In computer science, breadth-first search (BFS) is a method used for traversing a graph. It starts at any item you want to use as a starting position in a graph, and explores all of the neighbor items at the present depth before to moving on to the items at the next depth level. A breadth-first search done on a tree (data structure) is called a level-order traversal.

Implementation
void breadthFirstSearch(Item root) {
    Queue q = new Queue();
    root.found = true;
    q.enqueue(item);
    while (!q.isEmpty()) {
        Item v = q.dequeue();
        for (Item neighbor : v.neighbors()) {
            if (!neighbor.found) {
                neighbor.found = true;
                q.enqueue(neighbor);
            }
        }
    }
}

Usage
Though they have usage in a variety of disciplines, breadth first search algorithms are most often associated with finding the shortest distance between two points, such as on a map.

Related pages
 Linear search
 Binary search
 Depth-first search
 Bidirectional search

Searching and sorting algorithms

Breadth-first search


Romeyn Beck Hough (1857–1924) was an American physician and botanist best known for creating The American Woods, a 14-volume collection of wood samples from across North America.

Life and work

Hough acquired an interest in forestry and natural history from his father, Franklin B. Hough, a physician and botanist, who spent much time with his son in the outdoors. He attended Cornell University in Ithaca, New York and studied medicine, later qualifying as a physician like his father. His passion however, was for botany.

Hough developed a specialized veneer cutter capable of slicing wood to a thickness of . He started a business cutting and printing flexible, translucent wooden cards "for all fancy and business purposes", and also sold magic lantern and microscope slides made from the thinnest transverse sections.

After seeing German botanist Herman von Nördlinger's volumes of European tree cross-sections, Hough was inspired to make his own representing "all of the American woods, or at least the most important". Between 1888 and 1913, Hough published thirteen volumes of The American Woods: exhibited by actual specimens and with copious explanatory text, a collection of wood samples from North American trees, presented as paper-thin cross-sectional slices. To each tree he dedicated a cardboard plate which contained three slices—transverse, radial, and tangential—of the wood, accompanied by information about its botany, habitat and medicinal and commercial uses.

The first volume of American Woods, focusing upon trees of Hough's native New York, was available by subscription for five dollars.
Hough had originally planned to publish fifteen volumes, which would include samples of all of the important trees found in North America, but he died in 1924 before the full set was completed. A final, fourteenth volume was published in 1928 using samples and notes made by Hough that were compiled by his daughter, Marjorie Galloway Hough. In total, each volume contained at least 25 plates and the complete 14-volume collection comprises 1,056 slices representing 354 tree species.

Recognition
Hough's botanical work was widely acclaimed in his time. In 1908 he won the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal for his contribution to the understanding and uses of American woods, and American Woods won the top prizes at the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris, the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, and the 1909 Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition in Seattle. Reviews of American Woods described it as "one of the most valuable contributions to the literature of forestry" and "absolutely without rival". In 2002, it was republished by Taschen under the title The Woodbook, compiled by Klaus Ulrich Leistikow including a selection of lithographs of some trees' leaves and berries by Charles Sprague Sargent.

For antiquarian booksellers American Woods is "one of the most sought-after sets of the 20th century". In 2000 art auction house Christie's sold a complete set for $92,100.

Bibliography

Digitized copies of Hough's work are available at archive.org.
Handbook of the trees of the northern states and Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, photo-descriptive (1907)
The American Woods: exhibited by actual specimens and with copious explanatory text

Vol. 1 (1888)
Vol. 2 (1891)
Vol. 3 (1892)
Vol. 4 (1894)
Vol. 5 (1894)
Vol. 6 (1895)
Vol. 7 (1897)

Vol. 8 (1899)
Vol. 9 (1903)
Vol. 10 (1910)
Vol. 11 (1910)
Vol. 12 (1911)
Vol. 13 (1913)

References

External links
Stevenson, Brian. "Romeyn Beck Hough, 1857-1924"

1857 births
1924 deaths
Dendrologists
American botanists
American botanical writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
19th-century American writers
Writers from New York (state)
Weill Cornell Medical College alumni
19th-century American male writers
20th-century American male writers
American male non-fiction writers

Romeyn Beck Hough


Hercules in New York is a 1970 American fantasy-comedy film directed by Arthur Allan Seidelman and written by Aubrey Wisberg. It was released on home video under the title "Hercules Goes Bananas". It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger in his acting debut as the eponymous divine hero, who engages in escapades after traveling to New York City. Produced independently by Wisberg on a budget of $300,000, the film was shot entirely on location.

Plot
Hercules, at Olympus, berates his father Zeus for not allowing him to leave the gods' abode to adventure on Earth. Eventually Zeus sends Hercules, on a beam, to the land of men.

After some strange encounters in the air and at sea, including scaring an old woman on a passenger jet, Hercules arrives in New York City, where hilarity ensues in the form of interactions with various New Yorkers, who regard him as physically superior but socially awkward. He befriends a skinny little man called Pretzie, named because he sells pretzels. Hercules becomes a successful professional wrestler.

Zeus, watching Hercules from the heights, becomes irritated with Hercules' antics, which he feels are making a mockery of the gods, and calls on Mercury to stop Hercules. After Mercury tries but fails to bring Hercules home, Zeus orders Nemesis to see to it that Hercules is consigned to the infernal regions ruled over by Pluto.

However, Juno instead convinces Nemesis to poison Hercules with a poison that would strip him of his divinity and then talk to Pluto. Nemesis informs Pluto of what is happening and he bets a large sum of money against Hercules in an upcoming strongman competition with Hercules' gangster manager. When Hercules loses the strongman competition his friends try to head off Hercules' angry manager's henchmen, but Hercules follows them to save them.

Meanwhile, Zeus uncovers the truth from Nemesis as to what is happening but only intervenes at the last minute to restore Hercules' divinity, not wanting any son of his to die at the hands of a mortal.

Hercules defeats the gangsters and realizes that he has been disobedient and returns to the heavens shortly after, only saying good-bye to Pretzie over a radio after he leaves.

In the heavens, Zeus tells Juno and Hercules that he will not punish Hercules for his behavior as they ask him about it and then asks to be left alone. They leave him alone, and upon their departure, Zeus sneaks out of the heavens and descends to Earth, scaring a passenger jet on his way down.

Cast

Production

Hercules in New York was the acting debut of Arnold Schwarzenegger, who was 22 years old. At the time he was living in Los Angeles and making ends meet by running a bricklaying business with fellow bodybuilder Franco Columbu, while weight training and participating in bodybuilding competitions. Schwarzenegger, who had expressed interest in pursuing an acting career, auditioned at the encouragement of his friend Reg Park, a successful bodybuilder who had starred in a series of successful "Hercules" films produced in Italy. According to Schwarzenegger, during his audition his agent said he had years of "stage" experience, implying theater, when he had only appeared on bodybuilding stages.

The film was also the directorial debut of Arthur Allan Seidelman, who up until then had only directed theatre. The film was independently produced on a low budget, and filmed entirely in real locations in New York City. Several scenes including an elaborate chariot chase were shot without permits.

Playing the film's title character, Schwarzenegger, because of his long last name and to play off the name of fellow cast member comedian Arnold Stang, is credited as "Arnold Strong 'Mr. Universe'". At the time filming began, Schwarzenegger had just come in first place in both professional and amateur Universe Championships. Production of the film coincided with his training for the competition for the second year in a row, and after it ended, he won the professional title again, beating Park.

Schwarzenegger had all his lines dubbed by an uncredited voice actor due to his thick Austrian accent, although the Trimark DVD has an "Original English Dialogue" audio track with Arnold's voice. However, in that version's final scene, Schwarzenegger's voice is not restored when Hercules speaks to Pretzie through his small transistor radio, since that scene was shot without Schwarzenegger present and the voice was added via ADR.

Release

Copyright
On October 19, 2006, the San Francisco Chronicle reported that rightsholder Premiere Pictures was auctioning off the rights to the film on eBay for a minimum bid of $550,000.

See also
 List of American films of 1970
 Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography
 List of films featuring Hercules

Notes

References

External links

1970 films
1970s adventure comedy films
1970s fantasy comedy films
1970 independent films
American adventure comedy films
American fantasy comedy films
American independent films
1970s English-language films
American fantasy adventure films
Films about Heracles
Films directed by Arthur Allan Seidelman
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New York City
1970 directorial debut films
1970 comedy films
Films produced by Aubrey Wisberg
Films with screenplays by Aubrey Wisberg
1970s American films

Hercules in New York


The Prodigal Son (Chinese: 敗家仔) is a 1981 Hong Kong martial arts comedy film starring Yuen Biao and directed by Sammo Hung, who also co-starred and wrote with Barry Wong. The film was released on 22 December 1981 and grossed HK$9,150,729. The Prodigal Son was nominated for two Hong Kong Film Awards and won the award for Best Action Choreography.

The film tells the story of Leung Chang, the son of a wealthy man who is half-heartedly studying kung fu. Leung Chang's lack of expertise forces his father to pay people to lose to him in fights. After Leung Chang discovers that his father has been deceiving him, he becomes inspired to study martial arts more seriously and attempts to convince a kung fu expert to take him on as a student.

Plot
Leung Chang is a young man in a wealthy family living in Foshan in the mid-19th century. He is a martial artist trained by two instructors in his father's employ. He has fought over three hundred times in Foshan and won every fight, but unbeknownst to him, his father has arranged for his servant Yee Tung-choi to bribe Chang's opponents to lose to him in order to protect him. This has caused Chang to believe that he is a world-class fighter, but in truth he hasn't even mastered the basics of kung fu and any real fighter could easily defeat him. Everyone knows this but him, giving him the nickname "The Prodigal Son" behind his back, because of the money he is costing his parents who pay to keep him from getting injured.

One night, three of Chang's friends attend a performance by the Lok Fung Lin Chinese Opera troupe. One of Chang's friends is attracted to the lead actress and asks her out on a date after the performance. She refuses, but he insists and even harasses her. She reveals herself to be a man, Leung Yee-tai, a master of Wing Chun. He beats up and humiliates Chang's friends. Chang challenges Yee-tai to a fight to avenge the insults to his friends. As usual, Yee Tung-choi tries to bribe Yee-tai to lose, but Yee-tai refuses, easily defeats Chang, and reveals the truth about his martial arts ineptitude to him.

