Edmund Hort New (December 1871 – 1931) was an English artist, member of the Birmingham Group, and leading illustrator of his day.

Life and work
New was born in Evesham Worcestershire, a cousin of Thomas New. He studied at the Birmingham Municipal School of Art under Edward R. Taylor (headmaster of the school) and A. J. Gaskin, becoming known in the 1890s as an illustrator in the black-and-white style of the Arts and Crafts movement. He specialised in pen and ink drawings of rural and urban landscapes, old buildings and their interiors, architectural features, and also designed bookplates.

New provided illustrations for the English Illustrated Magazine and was commissioned by the Bodley Head publishing house (cofounded by John Lane) to work on critically acclaimed editions of books, such as The Compleat Angler by Izaak Walton and The Natural History of Selborne by Gilbert White.

In 1895, New was invited to meet William Morris at Kelmscott Manor, and went on to provide design work for the Kelmscott Press as well as illustrating  Morris's two-volume biography by J. W. Mackail. Between 1896 and 1914, New provided hundreds of illustrations for over 50 books for various publishers (see booklist below). He also taught drawing to T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia").

In 1905, New moved from Evesham, the place of his birth, to Oxford where he started work on a series of drawings of the University of Oxford colleges, a project which was to occupy him for the rest of his life and remain unfinished. The drawings were engraved by Emery Walker and sold as the "New Loggan Prints". He also provided further illustrations for a series of books called the "College monographs" (see below).

In 1921 New exhibited at the first exhibition of the Society of Graphic Art in London.

New has been variously described as "deeply religious, scrupulous and patient in everything", "a life and a life's work of rare unity", "half artist and half saint", and "well read, especially in poetry and talked about art and literature with a sincerity that was very charming". He lived throughout his life on a modest income and suffered from diabetes. He was a member of the Society of Friends (Quakers).

Books illustrated by E. H. New
Alfred Austin. Haunts of Ancient peace (MacMillan & Co., 1902).
Francis Bacon, Helen Milman (Ed.) On Gardens (John Lane, 1902).
C. R. Ashbee, The Last Records of a Cotswold Community (Campden: Essex House Press, 1904).
F. G. Brabant. Oxfordshire (Methuen & Co., 1906).
F. G. Brabant. Sussex (Methuen, 1905).
F. G. Brabant. The English Lakes (Methuen & Co. 1905).
Egerton Castle. English book-plates: ancient and modern (G. Bell & Sons, 1893), pp 256–257.
G. A. J. Cole. The Gypsy Road : A Journey from Krakow to Coblentz (MacMillan & Co., 1894).
Algernon Gissing. Broadway: A Village of Middle England (E. P. Dutton, 1904).
Algernon Gissing. Ludlow & Stokesay (J. M. Dent & Co., 1905).
Alfred Harvey. Bristol, a Historical and Topographical Account of the City (Methuen & Co., 1906).
C. G. Holme (Ed.). Modern book illustrators and their work (The Studio Ltd., 1914), pp 101–106.
William Holden Hutton. Highways and Byways in Shakespeare's Country (MacMillan, 1914).
William Angus Knight. Coleridge and Wordsworth in the West country : their friendship, work, and surroundings (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1914).
F. A. H. Lambert. Surrey (Methuen and Co., 1903).
J. W. Mackail. The Life of William Morris, Vol. 1 (Longmans, Green & Co., 1901).
J. W. Mackail. The Life of William Morris, Vol. 2 (Longmans, Green & Co., 1901).
Helen R. A. Milman. In the garden of peace (John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1896).
Helen R. A. Milman (Mrs. Caldwell Crofton). Outside the Garden (John Lane the Bodley Head, 1900 - in the Open Air Series)
E. H. New. Evesham (J. M. Dent & Co., 1904).
A. Hamilton Thompson. Cambridge and its colleges (Methuen, 1898).
E. H. New. The new Loggan guide to Oxford Colleges (Blackwell, 1932).
Herbert W./ Tompkins. Hertfordshire (Methuen & Co., 1903/1922)
Herbert W. Tompkins. Stratford on Avon (J. M. Dent 1904).
Isaak Walton, Charles Cotton, Richard Le Gallienne (ed.). The Compleat Angler (John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1898).
Lawrence Weaver. Sir Christopher Wren, scientist, scholar and architect (London, Offices of "Country life", 1923).
Joseph Wells. Oxford and its Colleges (Methuen, 1903).
Gilbert White, Grant Allen (Ed.).The Natural History of Selborne (John Lane The Bodley Head, 1897).
B. C. A. Windle. Chester; a Historical and Topographical Account of the City (Methuen and Co., 1903).
B. C. A. Windle. The Wessex of Thomas Hardy (London, New York, J. Lane, 1902).

The "College Monographs" series (Edited and illustrated by E. H. New)

W. W. Rouse Ball. Trinity College Cambridge (J. M. Dent & Co., 1906).
C. R. Fay. King's College, Cambridge (J. M. Dent & Co., 1907).
A. R. Prickard. New College, Oxford
R. F. Scott. St. John's College, Cambridge (J. M. Dent & Co., 1907).
T. Herbert Warren. Magdalen College (J. M. Dent & Co., 1907).
H. J. White. Merton College, Oxford (J. M. Dent & Co., 1907).
Bertram C. A. Windle "Shakespeare's Country" (London & Methuen Co. 1899).

References

Further reading
Brian North Lee. Bookplates by Edmund Hort New (Bookplate society, London, 1999).
Walter Crane. Of the decorative illustration of books old and new (George Bell & Sons, 1905), pp 201–207.

External links

Artwork by E. H. New (wikigallery.org).

English illustrators
Arts and Crafts movement artists
English Quakers
People from Evesham
1871 births
1931 deaths

Edmund Hort New


James Houghton Page OBE TD (14 January 1900 – 16 December 1977) was a British rower who was secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association from 1952 to 1972.

Life
Page was born on 14 January 1900 in Lambeth, London. He went to school at Dulwich College, where he was captain of shooting, before attending Jesus College, Oxford, where he was captain of the boat club.   He was a master at St Paul's School from 1926 to 1963, where he was a rowing coach.  He maintained links with Oxford, successfully coaching Oriel College from their position in 21st place in 1928 to become Head of the River between 1933 and 1936. He also coached Oxford and Cambridge Boat Clubs at various times.  He was captain of Thames Rowing Club in 1934 and in 1947–48.  In 1952, he became honorary secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association (secretary from 1963 onwards), retiring in 1972.  He was elected as Master of the Broderers' Company in 1960, a steward of the Henley Royal Regatta in 1962, and Master of the Fletchers' Company in 1971.

Page also served in the Armed Forces and the police.  He was commissioned in the Royal Field Artillery in 1918 and joined the Territorial Army whilst at Oxford. During the Second World War, Page commanded the 52nd Anti-Tank Regiment from 1939 onwards, before transferring to the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve.  He served in India as a pilot officer, serving until 1947 when he retired with the rank of wing commander.  He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire on retirement.  He also received the Territorial Decoration for his services.  He became a special constable with the City of London Police in 1933, rising to the rank of superintendent in 1963. He died on 16 December 1977.

References

1900 births
1977 deaths
People educated at Dulwich College
Alumni of Jesus College, Oxford
English male rowers
Schoolteachers from London
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Royal Field Artillery officers
Stewards of Henley Royal Regatta
British special constables
Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II
Royal Air Force wing commanders
British Army personnel of World War I
British Army personnel of World War II

James Page (rower)


Exercise hypertension is an excessive rise in blood pressure during exercise. Many of those with exercise hypertension have spikes in systolic pressure to 250 mmHg or greater.

A rise in systolic blood pressure to over 200 mmHg when exercising at 100 W is pathological and a rise in pressure over 220 mmHg needs to be controlled by the appropriate drugs.

Similarly, in healthy individuals the response of the diastolic pressure to 'dynamic' exercise (e.g. walking, running or jogging) of moderate intensity is to remain constant or to fall slightly (due to the improved blood flow), but in some individuals a rise of 10 mmHg or greater is found.

Recent work at Johns Hopkins Medicine involving a group of athletes aged 55 to 75 with mild hypertension has found a correlation of those with exercise hypertension to a reduced ability of the major blood vessels to change in size in response to increased blood flow (probably due to impaired function of the endothelial cells in the vessel walls). This is to be differentiated from stiffness of the blood-vessel walls, which was not found to be correlated with the effect.

