleways and greenways, states that a traffic-free route "must be designed on the assumption that everyone will use it", and measures taken "to assist visually and mobility impaired users".

The American author Charles Little in his 1990 book, Greenways for America, defines a greenway as:

The term greenway comes from the green in green belt and the way in parkway, implying a recreational or pedestrian use rather than a typical street corridor, as well as an emphasis on introducing or maintaining vegetation, in a location where such vegetation is otherwise lacking. Some greenways include community gardens as well as typical park-style landscaping of trees and shrubs. They also tend to have a mostly contiguous pathway. Greenways resemble linear parks, but the latter are only found in urban and suburban environments.

The European Greenways Association defines it as

Though wildlife corridors are also greenways, because they have conservation as their primary purpose, they are not necessarily managed as parks for recreational use, and may not include facilities such as public trails.

Characteristics

Charles Little in his 1990 book, Greenways for America", describes five general types of greenways:
  Urban riverside (or other water body) greenways, usually created as part of (or instead of) a redevelopment program along neglected, often run-down, city waterfronts.
  Recreational greenways, featuring paths and trails of various kinds, often relatively long distance, based on natural corridors as well as canals, abandoned rail beds, and public rights-of-way.
  Ecologically significant natural corridors, usually along rivers and streams and less often ridgelines, to provide for wildlife migration and species interchange, nature study and hiking.
  Scenic and Historic routes, usually along a road, highway or waterway, the most representative of them making an effort to provide pedestrian access along the route or at least places to alight from the car.
  Comprehensive greenway systems or networks, usually based on natural landforms such as valleys or ridges but sometimes simply an opportunistic assemblage of greenways and open spaces of various kinds to create an alternative municipal or regional green infrastructure.

Greenways are found in rural areas as well as urban. Corridors redeveloped as greenways often travel through both city and country, connecting them together. Even in rural areas, greenways provide residents access to open land managed as parks, as contrasted with land that is vegetated but inappropriate for public use, such as agricultural land. Where the historic rural road network has been enlarged and redesigned to favor high-speed automobile travel, greenways provide an alternative for people who are elderly, young, less mobile or seeking a reflective pace.Loh et al.

Tom Turner analyzed greenways in London looking for common patterns among successful examples. He was inspired by the pattern language technique of architect Christopher Alexander. A pattern language is an organized and coherent set of "patterns", each of which describes a problem and the core of a solution that can be used in many ways within a specific field of expertise. Turner concluded there are seven types, or 'patterns', of greenway which he named:
parkway: a landscaped thoroughfare. The term is particularly used for a roadway in a park or connecting to a park from which trucks and other heavy vehicles are excluded.
blueway: a water trail
paveway: an upgraded pavement or sidewalk: "Well-designed paveways, with appropriate planting and street furniture, should be formed along main pedestrian desire lines".
glazeway: a glazed passage linking buildings. Turner argues for their greater use in cities.
skyway, skybridge, or skywalk is an elevated type of pedway connecting two or more buildings in an urban area, or connecting elevated points within mountainous recreational zones.
ecoway: linked green spaces or green corridor, including household gardens in a city.
cycleway.

Foreshoreway

In Australia, a foreshoreway (or oceanway) is a greenway that provides a public right-of-way along the edge of the sea, open to both walkers and cyclists. Foreshoreways resemble promenades and boardwalks.

Foreshoreways are usually concerned with the idea of sustainable transport. A foreshoreway is accessible to both pedestrians and cyclists and gives them the opportunity to move unimpeded along the seashore. Dead end paths that offer public access only to the ocean are not part of a foreshoreway.

A foreshoreway corridor often includes a number of traffic routes that provide access along an oceanfront, including:
 walking along the beach
 edge of foreshore off-road greenway
 edge of road off-road greenway
 on road bikeway
 on road private vehicles routes
 on road public transport corridor

A major example is The Gold Coast Oceanway along beaches in Gold Coast, Queensland, a shared use pedestrian and cyclist pathway on the Gold Coast, connecting the Point Danger lighthouse on the New South Wales and Queensland border to the Gold Coast Seaway. The network includes  of poor, medium and high quality pathways. Others include: The Chicago Lakefront Trail, the Dubai Marina, the East River Greenway, New Plymouth Coastal Walkway, and the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway.

Public rights of way frequently exist on the foreshore of beaches throughout the world. In legal discussions the foreshore is often referred to as the wet-sand area (see Right of way for a fuller discussion).

 Linear park
A linear park is a park in an urban or suburban setting that is substantially longer than it is wide. Some are rail trails ("rails to trails"), that are disused railroad beds converted to recreational use, while others use strips of public land next to canals, streams, extended defensive walls, electrical lines, highways and shorelines. They are also often described as greenways.City of Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada In Australia, a linear park along the coast is known as a foreshoreway.

 Examples

Asia
Guangdong Greenway, Guangdong province, China including much of Guangzhou city including the Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center in Panyu District provides foot and bicycle paths along the Pearl River and other scenic areas.

Australia
Gold Coast Oceanway
Cooks River to Iron Cove Greenway

Canada
Carrall Street Greenway, currently under development in Vancouver
Central Valley Greenway, a 24-kilometre pedestrian and cyclist route through Metro Vancouver, running from Vancouver to New Westminster.
Chrysler Canada Greenway is a 42 km-long rail trail in Essex County, Ontario
Grand Concourse (St. John's), 200 kilometers (120 mi) of walkways linking every major park, river, pond, and green space in the Northeast Avalon region, of Newfoundland.
Trans Canada Trail; Newfoundland T'Railway
Vancouver Greenway Network, a list of Vancouver City Greenways
Welland Canal Parkway Trail, St Catharines and Port Colborne, Ontario

Europe
EuroVelo cycle routes and the European Greenways Association routes throughout Europe.
Vía Verde del Pas, between El Astillero and Puente Viesgo in Spain
RAVeL network is an autonomous network of slow ways in Belgium. It is a network of itineraries reserved for pedestrians, cyclists, horse riders and people with reduced mobility.
Waterford Greenway is a Rail trail in County Waterford, Ireland, used for cycling and hiking.