Chang, desiring to learn real kung fu, asks Yee-tai to teach him Wing Chun. Yee-tai refuses because he thinks Chang would probably misuse it, but Chang has his father buy the Lok Fung Lin troupe and gives himself a job as Yee-tai's personal assistant, insisting on following Yee-tai everywhere until Yee-tai agrees to teach him Wing Chun. This continues for six months. The Lok Fung Lin troupe travels to Canton. There, Yee-tai's Wing Chun skills are witnessed by Lord Ngai Fei, the son of a Manchu duke, who is also a martial arts master and is hunting for a worthy opponent.

Ngai forces Yee-tai to fight him. Ngai and Yee-tai are evenly matched until Yee-tai has an asthma attack. Ngai stops the fight and postpones it until Yee-tai is healthy and fit for it. It is revealed that Ngai is also a "prodigal son"; unbeknownst to him, his father has ordered his bodyguards to protect him from anyone who might beat him in a fight. However, their methods are more ruthless and brutal than the bribery employed by Chang's parents; they resort to assassination.

During the night, Ngai's bodyguards and a team of assassins infiltrate the Lok Fung Lin theater, massacre the troupe, and burn down the theater. Yee-tai is having trouble sleeping because of his asthma, and he sees light reflected off an assassin's blade through his eyelids and reacts in time to escape along with Chang. The assassins think they died in the fire, as does everyone else. Yee-tai takes Chang to the home of his martial friend Wong Wah-bo. With Wah-bo's help, Chang finally convinces Yee-tai to teach him Wing Chun. Chang trains under both Yee-tai and Wah-bo; Yee-tai trains him in Wing Chun and Wah-bo trains him in freestyle fighting.

Over time, Chang achieves proficiency in martial arts, but Yee-tai's asthma is worsening. Chang takes Yee-tai back to Foshan to see a doctor. There, Ngai learns that Yee-tai is still alive, and he visits him. Yee-tai reveals that Ngai's bodyguards have been assassinating everyone who might beat Ngai. The bodyguards murder Yee-tai. Ngai, horrified, has his bodyguards executed. Chang challenges Ngai to a fight. Using everything that Yee-tai and Wah-bo taught him, he manages to beat Ngai.

Cast
Sammo Hung as Wong Wah-bo
Yuen Biao as Leung Chang, known as Leung Jan
Lam Ching-ying as Leung Yee-tai
Frankie Chan as Ngai Fei
Chan Lung as Yee Tung-choi
Chung Fat as Mr. Law
Dick Wei as Mr. Suen
Wai Pak as Au Ru Kwai
Chin Yuet-sang as Kung fu teacher
Hoi Sang Lee as Kung fu teacher
Wu Ma as Brick Man
James Tien as Broken right arm fighter
Cheung King-bo as Troupe manager
Ho Wai-han as Twiggy
Chan Yau-hau as Leung Chang's father
Lin Jin as Leung Chang's mother
Wang Hsieh as Duke
Ding Yue as Magistrate
Cheung Hei as Doctor

Production
In The Prodigal Son the depth and framing of the shots were a radical change from the two-dimensional approach to filming that had been used in Hong Kong at this point.

Release and reception
The Prodigal Son was released in Hong Kong on 22 December 1981. The film grossed a total of HK$9,150,729 at the Hong Kong box office. In the Philippines, the film was released by Season Films Universal on 11 January 1989. The Prodigal Son was released on DVD by Image Entertainment on 15 June 1999. It was later released again by 20th Century Fox in 2004 on DVD.

At the 2nd Hong Kong Film Awards, Sammo Hung, Lam Ching-ying, Yuen Biao and Billy Chan won the award for Best Action Choreography for their work in The Prodigal Son. The Prodigal Son was nominated for the Best Film and Best Director (Hung) awards, but lost both awards to Ann Hui's Boat People. In 2012, Time Out placed The Prodigal Son at number 54 on their list of Top 100 Hong Kong films.

See also
List of action films of the 1980s
List of Hong Kong films of 1981
Sammo Hung filmography
Yuen Biao filmography

Notes

External links

The Prodigal Son at Hong Kong Movie DataBase
The Prodigal Son at Hong Kong Cinemagic

1981 films
1981 martial arts films
1980s martial arts comedy films
Action films based on actual events
1980s Cantonese-language films
Films directed by Sammo Hung
Films set in Guangdong
Films set in Guangzhou
Films set in the 1850s
Films set in the 19th century
Golden Harvest films
Hong Kong films about revenge
Hong Kong martial arts comedy films
Hong Kong slapstick comedy films
Kung fu films
Films about Cantonese opera
1980s Hong Kong films

The Prodigal Son (1981 film)


Zana may refer to:

Mythological figures
 Zână, a female mythological figure in Romanian mythology
 Zana (mythology), an Albanian mythological figure

Places
 Diana Veteranorum or Zana, an ancient Roman city in Algeria
 Zana, Burkina Faso, a village in Bam Province
 Zana, Ethiopia, a village near Shiraro in the Tigray Region
 Zana, Florida, a ghost town in Florida, U.S.
 Zana, Uganda, a neighborhood in Ssabagabo Municipality, Wakiso District
 Zana Khan District, Ghazni Province, Afghanistan
 Zaņa Parish, Latvia
 Zaña, a town in northern Peru
 Zaña River. a river in Northern Peru
 Zaña Valley, an archaeological area in northern Peru

People
The name Zana (), also means handsome in the Yazdi dialect.
 Leyla Zana (born 1961), Turkish Kurdish politician
 Zana Allée (born 1994), Kurdish-born French footballer
 Zana Briski (born 1966), photographer and filmmaker
 Zana Clarke (born 1965), Australian composer
 Zana Fraillon (born 1981), Australian writer for children and young adults
 Zana Krasniqi (born 1988), beauty queen and fashion model
 Zana Marjanović (born 1983), Bosnian actress
 Zana Muhsen (born 1965), English author
 Zana Nimani (born 1961), Yugoslav singer with the band Zana
 Zana Ramadani (born 1984), German politician and feminist activist
 Žana Novaković (born 1985), alpine skier for Bosnia and Herzegovina

Other uses
 Zana (band), a Serbian music group
 Zana (film), a 2019 Kosovan drama film directed by Antoneta Kastrati

 Zambia News Agency or ZANA, the official Zambian news agency
 "Zana", an Abkhazian "wild-woman" believed by some people to have been a relict hominid; see Almas (folklore)

Zana


Dai Lin (;  ; born 28 November 1987) is a Chinese footballer who currently plays as a centre-back for Ji'nan Xingzhou in the China League One.

Club career
Dai Lin started his football career with Liaoning FC in 2005 and made his debut against Changsha Ginde on 14 April 2005 in a 2–0 win. As a versatile player, Dai quickly established himself within the team throughout the 2005 league season and scored his first goal against Tianjin Teda on 16 July 2005 in a 1–0 win. He remained with the team for several further seasons when he helped Liaoning to several midtable positions until the 2008 season which saw Liaoning relegated after a disappointing season when they were relegated on the last day of the season. Despite this setback, Dai still attracted the interests from Bosnian Premier League side FK Slavija while his transfer listed price stood at £356,212. After deciding not to renew his contract with Liaoning, it was believed that he would train with FK Slavija for the start of the new season while the transfer went through. He went back to China to sign with top tier side Shanghai Shenhua halfway through the 2009 season after only two months with FK Slavija at a very surprising cut-price deal that saw him go for just £44,000.

Dai was quickly inserted into the team and would make his debut in a league game on 2 August 2009 against Jiangsu Sainty where he came on as a substitute for Aleksander Rodić in a 2–2 draw. After that game, he would quickly go on to become a regular member of the team and score his first goal for the club against Tianjin Teda in a league game on 20 September 2009 in a 4–0 victory; however, his poor disciplinary record saw him limited to only twelve games throughout the season. The following season Dai would show more maturity in defence and become a vital member within the team throughout the 2010 league season. This then saw the new manager Xi Zhikang name Dai as the club's new captain at the beginning of the 2011 league season. As the campaign went on, Shanghai would struggle within the league and Dai's performances would come into question after a 2–0 defeat to Shenzhen Ruby on 31 July 2011 when it was discovered that he was having relationship problems. This would eventually see him stripped of the captaincy when Jean Tigana arrived at the club at the beginning of the 2012 league season.

On 1 January 2014, Dai transferred to fellow Chinese Super League side Shandong Luneng (now known as Shandong Taishan). He made his debut for the club in a 1–0 win against Harbin Yiteng on 7 March 2014. He would go on to establish himself as an integral member within the team and was part of the squads that won the 2014 Chinese FA Cup and 2020 Chinese FA Cup, both against Jiangsu Suning F.C. He would go on to be used as a squad player within the team and would gain his first league title with the club when he was part of the team that won the 2021 Chinese Super League title. This would be followed up by him winning the 2022 Chinese FA Cup with them the next season.

International career
After gaining considerable playing time with Liaoning FC, Dai would soon be included into the Chinese under-23 national team and would take part in the 2007 Lunar New Year Cup and the 2007 Toulon Tournament where he twice saw his side lose in the final. He would eventually be called up to the China national football team once he became an integral member of the Shanghai Shenhua's defence and go on to make his debut against Latvia on 11 November 2010 where he came on as a substitute in a 1–0 victory.

Career statistics
.

Honours

Club
Shandong Luneng/ Shandong Taishan
Chinese Super League: 2021
Chinese FA Cup: 2014, 2020, 2021, 2022.
Chinese FA Super Cup: 2015

References

External links

 Player stats at Sohu.com
 Official Shanghai Shenhua Website

1987 births
Living people
Chinese men's footballers
Footballers from Dalian
China men's international footballers
Chinese expatriate men's footballers
Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic footballers for China
FK Slavija Sarajevo players
Expatriate men's footballers in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Liaoning F.C. players
Shanghai Shenhua F.C. players
Shandong Taishan F.C. players
Chinese Super League players
Men's association football defenders

Dai Lin


Night or nighttime is the time when the Sun is not in the sky. Night happens after dusk and before dawn. The opposite of night is day. The start and end times of night are different in different geographic locations. It varies on season, latitude, longitude and timezone.