References

Physical exercise
Sports medicine
Hypertension

Exercise hypertension


Lawrence Kohlberg (25 October 1927 – 19 January 1987) was an American psychologist. Today, he is mostly known for his theory, that the development of a sense of what is morally right or wrong occurs in different stages. There are three main stages, which are subdivided:
 (Pre-Conventional)
 Avoiding punishment
 Self-interest orientation
 (Conventional)
 Interpersonal accord and conformity  / Social norms
 Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Post-Conventional)
 Social contract orientation
 Universal ethical principles

1927 births
1987 deaths
American psychologists

Lawrence Kohlberg


Agni is the Vedic fire god of Hinduism.
According to the Vedas, Agni is considered as the mouth of the Deities, and the medium that conveys offerings to them in the Yagynas.
According to Bhavishya Purana The Agnivanshi Rajputs (Parmaras, Chauhanas, Pratiharas, and Solankis) are the descendants of the fire god Agni.

Hindu gods and goddesses

Agni


Juan Bautista Ambrosetti (August 22, 1865May 28, 1917) was an Argentine archaeologist, ethnographer and naturalist who helped pioneer anthropology in his country.

Life and work
Ambrosetti was born in Gualeguay, Entre Ríos Province, in 1865. He enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires, where he was mentored by the prominent local naturalist, Dr. Florentino Ameghino. At age twenty, he joined an expedition of naturalists into then-remote and largely uncharted Chaco Province, publishing his observations in Buenos Aires by a pseudonym, Tomás Bathata.

Following graduation, he was appointed Director of Zoology at the Provincial Museum of Entre Ríos, in Paraná. Ambrosetti's reputation in his field was first earned with his publication of studies on the ethnomusicology and cemeteries of the native peoples of Misiones Province, in 1893-95, and with The Megaliths of Tafí del Valle (1896). He collaborated with a number of local scientific institutions in subsequent years, including work for his alma mater's School of Philosophy and Letters, the Argentine Geographic Institute, the La Plata Museum, the Bernardino Rivadavia Natural Sciences Museum (where he collaborated with Ameghino), and the Buenos Aires Zoo (likewise led by a former teacher, Eduardo Ladislao Holmberg).

Ambrosetti contributed to a number of peer-reviewed journals, including the National Academy of Sciences Bulletin (Córdoba) and the National Agricultural Bulletin, contributing over 70 articles in all. He joined the Argentine Scientific Society and the Western Hemisphere Historical and Numismatic Association in 1901, representing Argentina at the 1902 Scientific Congress (in New York City), becoming the first Argentine to participate in the event.  He was named Professor of Archaeology in 1903, and established the University of Buenos Aires Museum of Ethnography, in 1904. His text, Argentine Archaeology: Bronze in the Calchaquí Region (1904), would remain among the definitive texts on the subject.

His expeditions in the Argentine Northwest led Ambrosetti to the Quebrada de Humahuaca, a scenic gorge in Jujuy Province, where in 1908, he discovered the ruins of the Tilcara, an Omaguaca people long since vanished. Built on a strategic site as a fort along the storied Inca road system, the Pucará de Tilcara was estimated by Ambrosetti to have been established in the 11th century. The 15-hectare (38 acre) site included a necropolis, extensive petroglyphs, and thousands of archaeological pieces. Over the following three years, he and his team, recovered and catalogued over 3,000 artifacts, many of which were added to the Museum of Ethnography. The effort earned Ambrosetti a Doctorate honoris causa from his alma mater in 1910, following which he left responsibility for the project to his student, Salvador Debenedetti; the Quebrada de Humahuaca, including the ruins, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.

Ambrosetti continued to teach and write, and in 1917, published his only novel, Superstitions and Legends, which drew from his study of the carnival in the country's northeast region. He died in Buenos Aires in 1917, and his ashes were buried at the foot of the Tilcara ruins.

See also
Ruins of Quilmes

References

External links
Museo Etnográfico Juan B. Ambrosetti

1865 births
1917 deaths
People from Gualeguay Department
Argentine people of Lombard descent
Argentine explorers
Argentine naturalists
Argentine zoologists
Argentine archaeologists
Argentine curators
University of Buenos Aires alumni
Academic staff of the National University of La Plata

Juan Bautista Ambrosetti


General Graphics Interface (GGI) was a project that aimed to develop a reliable, stable and fast computer graphics system that works everywhere. The intent was to allow for any program using GGI to run on any computing platform supported by it, requiring at most a recompilation.  GGI is free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the MIT License.

The GGI project, and its related projects such as KGI, are generally acknowledged to be dead.

Goals
The project was originally started to make switching back and forth between virtual consoles, svgalib, and the X display server subsystems on Linux more reliable. The goals were:
Portability through a flexible and extensible API for the applications. This avoids bloat in the applications by only getting what they use.
Portability in cross-platform and in backends
Security in the sense of requiring as few privileges as possible

The GGI framework is implemented by a set of portable user-space libraries, with an array of different backends or targets (e.g. Linux framebuffer, X11, Quartz, DirectX), of which the two most fundamental are LibGII (for input-handling) and LibGGI (for graphical output). All other packages add features to these core libraries, and so depend on one or both of them.

Some targets talk to other targets. These are called pseudo targets. Pseudo targets can be combined and work like a pipeline.

One example:
display-palemu, for example, emulates palette mode on truecolor modes. This allows users to run applications in palette mode even on machines where no palette mode would be available otherwise. display-tile splits large virtual display into many smaller pieces. You can spread them on multiple monitors or even forward them over a network.

History
Andreas Beck and Steffen Seeger founded The GGI Project in 1994 after some experimental precursors that were called "scrdrv".

Development of scrdrv was motivated by the problems caused by coexisting but not very well cooperating graphics environments (mainly X and SVGAlib) under the Linux operating system at this time which frequently lead to lockups requiring a reboot. The first scrdrv design was heavily influenced by the graphics subsystem of the DJ DOS extender and some concepts from the SANE project. The basic problem that scrdrv solved was that it provided a kernel mode driver that knew enough of the video hardware to set up modes, thus allowing to get into a sane state even from a messed-up or crashed graphics application.

The first official version appeared in 1995. About 1996, GGI 1.0 was released under the LGPL license. GGI only consisted of the core lib named libggi. It included input handling, a set of 2d graphic primitives and some userspace drivers for graphic boards along with a Linux kernel patch with the userspace interface for the drivers. The patch was known as KGI, the Kernel Graphics Interface.

In 1997, GGI went into a complete re-design. Many new ideas and a decision from Linux made GGI to what it became in GGI 2.0 released in August 2001 under the MIT release.

In 1998, there was a big flame war on the linux kernel mailing list about getting KGI into the kernel. Linus Torvalds explained his concerns about GGI stating, "I think that X is good enough" and expressing concern regarding the overall direction of GGI.

During this time, another design idea called EvStack also added to the flamewar. EvStack was a pretty much complete redesign of the input and output subsystem that allowed for events (thus the "Ev") to flow through a "Stack" of modules that can be configured to manipulate them. EvStack is a very powerful concept, allowing e.g. to have two keyboards attached to the same machine, one operating a text console on one graphics adapter and one operating a graphics console on the other (as was demonstrated on the Linux-Kongreß ´97) and even allows for having different keyboard layouts on different virtual consoles or attaching keyboards via network. However this came at the price of a huge patch to the input subsystem which did not seem acceptable. The modern Linux input event system allows programs (e.g. Xorg) to receive keyboard events other than through the console keyboard, allowing multiseat operation.

A set of talks about GGI, KGI and EvStack were given at LinuxExpo 98.

For GGI 2.0, KGI was split off and became its own project named The KGI Project. GGI 2.0 consisted of a set of libraries. During the 2.0 beta phase in late 1998 the license of the libraries was changed from LGPL to a MIT-style license. Much work was also done on the buildsystem to support more operating systems. It worked on FreeBSD, code for OpenBSD, NetBSD and even Microsoft Windows were there as well as some support for more hardware platforms.

Input handling was moved into a library called libgii. Generic GGI code was in libgg, a sublib within libgii. The core graphic library, libggi, has a lightweight set of graphic primitives that was common enough to write any kind of graphic application, while higher-level API went into other libraries on top of libggi. These were called GGI extensions. libggi support a set of targets, most of them were Linux specific: fbdev, X, aa, vcsa, terminfo and some pseudo targets such as tile, multi, palemu and trueemu. The GGI extensions featured higher-level API. libggiwmh provides functionality for windowed only targets, at that time this was only X. libggimisc provided some basic stuff like vga splitline.