New Zealand
 Otago Central Rail Trail

United Kingdom
Ayot Greenway, Alban Way, and Cole Green Way Hertfordshire
The Greenway, foot and cycle path in East London, England
 The Ridgeway, foot and cycle path in South London, England
Parkland Walk, a reclaimed railway line in North London

United States
Anne Springs Close Greenway a 2,100-acre greenway and recreation complex in Fort Mill, South Carolina
Boise River Greenbelt, a  trail system in Boise, Idaho
Brays Bayou, a bayou in Houston
Capital Area Greenbelt, a twenty-mile greenway connecting neighborhoods, parks and opens spaces in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Capital Area Greenway, one of the nation's oldest community greenway systems in Raleigh, North Carolina
Cardinal Greenway, Indiana's longest span of recreational trails.
Cherry Creek Greenway in Denver
Chicago Lakefront Trail, an 18-mile (29 km) walking, cycling, and running trail along the coast of Lake Michigan in Chicago
Bloomingdale Trail,  a 2.7-mile (4.3 km) elevated linear park running east–west on the northwest side of Chicago Chicago
Dequindre Cut, a greenway connecting to the International Riverfront in Detroit
East Coast Greenway, a trail being constructed along the Atlantic coast
The Emerald Necklace, a series of interconnected parks in Boston, Massachusetts, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted
Grand Rounds Scenic Byway, a linked series of parks making a roughly circular path through Minneapolis,
Greater Grand Forks Greenway, large public park on the banks of the Red River and Red Lake River in Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota
High Line, New York City
Lafitte Greenway in New Orleans
Leon Creek Greenway, San Antonio, Texas, linking The University of Texas at San Antonio by foot and bicycle path to Leon Valley and beyond.
Little Sugar Creek Greenway, 20-mile long greenway in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina
The Loop, a network of 7 linear parks encircling Tucson, Arizona, with over 100 miles of paved trails
Manhattan Waterfront Greenway, a circumferential foot and cycle path around Manhattan Island.
Maryville Alcoa Greenway, an eight mile long foot and cycle path extending from Maryville Intermediate School in Maryville, Tennessee, to the end of Springbrook Park in Alcoa, Tennessee
Midtown Greenway, five-and-a-half mile pedestrian and bicycle path through Minneapolis
MillionMile Greenway, an organization and a system of connected greenways across metro Atlanta, the state of Georgia and the eastern United States
Min Hi Line, linear park and trail that is repurposing a freight rail and agricultural-industrial corridor in Minneapolis
Monadnock-Sunapee Greenway, 50-mile mountainous trail in southwestern New Hampshire (not a paved or shared-use path)
Mountains to Sound Greenway, 150 million acres of land surrounding Interstate 90 from Seattle across the Cascade Mountains to Ellensburg, Washington
Niagara River Greenway Plan, along the US Niagara Frontier
Ohio & Erie Canalway, follows the path of the original Ohio and Erie Canal in Northeast Ohio.  A portion is maintained by the United States National Park Service as a part of Cuyahoga Valley National Park.
Ohlone Greenway, in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area
Rahway River Parkway, along the Rahway River, Union County, New Jersey
Rachel Carson Greenway, in Maryland
The River Ring, a system of connected greenways encircling St. Louis, Missouri
Rose Kennedy Greenway, a series of parks and open spaces in Boston

See also

Esplanade
Green Bridge
Landscape architecture
Landscape planning
Park system; Regional park; Urban park; Public park
Rails with trails
Trail
Walking in London

 Notes

References

Sources
Fabos, Julius Gy. and Ahern, Jack (Eds.) (1995) Greenways: The Beginning of an International Movement, Elsevier Press
Flink, Charles A. & Searns, Robert M. (1993) Greenways A Guide to Planning, Design and Development Island Press
Flink, Charles A., Searns, Robert M. & Olka, Kristine (2001) Trails for the Twenty-First Century Island Press. Washington, DC.
Hay, Keith G. (1994) "Greenways" The Conservation Fund. Arlington, VA.
Little, Charles E. Greenways for America (1990) Johns Hopkins University Press
Loh, Tracy Hadden et al. (2012) "Active Transportation Beyond Urban Centers: Walking and Bicycling in Small Towns and Rural America" Rails-to-Trails Conservancy. Washington, DC. (PDF retrieved 15 March 2012.)
Natural England Greenways Handbook (PDF retrieved 15 March 2012.)
Smith, Daniel S. & Hellmund, Paul Cawood. (1993) Ecology of Greenways: Design and Function of Linear Conservation Areas''. University of Minnesota Press

External links

Central and Eastern European Greenways
European Greenways Association
Natural England, and their "Greenways and Quiet Lanes" project
New England Greenway
Guide to the International Greenways Resource Collection 1991-2011
Rail-to-Trails Conservancy, USA
Sustrans Greener Greenways

Urban public parks
Regional parks
Parks
Landscape architecture
Land management
Urban studies and planning terminology
Sustainable urban planning
Types of thoroughfares
Cycling infrastructure
Trails

Greenway (landscape)


PubMed Central (PMC) is a free digital repository that archives open access full-text scholarly articles that have been published in biomedical and life sciences journals. As one of the major research databases developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), PubMed Central is more than a document repository. Submissions to PMC are indexed and formatted for enhanced metadata, medical ontology, and unique identifiers which enrich the XML structured data for each article. Content within PMC can be linked to other NCBI databases and accessed via Entrez search and retrieval systems, further enhancing the public's ability to discover, read and build upon its biomedical knowledge.

