A yield surface is a five-dimensional surface in the six-dimensional space of stresses.  The yield surface is usually convex and the state of stress of inside the yield surface is elastic.  When the stress state lies on the surface the material is said to have reached its yield point and the material is said to have become plastic.  Further deformation of the material causes the stress state to remain on the yield surface, even though the shape and size of the surface may change as the plastic deformation evolves. This is because stress states that lie outside the yield surface are non-permissible in rate-independent plasticity, though not in some models of viscoplasticity.

The yield surface is usually expressed in terms of (and visualized in) a three-dimensional principal stress space (), a two- or three-dimensional space spanned by stress invariants () or a version of the three-dimensional Haigh–Westergaard stress space. Thus we may write the equation of the yield surface (that is, the yield function) in the forms:

 where  are the principal stresses.
 where  is the first principal invariant of the Cauchy stress and  are the second and third principal invariants of the deviatoric part of the Cauchy stress.
 where  are scaled versions of  and  and  is a function of .
 where  are scaled versions of  and , and  is the stress angle or Lode angle

Invariants used to describe yield surfaces

The first principal invariant () of the Cauchy stress (), and the second and third principal invariants () of the deviatoric part () of the Cauchy stress are defined as:

where () are the principal values of , () are the  principal values of , and

where  is the identity matrix.

A related set of quantities, (), are usually used to describe yield surfaces for cohesive frictional materials such as rocks, soils, and ceramics.  These are defined as

where  is the equivalent stress.  However, the possibility of negative values of  and the resulting imaginary  makes the use of these quantities problematic in practice.

Another related set of widely used invariants is () which describe a cylindrical coordinate system (the Haigh–Westergaard coordinates).  These are defined as:

The  plane is also called the Rendulic plane. The angle  is called stress angle, the value  is sometimes called the Lode parameter and the relation between  and  was first given by Novozhilov V.V. in 1951, see also

The principal stresses and the Haigh–Westergaard coordinates are related by

A different definition of the Lode angle can also be found in the literature:

in which case the ordered principal stresses (where ) are related by

Examples of yield surfaces

There are several different yield surfaces known in engineering, and those most popular are listed below.

Tresca yield surface
The Tresca yield criterion is taken to be the work of Henri Tresca. It is also known as the maximum shear stress theory (MSST) and the Tresca–Guest (TG) criterion.  In terms of the principal stresses the Tresca criterion is expressed as

Where  is the yield strength in shear, and  is the tensile yield strength.

Figure 1 shows the Tresca–Guest yield surface in the three-dimensional space of principal stresses. It is a prism of six sides and having infinite length. This means that the material remains elastic when all three principal stresses are roughly equivalent (a hydrostatic pressure), no matter how much it is compressed or stretched. However, when one of the principal stresses becomes smaller (or larger) than the others the material is subject to shearing.  In such situations, if the shear stress reaches the yield limit then the material enters the plastic domain.  Figure 2 shows the Tresca–Guest yield surface in two-dimensional stress space, it is a cross section of the prism along the  plane.

von Mises yield surface

The von Mises yield criterion is expressed in the principal stresses as

where  is the yield strength in uniaxial tension.

Figure 3 shows the von Mises yield surface in the three-dimensional space of principal stresses. It is a circular cylinder of infinite length with its axis inclined at equal angles to the three principal stresses. Figure 4 shows the von Mises yield surface in two-dimensional space compared with Tresca–Guest criterion.  A cross section of the von Mises cylinder on the plane of  produces the elliptical shape of the yield surface.

Burzyński-Yagn criterion
This criterion

represents the general equation of a second order surface of revolution about the hydrostatic axis. Some special case are:

 cylinder  (Maxwell (1865), Huber (1904), von Mises (1913),  Hencky (1924)),
 cone  (Botkin (1940), Drucker-Prager (1952), Mirolyubov (1953)),
 paraboloid  (Burzyński (1928), Balandin (1937), Torre (1947)),
 ellipsoid centered of symmetry plane ,   (Beltrami (1885)),
 ellipsoid centered of symmetry plane  with   (Schleicher (1926)),
 hyperboloid of two sheets  (Burzynski (1928), Yagn (1931)),
 hyperboloid of one sheet centered of symmetry plane ,  ,    (Kuhn (1980))
 hyperboloid of one sheet ,    (Filonenko-Boroditsch (1960), Gol'denblat-Kopnov (1968), Filin (1975)).

The relations compression-tension and torsion-tension can be computed to

The Poisson's ratios at tension and compression are obtained using

For ductile materials the restriction

is important. The application of rotationally symmetric criteria for brittle failure with

has not been studied sufficiently.

The Burzyński-Yagn criterion is well suited for academic purposes. For practical applications, the third invariant of the deviator in the odd and even power should be introduced in the equation, e.g.:

Huber criterion
The Huber criterion consists of the Beltrami ellipsoid and a scaled von Mises cylinder in the principal stress space, see also

with . The transition between the surfaces in the cross section  is continuously differentiable.
The criterion represents the "classical view" with respect to inelastic material behavior:
 pressure-sensitive material behavior for  with  and
 pressure-insensitive material behavior for  with

The Huber criterion can be used as a yield surface with an empirical restriction for Poisson's ratio at tension , which leads to .

The modified Huber criterion, see also, cf.

consists of the Schleicher ellipsoid with the restriction of Poisson's ratio at compression

and a cylinder with the -transition in the cross section .
The second setting for the parameters  and  follows with the compression / tension relation

The modified Huber criterion can be better fitted to the measured data as the Huber criterion. For setting  it follows  and .

The Huber criterion and the modified Huber criterion should be preferred to the von Mises criterion since one obtains safer results in the region .
For practical applications the third invariant of the deviator  should be considered in these criteria.

Mohr–Coulomb yield surface

The Mohr–Coulomb yield (failure) criterion is similar to the Tresca criterion, with additional provisions for materials with different tensile and compressive yield strengths.  This model is often used to model concrete, soil or granular materials. The Mohr–Coulomb yield criterion may be expressed as:

where

and the parameters  and  are the yield (failure) stresses of the material in uniaxial compression and tension, respectively.  The formula reduces to the Tresca criterion if .

Figure 5 shows Mohr–Coulomb yield surface in the three-dimensional space of principal stresses. It is a conical prism and  determines the inclination angle of conical surface. Figure 6 shows Mohr–Coulomb yield surface in two-dimensional stress space. In Figure 6  and  is used for  and , respectively, in the formula. It is a cross section of this conical prism on the plane of . In Figure 6 Rr and Rc are used for Syc and Syt, respectively, in the formula.

Drucker–Prager yield surface

The Drucker–Prager yield criterion is similar to the von Mises yield criterion, with provisions for handling materials with differing tensile and compressive yield strengths. This criterion is most often used for concrete where both normal and shear stresses can determine failure. The Drucker–Prager yield criterion may be expressed as

where

and ,  are the uniaxial yield stresses in compression and tension respectively.  The formula reduces to the von Mises equation if .

Figure 7 shows Drucker–Prager yield surface in the three-dimensional space of principal stresses. It is a regular cone.  Figure 8 shows Drucker–Prager yield surface in two-dimensional space.  The elliptical elastic domain is a cross section of the cone on the plane of ; it can be chosen to intersect the Mohr–Coulomb yield surface in different number of vertices. One choice is to intersect the Mohr–Coulomb yield surface at three vertices on either side of the  line, but usually selected by convention to be those in the compression regime. Another choice is to intersect the Mohr–Coulomb yield surface at four vertices on both axes (uniaxial fit) or at two vertices on the diagonal  (biaxial fit). The Drucker-Prager yield criterion is also commonly expressed in terms of the material cohesion and friction angle.

Bresler–Pister yield surface

The Bresler–Pister yield criterion is an extension of the Drucker Prager yield criterion that uses three parameters, and has additional terms for materials that yield under hydrostatic compression.
In terms of the principal stresses, this yield criterion may be expressed as

where  are material constants.  The additional parameter  gives the yield surface an ellipsoidal cross section when viewed from a direction perpendicular to its axis.  If  is the yield stress in uniaxial compression,  is the yield stress in uniaxial tension, and  is the yield stress in biaxial compression, the parameters can be expressed as

Willam–Warnke yield surface

The Willam–Warnke yield criterion is a three-parameter smoothed version of the Mohr–Coulomb yield criterion that has similarities in form to the Drucker–Prager and Bresler–Pister yield criteria.