GGI 2.0.2 was released in December 2002. The most user visible change was from the scratch re-designed X backend.  Another noticeable change was the huge documentation improvement.  Last, but not least, the release cycles changed. From this release on, there was a development and a stable tree.  The stable tree is open for bugfixes only, the development tree got the name, following the BSD scheme, -current.

November 2004, the last bugfix from the GGI 2.0.x stable tree was released in favour for a new GGI 2.1.x stable tree.

GGI 2.1.x runs on many Operating Systems: GNU Hurd, Linux, *BSD, System V, Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows. Support for more hardware platforms has been added. NetBSD even created a binary package for NetBSD/Vax! A new GGI library on top of libgii called libgiigic has been added. It allows to combine user actions with events at run time.

GGI 2.2 was released in December 2005. The target auto detection has been reworked and was no longer linux centric. GGI replaced its own integer datatypes with ANSI C99 types for more portability. A target for Quartz has been added. Mac OS X users no longer depend on X11 but still can use the X11 backend. The most user visible change, however, was the support for static linked in targets.

Latest release is GGI 2.2.2, a bugfix release in the GGI 2.2.x stable series.  It was released in January 2007.

Status as of 2006
The GGI Project was moving onward to the GGI 3.0 release. libgii had been re-designed. The input handling had been replaced with a reactor event model, which is more flexible than using select() on a file descriptor. This also simplified the input-drivers in general, particularly for those who don't use file descriptors such as input-quartz.
libgg had been moved out into a separate library.

libggi had merged some targets into one sublib, multi with tile and mono text with palemu. libggi also had gotten a new VNC target,
which allowed to run any application as a VNC server.

In GGI 3.0, the extension mechanism had been re-designed from scratch to simplify interactions between the extensions and the core libs. This required a little API change.

See also

 Direct Rendering Infrastructure
 DirectFB
 Graphical Kernel System
 Linux framebuffer
 SVGALib

References

The GGI Project Frequently Asked Questions List
Linux Weekly News - February 26, 1998, section: Kernel
GGI Project Unhappy On Linux
Christopher Browne's Web Pages: The X Window System, 15. GGI - General Graphical Interface
Peter Amstutz: An Overview of the GGI Project 1998
Linux-GGI Project LinuxJournal article by Steffen Seeger and Andreas Beck 1996

External links
GGI Project webpage

Application programming interfaces
C (programming language) libraries
Cross-platform software
Free computer libraries
Graphics software
Linux APIs
Video game development software

General Graphics Interface


An expense is an item requiring an outflow of money, or any form of fortune in general, to another person or group as payment for an item, service, or other category of costs. For a tenant, rent is an expense. For students or parents, tuition is an expense. Buying food, clothing, furniture, or an automobile is often referred to as an expense. An expense is a cost that is "paid" or "lithuania", usually in exchange for something of value. Something that seems to cost a great deal is "expensive". Something that seems to cost little is "inexpensive". "Expenses of the table" are expenses for dining, refreshments, a feast, etc.

In accounting, expense is any specific outflow of cash or other valuable assets from a person or company to another person or company. This outflow is generally one side of a trade for products or services that have equal or better current or future value to the buyer than to the seller. Technically, an expense is an event in which a proprietary stake is diminished or exhausted, or a liability is incurred. In terms of the accounting equation, expenses reduce owners' equity. The International Accounting Standards Board defines expenses as:

Expense is a term also used in sociology, in which a particular fortune or price is sacrificed voluntarily or involuntarily by something or someone to something or somebody else, often in the context that the latter is taking advantage of the former.

Bookkeeping for expenses
In double-entry bookkeeping, expenses are recorded as a debit to an expense account (an income statement account) and a credit to either an asset account or a liability account, which are balance sheet accounts. An expense decreases assets or increases liabilities. Typical business expenses include salaries, utilities, depreciation of capital assets, and interest expense for loans. The purchase of a capital asset such as a building or equipment is not an expense.

Cash flow
In a cash flow statement (flow of funds statement), expenditures are divided into three categories:

 Operating: Operational expense – salary for employees
 Investing: Capital expenditure – buying equipment
 Expenditures (financial) Financing expense – interest expense for loans and bonds

Whether a particular expenditure is classified as an expense, which is reported immediately on the business's income statement or whether it is classified as a capital expenditure (or an expenditure subject to depreciation), which is not an expense flow of funds statement. Though, these latter types of expenditures are reported as expenses when they are depreciated by businesses that use accrual-basis accounting- as most large businesses and all C corporations do.

Defining an expense as capital or income using the most common interpretation depends upon its term.

When an expense is seen as a purchase, it alleviates this distinction. Soon after the purchase (that which was expenses holds no value), it is usually identified as an expense. It will be viewed as capital with life that should be amortized/depreciated and retained on the balance sheet if it retains value soon and long after the purchase.

Deduction of business expenses under the United States tax code
For tax purposes, the Internal Revenue Code permits the deduction of business expenses in the tax payable year in which those expenses are paid or incurred. This is in contrast to capital expenditures that are paid or incurred to acquire an asset. Expenses are costs that do not acquire, improve, or prolong the life of an asset. For example, a person who buys a new truck for a business would be making a capital expenditure because they have acquired a new business-related asset. This cost could not be deducted in the current taxable year. However, the gas the person buys during that year to fuel that truck would be considered a deductible expense. The cost of purchasing gas does not improve or prolong the life of the truck but simply allows the truck to run.

Even if something qualifies as an expense, it is not necessarily deductible. As a general rule, expenses are deductible if they relate to a taxpayer's trade or business activity or if the expense is paid or incurred in the production or collection of income from an activity that does not rise to the level of a trade or business (investment activity).

Section 162(a) of the Internal Revenue Code is the deduction provision for business or trade expenses. In order to be a trade or business expense and qualify for a deduction, it must satisfy 5 elements in addition to qualifying as an expense. It must be (1) ordinary and (2) necessary (Welch v. Helvering defines this as necessary for the development of the business at least in that they were appropriate and helpful). Expenses paid to preserve one's reputation do not appear to qualify). In addition, it must be (3) paid or incurred during the taxable year. It must be paid (4) in carrying on (meaning not prior to the start of a business or in creating it) (5) a trade or business activity. To qualify as a trade or business activity, it must be continuous and regular, and profit must be the primary motive. An expense can be a loss or profit. But the loss or profit need not really be an expense.

Section 212 of the Internal Revenue Code is the deduction provision for investment expenses. In addition to being an expense and satisfying elements 1-4 above, expenses are deductible as an investment activity under Section 212 of the Internal Revenue Code if they are (1) for the production or collection of income, (2) for the management, conservation, or maintenance of property held for the production of income, or (3) in connection with the determination, collection, or refund of any tax.

In investing, one controversy that mounted throughout 2002 and 2003 was whether companies should report the granting of stock options to employees as an expense on the income statement, or should not report this at all in the income statement, which is what had previously been the norm.

Expense report
An expense report is a form of document that contains all the expenses that an individual has incurred as a result of the business operation. For example, if the owner of a business travels to another location for a meeting, the cost of travel, the meals, and all other expenses that he/she has incurred may be added to the expense report. Consequently, these expenses will be considered business expenses and are tax-deductible.

Many businesses benefit from automated expense reports systems for expense management. Depending on the system chosen, these software solutions can reduce time costs, errors, and fraud.

Expense Management
Expense management is a crucial aspect of both personal and corporate financial well-being. It involves effectively tracking, controlling, and optimizing expenses to ensure financial stability and growth. Whether for individuals or organizations, understanding and managing expenses is essential for various reasons.

On a personal level, expense management enables individuals to maintain a healthy financial life. By tracking and categorizing expenses, individuals gain a clear understanding of where their money is going. This awareness allows for better budgeting, saving, and investing decisions. It empowers individuals to make informed choices about their spending habits, prioritize financial goals, and avoid unnecessary debt. There are outstanding mobile applications that makes personal expense management handy, notably SMoney that are available in both iOS and Android Versions.