PubMed Central is distinct from PubMed. PubMed Central is a free digital archive of full articles, accessible to anyone from anywhere via a web browser (with varying provisions for reuse). Conversely, although PubMed is a searchable database of biomedical citations and abstracts, the full-text article resides elsewhere (in print or online, free or behind a subscriber paywall).

, the PMC archive contained over 5.2 million articles, with contributions coming from publishers or authors depositing their manuscripts into the repository per the NIH Public Access Policy. Earlier data shows that from January 2013 to January 2014 author-initiated deposits exceeded 103,000 papers during a 12-month period. PMC identifies about 4,000 journals which participate in some capacity to deposit their published content into the PMC repository. Some publishers delay the release of their articles on PubMed Central for a set time after publication, referred to as an "embargo period", ranging from a few months to a few years depending on the journal.  (Embargoes of six to twelve months are the most common.) PubMed Central is a key example of "systematic external distribution by a third party", which is still prohibited by the contributor agreements of many publishers.

History

PubMed Central began as E-biomed, initially proposed in May 1999 by then-NIH director Harold Varmus. The idea came to him "abruptly" in December 1998, inspired by the early use of arXiv for preprints after a presentation from Pat Brown of Stanford and David Lipman, director of NCBI:

The goal of E-biomed was to provide free access to all biomedical research. Papers submitted to E-biomed could take one of two routes: either immediately published as a preprint, or through a traditional peer review process. The peer review process was to resemble contemporary overlay journals, with an external editorial board retaining control over the process of reviewing, curating, and listing papers which would otherwise be freely accessible on the central E-biomed server. Varmus intended to realize the new possibilities presented by communicating scientific results digitally, imagining continuous conversation about published work, versioned documents, and enriched "layered" formats allowing for multiple levels of detail.

The proposal to create a central index of biomedical research was a radical departure from prevailing publishing norms. Prior to the internet, publication indexes operated largely like ISBNs: allocated by registration agencies to secondary publishers. The idea that anyone could own their own address space via a domain name and create their own indexing system was a wholly new idea. Major commercial publishers had begun experimenting with an indexing system for scientific papers shared across publishers as early as 1993, and were spurred to action following the E-biomed proposal. At the October 1999 STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, several publishers led by Springer-Verlag reached a hurried conference room consensus to launch their competitor prototype:

At the Board meeting of the STM association, held the afternoon of Monday, October 11, before the fair's Wednesday opening, discussion focused on an emerging U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM) initiative called E-Biomed (later PubMed Central) that had been proposed by Harold Varmus of the National Institutes of Health in the spring of 1999. Varmus envisioned a digital archive of journals, accessible free of charge and with the added value of reference linking. "Our consensus was that publishers should be the ones doing the linking," said Bob Campbell, who chaired the meeting. "Since we were 'higher up the stream,' so to speak, we should be able to link our articles ahead of the NLM as part of the process of producing them. Stefan von Holtzbrinck then set the ball rolling by offering to link Nature publications with anyone else's. We decided to issue an announcement of a broad STM reference linking initiative. It was, of course, a strategic move only, since we had neither plan nor prototype."

A small group led by Arnoud de Kemp of Springer-Verlag met in an adjacent room immediately following the Board meeting to draft the announcement, which was distributed to all attendees of the STM annual meeting the following day and published in an STM membership publication. [...] The potential benefit of the service that would become CrossRef was immediately apparent. Organizations such as AIP and IOP (Institute of Physics) had begun to link to each other's publications, and the impossibility of replicating such one-off arrangements across the industry was obvious. As Tim Ingoldsby later put it, "All those linking agreements were going to kill us."

Under pressure from vigorous lobbying from commercial publishers and scientific societies who feared for lost profits, NIH officials announced a revised PubMed Central proposal in August 1999. PMC would receive submissions from publishers, rather than from authors as in E-biomed. Publications were allowed time-embargoed paywalls up to 1 year. PMC would only allow peer-reviewed work — no preprints. The then-unnamed publisher-led linking system shortly thereafter became CrossRef and the larger DOI system. Varmus, Brown, and others including Michael Eisen went on to found the Public Library of Science (PLoS) in 2001, reaching the conclusion "that if we really want to change the publication of scientific research, we must do the publishing ourselves."

Adoption

Launched in February 2000, the repository has grown rapidly as the NIH Public Access Policy is designed to make all research funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) freely accessible to anyone, and, in addition, many publishers are working cooperatively with the NIH to provide free access to their works. In late 2007, the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2008 (H.R. 2764) was signed into law and included a provision requiring the NIH to modify its policies and require inclusion into PubMed Central complete electronic copies of their peer-reviewed research and findings from NIH-funded research. These articles are required to be included within 12 months of publication. This is the first time the US government has required an agency to provide open access to research and is an evolution from the 2005 policy, in which the NIH asked researchers to voluntarily add their research to PubMed Central.

A UK version of the PubMed Central system, UK PubMed Central (UKPMC), has been developed by the Wellcome Trust and the British Library as part of a nine-strong group of UK research funders. This system went live in January 2007. On 1 November 2012, it became Europe PubMed Central. The Canadian member of the PubMed Central International network, PubMed Central Canada, was launched in October 2009.

The National Library of Medicine "NLM Journal Publishing Tag Set" journal article markup language is freely available. The Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers comments that "it is likely to become the standard for preparing scholarly content for both books and journals". A related DTD is available for books. The Library of Congress and the British Library have announced support for the NLM DTD. It has also been popular with journal service providers.

With the release of public access plans for many agencies beyond NIH, PMC is in the process of becoming the repository for a wider variety of articles. This includes NASA content, with the interface branded as "PubSpace".

Technology

Articles are sent to PubMed Central by publishers in XML or SGML, using a variety of article DTDs. Older and larger publishers may have their own established in-house DTDs, but many publishers use the NLM Journal Publishing DTD (see above).