The yield criterion has the functional form

However, it is more commonly expressed in Haigh–Westergaard coordinates as

The cross-section of the surface when viewed along its axis is a smoothed triangle (unlike Mohr–Coulomb). The Willam–Warnke yield surface is convex and has unique and well defined first and second derivatives on every point of its surface. Therefore, the Willam–Warnke model is computationally robust and has been used for a variety of cohesive-frictional materials.

Podgórski and Rosendahl trigonometric yield surfaces
Normalized with respect to the uniaxial tensile stress , the Podgórski criterion   as function of the stress angle  reads

with the shape function of trigonal symmetry in the -plane

It contains the criteria of von Mises (circle in the -plane, , ), Tresca (regular hexagon, , ), Mariotte (regular triangle, , ), Ivlev  (regular triangle, , ) and also the cubic criterion of Sayir  (the Ottosen criterion ) with  and the isotoxal (equilateral) hexagons of the Capurso criterion   with . The von Mises - Tresca transition   follows with , . The isogonal (equiangular) hexagons of the Haythornthwaite criterion  containing the Schmidt-Ishlinsky criterion (regular hexagon) cannot be described with the Podgórski ctiterion.

The Rosendahl criterion  reads

with the shape function of hexagonal symmetry in the -plane

It contains the criteria of von Mises (circle, , ), Tresca (regular hexagon, , ), Schmidt—Ishlinsky (regular hexagon, , ), Sokolovsky (regular dodecagon, , ), and also the bicubic criterion   with  or equally with  and the isotoxal dodecagons of the unified yield criterion of Yu  with . The isogonal dodecagons of the multiplicative ansatz criterion of hexagonal symmetry  containing the Ishlinsky-Ivlev criterion (regular dodecagon) cannot be described by the Rosendahl criterion.

The criteria of Podgórski and Rosendahl describe single surfaces in principal stress space without any additional outer contours and plane intersections. Note that in order to avoid numerical issues the real part function  can be introduced to the shape function:  and . The generalization in the form  is relevant for theoretical investigations.

A pressure-sensitive extension of the criteria can be obtained with the linear -substitution

which is sufficient for many applications, e.g. metals, cast iron, alloys, concrete, unreinforced polymers, etc.

Bigoni–Piccolroaz yield surface
The Bigoni–Piccolroaz yield criterion is a seven-parameter surface defined by

where  is the "meridian" function

describing the pressure-sensitivity and  is the "deviatoric" function

describing the Lode-dependence of yielding. The seven, non-negative material parameters:

define the shape of the meridian and deviatoric sections.

This criterion represents a smooth and convex surface, which is closed both in hydrostatic tension and compression and has a
drop-like shape, particularly suited to describe frictional and granular materials. This criterion has also been generalized to the case of surfaces with corners.

Cosine Ansatz (Altenbach-Bolchoun-Kolupaev)
For the formulation of the strength criteria the stress angle

can be used.

The following criterion of isotropic material behavior

contains a number of other well-known less general criteria, provided suitable parameter values are chosen.

Parameters  and  describe the geometry of the surface in the -plane. They are subject to the constraints

which follow from the convexity condition. A more precise formulation of the third constraints is proposed in.

Parameters  and  describe the position of the intersection points of the yield surface with hydrostatic axis (space diagonal in the principal stress space). These intersections points are called hydrostatic nodes.
In the case of materials which do not fail at hydrostatic pressure (steel, brass, etc.) one gets . Otherwise for materials which fail at hydrostatic pressure (hard foams, ceramics, sintered materials, etc.) it follows .

The integer powers  and ,   describe the curvature of the meridian. The meridian with  is a straight line and with  – a parabola.

Barlat's Yield Surface
For the anisotropic materials, depending on the direction of the applied process (e.g., rolling) the mechanical properties vary and, therefore, using an anisotropic yield function is crucial. Since 1989 Frederic Barlat has developed a family of yield functions for constitutive modelling of plastic anisotropy. Among them, Yld2000-2D yield criteria has been applied for a wide range of sheet metals (e.g., aluminum alloys and advanced high-strength steels). The Yld2000-2D model is a non-quadratic type yield function based on two linear transformation of the stress tensor:
 :
 where  is the effective stress. and  and  are the transformed matrices (by linear transformation C or L):

 where s is the deviatoric stress tensor.
for principal values of X' and X", the model could be expressed as:

and:

where  are eight parameters of the Barlat's Yld2000-2D model to be identified with a set of experiments.

See also

 Yield (engineering)
 Plasticity (physics)
 Stress
 Henri Tresca
 von Mises stress
 Mohr–Coulomb theory
 Hill yield criterion
 Hosford yield criterion
 Strain
 Strain tensor
 Stress–energy tensor
 Stress concentration
 3-D elasticity
 Frederic Barlat

References

Plasticity (physics)
Solid mechanics
Continuum mechanics
Materials science
Structural analysis

Yield surface


World Triathlon, previously known as the International Triathlon Union (ITU), is the international governing body for the multi-sport disciplines of triathlon, duathlon, aquathlon and other nonstandard variations. It is recognised as the international federation for the sport of triathlon and its derivatives by the International Olympic Committee, and it organises Olympic triathlon events on behalf of the IOC.

In addition to regulating and setting the rules of the sport, World Triathlon organises the top level international race series the World Triathlon Championship Series and the ITU Triathlon World Cup. World Triathlon also has a long-distance race circuit with official world championships, while in 2024 it will begin to sanction and recognise a World Championship Tour of Long-Distance Triathlon organised by the Professional Triathletes Organisation. World Triathlon does not have an official relationship with the other three major commercial triathlon circuits, Ironman Triathlon, XTERRA Triathlon or Super League Triathlon.

Additionally, World Triathlon regulated, sanctions and organizes official sprint distance and team relay triathlon championships, as wel as Aquathlon (run-swim-run), Duathlon (run-bike-run) and Winter triathlon championships.

World Triathlon is headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland

History

Versions of swim bike run multi-sports existed in the 1920s, but it wasn't until the term triathlon was coined in 1974 in San Diego that triathlon exploded in popularity. This rapid development drew the attention of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), which initiated a discussion in 1988 to include it in the  Olympic Games program. The then IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch held a meeting in Stockholm, Sweden, with the intention of making triathlon an Olympic sport as soon as possible. At that meeting Canadian Les McDonald was selected as President to a working committee for triathlon, while Sweden's Sture Jonasson was elected as Secretary.

World Triathlon was founded as the International Triathlon Union (ITU) one year later, on April 1, 1989, at the first ITU Congress in Avignon, France. A total of 30 National Federations attended the initial Congress and preparations were made for the sport's first World Championships to be held in Avignon in August 1989. At this meeting the Olympic distance (later renamed to standard)  was set at a 1.5-km swim, 40-km bike and 10-km run the distances were chosen as they were already present at the Olympics for each discipline individually. More than 800 athletes representing 40 countries competed in the first World Championships, and Canada's Les McDonald was elected as ITU's first president in 1989.

ITU began the World Cup series in 1991, staging 11 races in eight countries. Triathlon was officially added to the Olympic Programme by the IOC at its Congress in Paris in 1994. Triathlon made its Olympic debut at the 2000 Games in Sydney.

Since its inception World Triathlon has maintained its headquarters in Vancouver, Canada until January 1, 2014 when it moved to Lausanne, Switzerland, home of the IOC and many international sporting bodies.

Spain's Marisol Casado was elected as World Triathlon's second president in November 2008. She became an IOC member in February 2010 at the 122nd IOC Session in World Triathlon's hometown of Vancouver. She was re-elected for a new four-year term in October 2012. The Canadian Loreen Barnett maintains its general secretary 3, with Sarah Springman named 1st  vice-president and honorary member of the World Federation, hence in 2012 it was the only worldwide federation of an Olympic sport with an all-female management. In December 2016, Casado was re-elected for a third term as president of the International Federation at the 29th Congress held in Madrid 6.

In 2009 the International Triathlon Federation reorganised its top level competitions changing the World championship to the World Triathlon Series, an eight-stage competition circuit in eight countries, and relegated the world cup down to a second tier series below the world series with less prize money and world ranking points. It also organizes a series of world competitions at different distances from chained sports derived from the triathlon it manages, such as duathlon, aquathlon, cross-triathlon, winter triathlon and paratriathlon.

In June 2017, following the renewal of the federal application, the International Olympic Committee included a third triathlon event on the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games, the mixed team relay. With the men's and women's short-distance triathlon events, three triathlon events offer Olympic titles to triathletes. By joining other sports who practice these forms of mixed events, this approach within the scope of the promotion of equality policies between men and women triathletes supported by the international federation.