For businesses, effective expense management is vital for maintaining financial health and achieving long-term success. By closely monitoring and controlling expenses, businesses can optimize their operational costs and improve profitability. Expense management helps identify areas of overspending, inefficiencies, or potential cost savings. It allows for strategic decision-making, such as resource allocation, investment planning, and pricing strategies. Moreover, proper expense management ensures compliance with financial regulations and enhances transparency in financial reporting. Whilst there are a plethora of corporate finance and expense management apps, it is notable that Odoo and Expense.com.hk are free and simple to use. Other platforms, including Workstem and InfoTech requires    an upfront payment plus relatively complex setup procedures.

In both personal and corporate contexts, expense management contributes to financial stability and resilience. It helps individuals and businesses weather unexpected expenses, emergencies, or economic downturns. By establishing sound financial habits and practices, individuals can build a strong foundation for their future. Similarly, organizations with effective expense management have better cash flow management, which enhances their ability to invest, expand, and adapt to changing market conditions.

See also
 Amortization (business)
 Balance sheet
 Capital Expenditures
 Cash flow statement
 Depreciation
 Expense management
 Expenses versus Capital Expenditures
 Income statement
 Operating expense
 Per diem
 Stock option expensing

References

External links

 IRS Expense Guidelines

cs:Finanční náklady
pt:Custo
ta:செலவு

Expense


In a piston engine, the main bearings are the bearings which hold the crankshaft in place and allow it to rotate within the engine block.

Main bearings are usually plain bearings or journal bearings, held in place by the engine block and bearing caps. The number of main bearings per engine varies between engines, often in accordance with the forces produced by the operation of the engine.

Number of main bearings
The number of main bearings is primarily determined by the overall load factor and maximum engine speed. Increasing the number of bearings in an engine will generally increase the size and cost of the engine, but also reduces bending stress and deflection caused by the distance from the crank pins to the nearest bearings.

Most engines have at least two main bearings— one at each end of the crankshaft. Additional bearings may be located along the crankshaft, sometimes as many as one bearing per crank pin, as used on many modern diesel engines and petrol engines designed for high RPM.

Some small single-cylinder engines have only one main bearing, in which case it must withstand the bending moment created by the offset distance from the connecting rod to the main bearing.

When describing a crankshaft design, the number of main bearings is generally quoted, as the number of crank pins is determined by the cylinder layout. For example, the Toyota VZ V6 engine is described as having a "four bearing crankshaft" and the Jaguar XK6 straight-six engine has a "seven bearing crankshaft".

Bearing caps
The lower half of the main bearings are typically held in place by 'bearing caps' which are secured to the engine block using bolts. The basic arrangement is for each bearing cap to have two bolts, but some engines may have four or six bolts per bearing cap (often referred to as "four-bolt mains" or "six-bolt mains" engines). The additional bolts result in increased strength, allowing the engine to withstand higher power output or RPM.

4 bolt main

The first car engine to use four-bolt main bearings was the V12 Maybach Zeppelin of 1928, that used them on three of its eight main bearings.

6 bolt main
The typical design for a six-bolt main bearing is four vertical bolts (two on each side of the crankshaft) from the bottom extending into the block and two lateral cross-bolts coming from the left and right side pan rails into the side of the main caps to provide additional lateral strength.

See also
 Crankcase
 Crankshaft

References

Engine technology
Bearings (mechanical)

Main bearing


Hypochlorite is an ion. It can be found in household bleach, sodium hypochlorite. It is unstable, meaning that it breaks down easily. Hypochlorites react with acids to produce chlorine. Their chemical formula is ClO-. It is a strong oxidizing agent. It contains chlorine in its +1 oxidation state. They are the salts of hypochlorous acid.

Related pages
Chlorate
Sodium hypochlorite
Potassium chlorate

Chlorine compounds
Ions

Hypochlorite


Aleph is a 1980s Italo disco band, featuring the vocals of Dave Rodgers. The other members of the group were Donato Bellini and Marco Manzi. They achieved a fair amount of success with the single "Fly To Me" in 1985, which reached the Top Ten in several countries. They released two LPs, "Black Out" in 1988 and "Take My Life" in 1989, both originally released on Time Records. The group later released three songs in the late 1990s.

Discography
Studio albums
  Black Out  (1988)
  Take My Life  (1989)

Singles

References

Italian dance music groups
Italo disco groups

Aleph (band)


Revolution is an isometric 3D puzzle video game released by U.S. Gold in 1986 for the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC. It was programmed by Costa Panayi and is a development of the earlier 3D games Highway Encounter and Alien Highway.

Gameplay

The player controls a bouncing ball on a series of superimposed levels, each consisting of an array of square tiles, on which are arranged a number of puzzles.

Each puzzle consists of two black cubes that turn temporarily white when touched by the player's ball, before turning black again. To solve the puzzle, both cubes must touched in rapid succession so that they both turn white simultaneously.

There are nine levels in total. When all the puzzles on one level are complete the player ascends to the next.

The height of the ball's bounce is controlled by the "fire" button, while the direction controls steer it around the map. The player must take care not to fall off the edge of the level, or through the gaps between tiles.

Flying platforms, conveyor belts, adhesive surfaces, spiked balls, and other structures may help or hinder the player in his attempt to solve the puzzles.

The player has five balls. There is also a time limit that must be beaten.

Background

Mark Haigh-Hutchinson:
"The result of Costa's efforts was REVOLUTION, an abstract isometric puzzle game. It was designed with lastability in mind - each time the game starts the puzzles are shuffled between levels as well as their locations within the level.

'Shifting the puzzles around and creating a new landscape, or set of levels, each time you start play - it's trying to make the game something more than other games on the market' Luke [Andrews] would say at the time.

'Even with our old games, you always had the first level, second level, third level, and so on. ALIEN HIGHWAY, the remix of HIGHWAY ENCOUNTER started us thinking that way, and with REVOLUTION I think the changes in the puzzle and landscapes are the main attraction. If someone picks up the game and can't get past the first level, then the game can be played on level one and the player still gets thirty new puzzles so you can still enjoy it, even if you never get past the first level!'"

Reviews
Your Sinclair: "Yet another cracker from Costa Panayi..."
Sinclair User: "A brilliant game with masses of tortuous puzzles, set in an abstract landscape. Think, not zap."

References

External links

1986 video games
ZX Spectrum games
Amstrad CPC games
Puzzle video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games with isometric graphics
Vortex Software games

Revolution (video game)


Peter Golding is an English fashion designer who created the first "designer jean" in 1970, opened his clothing store ACE on London's King's Road Chelsea in 1974 and created the first stretch denim jean in 1978. He was the first fashion designer to be invited to join what is now known as the Chartered Society of Designers, and in 2004 was invited by The Queen to Buckingham Palace in recognition of his contribution to British design. He was described by Fashion Weekly as "the Eric Clapton of denim".

Beginnings and the Beat Hotel, Paris

Golding came from an academic family background, and became a clothing industry management trainee and production manager in his teenage years. An early trip to Paris saw him busk in the streets on blues harp and guitar, and take up residence at No. 9 Git le Coeur, later known as the Beat Hotel, a renowned hangout of Anglo-American beat artists and performers. Golding features in books on the beat generation by Harold Chapman and Mike Evans.

Fashion design and consultancy
On his return Golding worked for the Rael-Brook shirt company as a designer, combining his technical experience with his artistic background, before setting up one of the first professional fashion design consultancies with offices in Old Burlington Street, then Savile Row. He attracted international clients such as Viyella International, Phillips-Van Heusen (US), The International Institute for Cotton, The International Wool Secretariat, ICI (UK), Fabwerke Hoechst AG (Germany) and Hystron Fibers Inc (US), McGregor-Doniger (US), Barracuta (UK) among others.

In 1970 with a commission from Falmer Company Ltd he created what can be considered the world's 'first designer jean' 'Peter Golding for Falmer'.This successful line was followed in 1973 with Peter Golding bleached denim jeanswear which was distributed by Jean Machine and Mayfair Fashions in the UK. In that year Golding also exported these jeans and jackets to the United States through the Brittania Company in Seattle thus introducing the first bleached denim jeanswear to America.

Golding was a visiting lecturer at the Royal College of Art, and was invited to join the Society of Industrial Artists and Designers which today is known as The Chartered Society of Designers of which he is a fellow and previously an assessor for student membership both in the UK and Hong Kong.