Received articles are converted via XSLT to the very similar NLM Archiving and Interchange DTD. This process may reveal errors that are reported back to the publisher for correction. Graphics are also converted to standard formats and sizes. The original and converted forms are archived. The converted form is moved into a relational database, along with associated files for graphics, multimedia, or other associated data. Many publishers also provide PDF of their articles, and these are made available without change.

Bibliographic citations are parsed and automatically linked to the relevant abstracts in PubMed, articles in PubMed Central, and resources on publishers' Web sites. PubMed links also lead to PubMed Central. Unresolvable references, such as to journals or particular articles not yet available at one of these sources, are tracked in the database and automatically come "live" when the resources become available.

An in-house indexing system provides search capability, and is aware of biological and medical terminology, such as generic vs. proprietary drug names, and alternate names for organisms, diseases and anatomical parts.

When a user accesses a journal issue, a table of contents is automatically generated by retrieving all articles, letters, editorials, etc. for that issue. When an actual item such as an article is reached, PubMed Central converts the NLM markup to HTML for delivery, and provides links to related data objects. This is feasible because the variety of incoming data has first been converted to standard DTDs and graphic formats.

In a separate submission stream, NIH-funded authors may deposit articles into PubMed Central using the NIH Manuscript Submission (NIHMS). Articles thus submitted typically go through XML markup in order to be converted to NLM DTD.

Reception
Reactions to PubMed Central among the scholarly publishing community range between a genuine enthusiasm by some, to cautious concern by others.

While PMC is a welcome partner to open access publishers in its ability to augment the discovery and dissemination of biomedical knowledge, that same truth causes others to worry about traffic being diverted from the published version of record, the economic consequences of less readership, as well as the effect on maintaining a community of scholars within learned societies. A 2013 analysis found strong evidence that public repositories of published articles were responsible for "drawing significant numbers of readers away from journal websites" and that "the effect of PMC is growing over time".

Libraries, universities, open access supporters, consumer health advocacy groups, and patient rights organizations have applauded PubMed Central, and hope to see similar public access repositories developed by other federal funding agencies so to freely share any research publications that were the result of taxpayer support.

The Antelman study of open access publishing found that in philosophy, political science, electrical and electronic engineering and mathematics, open access papers had a greater research impact. A randomised trial found an increase in content downloads of open access papers, with no citation advantage over subscription access one year after publication.

The NIH policy and open access repository work has inspired a 2013 presidential directive which has sparked action in other federal agencies as well.

In March 2020, PubMed Central accelerated its deposit procedures for the full text of publications on coronavirus. The NLM did so upon request from the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and international scientists to improve access for scientists, healthcare providers, data mining innovators, AI healthcare researchers, and the general public.

PMCID
The PMCID (PubMed Central identifier), also known as the PMC reference number, is a bibliographic identifier for the PubMed Central open access database, much like the PMID is the bibliographic identifier for the PubMed database. The two identifiers are distinct however. It consists of "PMC" followed by a string of seven numbers. The format is:

 PMCID: PMC1852221

Authors applying for NIH awards must include the PMCID in their application.

See also
 Europe PubMed Central
 JATS (technology)
 MEDLINE, an international literature database of life sciences and biomedical information
 PMID (PubMed Identifier)
 PubMed Central Canada
 Redalyc (similar project focused on Latin America)
 SciELO (similar service)

References

External links

Biological databases
Bibliographic databases and indexes
National Institutes of Health
Open-access archives
Medical databases
Full-text scholarly online databases

PubMed Central


Bad Moon is a 1996 American horror and thriller movie. The movie is about strange events, full moons and werewolves. Mariel Hemingway plays attorney Janet Harrison. The movie was distributed by Warner Bros.. The movie was rated R for gore, horror, violence and some language. They had earlier given a higher rating based on graphic violence, which was then cut from the movie. When released, the movie received terrible reviews. Bad Moon was a huge box office flop.

1996 horror movies
1996 thriller movies
1990s horror thriller movies
American horror movies
American thriller movies

Bad Moon


The Walker Brothers were an American pop group formed in Los Angeles in 1964 by John Maus (known professionally as John Walker) and Noel Scott Engel (known professionally as Scott Walker), and soon after joined by Gary Leeds (Gary Walker). They adopted the 'Walker Brothers' name as a show business touch even though none of the members were related. After moving to Britain in 1965, they had several top-10 albums and singles there, including the No. 1 hits "Make It Easy on Yourself" and "The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine (Anymore)", both of which also made the US top 20 and Canadian top 2. Between them was the UK No. 3 hit "My Ship is Coming In". They provided a unique counterpoint to the British Invasion by achieving much more success in the UK than in their home country, a period when the popularity of British bands such as The Beatles dominated the U.S. charts.

The trio split up in 1968, with all three members pursuing solo projects to varying degrees of success. They eventually reunited in the mid- to late 1970s and scored a final top-10 UK hit with "No Regrets". After releasing the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful album Nite Flights, in 1978, the group again disbanded. John Walker remained active in the music business and toured as a solo act until his death in 2011. Scott Walker resumed his solo career and gained recognition as an experimental artist; he died in 2019, leaving Gary Walker as the last surviving member.

History

Formation
The Walker Brothers Trio was formed in Los Angeles in 1964 by John Walker (lead vocals, guitar), Scott Engel (bass, harmony vocals), and drummer Al "Tiny" Schneider.  Before then, John Walker—who had already been using that name professionally for several years—had performed and recorded several unsuccessful singles with his sister as a duo, John and Judy, and Engel had been bass player with instrumental band The Routers.  Walker and Engel, with two other musicians, had also toured the Midwest in 1963 as The Surfaris, though the group included none of the musicians who played on the Surfaris' records.  Dropping the word Trio, Walker and Engel were signed by Mercury Records, recorded a single, "Pretty Girls Everywhere", and became a leading attraction at Gazzari's Club in Hollywood.  They also appeared on the Shindig! TV show, developed by Jack Good, and then on a weekly TV show, Ninth Street A Go Go.