In September 2017, World Triathlon announced the death of its founding and honorary President, Les McDonald, at the age of 84. He was awarded the Order of Canada in 2013 for service to the nation and inducted into its  "Hall of Fame" in 2014 for his work for triathlon.

In October 2020, the ITU officially adopted the name World Triathlon.

International structure

World Triathlon is structured into 5 continental regions, through which 172 national federations (the governing body of triathlon in each country) are affiliated to World Triathlon. Each region offers a Continental Championship and Continental Cup Series.

 Asia Triathlon representing 35 national federations
 Africa Triathlon representing 37 national federations
 Europe Triathlon representing 46 national federations
 Americas Triathlon representing 40 national federations
 Oceania Triathlon representing 14 national federations

In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Europe Triathlon said that it strongly supported  the decision of the International Olympic Committee and World Triathlon to exclude Russian and Belarusian athletes and officials from organised European events, and to not organise international events in Russia or Belarus.

Development
World Triathlon has an ongoing effort to develop the sport especially outside of Europe and English speaking countries. One method is through development grants such as the recent one to the African Triathlon Union, with most of the money to national federations allowing for support of organize events, as well as funding for athlete, coach and Technical Officials courses. Another is athlete scholarships to be given to young athletes that have shown talent but who need more support than their developing National Federation can give, allowing them to perform at an international level, the end goal of these scholarships is the athletes performing for their county at the Olympic games. One global development is the introduction of certifications for coaching and technical officials meaning that important events will be contested at the high level.

Ranking system
World Triathlon publishes and maintains the World Rankings for the men's and women's competitions in both short and long course for triathlon and duathlon as well as aquathlon and winter triathlon races it also has a ranking for the national teams mixed relay. Each ranking has a slightly different point system but all are calculated via a rolling calendar, by taking a set number of the highest scoring results from the previous 52 weeks and adding them to a set number of the highest scoring results from the 53 to 104 weeks previous. Each races maximum score is decided by the ITU's ranking criteria and then the athlete who comes first will earn that many points with each following athlete earning 7.5% less point than the athlete before them.

Championships
In its founding year World Triathlon only ran the World triathlon championship, the following year it also began hosting the duathlon world championship. In 1991 the ITU started hosting a series of triathlon races as the triathlon World Cup. The distances chosen for the World championship and World Cup races were 1,500m swimming, 40 km of bike and 10 km of running, these parameters were chosen from existing distances in swimming, cycling and running disciplines in the Olympic Games. This triathlon distance has become known as the standard distance in the world of triathlon. In 1994 to have a long-distance championship similar to Ironman Triathlon events but hosted by the sports governing body the Long Distance Triathlon World Championships was founded and in 1997 parity was brought to duathlon with the Long Distance Duathlon World Championships. Also in 1997 the first Winter Triathlon World Championships was held giving the sport of winter triathlons its own world championship. Then in 1998 the Aquathlon World Championships were inaugurated, giving aquathlon its own world championship. In 2009 the Triathlon Mixed Relay World Championships was held to organise an elite-level international  relay. The most recently created tournament is the Cross Triathlon World Championships; similar to how long-distance world championships were introduced to mirror the well known Ironman events, it was created to allow the sports governing body to have a world championship instead of XTERRA Triathlon. Both Ironman and XTERRA also operate 'world championship' events.

The world championship events organised by World Triathlon include:

In triathlon:
World Triathlon Championship Series
World Triathlon Long Distance Championships
World Triathlon Sprint Distance Championships
World Triathlon Mixed Relay Championships
World Triathlon Cup
In duathlon
World Triathlon Duathlon Championships
World Triathlon Long Distance Duathlon Championships
In aquathlon:
World Triathlon Aquathlon Championships
In winter triathlon:
World Triathlon Winter Championships
In triathlon cross
World Triathlon Cross Championships

References

External links

Sports organizations established in 1989
Triathlon organizations
International sports organisations based in Switzerland
triathlon
Organisations based in Lausanne

World Triathlon


Sondra Gotlieb (née Kaufman; 30 December 1936 in Winnipeg, Manitoba) is a Canadian journalist and novelist who lives in Toronto, Ontario.

She married Allan Gotlieb, Canadian ambassador to the United States during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Her book Washington Rollercoaster recounted the Gotliebs' years as glamorous hosts in Washington during the Reagan Era, when she wrote a much-read column for the Washington Post. Vanity Fair magazine called her a "sparkling hostess", and in Washington she quickly became known for her irreverent attitude and sharp tongue. She often attracted attention with remarks considered out-of-character for diplomatic wives. Referring to Canada's image in America as a dull northern neighbour, she remarked: "Maybe we should invade South Dakota".

In 1986, she attracted a blaze of international publicity when reporter Juliet O'Neill caught her slapping her social secretary Connie Gibson Connors at an official dinner she and her husband were hosting in honour of the Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney and U.S. Vice-President George H. W. Bush. The incident, while criticized, made her one of the most talked-about women in Washington, and invitations to the Gotliebs' parties became highly coveted.

After she and her husband returned to Canada in the early 1990s, they moved to Toronto's exclusive Rosedale neighbourhood and became the centre of establishment society in that city. Allan joined numerous corporate boards, including Conrad Black's Hollinger Inc., while Sondra began writing columns for The Globe and Mail and later the National Post, which was owned by Conrad Black.

She won the Stephen Leacock Prize for her 1978 novel, True Confections, which was subtitled, Or How My Family Arranged My Marriage.

In 2001, she alluded to the infamous "Slap Flap" incident in a series of articles about her recent facelift, published in the National Post. Gotlieb recounted how the idea for cosmetic surgery first came to her after a visit with friends in Washington D.C. "One of them said to me, 'It must be nice living in Toronto. You can slop around without having to bother too much about your appearance. Canadians have such old-fashioned values.' For the second time in my life I felt like slapping someone's face."

Her regular column in the National Post continued until 2015.

She resides in the Toronto neighbourhood of Rosedale.

Family

Sondra Gotlieb (née Kaufman) and husband Allan were married in 1955. They had three children: Rebecca (1958-2003), Marc (born 1959), and Rachel (born 1962).

Rebecca, a lawyer, was married to Keith Ham, also a lawyer, but they separated and divorced a few years after the adoption of son David in 1992. She subsequently married journalist Matthew Fraser, former Editor-in-Chief of the National Post and television host. In early 2003, she died suddenly after a recurrence of liver cancer.

Marc, an art historian and former University of Toronto professor, is married to Lauren Freeman. They have three children.

Rachel is married to lawyer Rob Dickson and they have two children. They live in the Toronto neighbourhood of Rosedale.

Works

The Gourmet's Canada - 1972
True Confections - 1978
First Lady, Last Lady - 1981
Wife Of... - 1985
Washington Rollercoaster - 1990
Dogs, Houses, Gardens, Food & Other Addictions - 2002
When I Rises Up, I Gets Confused: The Best of Sondra Gotlieb - 2004

References

1936 births
Living people
Canadian columnists
Canadian women novelists
20th-century Canadian novelists
Writers from Winnipeg
Stephen Leacock Award winners
Canadian women journalists
The Globe and Mail columnists
Canadian women columnists
20th-century Canadian women writers
Women humorists
Canadian women non-fiction writers

Sondra Gotlieb


Pygmy is a word that describes several ethnic groups with unusually short people. According to anthropologists, pygmies can be any group where adult men are less than  tall on average. The best known pygmies are the Aka, Efé and Mbuti of central Africa. There are also pygmies in Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Brazil. The Negritos of Southeast Asia are also called pygmies.

The word "pygmy" is sometimes thought to be pejorative (an insult). It is, however, the only word that is used to call all African Midgets.
 The word Bayaka is sometimes used in the Central African Republic to refer to all local Pygmies. In the Congo Basin, pygmies are called the Kongo word Bambenga.

Name
The name "pygmy" comes from the Greek word  (pygmaios). This word was derived from (came from) the word  which is the length between a person's elbow and knuckles. The Latin word  (pl. pygmaei) came from this older Greek word.

The word was first used in Greek mythology by the poet Homer. He wrote about a tribe of dwarfs called Pygmies who lived in India and Ethiopia.

Origins
There are a number of theories to explain why pygmies are so short. It has been proved that their height is hereditary, and is passed on from parents to children. It may have evolved because of the low ultraviolet light found in rainforests, where many pygmies live. This would mean that the pygmies would make less vitamin D in their skin. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium, which is important for bones to grow. Since the pygmies would get less calcium, they would have smaller bones and skeletons.

