Hans Heinrich Euler (b. 6 October 1909 in Merano, d. 1941) was a German physicist. He received his PhD in 1935 at the University of Leipzig under Werner Heisenberg with a thesis Über die Streuung von Licht an Licht nach der Diracschen Theorie (On the scattering of light by light based on Dirac's theory).

Euler was the first physicist who was able to show that Paul Dirac's introduction of the positron opens the possibility that photons in electron-positron pair production scatter with each other and calculated the cross section for this process in his PhD thesis.

Based on the observations of Helmuth Kulenkampff, Euler and Heisenberg were able to calculate an improved figure for meson decay time. They also introduced the Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian that laid the basis for the quantitative treatment of vacuum polarization.

Euler died in a reconnaissance flight over the Sea of Azov, during World War II. He had joined the Luftwaffe a few months earlier.

Publications by Hans Euler
 Hans Euler, "Über die Streuung von Licht an Licht nach der Diracschen Theorie",  Annalen der Physik, Vol. 418, 1936, pp. 398–448.
 Hans Euler and Bernhard Kockel, "Über die Streuung von Licht an Licht nach der Diracschen Theorie", Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 23, 1935, p. 246
 Werner Heisenberg and Hans Euler, "Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons", Zeitschrift für Physik, Vol. 98, 1936, pp. 714–732 [English translation: "Consequences of Dirac Theory of the Positron"].

References

 Dieter Hoffmann, "Kriegsschicksale: Hans Euler," Physikalische Blätter, vol. 45, no. 9, 1989, pp. 382–383.
 Werner Heisenberg, "Physics and Beyond (World Perspectives)", 1971, pp. 176–179.

1909 births
1941 deaths
20th-century German physicists
Leipzig University alumni
Luftwaffe personnel killed in World War II
People from Merano

Hans Heinrich Euler


The Lee-Enfield is a series of bolt-action rifles that was used by the British Armed Forces. It was the main British rifle for the first half of the 20th century, and was used until the end of the century.

While it was not as powerful as rifles used by other countries during both World War I and World War II, it was well-known for holding a lot of bullets and for having a very high rate of fire.

The Lee-Enfield can be loaded with two magazines of five British .303 bullets, allowing for the shooter to have up to ten bullets in the rifle at a time.

Even though bolt-action rifles tend to fire much more slowly than semi-automatic or fully automatic weapons, the Lee-Enfield can fire almost as fast as a semi-automatic rifle if the shooter is well-trained with the weapon. This is because the rifle's bolt needs very little movement to eject and load the rifle.

Rifles

Lee-Enfield


Hernando de Soto (Jerez de los Caballeros, Badajoz, Spain, c.1496/1497–May 21, 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador. He led the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States.  He was trying to find gold and a way to China.  The expedition explored the southern United States.  De Soto was probably the first European to discover the Mississippi River.  He died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River at present-day Lake Village, Arkansas.

Personal life

Hernando de Soto was born to parents who were hidalgos in Extremadura.  In this region, there was a lot of poverty and hardship.  For this reason, many young people looked for ways to seek their fortune elsewhere.

De Soto's parents were poor.  Two towns, Badajoz and Jerez de los Caballeros, claim to be his birthplace.  All that is known with certainty is that he spent time as a child at both places.  In his will, he wanted to be buried at Jerez de los Caballeros, where other members of his family were also buried.

Exploration

The Age of the Conquerors began right after of the Spanish reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from Islamic forces.  After the Moors were defeated, Spain and Portugal were filled with young men begging for a chance to find military fame.  After explorers discovered new lands to the West (which they thought was far East Asia), many more young men became explorers with the goal of earning wealth and glory.

De Soto sailed to the New World in 1514 with the first Governor of Panama, Pedrarias Dávila.  During the conquest of Central America, de Soto became known for his leadership, his strong loyalty, and his extortion of native villages for their captured chiefs. He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician.  However, he was also well known for his extreme brutality.

De Soto was influenced by Juan Ponce de León, who discovered Florida; Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who discovered the Pacific Ocean (which he called the "South Sea" below Panama); and Ferdinand Magellan, who first sailed the Pacific Ocean to the Orient.

References

1490s births
1542 deaths
Spanish explorers
People from Extremadura

Hernando de Soto


Sir Percy Selwyn Selwyn-Clarke (, 17 December 1893 – 13 March 1976), KBE, CMG, MC, MD, FRCP, DPH, DTM&H, CStJ Barrister at Law, was the Director of Medical Services, Hong Kong, from 1937 to 1943 and Governor of the Seychelles from 1947 to 1951.

Biography

Sir Percy Selwyn Selwyn-Clarke was born in North Finchley on 17 December 1893 and educated at Bedales. He joined St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical School in 1912 and qualified in 1916.

Selwyn-Clarke served as a medical officer with two different units in France during the First World War. He was wounded twice and was awarded the Military Cross in 1918. He entered the Colonial Medical Service and was posted to the Gold Coast in 1919.

From 1937–1943, Selwyn-Clarke served as Hong Kong Director of Medical Services at the request of the incoming governor, Sir Geoffry Northcote. In 1943, Selwyn-Clarke went to the incoming Japanese military governor and secured permission to carry on as director of medical services, to work to preserve the lives and improve the health of thousands of prisoners of war, internees, and others by containing disease, improving sanitation, and working to prevent food-borne illnesses.