Late in 1964, they met drummer Gary Leeds, previously of The Standells (Late 1962–1964). He had recently toured the UK with singer P.J. Proby.  Leeds – along with club regular Brian Jones – persuaded them that the band's rock and roll and blues style would go down well in "swinging London," where Proby had already succeeded.  Before leaving, they recorded their second single, "Love Her," overseen by Nick Venet and arranger Jack Nitzsche, with Scott Engel taking the lead vocal part for the first time—previously John Walker had been the lead vocalist. With his distinct baritone, Scott became the group's de facto frontman, and the trio shifted their focus from upbeat R&B to pop ballads that better suited his vocals. They also appeared in a film, Beach Ball, and sent demo recordings to record labels in the United Kingdom.

With financial backing from Leeds' stepfather, Walker, Engel and Leeds traveled to the UK in February 1965 for an exploratory visit.

Success in the UK

When they landed in England, record producer Johnny Franz was keen to sign them up. In a short time, Walker and Engel had secured a recording contract with Philips Records, an affiliate of Mercury, and had played several venues around the UK, with Leeds as drummer. Along with the group's relocation came a change in image, abandoning matching suits and pompadours in favor of the mop top haircuts and casual attire typical of British pop stars. Their first single, "Pretty Girls Everywhere," had little success, but radio stations picked up on the follow-up "Love Her" with Engel's baritone vocals, and it made the Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart in June 1965. The song had originally been recorded by The Everly Brothers and released as the B-side to their single "The Girl Who Sang The Blues" in 1963.

Philips then recorded and released the group's version of "Make It Easy on Yourself," a Burt Bacharach and Hal David ballad previously recorded by Jerry Butler. It was sung by Engel (by now called Scott Walker), arranged by Ivor Raymonde and produced by Johnny Franz, with a full orchestra augmented by session musicians. Session musicians on the record included Alan Parker and Big Jim Sullivan.
By August 1965, "Make It Easy on Yourself" had entered the UK Top 10, eventually reaching the top of the record chart. Later in the year, it also reached No. 16 in the US Billboard Hot 100. The track sold 250,000 copies in the UK, and over one million copies globally, achieving gold disc status.

The number 3 UK hit "My Ship Is Coming In", originally recorded in 1965 by soul singer Jimmy Radcliffe, followed. Then in March 1966, The Walker Brothers hit No. 1 for the second time in six months with "The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore." Their popularity in the UK – particularly that of Scott – reached a new high, especially among teenage girls, and their fan club in that country was said to have been larger than The Beatles.' "The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore" also made the US Top 20, but had less success in the US.

The Walker Brothers continued to have chart hits in the UK in 1966 and 1967, with Scott taking a more prominent role in their song choices and arrangements, but with diminishing commercial success. They also had to leave the UK for six months in 1967 because of work permit problems. As pop music moved on, the Walker Brothers began to sound dated. By the end of 1967, the pressures of stardom, internal tensions and 'artistic differences' began to weaken the group. After a UK tour in April 1967, which also featured Jimi Hendrix, Cat Stevens, and Engelbert Humperdinck, followed by a tour of Japan in 1968, the group officially disbanded.

Reunion in the 1970s
All three continued to release solo records, with Scott (who first recorded solo in 1967) being by far the most successful and creating a large cult following.  Late in 1974, Walker, Engel and Leeds agreed to reform The Walker Brothers. In 1975, they released the album No Regrets.  The title track was released as a single and rose to No. 7 on the UK chart in early 1976.  They recorded two further albums together, Lines (1976) and Nite Flights (1978), which were less commercially successful; the experimental style of Scott's tracks on Nite Flights laid the stylistic groundwork for his later solo career.  The Walker Brothers undertook some cabaret performances, although Engel (by now more usually known as Scott Walker) was reluctant to sing live; the group's contract with GTO Records ended and, according to John Walker, the group "just drifted apart."

Later activities
Interest in the band was briefly revived in 1992 with the issue of the compilation album No Regrets – The Best of Scott Walker and The Walker Brothers 1965–1976, which reached No. 4 in the UK Albums Chart.

John Walker later went on to customise guitars and establish his own recording studio in California, and resumed touring in 2004. Gary Walker remains active in England. Scott Walker continued to record sporadically and engage in cultural works, e.g. curating the Meltdown festival. John and Gary Walker published their own joint autobiography, The Walker Brothers: No Regrets—Our Story, in 2009. John died at his Los Angeles home on May 7, 2011; Scott died in London on 22 March 2019, leaving Gary as the last surviving Walker brother.

"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore" and "Stay With Me Baby" were prominently featured in the 2012 film, Seeking a Friend for the End of the World, written and directed by Lorene Scafaria and starring Steve Carell and Keira Knightley.

Scott Walker: 30 Century Man is a 2006 documentary film about Scott Walker by Stephen Kijak. The film got its title from the song "30 Century Man." It charted Walker's career in music, with a focus on his songwriting, and featured footage of recording sessions for his album, The Drift. It included a sequence in which Walker oversaw the recording of the punching of a joint of pork, for the percussion on the song "Clara". David Bowie acted as the executive producer of the film.