There are other explanations for why pygmies are so short. Some explanations are:
 there is less food in the rainforest
 there is less calcium in the soil, so the food has less calcium
 it is easier for smaller people to move in thick jungle
 it is an adaptation to heat and humidity
Some research shows that the genes for the growth hormone receptor and growth hormone are found much less in pygmies than in related tribes. These genes are important for humans to grow tall.

Africa

Pygmies can be found in Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia. Most of these groups are partly hunter-gatherers. They get food from the environment and trade it with nearby farmers. From the farmers they get crops and tools. There are about 250,000-600,000 Pygmies living in the Congo rainforest.

Groups
There are a number of Pygmy groups living in Africa. The three best-known groups are the Mbenga, Mbuti, and Twa groups. Each big group includes several tribes that have their own language.

The Mbenga people, sometimes called the Ba-Mbenga, live in the western Congo basin. The Mbenga include the Aka people, who speak the Aka language. The Aka live in the Central African Republic and the Republic of Congo. The M-Benzélé people, or "western Aka", and the Ba-Sese people, "eastern Aka", are also related.

Other Mbenga pygmies are the Baka people of Cameroon, Gabon, and Republic of Congo. They speak three very similar languages: Baka language, Ganzi language, and Gundi language. Another group of Mbenga pygmies are the Gyele people. The Gyele live in Cameroon and speak Gyele language.

The Mbuti people, sometimes called the Bambuti, live in the Ituri rainforest in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. They include the Efé people, Asua people,  and the Kango people. The Efé speak the Efé language. The Asua speak the Asoa language. The Kango speak the Kango language.

The Twa people, or Ba-Twa, live in Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Uganda. The Twa speak Kirundi and Kinyarwanda.

References

Other websites

African Pygmies Culture, music and photos from the Central African rain forest

Ethnic groups in Africa

Pygmy peoples


An evolutionary grade is a group of species at the same level of organisation.

It refers to a group of animals or plants which are very similar, but which are not a clade. They have a similar morphological or physiological complexity, and they are often adapted to the same way of life.

The term was coined by Julian Huxley, to contrast with clade, which is a strictly phylogenetic unit. The use of 'grade' as a term in biology was strongly supported by Ernst Mayr, who also pointed out that the term had been used for some time before cladism.

Background
An evolutionary grade is a group of species united by similarities. These similarities led to their being given a name. But now to be a clade, the whole group from the first known member to the present day must be included.

The most commonly cited example is that of reptiles. In the early 19th century, tetrapods were put in the four familiar classes of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. In this system, reptiles are defined by traits such as laying cleidoic eggs, having skin covered in scales or scutes, and having a 'cold-blooded' metabolism.

However, we now know that amphibia gave rise to early egg-laying amniotes. These gave rise to sauropsids (the ancestors of reptiles and birds) and synapsids (the ancestors of mammals. 'Reptile' is just a common term for those sauropsids which survived to the present day, minus the birds. As an everyday word, everyone understands it. But as a modern scientific term, it is no longer good, and is less used.

Paraphyletic and polyphyletic taxa often represent evolutionary grades. In some cases paraphyletic taxa are united simply by not being part of any other groups, and give rise to so-called wastebasket taxa.

Examples

 Bryophytes were long considered a natural group, defined as those land plants which lacked vascular systems. Molecular evidence shows that the bryophytes are not monophyletic since mosses, liverworts and hornworts are in fact separate lineages, with mosses closest to vascular plants.  However, the three clades have a similar degree of complexity, and the "bryophyte grade" is a useful benchmark when analysing early plants  it gives information about the status of fossils which cannot always be classified into living groups.
 Fish represent a grade, as they have given rise to the land vertebrates. In fact, the three traditional classes of fish (Agnatha, Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes) all represent evolutionary grades. Obviously, everyone will go on using the word fish; this just makes the point that they are not a monophyletic clade.
 Dinosaurs plus birds are a proper monophyletic group. Otherwise they are not.
 Labyrinthodonts are an evolutionary grade, and the group is no longer a term in taxonomy.
 Synapsids cannot be a clade unless the mammals are included.
 Nautiloids. Cladistically speaking, nautiloids are a paraphyletic group with shared primitive features not found in derived cephalopods. In other words, they are an evolutionary grade which is thought to have given rise to both ammonoids and coleoids.

References

Taxonomy
Evolutionary biology

Evolutionary grade


The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-or-freeze (also called hyperarousal or the acute stress response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress. The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part.

This response is recognised as the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms.

Name
Originally understood as the "fight-or-flight" response in Cannon's research, the state of hyperarousal results in several responses beyond fighting or fleeing. This has led people to calling it the "fight, flight, freeze" response, "fight-flight-freeze-fawn"
 or "fight-flight-faint-or-freeze", among other variants. The wider array of responses, such as freezing, fainting, fleeing, or experiencing fright, has led researchers to use more neutral or accommodating terminology such as "hyperarousal" or the "acute stress response".

Physiology

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilises and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Reaction
The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH. The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.

The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose. Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.

Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:

Function of physiological changes
The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:
 Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.
 Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.
 The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
 Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.

Emotional components

Emotion regulation

In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.

Emotional reactivity
During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response. Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.

Cognitive components

Content specificity
The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterised by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words. There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.

Perception of control

Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events. Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.

Social information processing

The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts. The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.

Other animals

Evolutionary perspective
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.

Examples
A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body's systems. The sympathetic nervous system's activation  provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal. Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.

In July 1992, Behavioral Ecology published experimental research conducted by biologist Lee A. Dugatkin where guppies were sorted into "bold", "ordinary", and "timid" groups based upon their reactions when confronted by a smallmouth bass (i.e. inspecting the predator, hiding, or swimming away) after which the guppies were left in a tank with the bass. After 60 hours, 40 percent of the timid guppies and 15 percent of the ordinary guppies survived while none of the bold guppies did.

Varieties of responses

Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.

Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place, and fight and flight are often combined in a given situation.

The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight against or flee from something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.

A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.

See also

Notes

References

Further reading
 Sapolsky, Robert M., 1994.  Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers.  W.H. Freeman and Company.

External links

Sympathetic nervous system
Aggression
Fear
Psychological theories
Evolutionary psychology

Fight-or-flight response


"Ready to Fall" is the first single by melodic hardcore band Rise Against from their fourth studio album, The Sufferer & The Witness (2006).

An acoustic version of this song was done live on the CJZN Radio station in Victoria, British Columbia, on January 18, 2007, before a Billy Talent concert featuring Rise Against, Anti-Flag, and Moneen.

On March 12, 2009, the song became a downloadable song in the video game, Guitar Hero World Tour. It is also shown in Tap Tap Revenge 3 on the iPhone and iPod Touch as a downloadable double song pack with Audience of One. The song was also shown in 2009 action movie 12 Rounds.

Music video
The video was made in 2006. It is about pollution and its effects on the environment. The video is 3 minutes and 52 seconds long. It cuts between shots of the band playing and shots of animals being saved or dying, if not already dead. This is from many environmental dangers made by humans. At the end of the video, lead singer Tim McIlrath says, "Every action has a reaction. We've got one planet, one chance."

There was also a version played on television. There are also ones that are more graphic. This was never really released. But it is available on some websites. The video serves a testimony to veganism. Rise Against is an active supporter of PETA, an animal rights organization, and the band members are all active vegetarians.

Chart performance
The song got to number 13 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. It is the lowest charting single from The Sufferer & the Witness. Although, it was the band's second highest charting single.

References

Rise Against

Ready to Fall


The Great Escape is a 1963 American movie. It is about an escape by Allied prisoners of war from a German POW camp during World War II. The movie stars Steve McQueen, James Garner, Donald Pleasence, Charles Bronson, James Coburn, and Richard Attenborough. It got positive reviews.

Other websites

1963 adventure movies
1963 drama movies

1963 war movies
American adventure movies
1960s American drama movies
American prison movies
American war movies
1960s English-language movies
German-language movies
Movies based on real life events
Movies set in Germany
Movies set in the 1940s
Multilingual movies
Prison drama movies
World War II movies
Movies directed by John Sturges

The Great Escape (movie)


A Master in chess is a player who is awarded a master title by the world chess organisation FIDE, or by a national chess organisation. The term was used for a long time to describe someone who was accepted as an expert player, but it now has an official meaning.

Grandmaster is a chess title for even stronger players. The title comes from the word in Middle French: Grand maistre. It was the title given to the head of an Order of Knights, such as the Knights Templar or the Teutonic Knights. Its first use in chess is a comment in the periodical Bell's Life (18 February 1838) referring to William Lewis as "our past grandmaster".p156

FIDE titles
FIDE titles were first awarded in 1950.p133 There are four levels of mastery.p132; 177 There are detailed rules as to the number of games played at a given level, and the full rules are quite lengthy. Some countries go with this system entirely, but others have their own system as well.