Early in 1943, two of Selwyn-Clarke's sponsors on the Japanese foreign office staff were posted away. At the same time, allied prisoner escapes were becoming more organized and successful. Fearing imminent arrest, he shared the details of his secret stores of medical supplies to two Chinese women helpers who continued his work successfully to the end of the war.

The Japanese arrested Selwyn-Clarke on 2 May 1943, and subjected him to 19 months of solitary confinement, which included 10 months of repeated tortures in an attempt to get him to confess to a list of 40 charges, including that he was the head of British espionage in Hong Kong. Though Selwyn-Clarke confessed to no charges, other tortured prisoners implicated him. Selwyn-Clarke was sentenced to death in a formal trial. The sentence was never carried out and the torture resumed.

Early in 1944, Selwyn-Clarke was moved to Stanley prison and given a second military trial. His sentence was reduced to three years and the capital charges against him were dropped. In December 1944 he was reprieved for reasons that remain debated.

Following his experiences in Hong Kong, Selwyn-Clarke served the British government as governor and commander-in-chief of the Seychelles for four years. In 1951 he returned to London and, for the five years until his retirement, resumed his career at the Ministry of Health. He remained active as an advocate for improved human conditions and medical and social advancement until his death in Hampstead on 13 March 1976.

Family life

In 1935 Selwyn-Clarke married Hilda Browning, whom his associates characterized as a woman of strong social conscience and forward-looking ideas. Their daughter, Mary, was born in 1936 and accompanied them to Hong Kong. She went to study at Somerville College, Oxford. Selwyn-Clarke's wife became known as "Red Hilda" during the couple's time in Hong Kong. Though not officially employed, Hilda worked by Selwyn-Clarke's side to improve conditions, help people under her husband's care, and repeatedly make a new home for her family as they were uprooted and moved about.

At the time of Selwyn-Clarke's arrest, his  wife and daughter were taken to Stanley Internment Camp on the Stanley Peninsula.

Place names
The Nursing Quarters at Kwong Wah Hospital in Hong Kong was named after Selwyn-Clarke.

The main fruit and fish market in Victoria, Seychelles, a popular tourist attraction, is known as the Sir Selwyn Selwyn-Clarke Market.

References

Sources

 The Hard Boiled Saint: Selwyn-Clarke in Hong Kong by Mervyn Horder, published in the British Medical Journal

1893 births
1976 deaths
People educated at Bedales School
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Recipients of the Military Cross
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
Governors of British Seychelles
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
British Army personnel of World War I
World War II civilian prisoners held by Japan
Hong Kong in World War II
Colonial Medical Service officers

Selwyn Selwyn-Clarke


Norfolk International Airport  is a public airport in Norfolk, Virginia.  It is owned by the city of Norfolk. The Norfolk Airport Authority runs the airport. It is a part of the municipal government. The airport is used by the Hampton Roads metropolitan area of southeast Virginia. It is also used by the people of northeast North Carolina.

Norfolk International has almost 80 flights leave each day. These flights to go large cities in the United States. The airport is the third-busiest airport in Virginia. It is the country's 66th largest airport in terms of people using it each year. Over 3.5 million people used the airport in 2009. In June 2011, Norfolk International had 311,000 passengers.

Southwest Airlines, US Airways, Delta Air Lines and American Airlines are the main airlines that use the airport.

History
Commercial aviation began in the Norfolk area about 1926. Norfolk citizens flew commercially for the first time on the Mitten Line. It was run by Philadelphia Rapid Transit Air Service, Inc.  Norfolk International Airport was built in 1938. It had a  runway. The first terminal was built by 1940.

During World War II, Norfolk Municipal Airport became important to the war effort. The United States Army Air Corps took control of the airport between 1942–1947. They made the runway longer and built two other runways. This was done to deal with a much larger number of flights and larger aircraft. The Norfolk Fighter Wing was created in August 1942. It providing air defense for the Norfolk area. The 52d Fighter Group was put at the airport after the Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941. Many squadrons were at Norfolk Airport during the early years of the war. This ended at the end of July 1944.

The Army Air Corps gave control of the airport back to the city at the end of 1945. The amount of commercial travel grew quickly with two new airlines having regular flights. In 1948, Piedmont Airlines began flights. That same year, construction began for a larger, more modern terminal building.

In 1950, control of the airport was turned over to the newly created Norfolk Port and Industrial Authority (NPIA). At that time, Norfolk Municipal Airport was one of the busiest in the nation. In 1951, the new terminal was opened.

In the 1960s, the change from propeller aircraft to jets took place. Norfolk Municipal Airport made changes with longer and stronger runways and taxiway facilities. Because of this, in 1968, the airport was the air transportation center for the entire Hampton Roads area. It name was changed to Norfolk Regional Airport. To be ready for large growth over the next three decades, NPIA created a plan that would grow the airport as it entered into the 21st century.

In 1974, the airport opened its new terminal. More land was bought so that the airport could be made larger. In 1976, the airport's name was changed to Norfolk International Airport. Federal customs facilities were added. New buildings were built to hold the fire station, maintenance depot and ATC tower. One of the problems the airport faced as it grew was dealt with by the nearby Botanical Garden. It created an buffer area between the airport and the city around it. Norfolk International Airport was surrounded by year-round beauty. It was a national role model for dealing with growing air facilities and an ecological sanctuary.

In the 1980s, many changes took place. A new general aviation facility opened. A new air cargo terminal was built as well. More areas for parking were also added. Even the name of the controlling body changed in 1988 - from Norfolk Port and Industrial Authority to Norfolk Airport Authority.