Ace

In 1974, Golding opened his flagship store, ACE, in London's King's Road, with sculptures by Andrew Logan and an interior described by European Fashion Guide as "glittering":

This may be the "hottest" store in the world. There is nothing inside here that does not glitter: the jeans, the shirts, the walls and the people. The black walls shine under silver lights, music plays continuously, and there's no telling what stars may pop in – Liza Minnelli, Rod Stewart, Bianca Jagger or the Rolling Stones'...models,rock stars,movie people and lords and princesses come here for clothes that Golding designs to be both fun and sexy. Famous are the Golding jeans which fit like a second skin..
Alan Flusser – European Fashion Guide US 1977)
Clients included The Rolling Stones, Mick Jagger, Rod Stewart, Freddie Mercury, Queen, Britt Ekland, Twiggy, Yoko Ono, David Bailey, Bianca Jagger, David Bowie, Joan Collins, David Niven, Mary Quant, the Princess of Wales, Cliff Richard, Cilla Black, Ava Gardner, Marlon Brando, Bryan Ferry, Dudley Moore, Richard Burton, Adam Ant, Ossie Clark, Julie Christie, Jerry Hall, Jack Nicholson, Ringo Starr, Liza Minnelli, Zandra Rhodes, and Cher.1984 Ritz Newspaper.The store is mentioned in Bill Wyman's Rolling with the Stones in an anecdote where Keith Richards attempts to try on Peter Golding stretch jeans, but instead takes several pairs on spec.

When the store closed in 1984 an advertisement was taken out in Ritz magazine to thank the celebrity clientele – the "Lords and Ladies of the night" which has become known as the "Ace Goodbyes".

Original stretch denim jean
PG's ACE store was the platform from which Golding created and launched the world's First Stretch Denim Jean  in 1978 which was quickly popular with its British and international star-studded clientele.
Design development and early production began in the mid-1970s, as a response to the changing profile of the average jeans wearer. Golding found the solution to the demand for close-fitting jeans in a Japanese stretch indigo denim fabric (96% cotton 4% spandex) and then a sateen stretch fabric in black and plain dyed colours.

The original product was launched in the UK through the ACE store and other outlets, but was swiftly marketed in the US with success, stocked by American celebrity retailers including Fred Segal and Bloomingdales, and worn by LA's Hollywood and music fraternity.

In October 2002, Jerry Hall featured in an article by Hilary Alexander for the Daily Telegraph with photographs by David Bailey to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Peter Golding Stretch Jeans since 1978. British society girl Tamara Beckwith then became the jean's photographic model, being featured in various press articles as well as in Hello and OK celebrity Magazines.

Rock art collection
Golding is also known for his collection of Rock and Roll Art – 'Inspirational Times'.

A selection went to auction under the title 'The Peter Golding Collection of Rock & Roll Art' at Bonhams in New York on 14 May 2008, as a first showing of its kind with a preview tour of the United States in April. The first publicised and curated exhibition for Inspirational Times was held in London in 2003 at Sotheby's Olympia.

In 2005, Golding's Inspirational Times Collection was a major lender to Tate Liverpool's Summer of Love exhibition. It went on to Germany and Austria in 2006 and to the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City in 2007.

In November 2018, Golding co-curated a book titled 'Rock Graphics Originals' with Barry Miles. The book covers artwork that was associated with rock music in the 60s to the 80s and includes posters, album covers, magazine spreads, etc.

Music

Golding recorded his 1997 album Stretching The Blues with blues musicians, including Otis Grand, Doris Troy and Slim Jim Phantom.

Bibliography
 Rodney Bennett-England (1967) Dress Optional: The Revolution in Menswear – Publisher, Peter Owen Ltd. London
 The Design Council Educational (1986) Designers Talking: Peter Golding, Fashion Designer :Plus VHS.
 Harold Chapman (1984) The Beat Hotel Paris: Editor Banal Gris
 Bill Wyman,  (2002) Rolling with the Stones – Publisher, Dorling Kindersley Ltd. London
 Paul Gorman, (2006) The Look: Adventures in Rock and Pop Fashion – Publisher, Adelita Ltd. London,
 Mike Evans (2007) The Beats: From Kerouac to Kesey, an Illustrated Journey Through the Beat Generation  – Publisher, Running Press Book Publishers. New York,
 Gary Italiaander (2014) Reflections: A Tribute to Larry Adler, Harmonica Genius – Publisher, Delancy Press. London,

References

External links
 Peter Golding Jeanswear
 Inspirational Times Rock Art Collection
 Peter Golding – Stretching the Blues Party – Live @ The Café de Paris (London)
 Peter Golding Harmonica – PG's Music Site & Café Django – Gypsy Jazz & Hot Harmonica Swing Band.
 Fashion designer Peter Golding in conversation with author and journalist Chris Sullivan. (ICA, London)

Chartered designers
English fashion designers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people

Peter Golding


Thomas Stent (died 1912) was an architect in New York City. He assisted Alexander Saeltzer on the Astor Public Library and was the architect for the 1879–1881 expansion.

Stent was trained and practised in England before coming to London, Canada West in 1855. In 1858, he moved to Ottawa.

He designed "Belvoir" in Delaware Township, Middlesex County, Ontario. The house at Belvoir (pronounced "Beever") was owned by Helen Gibson Weld's grandfather, Richard Gibson, 1840-1911.

At Parliament Hill, the team of Thomas Stent and Augustus Laver, under the pseudonym of Stat nomen in umbra, won the prize for the second category, which included the East and West Blocks. These proposals were selected for their sophisticated use of Gothic architecture, which was thought to remind people of parliamentary democracy's history, would contradict the republican Neoclassicism of the United States' capital, and would be suited to the rugged surroundings while also being stately. $300,000 was allocated for the main building, and $120,000 for each of the departmental buildings.

Stent and Laver also won the competition to build San Francisco City Hall, which was completed in 1898 but destroyed by an earthquake in 1906.

References

British emigrants to Canada
Canadian emigrants to the United States
1912 deaths
Architects from New York City
Year of birth missing

Thomas Stent


The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) was a Russian political party.

The party was founded in 1898. Its program was based on Marxism and socialism. The party wanted to lead the workers of Russia and to get rid of the Tsar.

Some members of the party wanted democracy and were called "Mensheviks".

Other members of the party spoke for the dictatorship of the working class and were called "Bolsheviks". The leaders of the Mensheviks were Martov and Potresov. The leaders of the Bolshevik group were Plekhanov and Lenin.

The Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was an illegal party. It fought against the autocracy, organized meetings and strikes, and printed illegal newspapers blaming the Tsar and his government. Many members of the party were arrested, put into prison, or condemned to penal servitude.

In 1917 Lenin and most other Bolsheviks became a separate political party, RSDLP(B), which later became the Russian Communist Party.

During the Russian Civil War, the RSDLP was banned by the communists. Some social democrats became Communists, others fled from Russia, and still others became political prisoners.

Communist parties in Russia
Social democratic parties
1898 establishments in Europe
19th-century establishments in Russia
1898 establishments in Asia

Russian Social Democratic Labour Party


Aedesius (, died 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic. He was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos. None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled Lives of the Sophists. Aedesius's philosophical doctrine was a mixture between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.

The school of Syria was dispersed after Iamblichus' death, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine II, and took refuge in divination. An oracle in hexameter verse represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples, perhaps calming his fears by a metaphorical interpretation, compelled him to resume his instructions. Aedesius then founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the Roman emperor Julian. After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place. His co-teacher and perhaps consort at the Pergamon school was the female philosopher and mystic, Sosipatra.

References

355 deaths
4th-century Romans
4th-century Greek philosophers
Neoplatonists
Year of birth missing

Aedesius


Robert Carl "Bob" Hunter (born January 14, 1944) is an American jurist, who served as a Judge of the North Carolina Court of Appeals from 1998 through 2014.

Hunter, born in Marion, North Carolina, earned a degree in political science from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1966 before earning his Juris Doctor degree from the same institution in 1969. While at UNC-Chapel Hill, he became a brother of Alpha Phi Omega. After earning his degree, Hunter worked as a county attorney in McDowell County, North Carolina.  He also represented the 49th District in the North Carolina House of Representatives from 1980 to 1998. Significant legislation passed during his tenure included the Highway Trust Fund, NC Victims' Bill of Rights, NC Victims' Compensation Fund, and the establishment of Lake James State Park.

In 1998, Hunter was appointed by Gov. Jim Hunt to the state Court of Appeals, and he was elected to an eight-year term on the court that same year.  In 2006, Hunter won the plurality of votes in the state's non-partisan primary on May 2, thus advancing to the November general election.  Winning 99 of 100 counties, he defeated Kris Bailey in that election to win another eight-year term.  He announced in 2013 that he would retire at the end of his term rather than seek re-election in 2014. During his tenure on the Court of Appeals, Hunter decided over 4,000 appellate cases and authored over 1,500 opinions.