In other time zones, the night occurs at different times. This is because the Sun shines on different parts of the Earth at different times. During a solar eclipse it is also partially night because the Sun is blocked out by the Moon.

In popular culture, night is often thought of as a symbol of evil, because of the fear of the dark, lack of being able to see what's around and criminals like doing crimes at night.

Related pages
 Light pollution
 Polar night

Parts of a day

Night


The Loudoun Rangers, also known as Mean's Rangers for their commander, Samuel C. Means, was a partisan cavalry unit raised in Loudoun County, Virginia, that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. The Rangers have the distinction of being the only unit raised in present-day Virginia to serve in the Union Army.

The Loudoun Rangers were formed in the spring of 1862, when the Union Army first occupied Loudoun County as part of its campaign in the Shenandoah Valley.  Returning with the army was local unionist Samuel Means, who had been run out of the county the previous year by local Confederates.  Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton issued Means orders to raise a company of men to serve as an independent command, of which he would be captain, for special service in Loudoun and along the Virginia-Maryland border.  Recruiting operations were established in the northern Loudoun Valley, an area of strong unionist sentiment, eventually leading to the formation of 2 companies.  For the first two years of service the Loudoun Rangers served as partisans, often in conjunction with Cole's Maryland Cavalry (1st Potomac Home Brigade) fighting their confederate counterparts, such as White's Comanches, Mosby's Rangers and John Mobberly's renegade band in and around Loudoun.  In 1864 the Rangers were absorbed into regular service, leading to Means' departure.  Daniel Keyes subsequently took his place as leader of the outfit.  During the final years of the war the Rangers were attached to the Union army in the Shenandoah Valley and took part in the Valley Campaigns of 1864 under General Phillip Sheridan.  As the war in the valley came to an end, the Rangers returned to their partisan role and were eventually effectively broken up in April 1865 when a detachment of Mosby's Rangers raided their camp at Castleman's Ferry and captured the better part of the command.  The Rangers were officially mustered out of service the following month.

See also
List of Union Virginia Civil War units

References
 Loudoun County history website
 Goodhart, Briscoe. History of the Independent Loudoun Rangers, Scouts U.S Army: 1862-1865.
 Stone, Lee, The Independent Loudoun Virginia Rangers The Roster of Virginia's Only Union Cavalry Unit

Units and formations of the Union Army from Virginia
Loudoun County in the American Civil War
Irregular forces of the American Civil War
United States Army Rangers
1862 establishments in Virginia
Military units and formations established in 1862
1865 disestablishments in Virginia
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865

Loudoun Rangers


The plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) is a true weevil native to the regions east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. It is notorious for destroying fruits if left uncontrolled.

Life stages
A female curculio uses a number of hosts to lay her eggs in, including plums, peaches, apples, pears, and other pome and stone fruits. After the female has chosen a suitable host, she will build an egg chamber under the fruit skin to receive the egg. She then turns around and places the egg in the cavity. Next, she slices a curved slit underneath the egg cavity, leaving the egg in a flap of flesh and causing a crescent-shaped scar on the outside of the fruit.  Without this curved slit, eggs are killed by pressure from the growth of the host fruit.

Appearance
Plum curculio larvae are typically 6 to 9 mm long when fully grown, when they reach the pupal stage measuring about 5 to 7 mm; all adult characteristics are visible in this stage prior to transformation. Adult plum curculio are about 4 to 6 mm long and have a small, rough snout colored with black, gray, and brown specks. Four pairs of ridges cover the wings; however, because of the middle humps they appear to have only two ridges.

Hosts
The plum curculio can be found in apple, nectarine, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, pear and quince. It may also survive on wild plum, hawthorn, and crabapple. It is found most commonly in areas east of the Rocky Mountains and in eastern Canada. The beetles are most active during the spring time when the weather is warm, damp, and cloudy. They are often seen in heavy leafed trees.

Injury or damage to fruit
Plum curculio beetles can cause irreparable damage to a fruit harvest. In badly damaged fruit, one can identify large scars and bumps due to feeding. Most internally damaged fruit (through burrowing into the fruit) drops prematurely.

Control
Control of the plum curculio is fairly easy to maintain. Application of proper insecticide during the pink and petal-fall stages of apples, also the petal-fall and shuck-split stages in peaches and cherries is usually enough to reduce plum curculio damage to a minimum. An important preventative measure is destroying the fallen, damaged host fruits before the adults emerge. Pest management at petal fall is also of particular importance.

References

External links

  Pest Management Laboratory MSU - plum curculio
  Ohio State University Extension fact sheet - plum curculio and its control
  Michigan State University Extension fact sheet - plum curculio
  University of Kentucky Entomology - plum curculio
 Bugguide.net. Species Conotrachelus nenuphar - Plum Curculio

Molytinae
Beetles of North America
Agricultural pest insects
Beetles described in 1797

Plum curculio


The title of Archduke (feminine: Archduchess) (German: Erzherzog, feminine form: Erzherzogin) is a rank above Duke and under King. It is very rare. It was used only by males of the House of Habsburg.

Ruler style
The English word is recorded only since 1530, derived from Middle Latin archidux, from arch(i)- (primary or chief) + dux 'duke' .

Archduke (Erzherzog) is a title distinct from Grand Duke (Großherzog or Großfürst) that is used in some other German royal houses and still in sovereign Luxemburg.

Fictional archdukes
 Poggle the Lesser was the Archduke of Geonosis, a planet from the Star Wars universe.

Famous archdukes and duchesses

Empress Maria Theresa was Archduchess of Austria.
Archduchess Maria Antonia of Austria is better known as "Marie Antoinette" and was a daughter of Maria Theresa and the wife of Louis XVI of France.
Maria Teresa of Austria was the wife of Louis XIV of France and is better known as "Marie Thérèse".

Related pages

 Grand Duke

Other websites
EtymologyOnLine
Use of the title "archduke" in contemporaneous documents

Austrian nobility
Titles
Holy Roman Empire

Archduke


Leons Briedis (16 December 1949 – 1 February 2020) was a Latvian poet, a novelist, an essayist, a literary critic and publisher, translator of prose and poetry from Latin, Russian, English, Romance languages (Romanian, Spanish, French, Portuguese, Italian, Catalan, Rhaeto-Romanic), Swahili (of Bantu peoples), Albanian and other languages. He was also an author of several musicals produced on the radio and staged at the biggest theatres in Latvia, script writer (author of several scripts, one short-length film is produced) wrote much for children (poems, prose, plays), author of song texts (in collaboration with the composer Raimonds Pauls, texts for ~150 songs), translated 10 plays staged at Latvian theatres and rendered in verse opera librettos (e.g., the opera by Benjamin Britten "The Small Chimney-Sweep").

Early life
After graduating the Sigulda Secondary School in 1968 he entered the Latvian State University, Day Department of the Latvian Language and Literature Faculty from which he was expelled in 1970 because of anti-Soviet activity without any right to acquire higher education within the territory of the Soviet Union. Despite this, in 1972 Leons Briedis entered the Day Department of Spanish Language and Literature at the University of Chişinău in the Moldavian SSR which in 1974 he was forced to leave due to his links with Moldavian and Romanian democratically minded intelligentsia. From 1977 to 1979 he studied at the Higher Literary Courses of Maxim Gorky Literature Institute in Moscow the theory of translation and Africanistics. L. Briedis for a long time has experienced the pressure of the Central Committee of the Latvian Communist Party and the VDK (KGB) of the Latvian SSR which was manifested as prohibition to publish his works for a certain period, to travel abroad or to take up an employment of ideological character (namely, in publishing houses, schools, editorial offices etc.).

Family
Leons Briedis was married to Maria Briede-Macovei, whom he met in Chişinău, Moldova. They had two sons.

Later life
Leons Briedis published about 34 books of his own (poetry, prose, essays) as well as 49 books of translations. His poetry books are published in Russian, Romanian and Ukrainian languages, but in general his poetry is translated in practically all languages of Europe and nations of the former Soviet Union as well as many Asian languages (Turkish, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese, Kirghiz, Uzbek).

From 1974 Briedis was a member of the Latvian Writers' Union (several times also a member of the Board), and from 1987 he was a member of the international organisation of writers (poets, essayists, prosaists) — PEN Club. From 1993 to 1997 he was vice-president of the Latvian PEN Club.
He worked in most diverse culture editions and was Head of poetry section of the newspaper "Literatūra un Māksla" (1986–1987), Editor-in-Chief of the cultural journal "Jaunās Grāmatas", culturological magazine "Grāmata" (1990–1992) and Editor-in- Chief of "Vārds", magazine of the Latvian Writers' Union (1993).

In 1992 he founded a private culturological magazine "Kentaurs XXI" and was its Editor-in-Chief till May 2010. The magazine Kentaurs during its existence had not only secured a place and role of its own among other Latvian culture editions, but also acquired international acknowledgment. Several times it had represented Latvia at various international forums (Book Fairs of Munich and Göteborg, European Congress of Intellectuals in Paris, the 17th European Meeting of Cultural Journals in Tallinn etc.).
Up to now 51 issues of the magazine "Kentaurs XXI" published by L. Briedis had appeared.
Since 1993 he was also the Director of a private Publishing House Minerva, which up to now published 67 humanities-related books of wide profile.