Once awarded a title, the player keeps it for life.

Titles open to all
In order of merit, with official abbreviations, they are:
Grandmaster (GM) 2500+
International master (IM) 2400+
FIDE master (FM) 2300+
Candidate master (CM) 2200+

Titles open only to women
There are also women-only titles:
Woman grandmaster (WGM) 2300+
Woman international master (WIM) 2200+
Woman FIDE master (WFM) 2100+
Woman candidate master (WCM) 2000+

It can be seen that a woman grandmaster is a lower standard than an international master. The purpose of women-only titles is to encourage female players, because there are few female players in the game.

Grandmaster
A grandmaster is the highest title that a player can get, except becoming a world champion. It is given by the world chess organisation, FIDE.

Meeting the demands is not easy. To become a grandmaster, a player has to play at least 27 games with at least two grandmaster-results. In practice this means achieving at least three grandmaster-results or norms. The tournament rating must be 2600 at least. Besides this, a player's own FIDE rating must be at least 2500. Men and women can earn the GM-title by meeting the demands.

A chessplayer who is already an IM (international master) will simply become grandmaster, but it is not necessary to get the IM title first.

National titles
As chess became more popular in the second half of the 19th century, the term began to be given out by organizations. For example, in Germany, there arose an annual sponsored tournament, the Hauptturnier, the winners of which were awarded the title of Meister. Emanuel Lasker, who later became World Champion, first earned a master title in one such tournament. The Soviet Union had a system of national candidate masters, masters and grandmasters before World War II, and its satellite countries in eastern Europe followed suit after the war.

In the United States, the title of "National Master" is awarded for life, regardless of whether his rating goes below 2200 later. In August 2002, the USCF (United States Chess Federation) decided that "Any USCF member, who has had a normal post-tournament rating of 2200 or higher, has demonstrated a significant level of chess ability and thought, and is automatically awarded the lifetime title of National Master".

Related pages
 List of chess grandmasters

References

Other websites
 Document describing USCF rating classes

Chess

Chess master titles


The 1985 CFL Draft composed of nine rounds where 81 Canadian football players were chosen from eligible Canadian universities and Canadian players playing in the NCAA. The 1985 draft was the first draft in Canadian Football League history wherein there were no territorial exemptions provided for teams to only draft players from the region in Canada where they were located.

1st round
1. Ottawa Rough Riders                               Nicholas Benjamin            OL             Concordia

2. Calgary Stampeders                                Randy Ambrosie               OL        Manitoba

3. British Columbia Lions                            John Ulmer                   DE      North Dakota

4. Montreal Concordes                                Tony Johnson                 TB        Henderson State

5. Edmonton Eskimos                                  Peter Emsky                  OL        Washington State

6. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                             Pat Langdon                  TE        Tennessee

7. British Columbia Lions                                Rick Ryan                    DB         Weber State

8. Hamilton Tiger-Cats                               Jed Tommy                    TB         Guelph

9. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                 Robert Molle                    DE         Simon Fraser

2nd round
10. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  Tom Munroe                   WR     British Columbia

11. Calgary Stampeders                                   Garrett Doll                 LB         Alberta

12. Saskatchewan Roughriders  David Conrad       TE  Acadia

13. Montreal Concordes                                   Scott Robson                 C          North Dakota

14. British Columbia Lions                               Bruce Barnett                DB         British Columbia

15. Calgary Stampeders                                   Tom Spoltenini               T          Calgary

16. British Columbia Lions                               Joe Pariselli                TB         York

17. Hamilton Tiger-Cats  Lance Thompson            LB         Carleton

18. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                Derron Vernon                TB         Eastern Michigan

3rd round
19. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  Neri Fratin                  TB       Ottawa

20. Calgary Stampeders                                   Wes Cooper                   TB           Weber State

21. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Gerald Lashyn                LB        Saskatchewan

22. British Columbia Lions                               Bob Jedicke                  DL      Western Ontario

23. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Mark Horvath                 DB          McMaster

24. Toronto Argonauts                                Don Adamic                   OL          British Columbia

25. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Renzo Passaretti             LB  Saint Mary's

26. British Columbia Lions                               Chris Spence  TB  Simon Fraser

27. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                Rob Prodanovic               DL          Calgary

4th round
28. Saskatchewan Roughriders  Tony Dennis                  WR          Simon Fraser

29. Calgary Stampeders                                   Scott Bissessar              WR         Queen's

30. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Lloyd Clefstad               DT          Simon Fraser

31. Montreal Concordes  Mike O'Donnell               QB          Manitoba

32. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Clorindo Grilli              TB          McMaster

33. Toronto Argonauts                                    Kristen Keillor              T  Wilfrid Laurier

34. British Columbia Lions                               Kurt Wilchuck                LB         Oregon

35. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  Marty Palazeti               DE         Marshall

36. Hamilton Tiger-Cats                                  Dale Sanderson               C            Tennessee

5th round
37. Saskatchewan Roughriders  Steve Crane                 DB            Acadia

38. Calgary Stampeders  Terry Cochrane              TB            British Columbia

39. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Rob Bresciani               WR            Saskatchewan

40. Montreal Concordes                                   Bloyce Bulman               DE  Mount Allison

41. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Tom Richards                TB            Alberta

42. Toronto Argonauts                                    Dan Petschenig              OL            Carleton

43. British Columbia Lions                               John Moffatt                WR            Western Ontario

44. Hamilton Tiger-Cats  Glen Miller                 SB            McGill

45. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                Glenn Steele                TB            British Columbia

6th round
46. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  Lance Chomyc               K/P  Toronto

47. Calgary Stampeders                                   Joe Mahnic                  TB            Saskatchewan

48. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Jerry Nash                  DB            Alberta

49. Montreal Concordes                                   Mark Clatney                DT  Moorhead State

50. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Harold Riemer               OL            Alberta

51. Toronto Argonauts                                    Alex Troop                  LB            Wilfrid Laurier

53. Hamilton Tiger-Cats                                  Lance Harry                 G             Concordia

54. Winnipeg Blue Bombers  Greg Miller               LB            Concordia

7th round
55. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  George Ganas                TB            York

56. Calgary Stampeders                                   Roger DesLauriers           DB            British Columbia

57. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Mark Urness                  G  Boise State

58. Montreal Concordes                                   Donovan Brown                DB             York

59. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Bill Starke                  WR             Western Ontario

60. Toronto Argonauts                                    Andy Filipuik                WR             Toronto

61. Winnipeg Blue Bombers  Doug Campbell            LB             Alberta

62. Hamilton Tiger-Cats                                  John Lepore                  TB             Guelph

63. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                Randy Saunders               TE             Simon Fraser

8th round
64. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  Morris Elfenbaum             OL             Minot State

65. Calgary Stampeders                                   James Whute                  WR             Simon Fraser

66. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Roger Mayer                  DL             Concordia

67. Montreal Concordes                                   David Binkle                 LB  Panhandle State

68. Edmonton Eskimos                                     Dana Donald                  DB              Alberta

69. Toronto Argonauts                                    Nolan Duke                   C               Wilfrid Laurier

70. British Columbia Lions  John Melvin               DL              British Columbia

71. Hamilton Tiger-Cats                                  Brian Bone                   WR              Western Ontario

72. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                Randy Fabi                   WR              Western Ontario

9th round
73. Ottawa Rough Riders                                  Craig Keenan                 QB      Colorado

74. Calgary Stampeders                                   Robin Simpson                OL               Calgary

75. Saskatchewan Roughriders                             Colum Armstrong              K                Acadia

76. Montreal Concordes                                   Denis Boisclair              K/P       Illinois

77. Edmonton Eskimos  Mike McLean                  LB                Alberta

78. Toronto Argonauts                                    Kevin Reaume                 TE    St. Francis Xavier

79. British Columbia Lions                               Bob Ros                      TE               British Columbia

80. Hamilton Tiger-Cats  Sean McKenna                LB               McMaster

81. Winnipeg Blue Bombers                                Ron St. Mars                 LB               Manitoba

References
Canadian Draft

Canadian College Draft
Cfl Draft, 1985

1985 CFL Draft


Human rights in Jordan are similar to or better than those elsewhere in the Middle East. Human Rights Watch reported in January 2018 that although recently there have been far-reaching reforms of the laws and regulations in the country, abuses against basic rights such as freedom of expression persisted.