Band members
 Scott Walker – lead vocals, guitar, bass guitar, keyboards
 Gary Walker – drums, vocals
 John Walker – guitar, vocals

Discography

 Take It Easy with the Walker Brothers (1965)
 Introducing The Walker Brothers (1965) (1st US album)
 Portrait (1966)
 The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine Anymore (1966) (2nd US album)
 Images (1967)
 No Regrets (1975)
 Lines (1976)
 Nite Flights (1978)

See also
List of performers on Top of the Pops
List of artists who reached number one on the UK Singles Chart
UK No.1 Hits of 1965
UK No.1 Hits of 1966
Philips Records
List of number-one singles from the 1960s (UK)
British Invasion

References

External links
Further information
 Scott Walker fanpage and Walker Brothers message board – Germany
Photo archive of Scott Walker and The Walker Brothers by photographer Chris Walter
John Walker's website

Entry at 45cat.com

1964 establishments in California
1978 disestablishments in California
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
Rock music groups from California
Musical groups from Los Angeles
American pop music groups
Philips Records artists
Smash Records artists
Musical groups established in 1964
Musical groups disestablished in 1978
Scott Walker (singer)

The Walker Brothers


The Baxter Springs Independent Oil and Gas Service Station is a historic gas station located at 940 Military Avenue in Baxter Springs, Kansas, along the former route of U.S. Route 66. The station was built in 1930 by the Independent Oil and Gas Company; the company merged with Phillips Petroleum the following year, and the station became a Phillips 66 station. The station was designed in the Tudor Revival style so to resemble a small cottage; this style was popular among gas stations at the time, as oil companies wanted their stations to fit in with nearby residential architecture. An addition which served as an auto repair shop was added to the station between 1930 and 1942. Phillips operated the station until 1958, and it continued to sell gasoline until the 1970s. The building now serves as the Kansas Route 66 Visitors Center.

The station was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 29, 2003.

References

External links

Tudor Revival architecture in Kansas
Commercial buildings completed in 1930
Buildings and structures in Cherokee County, Kansas
Buildings and structures on U.S. Route 66
U.S. Route 66 in Kansas
Gas stations on the National Register of Historic Places in Kansas
National Register of Historic Places in Cherokee County, Kansas


A brevet in most militaries is a promotion to a higher rank without the increase in pay or full privileges. It is often given as an honor. It was a term borrowed from the British during the American Revolutionary War and used in the Continental Army. Since that time the United States Congress has had several reasons for granting brevet ranks. In some of these instances the officer received the higher pay of the breveted rank. The term brevet comes from the Latin words breve and brevia meaning a legal brief.

Early French armies
In the early history, the King of France would call on his feudal lords for troops. These feudal lords raised armies and appointed officers, but they did not have the authority to give a rank in the king's army. The king would give a commissioned rank to leaders that would be recognized throughout his army by the use of Letters patent or brevet. Soon all French officers from a cornet (sub-lieutenant) to the Marshal of France received their commission in this way. They came to be styled Officers a'Brevet. The official document granting the brevet was called a brevet d'invention.

British army
The British army that served in the American colonies during the American Revolution were made up of mostly infantry regiments. During the war the strength (numbers) of infantry regiments varied. The actual strength was usually not the established strength. But in general, a regiment at the time averaged about 500 soldiers. Regiments were then divided into ten companies usually of equal size. Each company had three officers and was commanded by a captain. Three of these company captains also held a higher rank in the regiment. These included the colonel, the lieutenant colonel and the major. Collectively these three were called "field officers". So in actuality, each regiment had three field officers and seven captains for a total of ten. On muster rolls it was not unusual to see an officer listed as "Major and Captain". But usually, only the higher of the officer's two ranks were used. But, whereas companies were commanded by captains, it is sometime curious to see mention of something like "Lt. Col. Campbell's company" (instead of Captain Campbell's company).

American Civil war
In 1861, during the American Civil War, graduates of West Point were given commissions in the Union Army as brevet 2nd lieutenants. This was because there were not enough vacancies to commission them as 2nd lieutenants. Many officers have held brevet commissions for gallant actions, meritorious service or to serve in a staff position when their permanent rank did not allow it. After the war there were thousands of brevet officers. Of the 1,978 Civil War generals, 1,700 were brevet Brigadier generals or Major generals, most with a date of rank of 13 March 1865. Many, Like George Armstrong Custer held the brevet rank of major general, but wanting to remain in the army after the war was returned to his permanent rank of captain.

References

Military ranks
Military terminology

Brevet (military)


Roberto Visentini (born 2 June 1957) is an Italian former professional road racing cyclist who won the White Jersey in the 1978 Giro, finished in the top 10 of the 1979, 1980, and 1981 Giro's, made the podium in 1983, wore the Maglia Rosa for nine days in 1985, three days in 1987 and won the 1986 Giro d'Italia. All total he was the victor in 7 Grand Tour stages.

Visentini was born in Gardone Riviera, in the province of Brescia, and had a brilliant junior career. In 1975, he was both Junior Italian champion and World Champion. As an amateur he won the 1977 Italian time-trial Championship.

He debuted as professional in 1978. In 1980, he won two stages at the Vuelta a España and was ninth overall in the Giro d'Italia. In 1983 Visentini joined the Inoxpran team and was in contention for victory in the Giro with Giuseppe Saronni, but ended up on the podium 2nd place. Riding for the Carrera team in 1984, he won a stage in the 1984 Giro d'Italia and was in a podium position until very late in the race. This race became infamous because French rider Laurent Fignon accused officials of playing favourites by not treating all riders by the same set of rules. Visentini also felt this way making his feelings public.

During the 1984 season he also won a stage in Tirreno–Adriatico and the prologue of the Giro del Trentino. In the 1985 edition, he was in good position to win his first Giro being in the lead for 9 stages when he fell ill and was forced to retire, leaving the victory to Bernard Hinault.