Awards and honors
For his contribution to understanding of contemporary qualities of poetry, life, and society, Briedis received the "Ojārs Vācietis Award" from the Latvian Association of Writers in 1988.
In 1989, at the Mihai Eminescu International Festival of Poetry in Romania, Briedis was rewarded with an "Honorary Diploma" of the Romanian Association of Writers. The Latvian National Administration for publishing, printing and circulation awarded Briedis with a diploma for the "Best Translation of the Year" – a selection of Grigore Vieru's poetry.
In 1999, at the 10th International Poetic Festival dedicated to Lucian Blaga and held in Cluj – Napoca, Romania, L.Briedis received the "Special Award" for his translations of Romanian poetry and for popularization of Romanian culture in Latvia. L. Briedis received the prize of the Romanian Writers' Union, but in 1992 for publication of the culturological magazine "Grāmata" — the Prize of the Ministry of Culture of Latvia.
In 1997, he received the Award for Social Concord of the Soros Foundation — Latvia for special merit in promotion and development of multicultural relations between nations living in Latvia, since Briedis was one of the initiators of forming the Latvian Association of National Culture Societies and since 1988 actively participated in it.
In 1999, he received the highest award of the Republic of Latvia, the Order of the Three Stars 3rd Class
In 2003, he received the award of the Republic of Portugal – the Order of Merit.
In 2004, he received the award of the Latvian Writers Union for the best translation of the year – the poetry book of the Portuguese poet Eugenio de Andrade "Water nightingale".
From 2007, he was the honorary member of the Latvian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of the Philosophy and Sociology of Latvia, and also was a life's stipendiary and recipient of the Best Translation of the Year award for the poetry book of the Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa "The Metaphysical Engineer" and the poetry book of the Italian poet Eugenio Montale "The Men with the Fish - pots" of the Latvian State Culture Capital Foundation.
Since 2007 he has been an Honorary member of the World Haiku Association (Tokyo) and he received the III award at the 18th Druskininkai International Poetry Festival.
In 2008 he received the award of the Foreign Ministry of the Republic of Italy for the translation of the work of E. Montale in Latvian and the award of the Latvian Writers Union and Latvian State Culture Capital Foundation for the best translation of the year – the five poetry books of the Brazilian poets Murilo Mendes, Manuel Bandeira, Cecília Meireles, Carlos Drummond de Andrade and Jorge de Lima. Since 2003 he is an Honorary member of the Association of Fernando Pessoa (Lisbon, Portugal).

Published works

Books of Poetry:
"Lime Tree, Grass-Snake's Blood" (1974)
"Time To Cast A Shadow"  (1977)
"A Circle Which Departs"  (1981)
"After Midsummer Night's Eve"  (1983)
"The Garden Of Essence" (1987)
"The Soul Of Passage" (1988)
"The Tree Of Sunset"  (1994)
"A Sunday Amidst Eternity" (1994)
"The Half-Won Freedom" (1995)
"The Angel Of The Abyss" (1996)
"Lifestory and 33 Most Recent Poems" (1997)
"In reddish winter evenings" (1998)
"Dzedzieda" – I (1998)
"Dzedzieda" – II (1999)
"Armour of Shreds" (2000)
"Dzedzieda" – III" (2000)
"Without Entering I Go Away from Each Paradise (2004)
"Early Spring"(sonnets) (2005)
"The Life of Love" (2008)
"Let Us Say Nothing"(2009)
"Twilight Handwriting"(2009)
"Waves in Desert" (2009)
Poetry books for children:
"Here Lopes A Red-Bearded Hare" (1978)
"The Little Mermaid" (1982)
"While The Snail Was Out" (1984)
"The Whiskered Flower" (1990)
"The Gnome" (2004)
Books of fairy-tales for children:
"The Small, The Very Small" (1986)
"Bearded with Two Beards" (2007)
Essays:
"Nidas"  (1982)
"Coeval of the Word" (2003)
"A Fast, Non – Existent Part" (2008)
"The Eternal Present", in collab. 1. vol. (2008)
Prose:
"Yearning Coloured in Blood"  (novel) " (2000).
Translations:
Чинэ ку стеле Кишинэу Литература артистикэ 1985
После Иванова дня Москва Советский писателъ 1986
Поки равлика не було вдома Киив Веселка 1989
from Latin: St. Augustine "Confessiones" (Book VIII and XIII); Boethius "On Console in Philosophy (2009); Basilius Plinius "Eulogy of Riga (1997); Juvenalis; Seneca "Letters to Lucilius"; I. Loyola "The Spiritual Exercises"(fragments); F. Petrarca "Book of Letters on Everyday Matters"(fragments);
from Romanian: T. Arghezi "The Real Words" (1975); L. Damian "I Am A Verb" (1976); Nichita Stanescu "Nothing Is Something Else" (1977); Selected works of Moldavian poets "From The Pink Hills" (1979); Lucian Blaga "The Seller Of Grasshoppers" (1982); Grigore Vieru "Friday Star" (1988); Anna Blandiana "The Snowy Hour" (1989); S. A. Doinas "Born In Utopia" (1999); Gellu Naum "The Traveller Who Sets Ablaze" (1999); I.Malancioiu "Jeronim" (1999); Mircea Dinescu "Terrorisation of the Common Sense" (1999); M. Sorescu "Wells in the Sea"(1999); O. Goga, G. Bacovia; E. Jonesco; E. Botta; I. Voronca; J. Horea; A. Dumbrăveanu; J.Alexandru; G. Tomozei; P. Stoica; E. Jebeleanu; G. Tartler; V. Mihaiu; D. M. Jon, C. Ilica, Nichita Danilov; J. Vieru; J. Flora; J. Pillat; C. Baltag; P. Stoica, E. Jebeleanu, J. Flora, G. Vulturescu, Vasile Moldovan (haiku), Leo Butnaru etc.;
The poets of Moldova ( A. Robot, G. Vode, D. Matcovshi, J. Vatamanu etc.);
Z. Stancu "I Loved You So. Kostandina." (1978); P. Salcudeanu "The Death Of A Fashion – model" (1979); S. Vangeli (1979, 1986); Romanian folk -songs for children "ABC muzical" (2007); Christmas songs; the epitaphs of the cemetery of Sapinta (Maramureș); Romanian fairy – tales (1986); Mircea Eliade "At The Gypses"; A. E. Baconsky "Black Abbey" (fragments); Anna Blandiana (stories); the prose of the writers of Moldova:
M. Sorescu "Lap"; D. Solomon "Water"; J.Druta (plays);
H. Vald (essays); T.Vianu (discources in literary sciences);
from Aromanian: Hristu Cândroveanu;
from Italian: sonnets by F. Petrarca ("Canzoniere", 1981); E. Montale "Men with Fish – pots" (2007); G. Leopardi; F. T. Marinetti (poems and manifests); G. Ungaretti; E. Montale; S. Quasimodo; A. T. Guerra; V. Sereni; G. Ballo; V. Ceiken, A. Porta, G. Raboni, M. Muchi, V. Magrelli, G. Giudici, S. Gallon, A. Zanzotto; P. Ruffilli;  E. Filipo "The Art Of Comedy"; F.Fellini "Mrs. Rome"; M. Bontempelli "Four Preambles"; M.Ficino; Umberto Eco "Innovation and Repetition";
from Sardinian: P. Mossa (poems);
from Friulano: P. P. Pasolini (poems);
from Rhaeto – Romanic: P. Lansel; A. Per;
from Catalan: S. Espriu "The Garden with five trees"(2002); P. Quart; G. Ferrater; C. Riba; J. Salvat – Papasseit; V. Panyella, Tx. Martinez Ingles (poetry); P. Kalders (stories);
from Spanish: Federico García Lorca; R. Alberti "Sailor On Land"; Juan Ramon Jimenez (poems); Juan Ramon Jimenez "Platero and I" (1988, 2004); Jose Luis Borges; O. Paz; E. Diego; J. Marti; J. Cortazar; C. Vallejo;  M. Hernandez ; L. Cernuda; M. L. Melo; Hernando Quiroga "Anaconda"; R. Dario; J. Goytisolo (essays); Jose Ortega y Gasset "The Poverty And Brightness Of Translation", "A Theme Of Our Time", fragments of the book "The Man and the Men";
from French: Mircea Eliade "The Myth Of The Eternal Return" (1995), "The Sacral And Profane" (1996), "Sexualised World" (fragments of the book "Smiths and Metallurgists"; E. Cioran; J. Maritain "Philosopher In The State"; M. Blanchot (essays); P. Aries "Judgements At The End Of Times. The Book Of Life"; H. Bergson (fragments from the books "The Creative Evolution" and "Laughter") ;  J. Starobinski "The Irony and Melancholy"(fragments); P.Valery (essays); A. Artaud " Theatre and Its Double"; poets of Cameroons (R. Philombe, Ch. Ngande), Senegal (L. Sedar Senghor, D. Diop, B. Diop, M. Fall, S. Usman), Haiti (A. Cesaire), Morocco (M. Bennis);
from Portuguese: Fernando Pessoa "The Lost Garden (1983, 1999); "The Anthology of the Portuguese Contemporary Poetry" (2001; edition bilingual; 27 authors; 480 pages; the second edition in 2003); E. de Andrade "Water Nightingale" (edition bilingual, 2003); H. Helder "The Continues Poem" (2004); A. Hatherly "Tiny Fibres" (2005); Fernando Pessoa (Alvaro de Campos) "Metaphysical Engineer" (2006); The Anthology of Azorean Poetry (2009); S. de M. Breyner Andresen "The Anemone of the Days"(2010);  A. Neto "With Dry Eyes" (1978); C. Pacheco, L. M. Nava, M. Alegre (poems); poets of Angola (A. Santos, A. Cardoso, A. Dascalos, D. Mestre, J. Rocha, G. Rodrigues, M. E. Neto, R. David), Mozambique (J. Craveirinha), Santome e Principe; poets of Brazil: M. Bandeira "A Carnival Wednesday Night's Dream"(2008); J. de Lima "Black Fulo"(2008); C. Meireles "Herdswoman of Clouds"(2008); C. Drummond de Andrade "A House without Roots"(2008); M. Mendes "Church, Woman"(2008); R. Bopp; V. de Morais; M. de Andrade;  G. de Almeida; J. Cabral de Melo Neto; H. Costa; Eduíno de Jesus;
from Galician: Rosalia de Castro:
from English: T. S. Eliot (poems and essays); W. B. Yeats (essays); S. Beckett (poems); W. Soyinka (poems and plays); E. Fromm "Freedom And Spontaneity"; J. Campbell "Erotic Irony"; G. Greene (essays); M. Eliade "The Aspects of Myth"(1999), "World, City, Home";
from Icelandic: Sigurdur A. Magnusson (poems);
from Russian: I. Turgenev; A. Arbuzov; V. Korostilov; J. Akim; J. Kasyanich;
from Ukrainian: I. Pavliuc, O. Olzych, M. Hvilhovij (poems);
from Czech: Christmas songs; Milan Hrabal: Cestou bolesti a víry (Ciešanu un Ticības ceļā) - with Adrians Briedis – Macovei
from Macedonian B. Guzel, B. Višinski, M. Stefanovski (poems);
from Dutch: H. Huizinga "Homo ludens" (Chapter VII and XII);
from Albanian: J.Kadare, B.Ymeri, G. Hajdari (poems);
from Swahili: S. Robert (stories);
from Afrikaans: B. Breitenbah (poems);
from Yoruba: Oriki (folk songs);
from Igbo: Chibo Oneyi (poems).
from Malagasian: J. Rabemananjara, J. J. Rabearivelo, Radu ( G. Andriamanantena), R. Zanamiotra (poetry) and folks -songs (hainteny).