According to Freedom House, Jordan is ranked as the fifth-freest Arab country, but still regarded as "not free" in the 2021 report. It is also classified as having an authoritarian regime according to a 2020 democracy index.

History
The 2011 Jordanian protests began in the wake of unrest in Tunisia and Egypt. Starting in January 2011, several thousand Jordanians staged weekly demonstrations and marches in Amman (the capital) and other cities to protest government corruption, rising prices, poverty, and high unemployment. In response, King Abdullah II replaced his prime minister and formed a National Dialogue Commission with a mandate to carry out reforms. The king told the new prime minister to "take quick, concrete, and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process," "to strengthen democracy," and to provide Jordanians with the "dignified life they deserve." He called for an "immediate revision" of laws governing politics and public freedoms. Since then, reports have shown good initial results but much work remaining to be done.

The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries.

On 3 April 2021 a series of arrests were carried out. The Jordanian authorities arrested 19 people, including Prince Hamzah, who was put under house arrest. Arrests also included the prince's chief of staff and other figures associated with him, in addition to a member of the royal family, Sharif Hassan bin Zaid, and Bassem Awadallah, former Chief of the Royal Hashemite Court and Jordan's former envoy to Saudi Arabia.

Democracy
Jordan is a semi-constitutional monarchy ruled by King Abdullah II bin Hussein. The constitution concentrates executive and legislative authority in the king.

Jordan has a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of an upper house, the Assembly of Senators, appointed by the king and an elected lower house, the Chamber of Deputies. The members of both houses hold office for four-year terms. There are 60 seats in the Senate and 120 in the Chamber of Deputies. In the Chamber of Deputies 12 seats are reserved for women, 9 seats for Christian candidates, 9 for Bedouin candidates, and 3 for Jordanians of Chechen or Circassian descent. The Assembly of Senators is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies and can be dismissed by "a vote of no confidence". The king may dissolve the National Assembly, forcing new elections. King Abdullah did that on 24 November 2009, and the government ruled by decree through most of 2010, until new elections were held in November. Parliamentary elections have been deemed credible by international observers. The king signs and executes all laws, but his veto power can be overridden by two-thirds vote of the National Assembly. The judicial branch is completely independent. Security forces report to civilian authorities.

The law does not provide citizens the right to change their monarch or government. The king appoints and dismisses the prime minister, cabinet, the Assembly of Senators, and judges, may dissolve parliament, commands the military, and directs major public policy initiatives. The cabinet, based on the prime minister's recommendation, appoints the mayors of Amman, Wadi Musa (Petra), and Aqaba, a special economic zone. The mayors of the other 93 municipalities are elected.

Opposition movements are legal in Jordan and are involved in Jordan's political life. The government licenses political parties and other associations and prohibits membership in unlicensed political parties. There are over 50 licensed political parties, but only a few have a substantial impact at the national level.

Jordan ranked sixth among the 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region, and 50th out of 178 countries worldwide in the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International, where 1st is the least corrupt. Jordan's 2010 CPI score was 4.7 on a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 10 (very clean). Jordan ratified the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) in February 2005 and has been a regional leader in spearheading efforts to promote the UNCAC and its implementation.

Freedom of the press
The Jordanian constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, the government does not fully respect these rights in practice. In its 2009 annual report the Amman-based National Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) concluded that media freedoms deteriorated in 2009.

In the 2010 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 120th out of 178 countries listed, 5th out of the 20 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan's score was 37 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free).

The law provides for up to three years' imprisonment for insulting the king, slandering the government or foreign leaders, offending religious beliefs, or stirring sectarian strife and sedition. In practice citizens are generally able to criticize the government, although they reportedly exercise caution in regard to the king, the royal family, the General Intelligence Directorate (GID), and other sensitive topics such as religion.

The government continues to enforce bans on the publication of selected books for religious, moral, and political reasons, some foreign films are edited prior to release, and the media is directly and indirectly censored. Authorities monitor and censor printing presses and edit articles deemed offensive before they can be printed. Journalists claim the government uses informants in newsrooms and that GID officials monitor reporting. Editors reportedly receive telephone calls from security officials instructing them how to cover events or to refrain from covering certain topics or events. Government officials also reportedly bribe journalists to influence their reporting. Media observers note that when covering controversial subjects, government-owned Jordan Radio and Television and Jordan News Agency reported only the government's position.

Journalists report that the threat of detention and imprisonment under the penal code for a variety of offenses, and stringent fines of as much as 20,000 dinars ($28,000) under the press and publications law for defamation leads to self-censorship. According to a 2009 Center for Defending the Freedom of Journalists survey, 95 percent of journalists polled exercised self-censorship. The survey also reported that 70 percent of journalists thought the government used "soft containment", such as financial support, scholarships for relatives, and special invitations, to control the media at a medium to high degree. Ninety-four percent said they avoid writing about or broadcasting military matters, and 83 percent said they avoid discussing religious topics.

There were several instances in which the government prohibited journalists from reporting on high-profile court cases. For example, a State Security Court attorney general prohibited the press from reporting or commenting on the case of the Jordan Petroleum Refinery Company expansion project without his personal approval, purportedly to allow the judicial authorities to work "calmly" on the case.

The clash between Jordanian media and the Lower House has been a chronic struggle for decades. The state of press freedom in Jordan is very fickle, at one point Jordan had one of the most vocal media in the Arab World, but a series of laws passed by Parliament greatly restricted press freedom. The Jordanian media has been very vocal expressing its opposition towards Parliament often leading to clashes. One Jordanian journalist wrote a fiery article called "For God Sake, Abdullah", in which he called on King Abdullah to dissolve the corrupt Lower House. He was prosecuted by the Lower House, but was later acquitted by the judiciary.

In October 2001, the government amended the Penal Code and introduced a restrictive Press Law that effectively revokes the relative freedom of the press guaranteed by the 1993 Press Law and punishes any act that can be deemed critical of the Jordanian government. Anyone who "slanders" the King or other members of the royal family can be sentenced to three years imprisonment. The introduction of these new laws has led to the detention and imprisonment of several journalists and leaders of peaceful associations.

In May 2006, two journalists involved in reprinting three of the 12 Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons were issued a two-month prison sentence. Jordan was the only Muslim country to reprint the Danish cartoons depicting the Muhammed in one of its newspapers. The two Jordanian editors responsible were sacked and pressured to issue a public apology.

At the beginning of 2009, King Abdullah II issued a royal decree forbidding jailing of journalists in Jordan, an act praised by human rights groups in Jordan and around the world.

According to Human Rights Watch, Jordanian authorities has used counterterrorism laws to prosecute activists, dissidents, journalists and Islamic preachers for speech offenses, the authorities depends largely on counterterrorism law that extended the definition of terrorism to include acts such as disturbing Jordan's relations with a foreign state. In February, a senior Muslim Brotherhood figure, Zaki Bani Irsheid, was sentenced to 18 months in prison after a post on Facebook criticizing the United Arab Emirates. In June, Eyad Qunaibi, an Islamic preacher, was arrested after posting Facebook comments criticizing the liberal lifestyle of a segment of the Jordanian society.

Jordan is listed as engaged in selective internet filtering in the political area and as showing no evidence of filtering in the social, conflict/security, and Internet tools areas by the OpenNet Initiative (ONI) in August 2009. Internet censorship in Jordan is relatively light, with filtering selectively applied to only a small number of sites. However, media laws and regulations encourage some measure of self-censorship in cyberspace, and citizens have reportedly been questioned and arrested for Web content they have authored. Internet censorship in Jordan is mainly focused on political issues that might be seen as a threat to national security due to the nation's close proximity to regional hotspots of Israel, Iraq, Lebanon, and the Palestinian territories.

In 2013, however, the Press and Publications Department initiated a ban on Jordanian news websites which had not registered and been licensed by government agency. The order issued to Telecommunication Regulatory Commission contained a list of over 300 websites to be blocked. The mandatory registration of websites was a part of amendments made to the Press and Publications Law in September 2012. The amendments included articles that would hold online news sites accountable for the comments left by their readers, prohibiting them from publishing comments that are deemed "irrelevant" or "unrelated" to the article. The restriction caused several prominent sites to turn off their comments sections. Online news sites are required to archive all comments for at least six months. One of the blocked sites was 7iber, which could not register as a news site because the Jordan Press Association does not credential online journalists.

In August 2023,Prominent Arab satirical website Al Hudood responds to its ban in Jordan by satirizing proposed censorship laws, highlighting its decade-long role in humorously critiquing Middle Eastern politics and societal norms.