Hunter has been active in community and nonprofit organizations.  He is a board member of both the N.C. Healthy Start Foundation and Southmountain Children's Services, and he is a member of the Rotary Club of Raleigh, McDowell Economic Development Association, and the McDowell Chamber of Commerce.

Hunter ran for the North Carolina Supreme Court in 2002 and in 2010, losing to Robert F. Orr and to Barbara Jackson, respectively.

He is married and has two children.

See also
Robert N. Hunter, Jr., a similarly named fellow judge of the Court of Appeals

Notes

External links
 Official biography
 Campaign Website

1944 births
Living people
North Carolina Court of Appeals judges
Members of the North Carolina House of Representatives
People from Marion, North Carolina

Robert C. Hunter


Elizabeth Bacon Custer (née Bacon; April 8, 1842 – April 4, 1933) was an American author and public speaker who was the wife of Brevet Major General George Armstrong Custer, United States Army. She spent most of their marriage in relative proximity to him despite his numerous military campaigns in the American Civil War and subsequent postings on the Great Plains as a commanding officer in the United States Cavalry.

Left nearly destitute in the aftermath of her husband's death, she became an outspoken advocate for his legacy through her popular books and lectures. Largely as a result of her decades of campaigning on his behalf, General Custer's image as the gallant fallen hero amid the glory of Custer's Last Stand was a canon of American history for almost a century after his death.

Elizabeth Custer never remarried and died in 1933, four days short of her 91st birthday. She has been portrayed by a number of actresses, starting in the 1940s in films and later on television.

Early years
Elizabeth "Libbie" Bacon was born in 1842 in Monroe, Michigan, as the daughter of Daniel Bacon (b. 1798), a wealthy and influential judge and state representative. Her father had profitable investments in real estate and other business ventures.

Tragedy marked much of her childhood, with her three siblings and mother all dying before Elizabeth's thirteenth year.  As she was the only one of the judge's children who would live to adulthood, her father doted on her, being charged by his dying wife to "...be both a mother and father..." to the young girl. Judge Bacon, nearly ten years later, stated "I have ever felt the force of these words... I feel the responsibility beyond anything in my life before or since."

Elizabeth Bacon was both beautiful and intelligent, graduating from a girls' seminary in June 1862 at the head of her class. Her father hoped she would make a good marriage with a man from her own elevated social status, and she rejected several suitors.

She had briefly encountered her future husband George Armstrong Custer as a child, and socially met him again in the autumn of 1862, when he had returned to Monroe on leave from the first year of the American Civil War. He later wrote that he fell deeply in love with her as of their first formal meeting. She eventually returned these feelings, but her father refused to allow then-Captain Custer into the Bacon home or to permit her to meet him outside it, much less get married, as George proposed in the final week of 1862. He was from a poor, undistinguished family, and the judge hoped his daughter would have better than the life of an army wife. After Custer, just prior to the Battle of Gettysburg (where he played a significant role), was promoted to Brevet brigadier general, Judge Bacon finally relented and they were married in Monroe at the First Presbyterian Church on February 9, 1864.

Married life
Elizabeth Custer and her husband George had a loving but tumultuous relationship. Both were stubborn, opinionated, and ambitious. Their private correspondence was filled with sexually charged double entendres.

... we gave ourselves the privilege of a swift gallop... I never noticed the surroundings until I found we were almost in the midst of an Indian village, quite hidden under the bluff.  My heart literally stood still.  I watched the general furtively.  He was as usual perfectly unmoved, and yet he well knew that this was the country where it was hardly considered that the Indian was overburdened with hospitality. ...

The next day the general thought I might rather not go with him than run the risk of such frights; but I well knew there was something far worse than fears for my own personal safety.  It is infinitely worse to be left behind, a prey to all the horrors of imagining what may be happening to one we love.  You eat your heart slowly out with such anxiety, and to endure such suspense is simply the hardest of all trials that come to the soldier's wife.

— Elizabeth 'Libbie' Custer, from her first book Boots and Saddles, on her life and adventures with her husband.

After the war, George reverted from his wartime rank of major general to his Regular Army rank of lieutenant colonel, although he did receive a brevet (honorary) promotion to major general which allowed him to wear the uniform and insignia of that rank.  He was assigned to a series of dreary and unsatisfying assignments in Texas, Kansas, and the Dakota Territory. Life on the frontier outposts was difficult, and his career was plagued by problems including a court martial (brought about by his leaving the field to be with his wife).

The 1876 campaign against the Sioux seemed like a chance for glory to George Armstrong Custer. The couple's final home together was at Fort Abraham Lincoln near what is now Bismarck, North Dakota. From there, the general led the Seventh Cavalry in pursuit of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne who refused to be confined to the reservation system.

Defender of her husband's legacy
After her husband and 5 of the 12 companies of the 7th Cavalry were wiped out at the Battle of the Little Big Horn in June 1876, many in the press, Army, and government criticized him for blundering into a massacre. President Ulysses S. Grant publicly blamed him for the disaster. Fearing that her husband would be made a scapegoat by history, Elizabeth Custer launched a one-woman campaign to rehabilitate her husband's image. Her assistance to Frederick Whittaker, the author of the first biography of George, helped enable the rapid production of the popular book, which praised George's career and set the tone for future biographers in the decades ahead.

Elizabeth began writing articles and making speaking engagements praising the glory of what she presented as her "martyred" husband. Her three books—Boots and Saddles (1885), Tenting on the Plains—(1887), and Following the Guidon (1890)  aimed at glorifying her husband's memory and were ultimately slanted in George's favor.

Elizabeth remained utterly devoted to her husband and never remarried. Despite having spent her life traveling extensively throughout the United States (including winters in Florida) and the world, she never visited the valley of Little Big Horn. She was said to treasure a letter from President Theodore Roosevelt who stated that her husband was "one of my heroes" and "a shining light to all the youth of America." In later decades, historians reexamined George's actions leading up to and during the battle and found much to criticize.

After an initial period of distress dealing with her late husband's debts, Elizabeth spent her over a half-century of widowhood in financial comfort attained as the result of her literary career and lecture tours, leaving an estate of over $100,000. She died in New York City, four days before her 91st birthday, on April 4, 1933, and was buried next to her husband at West Point. A few years before her death she told a writer that her greatest disappointment was that she never had a son to bear her husband's honored name.

Portrayals in movies and television
Elizabeth Custer was portrayed by actress Olivia de Havilland in the 1941 film They Died with their Boots On, by Mary Ure in the 1967 film Custer of the West, by Blythe Danner in the 1977 television movie The Court Martial of George Armstrong Custer, and by Rosanna Arquette in the 1991 television mini-series Son of the Morning Star.

Notes and references

External links
 Libby Custer, Wife Of Union General George Armstrong Custer

Custer Writes of Secret Engagement to Libbie, Original Letter Shapell Manuscript Foundation

Custer Battlefield Museum, Garryowen, Montana – Home of the Elizabeth Bacon Custer Manuscript Archive

1842 births
1933 deaths
Elizabeth Bacon
People from Monroe, Michigan
People of Michigan in the American Civil War
American women writers
Burials at West Point Cemetery
Writers from Michigan

Elizabeth Bacon Custer


"California Über Alles" is the debut single by American punk rock band Dead Kennedys. It was the group's first recording and was released in June 1979 on the Optional Music label, with "The Man with the Dogs" appearing as its B-side. The title track was re-recorded in 1980 for the band's first album, Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, and the original recording as well as the B-side were later included on the 1987 compilation Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death.

Meaning
The lyrics were written by Jello Biafra and John Greenway for their band The Healers. Biafra composed the music in one of his rare attempts at composing on bass.

The title is an allusion to the first stanza of the national anthem of Germany, which begins with the words "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles" ("Germany, Germany above everything"). After the end of the Third Reich in 1945, the anthem was shortened to just the third stanza of the original song, as this passage is sometimes associated with Nazism and, in following, claims a large area of land that is no longer contained within the current borders of Germany.