External links
http://www.literature.lv/lv/dbase/autors.php?id=144
http://www.dziesmas.lv/song/search?query=Leons+Briedis
http://www.makslinieki.lv/profile/71/
http://www.bookfinder.com/author/leons-briedis/
http://www.allbookstores.com/Leons-Briedis/author/st

1949 births
2020 deaths
Writers from Riga
People from Madona
Latvian poets
Translators of Fernando Pessoa
20th-century translators
Recipients of the Order of Merit (Portugal)

Leons Briedis


Sibylle of Saxony (2 May 1515 in Freiberg – 18 July 1592 in Buxtehude) was a Saxon princess of the Albertine line of House of Wettin and by marriage Duchess of Saxe-Lauenburg.

Life
Sibylle was the eldest child of the Duke Henry IV of Saxony (1473–1541) from his marriage to Catherine of Mecklenburg (1487–1561), daughter of the Duke Magnus II of Mecklenburg.

She married on 8 February 1540 in Dresden Duke Francis I of Saxe-Lauenburg (1510–1581).  This relationship turned out to be important for Sibylle's brother Maurice during the Schmalkaldic War.  The marriage proved unhappy and Francis accused Sibylle of vindictive and unloving acts. In later years, Sibylle and Francis reconciled again.  In 1552, Sibylle asked her brother Maurice to financially assist her husband, so he could redeem some goods and villages from Lübeck.

In 1588, the Duchess played a prominent role in the affair of her son Maurice, who lived in Buxtehude in the  Abbot's House since 1585/86, with Adam von Tschammer's wife Gisela against whom she initiated a trial of witchcraft.

Sibylle died in 1592 in Buxtehude and was buried in the Cathedral of Ratzeburg.

Children
From her marriage to Francis, Sibylle had the following children:
 Albert (*1542 – 1544*)
 Dorothea (Lüneburg, *11 March 1543 – 5 April 1586*, Herzberg am Harz), ∞ Wolfgang, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (*1531 – 1595*)
 Magnus II (*1543 – 14 May 1603*, Ratzeburg)
 Ursula (*1545 – 22 October 1620*, Schernebeck), married in 1569 Henry, Duke of Brunswick-Dannenberg
 Francis II (*1547 – 1619*)
 Henry (*1 November 1550 – 22 April 1585*, Vörde), as Henry III Prince-Archbishop of Bremen (1567–1585), as well as Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück (Henry II, 1574–1585) and Paderborn (Henry I, 1577–1585), married Anna von Broich
 Maurice (*1551 – 1612*), married in 1581 Katharina von Spörck, divorced in 1582
 Sidonia Catharina (*?– 1594*), married in 1567 (1) Wenceslaus III Adam, Duke of Cieszyn and in 1586 (2) Emmerich III Forgach, Upper Gespan of the Duchy of Teschen
 Frederick (*1554 – 1586*, Cologne), canon at the Cologne and Bremen Cathedrals

Ancestors

References
 Edward Machatschek:  History of the Kingdom of Saxony: According to credible sources: deeds, documents, annals, chronicles, memorial books, memoirs, reports of the nuncius, commentaries, bullaria, private and public letters, speeches, state papers and collections of laws, as proven by careful comparison of older and newer histories, p. 301
 Peter von Kobbe:  History and regional description of the Duchy of Lauenberg, Volume 1, p. 295, p. 336 ff.

External links
 http://www.pkgodzik.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Geschichte_und_Politik/Fortgang_der_Reformation_im_Lauenburger_Land.pdf

Footnotes

|-

House of Wettin
Duchesses of Saxe-Lauenburg
1515 births
1592 deaths
Albertine branch
Daughters of monarchs
Mothers of monarchs

Sibylle of Saxony


The Portal de Sant Antoni is a monumental gate on the wall of Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain.

As attested by an inscription, it was built in 1737, in Baroque style. Over the arch is the coat of arms of King Philip V of Spain, flanked by two lions. Under it, is the coat of arms of Tarragona.

Notes

Buildings and structures completed in 1737
Buildings and structures in Tarragona

Portal de Sant Antoni (Tarragona)


Friedrich Wilhelm Heine (March 25, 1845 – August 27, 1921) was a German-born painter known for his genre works and paintings depicting Norse mythology. He was born in Leipzig, Germany, and died in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Life

Friedrich Wilhelm Heine spent the first forty years of his life in Germany. At the age of fourteen he was a copper and steel engraver's apprentice and later attended the Leipzig and Weimar Academies in Germany, working as a book illustrator and designer from 1861 to 1866.

He was a war correspondent and sketch artist with the Prussian Army in Austria and a field artist in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871. Because of his reputation as a war artist in Germany, Heine was invited to come to Milwaukee in 1885 to supervise the compositions of the paintings of the American Panorama Company at 628 Wells Street.  He was one of about twenty German artists commissioned to paint Storming of Missionary Ridge / Battle of Chattanooga and Battle of Atlanta.

In 1887, Heine and August Lohr purchased the Wells Street studio from the American Panorama Company and formed the Lohr and Heine panorama company. Subsequently, they created the panorama Jerusalem on the Day of the Crucifixion. In 1888 Lohr, Heine, Imre Boos and Paul Zabel formed the Milwaukee Panorama Co and produced Christ's Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. At least eight panorama paintings were produced at the Wells street studio.

In 1888, he opened the Heine School of Art, a watercolor and etching studio, which featured costumed models for the students. The school was located in Milwaukee's Iron Block Building, a favorite spot of local artists. After the Spanish–American War (1895–1898) Heine, Lohr, Peter, Rohrbeck and Biberstein went to San Francisco in 1898 to paint the panorama Battle of Manila Bay.

In 1900, he and another artist, George Peter, went to Jerusalem to sketch church interiors for a series of murals to be shown at the 1904 World's Fair, St. Louis Exposition.

Throughout 1908 Heine traveled to Door County, Wisconsin and Muir Woods California, and many watercolor paintings were the result of these trips. Heine was one of the founding members of the Society of Milwaukee Artists, now known as Wisconsin Painters and Sculptors. His early works demonstrated a well-defined brush stroke and a meticulous concern for detail. His later works involved a broader and less defined form and tonalist qualities.

References

External links

1845 births
1921 deaths
19th-century German painters
19th-century German male artists
German male painters
20th-century German painters
20th-century German male artists
German genre painters
German muralists

Friedrich Wilhelm Heine


Mistake of law is a legal principle referring to one or more errors that were made by a person in understanding how the applicable law applied to their past activity that is under analysis by a court.  In jurisdictions that use the term, it is differentiated from mistake of fact.

There is a principle of law that "ignorance of the law is no excuse." In criminal cases, a mistake of law is not a recognized defense, though such a mistake may in very rare instances fall under the legal category of "exculpation". In criminal cases a mistake of fact is normally called simply, "mistake".

General principles
Usually, there is in legal cases an irrebuttable presumption that people who are about to engage in an activity will comply with applicable law. As part of the rule of law, the law is assumed to be made available to everyone.  The presumption of knowledge of applicable law generally will also apply in the situation of a recent change in the law with which a party in a legal case had no opportunity to become aware of it, e.g., the accused was out hunting in the wilderness and did not know that the law had changed to protect an endangered species.

Some states make a distinction between a mistake as to the substance and effect of existing laws, and a mistake that the law creates a specific right to act in the particular way. For example, if A, the owner of a vehicle, takes it into a garage for repair and when returning to collect it, A finds that the vehicle has been left parked in the street. If he has an honest belief that he has the right as an owner to retake possession of the vehicle without paying the outstanding bill for the repairs, he will not be considered as stealing it despite the fact that the garage holds a lien over the vehicle and so has the better right to possession until the bill is paid. This form of the defense is difficult to prove because the defendant must be able to prove that he believed in something more positive than the law permitted the particular behavior. The belief must be that the law creates and vests a specific right to act in that way.  Under the Theft Act 1968 and the Criminal Damage Act 1971, a defense will arise if the defendant honestly believes that he is entitled to act in the way he did and this will negate the relevant mens rea element (e.g., of dishonesty under §2 Theft Act 1968).  In Chamberlain v Lindon 1998 Lindon demolished a wall to protect a right-of-way, despite allowing nine months to pass before acting, Lindon honestly believed that it was immediately necessary to protect his legal rights without having to resort to civil litigation. For the purposes of §5(2):

It is not necessary to decide whether Lindon's action was justified as a matter of civil law. For the purpose of the criminal law, what matters is whether Lindon believed that his actions were reasonable, i.e., a subjective test. Since it was, the court was "on the facts found proved entitled to find that the Respondent had a lawful excuse for the purposes of section 5(2)(b) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971" and "on the facts found proved entitled to acquit [Lindon]" and "criminal proceedings were inappropriate. At worst a civil wrong had been committed, either nuisance by the appellant [Chamberlain] or trespass by the respondent [Lindon]. It should have been for the civil courts to decide which."

Thus a lawful excuse may be acknowledged by a court to arise when a person honestly but mistakenly believes that the actions are necessary and reasonable.