In the 1990s the air cargo terminal and parking facilities were made bigger. In 1991, Norfolk International made the concourses larger. This added 10 additional gates. It now had a total of 24 gates. A new fire station and new FAA air traffic control tower facility were also built.

Facilities and aircraft
Norfolk International Airport covers area of . The airfield has a main runway (5-23) which is . Is also has a crosswind runway (14-32) which is . These let almost all commercial aircraft types use the airfield.

The airport plans to destroy the crosswind runway and build a second runway parallel to the main runway 5-23.

In 2006, the airport had 128,715 aircraft operations. It had an average of 352 per day. The breakdown of the types of flights was 44% scheduled commercial, 33% general aviation, 16% air taxi and 8% military. At that time there were 106 aircraft based at this airport. About half of these (51%) were  single-engine planes. Of the rest, 30% were multi-engine, 17% jet aircraft and 2% were helicopter.

FAA Control Tower
The FAA Norfolk Air Traffic Control Tower was built in 1995. It is  high. The Federal Aviation Administration is in control of the Norfolk Tower. It deals with about 1,100 aircraft each day.

Cargo
Norfolk International Airport (NIA) has one of the most modern and efficient air cargo facilities in the state of Virginia. About 70 million pounds of air cargo are moved in and out of the Airport each year. The airport is used by many companies with airlines that only move cargo. These include Airborne Express, FedEx, United Parcel Service and the U.S. Postal Service.  NIA's two air cargo terminals have  of space. An adjacent aircraft ramp gives access from planes to the warehouses.

Passenger services

Ground transportation
There are no bus services to and from Norfolk International Airport. The closest bus stop is  away.

All ground transportation services are in the arrivals terminal. There are several rental car companies in the terminal and Taxis are usually found at the main entrance.

Parking
A nine-floor long-term parking garage is next to the arrivals terminal. It was opened in July 2002. The garage has 2,800 parking spaces.

References

Other websites
 Airport tracker
 (master plan website)
Norfolk International Airport (official site)
Live webcam image from WAVY-TV

Norfolk Airport Pictures
 http://www.outerbankschamber.com/images/sign.gif  - Main terminal building and pedestrian bridge
 http://www.howardmodels.com/Architectural-Scale-Models/Norfolk-Airport/pic4.jpg
 http://www.pbase.com/airlinerphotos/aerials_airports - Aerial picture

Airports in Virginia
Norfolk, Virginia
1926 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Virginia

Norfolk International Airport


Robin Hood is a 2010 action film based on the Robin Hood legend, directed by Ridley Scott and starring Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett, William Hurt, Mark Strong, Mark Addy, Oscar Isaac, Danny Huston, Eileen Atkins, and Max von Sydow.

Development began on the project in January 2007 with Universal Pictures' purchase of a spec script by Ethan Reiff and Cyrus Voris which would see the film focus on a more prominent and sympathetic Sheriff of Nottingham. Casting Crowe in the title role, Ridley Scott was hired to direct later that same year. Rewrites delayed the film throughout 2008, with Brian Helgeland hired to rewrite the screenplay, which saw a refocus of the story to be about Robin Hood once again, abandoning the Nottingham angle entirely. Filming commenced in March 2009 throughout England and Wales.

Robin Hood held its world premiere at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival the same day as its United Kingdom and Ireland releases. It was then released on 14 May 2010 in North America. The film received mixed reviews and grossed $321.7 million worldwide.

Plot

In 1199 AD, Robin Longstride serves as a common archer in the army of King Richard the Lionheart. A veteran of Richard's crusade, he now takes part in the siege of Chalus Castle. Disillusioned and war-weary, he gives a frank but unflattering appraisal of the King's conduct when the King asks for it, and Robin and his comrades—archers Allan A'Dayle and Will Scarlett and soldier Little John—are locked in the stocks.

After the King is killed during an attack on the castle, Robin and his comrades manage to free themselves and desert. They come across an ambush of the English royal guard by Godfrey, an English knight who has conspired with King Philip of France to assassinate King Richard. After chasing Godfrey away, Robin takes advantage of the situation impersonating the dead English knights to return to England. Before they depart to sail across the Channel, he promises a dying knight, Sir Robert Loxley, to return his sword to his father in Nottingham.

Awaking to find their ship arrived in the Thames estuary, Robin must continue to assume the identity of Loxley to inform the royal family of King Richard's death. He witnesses the coronation of King John, who orders the collection of harsh new taxes. William Marshal, the Lord Chancellor since the days of John's father, opposes the new taxes and is relieved of his position by John. The new king dispatches Godfrey to the North to collect the taxes—unaware that Godfrey will instead use French troops to stir up unrest and prepare for King Philip to invade England. In secret, spies working for Marshal follow Godfrey's men and learn of the planned invasion of England.

Robin and his companions head to Nottingham, where Loxley's elderly and blind father, Sir Walter, asks him to continue impersonating his son to prevent the Crown from seizing the Loxley family lands. Loxley's widow, Lady Marian, is initially cold toward Robin, but warms to him when he and his men recover grain for the townsfolk to plant.

Godfrey's actions incite the northern barons, who march to meet King John. Speaking now for Sir Walter, Robin proposes that King John agree to a charter of rights to ensure the rights of every Englishman and to unite his country. Realising Godfrey's deception, and knowing he must meet the French invasion with an army, the King agrees. Meanwhile, French marauders plunder Nottingham. Robin and the northern barons arrive to stop Godfrey's men, but not before Godfrey has slain the blind Sir Walter.