He won the 1986 Giro by defeating racers such as Saronni and Francesco Moser by about 1:00 and 2:00 respectively, and also Greg LeMond who placed 4th. Visentini won stage 6 and took over the Pink Jersey on stage 16 which he would hold for the remainder of the race. In 1987 he played a part in one of the most controversial episodes of 1980s Italian cycle racing: Visentini, who was the racing for , took the pink jersey for the leader of the general classification from his teammate Stephen Roche after winning an individual time trial. Several days later in a mountain stage he was suddenly attacked by his teammate Roche, who had ignored the team's order not to attack. The Carrera team led the peloton in the chase after Roche until Visentini was left without any teammates. From there Visentini tried to chase him down on his own but finished several minutes behind the Irishman, who took back the pink jersey. Several days later Visentini had to retire from the race because of a broken wrist.

Roche left the Carrera team, which kept Visentini, but he was never again able to compete at this elite level. He concluded his career in 1990 with 18 victories, including the 1986 Giro d'Italia, the 1981 Giro del Trentino and the 1983 Tirreno–Adriatico.

Career achievements

Major results

1979
1st Circuit of Faenza
10th Overall Giro d'Italia
1980
Vuelta a España
1st Prologue & Stage 16b (ITT)
9th Overall Giro d'Italia
1981
1st Overall Giro del Trentino
6th Overall Giro d'Italia
1982
1st Trofeo Baracchi
1983
1st Overall Tirreno–Adriatico
1st Ruota d'Oro
2nd Overall Giro d'Italia
1st Stage 22 (ITT)
1984
1st Stage 13 Giro d'Italia
Stage in the Tirreno–Adriatico
1986
1st  Overall Giro d'Italia
1st Stage 6
1st Milan-Vignola
1st Circuit of Florence
1987
Giro d'Italia
1st Prologue & Stage 13 (ITT)

Grand Tour general classification results timeline

References

1957 births
Living people
Cyclists from the Province of Brescia
Italian male cyclists
Giro d'Italia winners
Italian Giro d'Italia stage winners
Italian Vuelta a España stage winners

Roberto Visentini


The New York Cubans were a Negro league baseball team that played during the 1930s and from 1939 to 1950. Despite playing in the Negro leagues, the team occasionally employed white-skinned Hispanic baseball players as well, because Hispanics in general were largely ignored by the major league baseball teams before Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball.

Historical roots

In 1899, the All Cubans became the first all-Hispanic team to travel to the United States and stage exhibition games, against established Negro league powerhouse teams. The All Cubans kept traveling to the United States each year until 1905. Beginning in 1907, they were replaced by the Cuban Stars, which became accepted as an independent Negro baseball team. In 1916, the team was struck by controversies and competition regarding booking, which led to the creation of a new Cuban Stars carrying the same name. To differentiate between the two teams, the newer of the two was referred to as the Cuban Stars (East), which was owned by Alex Pompez and competed in the New York city area. The older team (which was owned by Abel Linares and Tinti Molina and previously had competed in the New York area) moved to the midwestern region and became known as the Cuban Stars (West).

Founding (or re-incarnation)

About 1930, both Cuban Stars teams folded, but in 1935 Pompez was able to re-create a Cuban team under the new name New York Cubans. In 1935 and 1936, the New York Cubans called historic Hinchliffe Stadium in Paterson, New Jersey home.  Unlike what the team's name may lead some to believe, the team was not composed exclusively of Cuban players, there were players from other Hispanic nationalities and the United States as well. In 1941, Perucho Cepeda, father of National Baseball Hall of Famer Orlando Peruchin Cepeda and a legendary player around the Caribbean himself, became the first Puerto Rican to play for the New York Cubans. Apart from Cepeda, there were also players from Mexico and the Dominican Republic playing for the New York Cubans. From 1941 to 1944, the Cubans had the services of well-known Dominican utility player Tetelo Vargas.

Only one other team of the era, the Indianapolis Clowns, boasted a line-up with as many international players as the Cubans did.

Negro League World Series champions

With a team that included such notables as Luis Tiant, Sr., and Minnie Miñoso the New York Cubans won their only Negro League World Series title in 1947, defeating the Cleveland Buckeyes.

Demise

The Cubans did not win another championship, and, because of many different reasons, which included economical strain and exodus both from African American and Hispanic players to the Major Leagues, the Negro league stopped playing in 1950.

Hall of Fame players
Martín Dihigo holds the distinction of being inducted into three Halls of Fame; Cuban, Mexican and American.
 Minnie Miñoso holds the distinction of being inducted into three Halls of Fame: Cuban, Mexican and American.
Tetelo Vargas is a member of the Puerto Rican and Cuban baseball Hall of Fames, despite never having played a single game in Cuba. His election to the Cuban baseball Hall of Fame has been credited to his participation with the New York Cubans.

MLB throwback jerseys

On May 29, 2010, the New York Mets wore Cubans uniforms in a game in Milwaukee against the Brewers, who wore Milwaukee Bears uniforms. The Mets then wore this uniform again on August 22 against the Pittsburgh Pirates.

Notes

External links
New York Cubans on the Negro League Baseball Players Association website

Afro-Caribbean culture in the United States
Afro-Cuban culture
Caribbean-American culture in New York City
Cuban-American history
Hispanic and Latino American culture in New York City
Negro league baseball teams
Defunct baseball teams in New Jersey
Baseball teams disestablished in 1950
Baseball teams established in 1935

New York Cubans


Luigi Maglione (2 March 1877 – 22 August 1944) was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was elevated to the cardinalate in 1935 and served as the Vatican Secretary of State under Pope Pius XII from 1939 until his death. Pius XII never replaced Maglione, opting to assume the responsibilities of the office himself, with the assistance of two undersecretaries.

Early career and education

Born in Casoria, Maglione was educated at the Almo Collegio Capranica and Pontifical Gregorian University, from where he obtained doctorates in philosophy and theology, in Rome. He was ordained to the priesthood on 25 July 1901, and then did pastoral work in the Archdiocese of Naples until 1903.

Maglione studied at the Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy from 1905 to 1907; he later taught there from 1915 to 1918. He served an official of the Vatican Secretariat of State from 1908 to 1918, rising to become a Privy Chamberlain (17 June 1910) and a Domestic Prelate (22 February 1918). He was also a provisional papal representative to the League of Nations and a special papal envoy to Switzerland.