Mistake of non-governing law in the United States
One narrow area of exception occurs where a person makes a mistake of non-governing law. While the accused are not pardoned for failure to know what acts have been deemed criminal, they may not be held to know of non-criminal provisions that affect the status of things that might therefore be deemed criminal.  For example, suppose Jennifer is married to Phillip, but decides to get a divorce in order to marry Ben. However, Jennifer mistakenly believes that the divorce was final when she submitted the paperwork required by the state and did not realize that she had to wait for a court to pronounce her divorced. In the interim, she marries Ben, and so is technically committing bigamy because she has married a second man before her divorce from the first was complete. Jennifer's mistake was not one of governing law (she did not mistakenly believe it was legal to be married to two people), but rather a mistake of non-governing law, which is akin to a mistake of fact. Depending on the jurisdiction in which the act took place, Jennifer may be allowed to raise the defense of mistake of law in such a scenario.  See Long v. State, 44 Del. 262.

References

External links
The Burden of Knowledge
Lambert VS California

Criminal defenses
Legal error

Mistake of law


1479 was a common year.

Events
 January 20 – Ferdinand II becomes king of Aragon and rules together with his wife Isabella, queen of Castile over most of the Iberian peninsula. Together they take over Granada in 1492, ending 800 years of Moorish rule.
 January 25 – Treaty of Istanbul between Ottoman Empire and Republic of Venice, in which Venice agrees to give land to the Ottomans and pay them 10,000 ducats a year.
 August 7 – Battle of Guinegate – A French army sent to invade the Netherlands is defeated by Maximilian of Austria.
 September 4 – Treaty of Alcáçovas ends War of Castilian Succession.
 October 13 – Battle of Kenyérmező – The Hungarian army led by Pál Kinizsi and István Báthori defeats the Ottoman Turk army in Transsylvania, Hungary.
 Christopher Columbus, a sailor and trader in the Genoese community in Portugal, marries Felipa Perestrelo Moniz and receives as dowry her dead father's maps and papers charting the seas and winds around the Madeira Islands and other Portuguese island colonies.

1479


This prize is given in the United States. There are several other Pulitzer Prizes. The Pulitzer Prize for Fiction is for writing by an American author. Usually this writing is about American life. It started as the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel, which was awarded between 1918 and 1947.

1910s
 1918: His Family  by Ernest Poole
 1919: The Magnificent Ambersons by Booth Tarkington

1920s
 1920: no award given
 1921: The Age of Innocence by Edith Wharton
 1922: Alice Adams by Booth Tarkington
 1923: One of Ours by Willa Cather
 1924: The Able McLaughlins by  Margaret Wilson
 1925: So Big by Edna Ferber
 1926: Arrowsmith by Sinclair Lewis (declined prize)
 1927: Early Autumn by Louis Bromfield
 1928: The Bridge of San Luis Rey by Thornton Wilder
 1929: Scarlet Sister Mary by Julia Peterkin

1930s
 1930: Laughing Boy by Oliver La Farge
 1931: Years of Grace by Margaret Ayer Barnes
 1932: The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck
 1933: The Store by Thomas Sigismund Stribling
 1934: Lamb in His Bosom by Caroline Miller
 1935: Now in November by Josephine Winslow Johnson
 1936: Honey in the Horn by Harold L. Davis
 1937: Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell
 1938: The Late George Apley by John Phillips Marquand
 1939: The Yearling by Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings

1940s
 1940: The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck
 1941: no award given
 1942: In This Our Life by Ellen Glasgow
 1943: Dragon's Teeth by Upton Sinclair
 1944: Journey in the Dark by Martin Flavin
 1945: A Bell for Adano by John Hersey
 1946: no award given
 1947: All the King's Men by Robert Penn Warren
 1948: Tales of the South Pacific by James A. Michener
 1949: Guard of Honor by James Gould Cozzens

1950s
 1950: The Way West by A. B. Guthrie, Jr.
 1951: The Town by Conrad Richter
 1952: The Caine Mutiny by Herman Wouk
 1953: The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway
 1954: No award given
 1955: A Fable by William Faulkner
 1956: Andersonville by MacKinlay Kantor
 1957: No award given
 1958: A Death in the Family by James Agee
 1959: The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters by Robert Lewis Taylor

1960s
 1960: Advise and Consent by Allen Drury
 1961: To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
 1962: The Edge of Sadness by Edwin O'Connor
 1963: The Reivers by William Faulkner
 1964: No award given
 1965: The Keepers of the House by Shirley Ann Grau
 1966: The Collected Stories of Katherine Anne Porter by Katherine Anne Porter
 1967: The Fixer by Bernard Malamud
 1968: The Confessions of Nat Turner by William Styron
 1969: House Made of Dawn by N. Scott Momaday

1970s
 1970: The Collected Stories of Jean Stafford by Jean Stafford
 1971: No award given
 1972: Angle of Repose by Wallace Stegner
 1973: The Optimist's Daughter by Eudora Welty
 1974: No award given
 1975: The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara
 1976: Humboldt's Gift by Saul Bellow
 1977: No award given
 1978: Elbow Room by James Alan McPherson
 1979: The Stories of John Cheever by John Cheever

1980s
Entries from this point on include the finalists listed after the winner for each year.
 1980: The Executioner's Song by Norman Mailer
 Birdy by William Wharton
 The Ghost Writer by Philip Roth
 1981: A Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toole (posthumous win)
 Godric by Frederick Buechner
 So Long, See You Tomorrow by William Maxwell
 1982: Rabbit Is Rich by John Updike
 A Flag for Sunrise by Robert Stone
 Housekeeping by Marilynne Robinson
 1983: The Color Purple by Alice Walker
 Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant by Anne Tyler
 Rabbis and Wives by Chaim Grade
 1984: Ironweed by William Kennedy
 Cathedral by Raymond Carver
 The Feud by Thomas Berger
 1985: Foreign Affairs by Alison Lurie
 I Wish This War Were Over by Diana O'Hehir
 Leaving the Land by Douglas Unger
 1986: Lonesome Dove by Larry McMurtry
 The Accidental Tourist by Anne Tyler
 Continental Drift by Russell Banks
 1987: A Summons to Memphis by Peter Taylor
 Paradise by Donald Barthelme
 Whites by Norman Rush
 1988: Beloved by Toni Morrison
 Persian Nights by Diane Johnson
 That Night by Alice McDermott
 1989: Breathing Lessons by Anne Tyler
 Where I'm Calling From by Raymond Carver

1990s
 1990: The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love by Oscar Hijuelos
 Billy Bathgate by E. L. Doctorow
 1991: Rabbit at Rest by John Updike
 Mean Spirit by Linda Hogan
 The Things They Carried by Tim O'Brien
 1992: A Thousand Acres by Jane Smiley
 Jernigan by David Gates
 Lila: An Inquiry into Morals by Robert M. Pirsig
 Mao II by Don DeLillo
 1993: A Good Scent from a Strange Mountain by Robert Olen Butler
 At Weddings and Wakes by Alice McDermott
 Black Water by Joyce Carol Oates
 1994: The Shipping News by E. Annie Proulx
 The Collected Stories by Reynolds Price
 Operation Shylock: A Confession by Philip Roth
 1995: The Stone Diaries by Carol Shields
 The Collected Stories by Grace Paley
 What I Lived For by Joyce Carol Oates
 1996: Independence Day by Richard Ford
 Mr. Ives' Christmas by Oscar Hijuelos
 Sabbath's Theater by Philip Roth
 1997: Martin Dressler: The Tale of an American Dreamer by Steven Millhauser
 The Manikin by Joanna Scott
 Unlocking the Air and Other Stories by Ursula K. Le Guin
 1998: American Pastoral by Philip Roth
 Bear and His Daughter: Stories by Robert Stone
 Underworld by Don DeLillo
 1999: The Hours by Michael Cunningham
 Cloudsplitter by Russell Banks
 The Poisonwood Bible by Barbara Kingsolver

2000s
 2000: Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri
 Close Range: Wyoming Stories by Annie Proulx
 Waiting by Ha Jin
 2001: The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay by Michael Chabon
 Blonde by Joyce Carol Oates
 The Quick and the Dead by Joy Williams
 2002: Empire Falls by Richard Russo
 The Corrections by Jonathan Franzen
 John Henry Days by Colson Whitehead
 2003: Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides
 Servants of the Map: Stories by Andrea Barrett
 You Are Not a Stranger Here by Adam Haslett
 2004: The Known World  by Edward P. Jones
 American Woman by Susan Choi
 Evidence of Things Unseen by Marianne Wiggins
 2005: Gilead by Marilynne Robinson
 An Unfinished Season by Ward Just
 War Trash by Ha Jin
 2006: March by Geraldine Brooks
 The Bright Forever by Lee Martin
 The March by E. L. Doctorow
 2007: The Road by Cormac McCarthy
 After This by Alice McDermott
 The Echo Maker by Richard Powers
 2008: The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Diaz
 Shakespeare's Kitchen by Lore Segal
 Tree of Smoke by Denis Johnson
 2009: Olive Kitteridge by Elizabeth Strout
 All Souls by Christine Schutt
 The Plague of Doves by Louise Erdrich

2010s
 2010: Tinkers by Paul Harding
 In Other Rooms, Other Wonders by Daniyal Mueenuddin
 Love in Infant Monkeys by Lydia Millet

References

Other websites
Pulitzer Prize for Fiction

Pulitzer Prizes
Lists of books

Pulitzer Prize for Fiction


The Rivera Triple Junction (RTJ) is a geologic triple junction located on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula.  At the RTJ, three tectonic plates intersect: the North American Plate, the Rivera Plate, and the Pacific Plate.  The triple junction is often referenced as the southern counterpart of the Mendocino Triple Junction, but it is not as well understood.  One research effort describes it as an R-R-R (ridge-ridge-ridge) type junction which lies along the segment of the East Pacific Rise which runs between the Rivera Transform Fault and the Tamayo Fault, although the third axis of the junction is not clearly defined.  Part of the problem in describing the Rivera Triple Junction is that if it were truly analogous to the Mendocino Triple Junction, then it would exist at the junction of the East Pacific Rise, the Tamayo Fault, and the Middle America Trench.  But thus far, there does not appear to be any evidence that the Tamayo Fault or the East Pacific Rise intersect the Middle America Trench at all, thus presenting a possible example of a diffuse triple junction.