As the main French expeditionary force begins its invasion of England on a beach below the cliffs of Dover, Robin leads the now united English army against them. In the midst of the battle, Robin duels with Godfrey, who attempts to kill Marian and flees until Robin finally kills him with an arrow from afar. King Philip realises that his plan to divide England has failed and calls off his invasion. When King John sees the French surrendering to Robin instead of to himself, he senses a threat to his power.

In London, King John reneges on his promise to sign the charter and declares Robin an outlaw to be hunted throughout the kingdom. The Sheriff of Nottingham announces the decree, and Robin and his men flee to Sherwood Forest with the orphans of Nottingham. Marian narrates their new life in the greenwood, noting that they live in equality as they right the many wrongs in the kingdom of King John.

Cast

Production

Development and pre-production

In January 2007, Universal Studios and Brian Grazer's Imagine Entertainment acquired a spec script written by Ethan Reiff and Cyrus Voris, creators of the TV series Sleeper Cell. Their script portrayed a more sympathetic Sheriff of Nottingham and less virtuous Robin Hood, who becomes involved in a love triangle with Lady Marian. The writers received a seven-figure deal for the purchase. The following April, Ridley Scott was hired to direct the film, with Sam Raimi and Bryan Singer also considered for the position. Scott had attempted to get rights for himself and 20th Century Fox, but had previously collaborated with Grazer on American Gangster and signed on as director rather than a producer. Scott claimed two previous film adaptations of Robin Hood: The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) and Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) had failed to hit the target, saying "the best, frankly, was Mel Brooks's Men in Tights (1993), because Cary Elwes was quite a comic".

Scott's dissatisfaction with the script led him to delay filming, and during 2008 it was rewritten into a story about Robin Hood becoming an outlaw; at one point Crowe was even being considered for a dual role as both Robin and the Sheriff. Scott dropped the latter notion and Nottingham was retitled to reflect the more traditional angle. In June, screenwriter Brian Helgeland was hired to rewrite the script by Reiff and Voris. Producer Marc Shmuger explained Scott had a different interpretation of the story from "the script, [which] had the sheriff of Nottingham as a CSI-style forensics investigator". Scott elaborated the script, portraying the Sheriff of Nottingham as being Richard the Lionheart's right-hand man, who returns to England to serve Prince John after Richard's assassination. Though Scott felt John "was actually pretty smart, he got a bad rap because he introduced taxation so he's the bad guy in this", and the Sheriff would have been torn between the "two wrongs" of a corrupt king and an outlaw inciting anarchy. Locations were sought in North East England including Alnwick Castle, Bamburgh Castle and Kielder Forest. A portion of filming was intended to take place in Northumberland. As a result of the WGA strike, production was put on hold.

Filming was scheduled to begin in August in Sherwood Forest if the 2008 Screen Actors Guild strike did not take place, for release on 26 November 2009. By July, filming was delayed, and playwright Paul Webb was hired to rewrite the script. The film was moved to 2010. The Sheriff of Nottingham's character was then merged with Robin. Scott describes the identity of Robin, "In the context of the story he starts off as one thing, becomes the guise of another and then has to retire to the forest to resume his name Robin, so he was momentarily the Sheriff of Nottingham." Helgeland returned to rewrite, adding an opening where Robin witnesses the Sheriff dying in battle, and takes over his identity. Scott chose to begin filming in February 2009 in forests around London, having discovered many trees which had not been pollarded. By February 2009, Scott revealed Nottingham had become his version of Robin Hood, as he had become dissatisfied with the idea of Robin starting as the Sheriff.

Casting
Russell Crowe was cast into the role of Robin Hood in January 2007, with a fee of $20 million against 20% of the gross. The next addition to the cast was Mark Strong. When interviewed about his role, Strong stated his character of Sir Godfrey was originally called Conrad and was based on Guy of Gisbourne. He described the original character as having blond hair and being disfigured from being struck by a crossbow bolt.

In February 2009, Cate Blanchett was cast to play Maid Marion, replacing Sienna Miller who was previously cast, but exited in late 2008 as due to rewrites in the script, she was now considered too young for the role. Rachel Weisz and Kate Winslet were considered for the role prior to Blanchett signing on. Prior to the start of filming in March, Kevin Durand, Scott Grimes and Alan Doyle were cast to portray Little John, Will Scarlet and Allan A'Dayle, respectively, with Vanessa Redgrave as Eleanor of Aquitane, Oscar Isaac as Prince John and Léa Seydoux as Isabella of Angoulême. Redgrave withdrew from the film following the death of her daughter Natasha Richardson, replaced with Eileen Atkins. The castings of William Hurt and Matthew Macfadyen were announced in April, with Macfadyen portraying the Sheriff. Danny Huston joined in July as King Richard, a role Rhys Ifans was initially in line for.

Filming

Filming began on 30 March 2009. In June and July, the crew filmed at Freshwater West beach, in Pembrokeshire, Wales. The arrival of the dead king's cog (boat), accompanied by Robin and his men, at the Tower of London was filmed at Virginia Water, where a partial mock-up of the Tower was built. Extensive scenes from the film were filmed on the Ashridge Estate, Little Gaddesden, on the Hertfordshire/Buckinghamshire border. Filming of the siege of Castle Chalus took place at the Bourne Wood at Farnham, Surrey during July and August. Filming also took place at Dovedale near Ashbourne, Derbyshire. On July 31, thieves broke into the props building at night and stole cameras that were being used for the film.