Nunciatures
On 1 September 1920, Maglione was appointed Nuncio to Switzerland and Titular Archbishop of Cesarea di Palestina by Pope Benedict XV. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 26 September from Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, with Archbishops Bonaventura Cerretti and Lorenzo Schioppa serving as co-consecrators, in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere. Archbishop Maglione was later named Apostolic Nuncio to France on 23 June 1926. Upon his arrival in France he was resentfully considered pro-German, but had become so liked by the French Government before he left the post that he was reported to have had a hand in forming the Hoare-Laval Pact during the Italo-Ethiopian War. During his nunciature in France, on 25 July 1930, Maglione ordained Yves Congar to the priesthood.

Cardinal Secretary of State
Pope Pius XI created him Cardinal-Priest of Santa Pudenziana in the consistory of 16 December 1935, and then Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Council on 22 July 1938. Cardinal Maglione was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 1939 papal conclave, which selected Pope Pius XII. Pius XII, who was a former schoolmate of Maglione's, tapped Maglione to succeed him as Vatican Secretary of State on 10 March 1939.

His tenure as Secretary of State included most of World War II and the Holocaust, much of his work being documented in the eleven volumes of the Vatican's wartime documents, Actes et Documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale. After falling under Nazi occupation, Lithuania appealed to the Vatican to reintegrate its dioceses into the country and replace its bishops, to which Maglione responded, "The government of Kaunas should appreciate, that the Holy See cannot run behind armies and change bishops as combatant troops occupy new territories belonging to countries other than their own."

Cardinal Maglione died a year before the war's end in his native Casoria, from neuritis and circulatory ailments. Upon his death, Pius XII assumed the duties of the office himself, with assistance from Domenico Tardini and Giovanni Battista Montini (who later became Pope Paul VI).

He vigorously defended Pius XII's wartime diplomacy, once declaring, "If you ask why the documents sent by the Pontiff to the Polish bishops have not been made public, know that it seems better in the Vatican to follow the same norms, the Polish bishops themselves follow...Isn't this what has to be done? Should the father of Christianity increase the misfortunes of Poles in their own country?" The relationship between Maglione and the Pontiff was so close that Italians were known to joke that whenever Pius XII went out without his maglione (Italian for "sweater"), he caught cold.

Notes

References
 Pierre Blet, Pius XII and the Second World War, London, Boston, 1997
Catholic-Hierarchy.org biographical details
Mary Gloria Chang, "The Vatican and the German Resistance During World War II: 1939–1940" The Catholic Social Science Review 14 (2009): 385–406

External links

1877 births
1944 deaths
People from the Province of Naples
World War II political leaders
20th-century Italian cardinals
Apostolic Nuncios to France
Apostolic Nuncios to Switzerland
Pontifical Gregorian University alumni
Pontifical Ecclesiastical Academy alumni
Cardinal Secretaries of State
Members of the Sacred Congregation of the Council
Cardinals created by Pope Pius XI
Almo Collegio Capranica alumni
Roman Catholic titular archbishops of Caesarea

Luigi Maglione


The Body Attitudes Test (BAT) was developed by Probst et al. in 1995. It was designed for the assessment of multiple eating disorders in women. The BAT measures an individual's subjective body experience and attitudes towards one's own body. It is a questionnaire composed of twenty items which yields four different factors that evaluate the internal view of the patient's own body.

Purpose
The BAT is used to evaluate self-reported outlooks women with eating disorders have pre-, during, and post-treatment. It has been proven to highlight the psychological changes experienced throughout the rehabilitation process and is a useful way to gauge adherence and success of treatment.

This test also has the ability to differentiated between clinical and non-clinical subjects and between anorexics and bulimics. Studies have shown that patients with restrictive anorexia have lower BAT scores, whereas patients with bulimia nervosa score higher.

History
Michel Probst and colleagues began creating the BAT in 1984 and eventually published this questionnaire in 1995, with the goal of finding a new tool to evaluate how women with eating disorders view their own body. The BAT was originally written in Dutch and then translated to many languages. This test was administered widely to both patients and control subjects, including women already diagnosed with eating disorders, women participating in Weight Watchers, and healthy women with no eating disorder diagnosis. To ensure the validity of this test, Probst and colleagues compared the results of the BAT to other tools already in use to evaluate women with eating disorders. These other evaluations include the Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ), the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), and the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT).

Test
The BAT is a self-reported questionnaire consisting of 20 questions. Patients are asked to score each statement 0–5, 0 meaning they do not relate to the statement at all, and 5 meaning the statement frequently describes their sentiment. The following are examples of questions asked in the assessment:

 I feel displeased when comparing my body to others.
 I do not recognize my body as my own.
 My body is too wide.
 I am pleased with my body shape.
 I feel the need to lose weight.
 I see my breasts as too big.
 I feel the need to conceal my body in looser clothing.
 I avoid my reflection because it upsets me.
 I do not struggle with relaxing.
 I feel like every aspect of my body is broad.
 My body negatively weighs on me.
 There is a dissonance between my body and I.
 At times, I feel like my body is swollen.
 I feel threatened by my physical appearance.
 I take great pride in my body size.
 I feel like I look pregnant.
 I always feel very tense.
 I tend to be jealous of other people's looks.
 Aspects of my physical appearance scare me.
 I often scrutinize my own reflection.

The answers to these questions are then analyzed and provide information regarding four factors that evaluate the patient's subjective view on their body:

 negative appreciation of body size
 lack of familiarity with one's own body
 general body dissatisfaction
 rest factor

See also
 Body Attitudes Questionnaire
 Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale
 SCOFF questionnaire

References

Eating disorders screening and assessment tools

Body Attitudes Test