References

 http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/06boa/finalprogram/abstract_101499.htm

Geology of Mexico
Plate tectonics
Geography of Mexico
Triple junctions

Rivera Triple Junction


James Anthony Church (11 May 1930 – 25 March 2008) was an English actor, who has appeared on stage and screen. In 1989 he became the Dean of the National Theatre Conservatory, which is the teaching arm of the Denver Center Theatre Company in Denver, Colorado.

Stage
Church was educated at Hurstpierpoint College, and Clare College, Cambridge. In 1953 when fellow Cambridge student Peter Hall directed his first professional production—Pirandello's Henry IV at the Arts Theatre, London—Church was a performer. In 1960 Hall set up the new Royal Shakespeare Company and Church joined him as a founder member.

He was a regular performer with the company until 1987. In 1988 Church took leading parts in Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale and The Tempest, once again under the direction of Peter Hall, at London's National Theatre. He appeared for the last time on the Stratford stage on 31 March 2007, in a special programme marking the closure of the Royal Shakespeare Theatre.

He was appointed Director of Drama at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in 1982, leaving to take up the post with the Denver Center for the Performing Arts in 1989.

Film and television
He appeared in Work Is a Four-Letter Word (1968), On Giant's Shoulders (1979), Tess (1979), and Krull (1983). In the 1963 BBC production of As You Like It he played Duke Frederick. Later he played Frederick's banished brother, Duke Senior, in the 1978 BBC Television Shakespeare production. He also had small roles as Squire Bancroft in  Lillie and Samuel Hoare in Edward & Mrs. Simpson.

Filmography

References

Other sources

Who's Who (2007): James Anthony Church
A Stage for a Kingdom (2013) Tony Church

External links

 Obituary, The Guardian, 28 March 2008
Obituary, The Independent, 31 March 2008
Obituary, The Times, 2 April 2008

1930 births
2008 deaths
English male stage actors
English male television actors
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
People educated at Hurstpierpoint College
English male Shakespearean actors
Royal Shakespeare Company members
Male actors from London

Tony Church


The Irmandades da Fala (English: "Brotherhood of the Language") was a Galician nationalist organization active between 1916 and 1936. It was the first political organization of Galicia that used only the Galician language.

Origin
Aurelio Ribalta, a Galician writer living in Madrid, called for the protection of the Galician language in 1915. On January 5, 1916, Antón Vilar Ponte started a campaign for the establishment of a League of Friends of the Galician Language in the newspaper La Voz de Galicia and in March 1916 he published Galician Nationalism (Notes for a Book): Our Regional Affirmation, where he supported the protection, dignification and use of the Galician language.

The proposal was supported by leaders of different ideological persuasions. The most important of these were Antón Losada Diéguez and the Traditionalists and the Liberal Democrats.

Political program
In the congress of November 1918 in the city of Lugo, they established their program:

Primary objectives:
Complete autonomy for Galicia.
Municipal autonomy.
Entry of Galicia into the League of Nations.
Federal union with Portugal.
Objectives for Galicia:
The legislative power to be in a Galician Parliament, elected by the people.
The judicial power to always be exercised by the Galician people.
Galicia to have its own tax laws, without the intervention of central government.
Galician and Spanish to be the official languages in Galicia.
Equal rights for women and men.
Suppression of the Provincial Deputations.

References
 Beramendi, X.G. and Núñez Seixas, X.M. (1996): O nacionalismo galego. A Nosa Terra, Vigo
 Beramendi, X.G. (2007): De provincia a nación. Historia do galeguismo político. Xerais, Vigo

History of Galicia (Spain)
Galician nationalist parties
Left-wing nationalist parties

Irmandades da Fala


Walter Nurnberg   (April 18, 1907 – 19 October 1991) was one of post-war Britain's outstanding industrial photographers.

Life before the Second World War
He was brought up in Berlin. Originally, he hoped to become a musician, but later he turned towards advertising instead. He began studying photography in 1930 at the Reimann School in Berlin. On graduating, he took a job at a Berlin advertising agency. He learned fast and applied the Bauhaus-influenced lighting principles he had studied at the school.

He moved to England in 1933 and opened his own advertising studio in London. His first big assignment was to advertise GPO greetings telegrams. With a good command of spoken and written English, Nurnberg's intellectual powers soon led him to write articles for trade magazines, in which he effectively conveyed his philosophy of photography.

Later he joined Kraszna-Krausz's stable of writers at the Focal Press. Ultimately, however, he became one of post-war Britain's outstanding industrial photographers, applying a modernistic, sometimes abstract vision to the representation of objects and processes. His book 'Lighting for Photography: Means and Methods' was first published in 1940. It remains a classic to date.

In 1937, when the Reimann School was driven out of Germany by the Nazis, it re-established itself in London. Here, Nurnberg became a part-time teacher.

Shooting a series of stirring portraits of servicemen and women entitled 'The Fighting Face of Britain' for a Sunday newspaper, his images proved to be the opening salvos in his battle to change the face of British photography.

With the declaration of war in September 1939, Nurnberg became an enemy alien in Britain and his cameras were confiscated. They were returned to him in 1940. However, Nurnberg was made an 'honorary Briton' and served in the Army until 1944, when he was invalided out on medical grounds.

Life after the war
After the Second World War, Nurnberg saw the coming changes in manufacturing and became an outstanding industrial photographer, his style taking into consideration the design and function of his subjects. Rebuilding his career, Nurnberg became a naturalised British subject in 1947. Taking industry as his subject, he used a Rolliflex 6 cm x 6 cm twin-lens camera and tungsten lighting, employing his powerful personality to single-handedly change the depressed attitudes of run down, near bankrupt post-war British industry. He was often heard to remark, "I have not touched a 35mm camera since I reached puberty."

His books on lighting for Focal Press had become industrial standards for years to come, whilst his photographs commanded high fees and even higher accolades. Particularly memorable were the covers of Engineering, a glossy Design Council magazine, in which his dramatically lit images appeared regularly for fifteen years.

In 1968 he became head of Photography at the Guildford School of Art, later part of the West Surrey College of Art and Design, and was plunged immediately into troubled waters. The Photography Department was fashion- and reportage-inclined whereas Nürnberg was an industrial photographer. At that time, many students resented the incompetence of the Photography Department and engaged in sit-ins and strikes, but Nurnberg, through his rigour, eventually demonstrated his worth. He taught at Polytechnic of Central London and among his students were the likes of Chris Cook in 1974. His teaching was inspirational majoring on the philosophy and psychology of photography.

Legacy
The value of Nurnberg's contribution to 20th century photography is twofold. Firstly, by doggedly sticking to his lighting principles, creating memorable black and white images for the printed page he did much to boost the image and confidence of British industry. More importantly, his work challenged and inspired those who followed. The best of them have sought and found new creative ways to convey the vitality and power of the fast-changing face of world industry.

For three decades, the industrial images of Walter Nurnberg were a benchmark and challenge to every other photographer in the field.

Nurnberg received an O.B.E. for his contribution to industrial photography and photographic education.

Further reading

References

Photographers from London
1907 births
1991 deaths
Photographers from Berlin
Reimann School (Berlin) alumni
Industrial photographers
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom

Walter Nurnberg


A sieve is a device that is able to separate particles of different sizes. The most primitive sieve has holes of a given size, so that the particles that are smaller than the size will fall through, while those that are bigger will not. This is used in cooking to separate liquids from solids.

Tools

Sieve


Chelsea Boys is an American comic strip created by Glen Hanson and Allan Charles Neuwirth, about the lives of three gay male roommates living in New York City's Chelsea district. The strip first began publication in 1998 in New York's Next magazine.

Stylistically, the strip is very much "of its time", reflecting the prevailing fashion for heaviness of line and a tendency to angularity. In terms of content and characterization, the strip bears some similarities to a 1970s and 1980s comic strip called Poppers, which was drawn by Jerry Mills, though both strips differ artistically.

Characters
Nathan: a 42-year-old widowed Jewish man. Nathan is portrayed as the "everyman" of the strip, is fairly short, and has a goatee. Though not made explicit, it appears from context that his late partner died of complications from AIDS. He also subsequently dated Steve, who worked in the World Trade Center and was killed in the September 11 attacks.
Soirée: a flamboyant African-American man around 30 years old. Performs as a drag queen. Soirée was thrown out of his parents' house for being gay when he was a teenager, although he later reconciled with some family members at his father's funeral. Soirée's real name is Delroy Monroe, though his real name is never used by himself or most of the other characters.
Sky: a 22-year-old Canadian art student. Sky, the son of hippie parents, grew up on a commune. He tends toward being extremely optimistic (if slightly naive), and is cartoonishly well-built, resulting in his attracting a lot of attention from others, although he is often unaware of how attractive he is to both men and women; the gang also once walked in on Sky having sex with his lesbian friend and classmate Annie after returning from the pride parade.
Miss Marmelstein: Nathan's pet dog, named after Barbra Streisand's character in the Broadway play I Can Get It for You Wholesale.
Richard: Nathan's best friend.
Ruben: Richard's boyfriend.
Annie: Sky's friend and classmate.
Kelvin Cohen: a vain clothing designer; parody of Calvin Klein. He was also a former classmate of Nathan's at Hebrew school.
Chris: Sky's boyfriend.
Curtis: Soirée's boyfriend, a successful lawyer.
Ricki and Lucie: a lesbian couple who live in Nathan, Soirée and Sky's apartment building. Nathan served as a sperm donor in one storyline so that the couple could have a child (named Lindsay).
Risa: or Reese for short, Nathan's sister who divorces her husband near the end of the comic strip's run. She has two sons, Jason and Justin.

Distribution

New York's Next magazine is the lead carrier for the strip, which is also syndicated throughout the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Spain and South Africa. Hanson and Neuwirth signed a deal in 2005 with Logo to develop a television animated series based on the strip, but after several months of development the network declined to move forward, citing budget concerns.

Strip compilations
 Chelsea Boys. published 2003 by Alyson Books.
 Chelsea Boys Steppin' Out!, published 2006 by Bruno Gmünder Books.