The battering ram used during the filming at the Bourne Wood in Surrey, which was nicknamed 'Rosie' by the film crew and is worth £60,000, was donated by Russell Crowe to a Scottish charity, the Clanranald Trust to be used for battle re-enactments at a fort named Duncarron, built in a forest near the Carron Valley Reservoir in North Lanarkshire.

One of the horses used in the film was named George, and was ridden by Crowe. This was the same horse that Crowe rode  during the filming of Gladiator.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack to Robin Hood, with music written and performed by Marc Streitenfeld, was released on 11 May 2010.

Release
Robin Hood held its world premiere at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival the same day as its United Kingdom and Ireland releases. It was then released on 14 May 2010 in North America. The film premiered in Japan on 10 December 2010.

Home media
Robin Hood was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on 20 September 2010 in the UK, and the following day in the US. While the UK home media releases only consisted of the extended 'Director's Cut' version (15 additional minutes), the US DVD and Blu-ray Discs consisted of both the 'Director's Cut' version and the shorter theatrical version.

In the version released on Netflix, the final title card reading "And so the legend begins" was removed, leaving a blank canvas in its place.

Reception

Box office
On its opening week, the film took £5,750,332 in the UK, ahead of Iron Man 2 and $36,063,385 in the US and Canada, and grossed a total of £15,381,416 in the UK, $105.2 million in North America and $321,669,741 worldwide.
The box-office figures were seen as somewhat of a disappointment, although Brandon Gray of Box Office Mojo thought the take was unfairly maligned. Gray wrote that the film was among the highest grossing medieval-period films of all time, and that the true financial issue was the production going over budget rather than returns being particularly beneath expectations.

Critical reception

On review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 43% based on 251 reviews, with an average rating of 5.4/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Ridley Scott's revisionist take on this oft-told tale offers some fine acting and a few gripping action sequences, but it's missing the thrill of adventure that made Robin Hood a legend in the first place." Metacritic, assigned the film a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two stars out of four, writing that "little by little, title by title, innocence and joy is being drained out of the movies." Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News felt that "the problem with Russell Crowe's new take on the legend is that it has one muddy boot in history and the other in fantasy. The middling result is far from a bull's-eye." David Roark of Relevant accused Scott of replacing depth with detail and manipulative themes, like vengeance and unjust war, and stated that Scott had sucked the life out of a cherished fable, writing that "Scott has turned a myth, a concept essentially, into a history which emerges as dry, insensible clutter." Anthony Lane, writing for The New Yorker, found the film "dour and dun", and was critical of Crowe's performance, stating "His Robin, however, seems pathologically glum; even when leading a cavalry charge on a white steed, he cuts a lonesome figure, marooned in his own feuds and ruminations". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly was critical of the film not holding any traits of the Robin Hood myth, and said of Scott's direction and Crowe's performance "Scott and Crowe made a great movie out of Gladiator, tapping deep into the showbiz masculine bravura of ancient-world Hollywood spectaculars. In Robin Hood, Scott tries to go deep again, but in a misguided way—he thinks he's making a pop-medieval Saving Private Robin. The battles are grainy and "existential," but what they aren't is thrilling. They're surging crowd scenes with streams of arrows and flecks of blood, and Crowe, slashing his way through them, is a glorified extra. He's so grimly possessed with purpose that he's a bore, and so is the movie."

Among the film's more positive reviews, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that "Scott has great command of his action sequences" and praised his "sophisticated approach to the material." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe called the film "smart, muscular entertainment" and wrote that Crowe "possesses a presence and authority to make you forget all about Kevin Costner." Lou Lumenick of the New York Post called Robin Hood "head and shoulders above the sort of lightheaded epics Hollywood typically offers during the summer season." Though he noted that the film downplayed several characters, Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter was complimentary of the film, praising John Mathieson's cinematography and Marc Streitenfeld's musical score.

Russell Crowe received criticism from the British media for his variable accent during the film. Empire said his accent was occasionally Scottish, while Total Film thought there were also times when it sounded Irish. Mark Lawson, while interviewing Crowe on BBC Radio 4, suggested there were hints of Irish in his accent, which angered Crowe who described this as "bollocks" and stormed out.

A number of reviewers have criticised historical inaccuracies in the film. In The New York Times, A. O. Scott complained that the film made "a hash of the historical record". In The Guardian, Alex von Tunzelmann complained that the film was filled with historical impossibilities and anachronisms. She notes that Richard the Lionheart was indeed fighting in France in 1199, but that he had actually come back from the Holy Land seven years earlier, so it is inaccurate to depict him fighting in France on his way back from the Holy Land in 1199, as is the case in the film.

Accolades

Potential sequels
Scott indicated he had been considering further films, in an interview with The Times on 4 April 2010, stating, "Honestly, I thought why not have the potential for a sequel?" and "Let's say we might presume there's a sequel." At the world premiere in Cannes, Crowe declared he was willing "if I had the opportunity to address what happens next with Ridley and Cate, then great, let's do it."