The lyrics are a pointed, satirical attack on Jerry Brown, the Governor of California from 1975 to 1983 (and later 2011–2019), and are sung from his perspective, as an imaginary version of Brown outlines a hippie-fascist vision of America. The line "Serpent's egg already hatched" is a reference to a comment on the corrosive nature of power from William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, and also a reference to the Ingmar Bergman film The Serpent's Egg set in 1920s Berlin that gets its title from the Shakespeare play. The lines "Big Bro on white horse is near" and "now it is 1984" refer respectively to a statement Brown made during his first governorship that Americans were supposedly looking for "a leader on a white horse", and to the totalitarian regime of George Orwell's classic novel Nineteen Eighty-Four to describe a future (from a 1979 perspective) where Jerry Brown has become president, and his "suede/denim secret police" kill "uncool" people in "organic poison gas" chambers.

After the song's initial release, mild confusion arose in the Bay Area music scene as to why Biafra (who was outspoken about his far-left political views) was targeting Jerry Brown (a notably liberal politician for the time). Brown succeeded Ronald Reagan as governor of California, and Reagan was a seemingly more obvious target. However, Biafra frequently expressed his disdain for hippies, and the Dead Kennedys often satirized both left-wing and right-wing politicians.

The song is also an early example of Dead Kennedys' style, with heavy surf rock and militaristic overtones. It begins with sinister military-style drums, joined by an ominous bass riff. Biafra paints the scene in low, sneering tones before bursting into the manic chanted chorus; after two verses and choruses, the song shifts into a slower middle eight section set to a martial drumbeat over which Jello Biafra imagines the nightmarish actions of Brown's SS-styled secret police ("Come quietly to the camp; you'd look nice as a drawstring lamp," a reference to the allegation that lampshades were made from human skin during the Holocaust). The pace speeds up as it approaches the last iteration of the chorus, closing with a repeated chord sequence accompanied by a final burst of explosive drums.

German-American author Gero Hoschek was inspired by the song to title a 1988 magazine piece about the "Golden State" in the German Zeit Magazin weekly titled "Kalifornia Über Alles!" as well as a never–produced screenplay. Biafra complained, and was provided with a copy of the movie script, which he read and liked; understanding that there was no copyright violation, he gave Hoscheck permission to use the similar name.

Alternative versions
The original, improvised version (containing familiar lyrics but different music performed by the Dancing Assholes and Biafra's first band, The Healers) is included as the final track on the vinyl version of the "Rocky Mountain Low" compilation.

The version recorded for Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables was played slightly faster, featuring a much more strident vocal from Biafra and a fuller, more confrontational sound altogether than the single mix.

On their EP In God We Trust, Inc., they recorded an updated version of the song, titled "We've Got a Bigger Problem Now", about then-President Ronald Reagan, including a lounge-jazz introduction, different lyrics, and several verses set at a much slower pace. A live version of the song was recorded with the instrumentals of the original version of the song.

Jello Biafra has made satirical references to the song in his political advocacy. A speech of his appears on the spoken word album Mob Action Against the State that is entitled "We've Got a Bigger Problem Now: War, Terrorism & Beyond". After the election of Arnold Schwarzenegger as governor of California, Biafra commented, "California Über Alles indeed".

Another updated version of this song about Governor Schwarzenegger, called "Kali-Fornia Über Alles 21st Century", was performed live (among a few other Dead Kennedys classics) when Biafra toured with the band Melvins to support their collaboration album in 2004. A live recording of this new version appears on their second collaborative effort, Sieg Howdy!.

Fans of Dulwich Hamlet F.C. in South London also regularly sing a version of the song as a tribute to their longest-serving manager - Gavin Rose. Many of the words are replaced in this version, e.g. "Dulwich Hamlet" instead of "California".

Cover versions

 The song was sampled in "Dead Ken Beats" by The Prodigy, and featured in the 2010 film The Social Network.
 The song was updated by The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy when they released a cover version in 1992 on the album Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury. They replaced references to Jerry Brown with references to Pete Wilson.
 The song was also widely known in Poland (as "Kalifornia Ponad Wszystko") thanks to the cover by Polish rocker Kazik Staszewski with his band Kazik Na Żywo ("Na Żywo Ale W Studio" album, 1994).
 The band Hasidic New Wave perform a remake of the song on their 1999 album, Kabalogy. In their version, titled "Giuliani Über Alles", Jerry Brown is replaced by former Mayor of New York Rudy Giuliani.
 British anarcho-pop group Chumbawamba covered the song in their 1988 album A Night of Punk Nostalgia.
 The Delgados cover the song in their Peel Sessions CD set.
 Six Feet Under do a cover the song on their Graveyard Classics album.
 Deceased covered the song on their punk covers album Rotten to the Core.
 Hardcore punk band Ceremony has covered the song.
 John Linnell and his band The Statesmen covered it live at least once during his "State Songs" tour, choosing to perform it because it mentioned the state of California.
 Dramarama has recorded a version, updated in 2003 about California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger containing the line "You will lift weights in school".
 A 1986 live recording focused on Ronald Reagan on the album Mutiny On The Bay with live recordings from 1982 and 1986.
 Jayne County covered the song with She Wolves about California's Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. The green vinyl single was released under artist name Jayne County Meets The She Wolves by the German label Trash 2001.
 Mexican-American death metal band Brujeria covers Dead Kennedys with the song "California Uber Aztlan" in 2010.
 German industrial band T.A.S.S. album "Maniafesto" 1994.
 Greek punk band Panx Romana perform a remake of the song named "Πάρτυ κωφαλάλων" (Party for deaf-mutes) in their 1996 album "Διαγωγή Κοσμία".
 AJJ's song "Joe Arpaio is a Punk" shares the same opening and closes with an "Arizona über alles" chorus.
 Top Ranking, a "mixtape" by DJ Diplo x Santogold (Santigold) includes the song "Big Belly Guns" which utilizes the intro to "California über alles". This record was released in 2008.
 German punk band Die Toten Hosen covered the song, which is included in their cover album 'Learning English: Lesson 2'. The version features the updated lyrics about Governor Schwarzenegger, with many references to his movies and Dead Kennedys frontman Jello Biafra sharing vocals with Campino.
 Hungarian rock band Tankcsapda made a song titled "California über alles" in 2006.
 Combichrist covered the song on their album One Fire, with lyrics updated with the year 1984 changed to 2024.
 Thrash metal band Vio-lence released a cover version of this song in 2020.

Charts

See also
 Ronald Reagan in music

References

External links
 Jello Biafra discusses the history of "California Über Alles" on KQED's The California Report, July 14, 2006.

1979 debut singles
Dead Kennedys songs
Songs written by Jello Biafra
Songs about California
Jerry Brown
Songs about American politicians
Satirical songs
Protest songs
Anti-fascist music
1979 songs

California Über Alles


The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, or Scottish Chronicle, is a short written chronicle covering the period from the time of Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) (d. 858) until the reign of Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim) (r. 971–995). W.F. Skene called it the Chronicle of the Kings of Scots, and some have called it the Older Scottish Chronicle, but Chronicle of the Kings of Alba is emerging as the standard scholarly name.

The sole surviving version of the text comes from the Poppleton Manuscript, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. It is the fourth of seven consecutive Scottish documents in the manuscript, the first six of which were probably put together in the early thirteenth century by the man who wrote de Situ Albanie. The Chronicle is a vital source for the period it covers, and, despite some later Francization, is very much written in Hiberno-Latin, showing evidence of a scribe with some knowledge of contemporary Middle Irish orthography. The original text was without doubt written in Scotland, probably in the early eleventh century, shortly after the reign of Kenneth II, the last reign it relates.

Bibliography
Chronicle of the Kings of Alba
Anderson, Marjorie O. (ed.). Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland. 2nd ed. Edinburgh, 1980. 249–53.
Hudson, B.T. (ed. and tr.). Scottish Historical Review 77 (1998): 129–61.
Anderson, Alan Orr (tr.). Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286. Vol. 1. Edinburgh, 1923.
Anderson, Marjorie O. Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland. 2nd ed. Edinburgh, 1980. First edition: 1973.
Skene, William F., Chronicles of the Picts and Scots: And Other Memorials of Scottish History. Edinburgh, 1867.

See also
 The Prophecy of Berchán
 Duan Albanach
 Pictish Chronicle
 Senchus fer n-Alban

Scottish non-fiction literature
Scottish chronicles
10th-century Latin books
9th century in Scotland
10th century in Scotland

Chronicle of the Kings of Alba


Texaco Inc. v. Dagher, 547 U.S. 1 (2006), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States involving the application of U.S. antitrust law to a joint venture between oil companies to market gasoline to gas stations.  The Court ruled unanimously that the joint venture's unified price for the two companies' brands of gasoline was not a price-fixing scheme between competitors in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.  The Court instead considered the joint venture a single entity that made pricing decisions, in which the oil companies participated as cooperative investors.