Freedom of religion

The Jordanian Constitution provides for the freedom to practice one's religion in accordance with the customs in the Kingdom, unless they violate public order or morality. Under sharia law, converts from Islam are still considered Muslims.

In June 2006, the government published the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in the government's Official Gazette. Article 18 of that Covenant provides freedom of religion.

In 2023, the country was scored 2 out of 4 for religious freedom.
In the same year, the country was ranked as the 49th most difficult place in the world to be a Christian.

Christians are well integrated into the Kingdom's political and economic landscapes. There are nine seats in the 120-seat Parliament reserved for Christians. In addition, Christians have traditionally prospered in the kingdom to the extent that Jordanian Christians are believed to own or run about a third of the Jordanian economy despite making up only 6% of the total population. They serve in the military, many have high positions in the army, and they have established good relations with the royal family.

Pope Benedict XVI visited Jordan in 2009.

Human trafficking and migrant workers

Jordan is a destination for women and men subjected to trafficking in persons, specifically conditions of forced labor and, to a lesser extent, forced prostitution. Jordan is possibly a source and transit country for women and men subjected to conditions of forced labor and forced commercial sexual exploitation. There are also reports of Jordanian child laborers experiencing conditions of forced labor.

Moroccan and Tunisian women are reportedly subjected to forced prostitution after migrating to Jordan to work in restaurants and night clubs. In addition, a few Chinese, Bangladeshi, Indian, Sri Lankan, and Vietnamese men and women encountered conditions indicative of forced labor in a few factories in the garment sector, including factories in Jordan's Qualifying Industrial Zones, such as the unlawful withholding of passports, delayed payment of wages, and, in a few cases, verbal and physical abuse. Instances of forced labor reportedly continued to decline due to enhanced labor inspections and other recent measures undertaken by the government within the garment sector. NGOs and the media also report the forced labor of Egyptian workers in the construction, agriculture, and tourism sectors. Jordan's airports may be transit points for South- and Southeast-Asian men and women en route to employment opportunities in other Middle Eastern countries, where they experience labor exploitation after arrival. Some Jordanian children employed within the country as street vendors, carpenters, painters, mechanics, domestics, restaurant staff, or agricultural laborers may be exploited in situations of forced labor.

In 2009, an Anti-Human Trafficking Law was endorsed by the government that severely restricts human trafficking in the Kingdom and creates a committee to promote public awareness on the issue. Jordan in cooperation with the Filipino Government worked out an agreement which gave a wide range of rights to domestic workers and access to legal protection, the first Arab country to do so.

New regulations to regulate the working conditions of all domestic workers prescribe maximum working hours, rights to holiday and sick leave, and domestic workers' entitlement to regular contact with their own families. According to Amnesty International, despite addressing important issues, the regulations are loosely worded and open to interpretation in certain respects, fail to specify mechanisms for determining wages, or to resolve long-standing problems related to nonpayment of wages or low wages. They also fail to provide effective safeguards against physical violence and sexual abuse by employers of domestic workers, the great majority of whom are women, and appear to place women at risk by requiring domestic workers to obtain their employer's permission before leaving their house.

While there has been some improvement in combating human trafficking, Jordan remains a Tier 2 country (countries whose governments do not fully comply with the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act's minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards) in the U.S. State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report 2010 because victim assistance, public awareness raising, punishment of traffickers, and active cooperation with source country embassies remain limited.

Unrestrained violence, torture, and honor killings

Torture is illegal in Jordan, however it remains widespread. According to a report by Amnesty International, intelligence agents in Jordan frequently use torture to extract confessions from terror suspects. Common tactics include, "beating, sleep deprivation, extended solitary confinement, and physical suspension." Palestinians and suspected Islamists are treated especially harshly. Though Jordan has improved many procedures including a prison reform campaign in partnership with EU in this respect, agents at the General Intelligence Department remain largely immune to punishment.

In May 2010, the UN Committee against Torture reiterated long-standing concerns at Jordan's failure to investigate and prosecute allegations of torture, to provide adequate protection against torture, and to prosecute perpetrators in accordance with the seriousness of the crime. It noted the "numerous, consistent and credible allegations of a widespread and routine practice of torture and ill-treatment" including in General Intelligence Department (GID) and Criminal Investigations Department detention. The government did not respond to the committee's recommendations.

According to Rana Husseini of The Jordan Times, there were 12 recorded "honor killings" in Jordan from January to November 2010. These so-called "honor killings", the killing of female relatives suspected of illicit relationships, are often lightly punished by police and the courts. There have been several attempts to introduce harsh penalties on honor crimes, but, even with the strong backing of the royal family, these attempts have been rejected by Jordan's Lower House. In May 2010, the government decreed amendments to the penal code to ensure that "honor" crimes receive the full penalty of the law.

Death penalty

After a moratorium since 2006 there were eleven executions on 21 December 2014, all detainees were men convicted of murder. Amendments to the penal code have reduced the number of capital offenses. State security, smuggling, arson resulting in death, and inciting armed riot cases are no longer capital crimes. In March 2010, the Justice Minister announced that the crime of rape may cease to be a capital offense. In the future it is possible that the death penalty will be limited to cases of murder.

At the end of 2010 the government reports that 46 people were under sentence of death and six new death sentences were imposed during the year. Amnesty International reports nine new death sentences in 2010.

Fifteen executions were carried on dawn of 4 March 2017; ten convicted with terrorism and the remaining 5 with murder and rape of minors. Those convicted with terrorism were part of a terror attack in Irbid, an attack on intelligence officers and the attack on Jordanian writer Nahed Hattar.

Arrest, detention, fair and speedy trials, and prison conditions

Jordanian law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, but according to local and international human rights groups, the government does not always observe these prohibitions in practice.

Citizens and NGOs allege that the government continues to detain individuals, including political opposition members, for political reasons, and that governors continued to use administrative detentions for what appeared to be political reasons. In a few cases, the media and human rights organizations reported that authorities kept detainees in solitary confinement and denied them access to lawyers.

Human rights observers claimed that police make arrests before obtaining warrants and prosecutors fail to file charges or seek extensions in a timely manner. Prosecutors routinely request and are granted extensions that increase the period to file formal charges to as long as six months for a felony and two months for a misdemeanor. This practice can lengthen pretrial detention for protracted periods. Some detainees report not being allowed timely access to a lawyer, but authorities generally permit visits by family members.

In facilities operated by the General Intelligence Directorate (GID) there are allegations of long periods of incommunicado detention, lengthy pretrial detention without being informed of charges, and not allowing defendants to meet with their lawyers or permitting meetings only shortly before trial.

Under the Crime Prevention Law, provincial governors may detain individuals suspected of planning to commit a crime or those who allegedly shelter thieves, habitually steal, or constitute a danger to the public, and in practice they used this provision widely. Those accused are subject to imprisonment or house arrest as "administrative detention" without formal charges. A detention order may be for as long as one year, but governors can impose new orders to prolong detentions. International and national NGOs noted that governors routinely abused the law, imprisoning individuals when there was not enough evidence to convict them and prolonging detentions of prisoners whose sentences had expired. The law was also widely used to incarcerate women at risk of being honor crime victims.

Jordanian law provides for an independent judiciary; however, the judiciary's independence in practice may be compromised by nepotism and the influence of special interests.

The law presumes that all defendants are innocent until proven guilty. Juries are not used. Most trials in civilian courts are open and procedurally sound, but the State Security Court (SSC) may close its proceedings to the public. Defendants are entitled to legal counsel, provided at public expense for the indigent in cases involving the death penalty or potential life imprisonment. In many cases defendants have no legal representation. Defendants can present witnesses on their behalf and question witnesses against them. Defense attorneys were generally granted access to government-held evidence relevant to their clients' cases. Defendants can appeal verdicts and appeals are automatic for cases involving the death penalty.

There are significant problems with the conditions in prisons, including poor legal services, under staffing, inadequate food and health care, poor sanitation standards, poor ventilation, extreme temperatures, inadequate access to potable water, ineffective pre-release and post-release programs, and insufficient basic and emergency medical care. Some detainees report abuse and mistreatment by guards. Hunger strikes remain common, but prison riots and allegations of mistreatment have decreased. The construction of four new prisons reduced overcrowding somewhat.

Women's rights

Freedom House rates women's rights in five categories, each scored from one (lowest level of freedom) to five (highest level):

In 2009 of 18 Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries surveyed, Jordan ranked in the upper third for each category (between 4th and 7th).