References

External links

2010 films
2010 action films
2010s historical adventure films
2010s historical action films
British historical action films
British epic films
British historical adventure films
American action adventure films
American epic films
American historical action films
2010s French-language films
Films about archery
Films set in England
Films set in France
Films set in London
Robin Hood films
Imagine Entertainment films
Relativity Media films
Scott Free Productions films
Universal Pictures films
Films directed by Ridley Scott
Films produced by Brian Grazer
Films produced by Ridley Scott
Films scored by Marc Streitenfeld
Films with screenplays by Brian Helgeland
Cultural depictions of Eleanor of Aquitaine
Cultural depictions of Richard I of England
Cultural depictions of John, King of England
Films shot in Pembrokeshire
Films shot in Surrey
Films set in the 1190s
2010s English-language films
2010s American films
2010s British films

Robin Hood (2010 film)


Circle dance, or  chain dance, is a style of social dance done in a circle, semicircle or a curved line to musical accompaniment, such as rhythm instruments and singing, and is a type of dance where anyone can join in without the need of partners. Unlike line dancing, circle dancers are in physical contact with each other; the connection is made by hand-to-hand, finger-to-finger or hands-on-shoulders, where they follow the leader around the dance floor. Ranging from gentle to energetic, the dance can be an uplifting group experience or part of a meditation.

Being probably the oldest known dance formation, circle dancing is an ancient tradition common to many cultures for marking special occasions, rituals, strengthening community and encouraging togetherness. Circle dances are choreographed to many different styles of music and rhythms. Modern circle dance mixes traditional folk dances, mainly from European or Near Eastern sources, with recently choreographed ones to a variety of music both ancient and modern. There is a growing repertoire of new circle dances to classical music and contemporary songs.

Distribution

Modern circle dancing is found in many cultures, including Arabic (Levantian and Iraqi), Israeli (see Jewish dance and Israeli folk dancing), Luri, Assyrian, Kurdish, Turkish, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Maltese, and Balkan. It also found in South Asia such as Nati of Himachal Pradesh, Harul of Uttarakhand, Wanvun of Kashmir, Jhumair of Jharkhand, Fugdi of Goa and Deuda and Dhan Nach of Nepal. Despite its immense reputation in the Middle East and southeast Europe, circle dancing also has a historical prominence in Brittany, Catalonia and Ireland to the west of Europe, and also in South America (Peruvian), Tibet, and with Native Americans (see ghost dance). It is also used, in its more meditative form, in worship within various religious traditions including the Church of England and the Islamic Haḍra Dhikr (or Zikr) dances.

History

Balkans

Medieval tombstones called "Stećci" (singular "Stecak") in Bosnia and Hercegovina, dating from the end of the 12th century to the 16th century, bear inscriptions and figures which look like dancers in a chain. Men and women are portrayed dancing together holding hands at shoulder level but occasionally the groups consist of only one sex.

In Macedonia, near the town of Zletovo, the murals on the monastery of Lesnovo (Lesnovo Manastir), which date from the 14th century, show a group of young men linking arms in a round dance. A chronicle from 1344 urges the people of the city of Zadar to sing and dance circle dances for a festival. However, a reference comes from Bulgaria, in a manuscript of a 14th-century sermon, which called chain dances "devilish and damned."

Central Europe

The circle dance of Germany is called "Reigen"; it dates from the 10th century, and may have originated from devotional dances at early Christian festivals. Dancing around the church or a fire was frequently denounced by church authorities which only underscores how popular it was. One of the frescos (dating from the 14th century) in Tyrol, at Runkelstein Castle, depicts Elisabeth of Poland, Queen of Hungary leading a chain dance. Circle dances were also found in Czech Republic, dating to the 15th century. Dancing was primarily done around trees on the village green. In Poland as well the earliest village dances were in circles or lines accompanied by the singing or clapping of the participants.

Mediterranean

In the 14th century, Giovanni Boccaccio describes men and women circle dancing to their own singing or accompanied by musicians. One of the frescos in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti painted in 1338–1340 show a group of women doing a "bridge" figure while accompanied by another woman playing the tambourine.

There are accounts of two western European travelers to Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. In 1577, Salomon Schweigger describes the events at a Greek wedding:

Another traveler, the German pharmacist Reinhold Lubenau, was in Constantinople in November 1588 and reports on a Greek wedding in these terms:

Scandinavia

In Denmark, old ballads mention a closed circle dance which can open into a chain dance. A fresco in Ørslev church in Zealand from about 1400 shows nine people, men and women, dancing in a line. The leader and some others in the chain carry bouquets of flowers. In the case of women's dances, there may have been a man who acted as the leader. In Sweden, medieval songs often mentioned dancing. A long chain was formed, with the leader singing the verses and setting the time while the other dancers joined in the chorus.

Modern dances

Eastern Europe

Hora

The Hora dance originates in the Balkans but is also found in other countries (including Romania and Moldova). The dancers hold each other's hands and the circle spins, usually counterclockwise, as each participant follows a sequence of three steps forward and one step back. The Hora is popular during wedding celebrations and festivals, and is an essential part of social entertainment in rural areas. In Bulgaria, it is not necessary to be in a circle; a curving line of people is also acceptable.

Kolo

The Kolo is a collective folk dance common in various South Slavic regions, such as Serbia and Bosnia, named after the circle formed by the dancers. It is performed amongst groups of people (usually several dozen, at the very least three) holding each other's having their hands around each other's waists (ideally in a circle, hence the name). There is almost no movement above the waist.

Southern Europe

Kalamatianos

The Kalamatianos is a popular Greek folkdance throughout Greece and Cyprus, and is often performed at many social gatherings worldwide. As is the case with most Greek folk dances, it is danced in a circle with a counterclockwise rotation, the dancers holding hands. The lead dancer usually holds the second dancer by a handkerchief, thus allowing more elaborate steps and acrobatics.  The steps of the Kalamatianós are the same as those of the Syrtos, but the latter is slower and more stately, its beat being a steady .