References

External links
Chelsea Boys' official website via Wayback Machine

1998 comics debuts
LGBT-related comic strips
American comic strips
Comic strips set in the United States
LGBT culture in the United States
Fictional gay men
Gag-a-day comics
Comics characters introduced in 1998
1990s LGBT literature
LGBT literature in the United States

Chelsea Boys


SF1 Kraken is a weapon mainly used by police forces during riots to restore order. It is not lethal (hit causes only injury, not death). The weapon is specially made for usage against civilians without risking casualties (loss of life). The average distance of fire is about 30m, maximum is 100m and depends on type of bullet. SF1 Kraken uses the energy of gases from .357 Magnum blank cartidges (without a bullet) which are made by Libra a.s. in the Czech Republic. It is also able to use several types of 59mm calibre bullets.

Bullet types
 Common tennis ball - to stop or paralyse human or animal, for distances up to 30m.
 Gas grenade - covers an area or some of friendly units with harmless smoke.
 Tear gas grenade - covers an area of crowd with tear gas, causes intensive crying and burn of eyes.
 P1 charge - uses strong acoustic effect (similar to simple banger or firecracker) to frighten or shock human or animal.
 P2 charge - uses acoustic effect and tear gas, combination of Tear gas grenade and P1 charge.
 Shot gun - filled with 20 rubber balls (instead of lead bullets).

General charasterictics
 Calibre: 59 mm
 Barrel length: 230 mm
 Weapon length (without shoulder pad): 436 mm
 Weapon length: 711 mm
 Weight: 1,5 kg
 Fire mode: repeating (the gun must be manually reloaded after every shot)
 Cartridge calibre: .357 Magnum blank
 Muzzle velocity: 110 m/s (with thennis ball)
 Rate of fire: 6 rpm
 Muzzle energy: 403 J
 Impact energy (30m): 227 J

Weapons
Law enforcement equipment

SF1 Kraken


Green Archer, also called Radar, Field Artillery, No 8 was a widely used British mortar locating radar operating in the X band using a Foster scanner.  Developed by EMI after an experimental model by the Royal Radar Establishment, it was in British service from 1962 until 1975 with the Royal Artillery. A self-propelled version was designated FV436 or Radar, FA, No 8 Mk 2. It was replaced by Cymbeline starting in 1975.

Concept
Mortars, using indirect fire, became a major threat to infantry in World War II.  It was found that mortar bombs in flight could be detected and tracked by radar.  US and UK anti-aircraft radars were used and specialised mortar locating radars appeared at the end of the war, and were used in Korea with varying degrees of success.  Hostile mortars had to be accurately located before they could be attacked with indirect fire from guns or mortars.  Since hostile mortars moved frequently to avoid return fire it was essential to have a means of locating them to a few tens of metres of accuracy and to be able to respond quickly when they are located.

Previous radar systems used parabolic reflectors or similar systems to produce a narrow beam of radio energy rather like a flashlight beam. This beam was then swung around the sky by moving the entire reflector, with returns, or blips, appearing on the displays when an object was caught in the beam. For tracking mortar shells this was a particularly difficult task, requiring the operator to have the antenna pointed in roughly the right location by estimates based on previous rounds, and then following the shell through its trajectory. Finding was made a bit easier if the beam cone had a large angle, the problem with this was that it reduced the accuracy of location.

The key advance in tracking mortar shells was the Foster scanner, a type of radar antenna. Instead of producing a beam of radio energy, the Foster scanner produced a fan (pie-slice shape). In the case of the Green Archer, the scanner was built in a manner to produce a beam that was less than 1° wide, but rapidly scanned across a 40° wide band in front of the radar. Any object in the scanner's view would appear on the display each time the beam crossed its horizontal bearing. To measure the vertical angle, some other system was required.

Green Archer solved this problem by quickly moving the antenna between two set vertical angles. The scanner was first set so it scanned back and forth near the horizon line. When a mortar shell was seen on the display, the operator used a grease pencil to mark its location. He then pressed a button that quickly raised the scanner so it was pointed at a higher vertical angle. This happened rapidly enough that the bomb would take some time to reach this higher altitude, at which point it would appear on the display again and this second location would also be marked. The operator them placed cursors over the marks and input the plot to the radar's analogue computer.

These two plots, the time between them and the angle between the two beam positions gave two points on a parabolic curve. Such a curve is defined by two points and is a good approximation of a mortar bomb trajectory.  Using these, the azimuth of the radar beam centre and the radar's coordinates, the mortar position coordinates were calculated.  These could be adjusted to reflect the actual height of the ground.

Description
Green Archer comprised two units each mounted on a four-wheel trailer with levelling jacks, one unit was the complete radar, the other a fully silenced generator inaudible at 200 m to permit operation in forward areas.  The radar unit weighed 2,915 kg and with the antenna in the operating position was 2.9 m high.  The radar display was positioned up to about 15 metres from the radar and had a built in simulator for training.  Each radar and generator was usually towed by a Humber 1 ton armoured vehicle, or the FV610 version of the Saracen six-wheel armoured vehicle. Each radar section was supported by an electronic repair vehicle which carried a spare for each of the 13 major sub-assemblies in each radar.

Green Archer could locate a medium mortar up to about 10 km away and a heavy mortar out to 17 km, the maximum range. It took about 30 seconds from a mortar firing to producing its location.  The radar could also be used "in reverse" to observe and adjust mortar fall of shot and that of guns firing in high angle.  It was also capable of surface observation.

In British service it was mostly organised as a radar section of two radars in the locating (G) troop of field regiments.  In addition to the radars the section also had a command post and deployed two Listening Posts (LPs).  The task of the LPs was to report mortars firing and the area they were in.  This told the radar to switch-on, and so avoided continuous transmission as an electronic counter measure.  The other section of the troop provided an artillery intelligence section at brigade headquarters responsible for fighting the brigade's counter-mortar battle.

British Green Archers were successfully used on operations in Borneo, South Arabia and Oman against mortars and for border surveillance in Hong Kong.

Variants
A self-propelled version was fully developed. It was mounted on the cutaway rear of FV432 APC and designated FV436 or Radar, FA, No 8 Mk 2. It had an automatic radar levelling arrangement using mercury, which was adopted for the Radar, FA No 15 Mk 2, or Cymbeline that replaced Green Archer. However, it did not enter UK service. Nevertheless, the cutaway hull design was applied to M113 APCs and used by at least three armies.

Raytheon made a similar radar, the AN-MPQ-501 1958 001, as used by the Canadian army.

Other Users

In addition to the UK, Green Archer was used by the armies of Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark (all self-propelled, mounted on an M-113 chassis), Italy, Israel, South Africa, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Survivors
A complete system, a radar trailer and a generator trailer, is preserved at the Radar Museum at RAF Neatishead in Norfolk.
An M113 mounted Green archer can be seen in the artillery museum in Varde/Denmark.
A radar trailer is complete with all computer units in the South Yorkshire Transport Museum in Rotherham.

Notes

References

Cold War military equipment of the United Kingdom
Military radars of the United Kingdom
Weapon locating radar
British Army equipment
Royal Artillery
Counter-battery radars

Green Archer (radar)


Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge is one of the northernmost National Wildlife Refuges in the Atlantic Flyway, a migratory route that follows the eastern coast of North America. The refuge provides important feeding and nesting habitat for many bird species, including waterfowl, wading birds, shorebirds, upland game birds, songbirds, and birds of prey.

The refuge consists of two divisions. The Baring Division covers  and is located off U.S. Route 1, southwest of Calais, Maine. The  Edmunds Division is between Dennysville and Whiting on U.S. Route 1 and borders the tidal waters of Cobscook Bay. Each division contains a National Wilderness Area, thousands of acres managed to preserve their wild character for future generation.

The East Coast Greenway, connecting Calais, Maine to Key West, Florida, runs through part of the refuge.

Wildlife and habitat
The refuge's landscape is varied, with rolling hills, large ledge outcrops, streams, lakes, bogs, and marshes. A northern hardwood forest of aspen, maple, birch, spruce and fir dominates the upland. Scattered stands of majestic white pine are common. The Edmunds Division boasts several miles of rocky shoreline where tidal fluctuations of up to  occur twice a day.

This habitat diversity supports many wildlife species. The staff at Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge manages the land to protect the Service's "trust resources". which include migratory birds, endangered species, and wetlands. By improving habitat, the Service ensures that wildlife will thrive on the refuge.

Woodcock, black bear, ruffed grouse, lynx, beaver, red fox, river otter, gray fox, moose, bobcat, coyote, raccoon, mink, deer, and a variety of songbirds prosper only in a young forest. In the past, wildfires revitalized the forest, while farming maintained open areas. However, wildfire is a rare event today, and farmland acreage has decreased dramatically. Habitat management programs, including timber harvesting and controlled burning, mimic the effects of wildfire and farming by providing clearings and early growth forests.

Small clearcuts scattered throughout the forest provide openings and young, brushy growth that serve as food and cover for many wildlife species. Each year, the Service awards timber units to local harvesters according to the refuge forest management plan. The harvesters pay for the timber based on a fixed stumpage schedule. Much of this revenue is returned to the community in lieu of property taxes. This management has produced significant an increases in woodcock, grouse, bear, and moose populations.

Approximately one third of the refuge is designated as federal wilderness. The two Wilderness Areas (one in each division) are part of the National Wilderness Preservation System. They are managed with a "hands-off" philosophy and granted special protection to maintain their primitive qualities. Internal combustion engines and mechanical means of transportation (i.e. bicycles) are not allowed. Habitat management is kept to a minimum to allow the areas to develop into old- growth climax forests.

Bald eagles, frequent both divisions of the refuge, feeding on fish in the streams, ponds, and flowages. In recent years, as many as three pairs of eagles have nested at Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge. Eagles are frequently sighted around Magurrewock Marsh on the Baring Division and along the shore of Dennys Bay on the Edmunds Division. Osprey nest in several of the refuge marshes with as many as four pairs using platforms along the Charlotte Road.

The woodlands are home to many songbirds, including neotropical migrants, species that breed in North America and winter in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America. In mid-May, a flush of migrating warblers fills the forest with song. Twenty-six species of these diminutive birds nest on the refuge. In addition, northern forest species, such as boreal chickadees and spruce grouse, are present.

References
Profile of Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge
Refuge website

External links
 Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge

National Wildlife Refuges in Maine
Protected areas of Washington County, Maine
Wetlands of Maine
Landforms of Washington County, Maine

Moosehorn National Wildlife Refuge