Limited economic opportunity is one of the main reasons for poor scores in many of the above categories. It is not just discrimination that accounts for high rates of unemployment, but also genuine economic difficulties and shortages of jobs. "The shrinking of the public sector disproportionately affects women, the location of jobs matters more for women than for men, and discrimination in the private sector remains".

In 2005 Freedom House criticized Jordan for its poor women's rights record, but also acknowledged that the "status of women in Jordan is currently undergoing a historic transition, with women achieving a number of positive gains and new rights."

Educated women were granted suffrage in 1955, but it was not until 1974 that all women received the right to vote and run as candidates in parliamentary elections. In 1993, the first female candidate was elected to the lower house of parliament and the first woman was appointed to the upper house. Women have assumed high-level governmental positions in greater numbers, gaining appointments as ministers and lawmakers with increasing frequency. An average of three ministerial portfolios has been assigned to women in each cabinet since 2004, and a gender-based quota system, first introduced for the lower house of parliament in 2003, was expanded to municipal councils in 2007.

From 2004 until the end of 2009, the women's movement made a number of important gains, including the publication of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in the official gazette, which gave it the force of law. Additionally, the government has taken steps to address the problem of domestic abuse, including the February 2007 opening of the country's first major women's shelter, the Family Reconciliation House, and the March 2008 promulgation of the Family Protection Law, designed to regulate the handling of domestic abuse cases by medical workers and law enforcement bodies.

Today, Jordanian women largely enjoy legal equality in freedom of movement, health care, education, political participation, and employment. And, while the attitudes of police officers, judges, and prosecutors regarding the treatment of victims of domestic violence and honor crimes have undergone a positive shift in recent years, gender-based violence remains a serious concern.

There remains gender-based discrimination in family laws, in the provision of pensions and social security benefits, and on the societal level due to deeply entrenched patriarchal norms that restrict female employment and property ownership. And women do not have the same status as men with respect to nationality. A Jordanian man may marry a foreigner and pass on his nationality to his children; women cannot. Nor can women pass on their nationality to their husbands.

Women are no longer required to seek permission from their male guardians or husbands before obtaining or renewing their passports, but fathers may still prevent their children from traveling regardless of the mother's wishes. Muslim women are prohibited from marrying men of other religions unless the spouse agrees to convert to Islam, while Muslim men are permitted to wed Christian and Jewish women.

Child labor and forced labor
In 2013, the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor reported that Jordan has "made a moderate advancement in efforts to eliminate the worst forms of child labor" but that a percentage as high as 0.8% of children aged 5 to 14 continue to engage in child labor, mostly in the agricultural sector and in domestic service.
In December 2014, the department issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor where Jordan figures among 74 other countries that resort to such labor practices. Jordan was reported to make use of forced labor in the garment industry.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights

Legal and societal discrimination and harassment remained a problem for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) persons in Jordan.
Jordan is one of the few countries in the Middle East where homosexuality is legal, provided that it occurs in private, does not involve prostitution, and only involves consenting adults. However, sexual orientation and gender identity issues remain taboo within the traditional culture and the government does not recognize same-sex civil unions or marriages.
Transgender Jordanians may be allowed to change their legal Sex, however Sex Reassignment Surgery is required.

National human rights institution

Jordan was one of the first countries in the Middle East to establish a national human rights institution (NHRI). The National Centre for Human Rights (NCHR) in 2006 secured 'A-status' accreditation from the peer review process of the International Coordinating Committee of NHRIs, giving it enhanced access to the United Nations human rights bodies. That status was subjected to special review twice by the ICC in 2007, and reaffirmed; it was again accorded A status under the ordinary review procedure in 2010. In the ICC annual meeting in March 2012, the Jordanian institution was elected as chair of the network of 99 institutions. The Commissioner General of the NCHR is Dr Mousa Burayzat.

Treaties
Jordan is a party to many human rights agreements, including:

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery
Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Convention on the Rights of the Child
Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict
Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour
Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention
Convention concerning Forced or Compulsory Labour
Equal Remuneration Convention
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention
Employment Policy Convention
Convention against Discrimination in Education

Jordan was the only country in the Middle East and North Africa that is a member of the International Criminal Court (ICC), which prosecutes those who commit crimes against humanity, war crimes, aggression, and genocide, until Tunisia became a member in 2011. Palestine became a member of ICCC in 2015.

See also

Human rights in Muslim-majority countries

References

External links
Review of Jordan by the United Nations Human Rights Council's Universal Periodic Review, 11 February 2009
Human Rights Watch: Jordan
Censorship in Jordan, International Freedom of Expression Exchange

Jordan

Human rights in Jordan


The Office of Controller of Budget of Kenya is an Independent Office established under Article 228 of The Constitution of Kenya with the core mandate being to oversee implementation of the budgets of the National and County Governments by authorising withdrawal from public funds.

Roles
The roles and functions of the office of the Controller of Budget as stipulated in the Constitution are as follows:

Oversight

This role involves overseeing the implementation of the budgets of both national and county governments. The Controller of Budget in this role therefore monitors the use of public funds in-year and reports to Parliament on how the funds have been utilised.

Controlling role

The controlling function involves authorising withdrawals from public funds. Before authorising any withdrawal from Public funds, the Controller of Budget must first be satisfied that the said withdrawal is authorised by law, as per Article 228 (5) of the Constitution.
Public funds include: -

Consolidated Fund
It is into the consolidated fund that all money raised or received by or on behalf of the national government is paid. This is the fund that keeps the national government and the county government running. The Controller of Budget is mandated under Article 206 (4) of the Constitution of Kenya to ensure that the fund is utilised on accordance with the law.

County Revenue Fund

This is the fund into which all money raised or received by or on behalf of the county government is paid including money raised from property rates, entertainment taxes, levies, fees, charges, etc. ( Article 207 (1) ).  Article 207 (3) of the Constitution of Kenya states that the Controller of Budget has the sole mandate and/or power to approve any withdrawal from a Revenue Fund.

Equalisation Fund

The fund will be used by the national government to provide basic services including water, roads, health facilities and electricity to the marginalized areas so as to bring the quality of services in those areas to the same level as generally enjoyed by the rest of the nation. This fund was created by Article 204 (1) of the Constitution of Kenya.

Reporting role

This role entails the preparation of quarterly, annual and special reports to the legislature and executive on budget implementation matters of the national and county governments as provided by law according to (Article 228 (6))

Type of Reports include but not limited to:

 Quarterly Reports on Budget Implementation to the Executive and Parliament Article 228 (6)
 Annual Reports on Budget Implementation to the President and Parliament Article 254 (1)
 Special Reports  to the President and Parliament Article 254 (2), investigation reports (Article 254 (2)) and reports on stoppage of funds  for governments units as per Article 225 of the Constitution
 Arbitration/Mediation Reports to Parliament on matters relating to Budget Implementation Article 225 (7a) Article 252 (1a&1b).
 Performance reports for the activities of Office of Controller of Budget
 And any other report on Budget implementation that may be required.

To ensure transparency all the reports must be published and publicized as per Article 254 (3) which states that "Every report required from a commission or holder of an independent office under this Article shall be published and publicized".

Advisory role

This function involves giving advice to Parliament on financial matters where a Cabinet Secretary has stopped transfer of funds to a State organ or public entity. The suspension of funds cannot be lifted or sustained before the Controller of Budget gives a report to Parliament.

The Office of the Controller of Budget is expected to investigate the matter the financial performance of a State organ or entity after which prepare and present a report on the matter to Parliament which will be used to approve or renew the decision to stop transfer of funds to a State organ or public entity as provided for under Article 225 (7) of the Constitution.
The Controller of Budget also gives advice to government entities on improving budget implementation e.g.  low absorption of funds by Ministries, Departments and Agencies and County entity. This therefore promotes accountability in the use of public financial resources.

Investigation role

Under Article 252 (1) (a) of the Constitution, the Controller of Budget (independent office) has power to conduct investigations on its own initiative or following a complaint made by a member of the public on budget implementation matters.

Arbitration/Mediation role

The Controller of Budget under Article 252(1) (b) of the Constitution has powers for conciliation, mediation and negotiation. The Mediation role may involve resolution of conflicts between the national government and the county government, or between county governments with respect to budget implementation. This role involves conducting alternative dispute resolution mechanisms to resolve disputes relating to budget implementation.

Public sensitisation role

Controller of Budget
The current Controller of Budget is  Margaret Nyakang'o.

Auditor-General
The Auditor-General may play the Controller of Budget's role until his/her appointment

References

External links
Official Site

Politics of Kenya
Government agencies of Kenya
2012 in Kenya
Law of Kenya
Kenya articles by importance

Office of the Controller of Budget (Kenya)