Sardana

Sardana is a type of circle dance typical of Catalonia. It would usually have an experienced dancer leading the circle. The dancers hold hands throughout the dance: arms down during the curts and raised to shoulder height during the llargs. The dance was originally from the Empordà region, but started gaining popularity throughout Catalonia during the 20th century. There are two main types, the original Sardana curta (short Sardana) style and the more modern Sardana llarga (long Sardana).

Syrtos

Syrtos and Kalamatianos are Greek dances done with the dancers in a curving line holding hands, facing right. The dancer at the right end of the line is the leader. The leader can also be a solo performer, improvising showy twisting skillful moves as the rest of the line does the basic step. In some parts of Syrtos, pairs of dancers hold a handkerchief from its two sides.

Western Europe

An Dro

An Dro, meaning "the turn", is a Breton circle dance. The dancers link the little fingers in a long line, swinging their arms, whilst moving to their left. The arm movements consist first of two circular motions going up and back followed by one in the opposite direction. The leader (person at the left-hand end of the line) will lead the line into a spiral or double it back on itself to form patterns on the dance floor, and allow the dancers to see each other.

Faroese chain dance

The Faroese chain dance is the national circle dance of the Faroe Islands. The dance originated in medieval times, and survived only in the Faroe Islands, while in other European countries it was banned by the church, due to its pagan origin. The dance is danced traditionally in a circle, but when a lot of people take part in the dance they usually let it swing around in various wobbles within the circle. The dance in itself only consists in holding each other's hands, while the dancers form a circle, dancing two steps to the left and one to the right without crossing the legs. When more and more dancers join the dance vine, the circle starts to bend and forms a new one within itself.

Sacred Circle Dance

The Sacred Circle Dance was brought to the Findhorn Foundation community in Scotland by Bernhard Wosien; he presented traditional circle dances that he had gathered from across Eastern Europe. Colin Harrison and David Roberts and Janet Rowan Scott took the dances to other parts of the United Kingdom where they started regular groups in south east England, then across Europe, the US and elsewhere. The network extends also to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, South America, and India. A small centrepiece of flowers or other objects is often placed at the centre of the circle to help focus the dancers and maintain the circular shape. Much debate goes on within the sacred circle dance network about what is meant by 'sacred' in the dance.

Middle East

Dabke

Dabke is popular in Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Jordan and Turkey. The most famous type of the dance is the Al-Shamaliyya (). It consists of a lawweeh () at the head of a group of men holding hands and formed in a semicircle. The lawweeh is expected to be particularly skilled in accuracy, ability to improvise, and quickness (generally light on his feet). The dancers develop a synchronized movement and step, and when the singers finish their song the lawweeh breaks from the semicircle to dance on their own. The lawweeh is the most popular and familiar form of dabke danced for happy family celebrations.

Govend

Govend is one of the most famous traditional Kurdish dances. It is distinguished from other Middle Eastern dances by being for both men and women.

Khigga

Khigga is the one of main styles of Assyrian folk dance in which multiple dancers hold each other's hands and form a line or a circle. It is usually performed at weddings and joyous occasions. Khigga is the first beat that is played in welcoming the bride and groom to the reception hall. There are multiple foot patterns that dancers perform. The head of the khigga line usually dances with a handkerchief with beads and bells added to the sides so it jingles when shaken. A decorated cane is also used at many Assyrian weddings. Moreover, the term khigga is used to denote all the Assyrian circle dances.

Kochari

Kochari is an Armenian folk dance, danced today by Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Kurds, Pontic Greeks and Turks. Dancers form a closed circle, putting their hands on each other's shoulders. More modern forms of Kochari have added a "tremolo step," which involves shaking the whole body. In Azerbaijan, the dance consists of slow and rapid parts, and is of three variants. There is a consistent, strong double bounce. Pontic Greeks dance hand-to-shoulder and travel to the right.

Tamzara

Tamzara is an Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek folk dance native to Anatolia. There are many versions of Tamzara, with slightly different music and steps, coming from the various regions and old villages in Anatolia. Firstly they take three steps forwards, tap their left feet on the ground, and step forward to stand on the left foot; then they take three small steps back and repeat the actions a little faster. Like most Anatolian folk dances, Tamzara is done with a large group of people with interlocked little fingers.

prevalent in south Asia in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir,

South Asia

India
Circle dance is prevalent in Himalaya region and Central India. Some circle dance of South Asia are Nati of Himachal Pradesh, Harul of Uttarakhand, Wanvun of Kashmir, Jhumair and Domkach of Jharkhand and Fugdi dance of Goa.

Pakistan
Folk dance of Kalash people of Chitral District of Pakistan is a circle dance.

Nepal
Dhan Nach of Limbu people, Syabru (dance) of Sherpa and Hyolmo people, Sakela of Rai people, Deuda of Khas people are some of the popular circle dances of Nepal.