Facts
Texaco and Shell Oil, historically competitors in the national and international oil and gasoline markets, formed a joint venture in 1998 called "Equilon" to consolidate their operations in the western United States, which ended competition between the two companies in the domestic refining and marketing of gasoline.  Under the joint venture agreement, Texaco and Shell agreed to pool their resources and share the risks of and profits from Equilon's activities.  Equilon's board of directors would comprise representatives of Texaco and Shell Oil, and Equilon gasoline would be sold to gas stations under the original Texaco and Shell Oil brand names. The formation of Equilon was approved by consent decree, subject to certain divestments and other modifications, by the Federal Trade Commission, as well as by the state attorneys general of California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington.  The consent decrees did not impose any restrictions on the prices Equilon charged.

Judgment

District Court proceedings
After Equilon began to operate, a class of 23,000 Texaco and Shell gas station owners filed a class action lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Central District of California, alleging that, by unifying gasoline prices under the two brands, petitioners had violated the per se rule against price fixing that the Supreme Court had long recognized under § 1 of the Sherman Act.  The District Court awarded summary judgment to Texaco and Shell Oil.  It determined that the rule of reason governed the plaintiffs' claim, under which only "unreasonable restraints of trade" were prohibited by the Sherman Act.  Because they had eschewed rule of reason analysis, the plaintiffs had failed to raise a triable issue of fact.

Ninth Circuit decision
The Ninth Circuit reversed, ruling that the per se rule against price fixing instead applied, which conclusively presumed that the arrangement was illegal.  The Ninth Circuit reached that decision by applying the ancillary restraints doctrine, which provided an exception from the rule of reason whenever a restraint on trade was not ancillary to the main purpose of an agreement.  The court did not believe the oil companies had explained why the unified pricing for their two brands of gasoline was necessary to further the legitimate goals of the joint venture, and so reversed summary judgment.  Texaco and Shell both petitioned for certiorari to the Supreme Court, which consolidated the petitions and granted certiorari to determine the extent to which the per se rule against price fixing applies to joint ventures.

Supreme Court
Justice Clarence Thomas delivered the opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court, in which the other seven participating justices joined in reversing the Ninth Circuit.  Significant to the outcome of the case was the Court's presumption that the joint venture itself was legal, which it based on the prior approval by the FTC and the several states involved.

The Court ruled that the Equilon joint venture pricing decisions were not illegal price-fixing between competitors.  Texaco and Shell did not compete with one another in the relevant market, but instead participated in that market jointly through their investments in Equilon.  The two companies shared in Equilon's profits, and should be regarded as a single entity competing with other sellers in the market, regardless of the decision to market their gasoline under two brands instead of one.

Contrary to the Ninth Circuit's ruling, the Court did not believe that the ancillary restraints doctrine applied because the challenged business practice involved the "core activity" of the joint venture—the pricing of the goods it produced and sold.  Even if the doctrine applied, pricing was certainly integral to a business that produced and sold goods.

See also
US antitrust law
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 547

Notes

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Roberts Court
United States antitrust case law
United States energy case law
Texaco
2006 in United States case law
Royal Dutch Shell litigation

Texaco Inc. v. Dagher


Intelligence refers to certain mental powers. There is no general agreement on which mental powers are intelligent or part of intelligence. The idea comes from a Latin word: intelligo meaning to choose between different options. A part of intelligence allows people to solve problems. These problems may be easy to solve. They may also be difficult to solve, and involve abstract thought. For some, intelligence is a property, or characteristic of the mind. For others, it is simply the working of the brain, especially the cerebral cortex.

If an answer is found to a problem, it can be remembered. That way, the problem is solved more quickly when it comes up again.  This is what is called learning.

There is disagreement about which has more influence on intelligence, genetics or environment.  Also, intelligent behaviour is possibly learned when an organism (a living thing) reacts enough to a stimulus.

Scientists believe that intelligence can be measured or tested. A type of intelligence test would be solving many problems in a very short time. Most of the problems have to do with seeing things, or telling what a rotated shape would look like. Some are also related to mathematics: for example to tell what number would come next in a row. Other tests have to do with words or the understanding of language.  After giving such a test to a person, a number would be calculated to give an approximation of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

Intelligent machines
Computer engineers try to build machines that act as if they were intelligent. This is related to computer science and is called Artificial intelligence (man-made "intelligence"). Artificial intelligence uses logic, and often combines it with machine learning. This means that similar to living organisms, the machine has to be trained to solve a problem. After training, it will solve the problem faster.

Intelligence in animals and plants

Intelligence is not limited to humans. Many animals also show signs of intelligence: animals also need to solve problems, and remembering how a problem is solved is useful to them.  Many animals use tools to solve problems. These animals include the Great Apes, dogs, dolphins, elephants, rats and mice, and some birds. All these animals are vertebrates, but tool use isn't limited to these: Even cephalopods and arthropods show signs of intelligence. To  be able to compare the behaviours of different species, scientists need to adapt the notion of intelligence.

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent: they are able to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology, physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction. A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories.

Opposed to this are computations that only occur once, and that do not involve learning. If this is accepted as part of the definition, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of 'learning' (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.

Related pages

 Military intelligence
 Human capital
 Intellectual disability

References

Basic English 850 words

Intelligence


National Train Day was a holiday started by Amtrak in 2008 as a method to spread information to the general public about the advantages of railway travel and the history of trains in the United States. It was held each year on the Saturday closest to May 10, the anniversary of the pounding of the Golden spike in Promontory, Utah, which marked the completion of the first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. Events were held at major Amtrak stations as well as railroad museums across the country and often have passenger cars and model railroad layouts on display. The largest events took place in Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Chicago and Los Angeles. National Train Day was cancelled after 2015 due to budget cuts within Amtrak, although many rail organizations and railfans continue to observe the holiday.

Events
The major events of National Train Day usually consist of equipment displays in the major stations across the Amtrak system. This includes Acela Express and Keystone Service sets in the Northeastern cities, and Superliner cars in Chicago, Los Angeles, San Antonio and Florida that are used on long-distance trains in those regions. In addition, many private cars are also put on display. Other large cities featured rail equipment and displays from freight railroads, transit agencies, non-profit rail organizations and historical societies as part of National Train Day.  Some smaller events consisted of a model train layout from a local club or other train-related items on display.

Because of a scheduling conflict on the original National Train Day in 2008, Toledo Union Station hosted their NTD event a week before the rest of the country in 2008. This tradition of having the 'first' Train Day has continued every year since at the Martin Luther King, Jr. Plaza Amtrak and intermodal station.

Besides events at active Amtrak stations, railway history museums participate in National Train Day as well. This often includes tours of historic rail cars and excursion train rides.

The 2011 event celebrated Amtrak's 40th Anniversary celebration, as the company first went into service on May 1, 1971.

The National Association of Railroad Passengers, the largest non-profit rail advocacy organization in America, announced that their members would be celebrating the first National Train Day in 2008. Many other non-profits participated regionally.

In 2013, Duluth, Minnesota, hosted one of the largest events, having steam locomotives Milwaukee Road 261 and Soo Line 2719 operating on the North Shore Scenic Railroad, as well as large museum displays and events.

In 2015, it was announced that the community program called National Train Day would be replaced by a company sponsored event called Amtrak Train Days.  The format changed from multiple events on a single day in many cities to individual events over the course of the spring, summer and fall.

Celebrity spokespersons
Every National Train Day through 2012 featured an official celebrity spokesperson who appeared at a single event.
2008: Al Roker, television weatherman and actor
2009: Randy Jackson, American Idol judge
2010: Taye Diggs, actor
2011: Gladys Knight, "Midnight Train to Georgia" singer
2012: Rosario Dawson, Unstoppable movie actress

On National Train Day May 8, 2010 in New York Penn Station, the cast of Cake Boss presented a special cake to Amtrak for the event. Celebrity spokespersons were discontinued after 2012.

References

External links

 Amtrak Exhibit Train website
 National Train Day Association website

Amtrak
May observances
Civil awareness days
Observances in the United States
Railway culture
History of rail transportation in the United States

National Train Day