See also

 International folk dance
 Bunny hop

References

Journals

 Drumbeat, the South African circle dancing journal.
 Grapevine, the quarterly journal of Circle Dance Friends. ISSN 1752-4660

Further reading

 Laura Hellsten, Laura (2021) Through the Bone and Marrow - Re-examining Theological Encounters with Dance in Medieval Europe. Brepols.
 Kathryn Dickason (2020) Ringleaders of Redemption - How Medieval Dance Became Sacred. Oxford University Press.
 Lynn Frances and Richard Bryant-Jefferies (1998) The Sevenfold Circle: self awareness in dance, Findhorn Press.
 Marion Violets Gibson (2006) Dancing on Water, printed in Wales.
 Matti Goldschmidt, The Bible in Israeli Folk Dances, Ed. Choros
 Judy King, The Dancing Circle, volumes 1–4, Sarsen Press, Winchester, England
 Iris J Stewart (2000) Sacred Woman Sacred Dance: Awakening spirituality through movement and ritual, Inner Traditions, USA
 Bernhard Wosien, Journey of a Dancer (2016) Sarsen Press, Winchester, England.
 Maria-Gabriele Wosien, Sacred Dance: Encounter with the Gods (1986) [1974] Thames and Hudson.

External links

Folk dance
Middle Eastern dances
European folk dances
Group dances

Social dance

Circle dance


Jocelin (or Jocelyn) (died 1199) was a twelfth-century Cistercian monk and cleric who became the fourth Abbot of Melrose before becoming Bishop of Glasgow, Scotland. He was probably born in the 1130s, and in his teenage years became a monk of Melrose Abbey. He rose in the service of Abbot Waltheof, and by the time of the short abbacy of Waltheof's successor Abbot William, Jocelin had become prior. Then in 1170 Jocelin himself became abbot, a position he held for four years. Jocelin was responsible for promoting the cult of the emerging Saint Waltheof, and in this had the support of Enguerrand, Bishop of Glasgow.

His Glasgow connections and political profile were already well-established enough that in 1174 Jocelin succeeded Enguerrand as Glasgow's bishop. As Bishop of Glasgow, he was a royal official. In this capacity he travelled  abroad on several occasions, and performed the marriage ceremony between King William the Lion and Ermengarde de Beaumont, later baptising their son, the future King Alexander II. Among other things, he has been credited by modern historians as "the founder of the burgh of Glasgow and initiator of the Glasgow fair", as well as being one of the greatest literary patrons in medieval Scotland, commissioning the Life of St Waltheof, the Life of St Kentigern and the Chronicle of Melrose.

Early life
Jocelin and his family probably came from the south-east of Scotland. The names of neither his father nor his mother are known, but he had two known brothers, with the names Helia and Henry, and a cousin, also called Helia. The names suggest that his family were of French, or at least Anglo-Norman origin, rather than being a Scot or native Anglo-Saxon. There are some indications that his family held land in South Lanarkshire, namely because they seem to have possessed rights in the church of Dunsyre. It is unlikely that he would have thought of himself as "Scottish". For Jocelin's contemporary and fellow native of the Borders, Adam of Dryburgh, this part of Britain was still firmly regarded as terra Anglorum (the "Land of English"), although it was located inside the regnum Scottorum (the "Kingdom of the Scots"). This would be no obstacle to Jocelin, however. His Anglo-French cultural background was in fact probably necessary for the patronage of the King of Scots. As Walter of Coventry wrote of King William's era, "the modern kings of Scotland count themselves as Frenchmen, in race, manners, language and culture; they keep only Frenchmen in their household and following, and have reduced the Scots to utter servitude".

Like that of almost every character from this period, Jocelin's year of birth is unknown to modern historians. It is known that he entered as a novice monk in Melrose Abbey during the abbacy of Waltheof (ab. 1148–1159), and from documentary evidence it seems likely that Jocelin entered Melrose about 50 years before his death in 1199. As the rules of the Cistercian order prevented entry as a novice before the age of 15, it is likely that he was born around the year 1134. Little is known about Jocelin's early life or his early career as a Melrose monk. He obviously successfully completed his one-year noviciate, the year in which a prospective monk was introduced to monasticism and judged fit or unfit for admittance. We know that Abbot Waltheof (Waldef) thought highly of him and granted him many responsibilities. After the death of Abbot Waltheof, his successor, Abbot William, refused to encourage the rumours which had quickly been spreading about Waltheof's saintliness. Abbot William attempted to silence such rumours, and shelter his monks from the intrusiveness of would-be pilgrims. However, William was unable to get the better of Waltheof's emerging cult, and his actions had alienated him from the brethren. As a result, William resigned the abbacy in April 1170. Jocelin was by this stage the Prior of Melrose, that is, the second in command at the monastery, and thus William's most likely replacement.

Abbot of Melrose

So it was that Prior Jocelin became abbot on 22 April 1170. Jocelin embraced the cult without hesitation. Under the year of his accession, it was reported in the Chronicle of Melrose that:

Promoting saints was something Jocelin would repeat at Glasgow, where he "transferred his enthusiasm to St Kentigern" and commissioned a hagiography of that saint, the saint most venerated by the Celts of the diocese of Glasgow. It is no coincidence that Jocelin of Furness, the man who wrote the Life of St. Waltheof, was the same man later commissioned to write the Life of St. Kentigern.

This kind of literary patronage started while Jocelin was abbot of Melrose. Archie Duncan has shown that it was probably Jocelin who first commissioned the writing of the Chronicle of Melrose. Duncan argued that Jocelin commissioned the entries dealing with the period between 731 and 1170, putting the writing in the hands of a monk named Reinald (who later became Bishop of Ross). This chronicle is one of the few extant chronicles from "Scotland" in this period. G. W. S. Barrow, writing before Duncan advanced these arguments, noted that down to the end of King William's reign "the chronicle of Melrose Abbey ... represents a strongly 'Anglo-Norman' as opposed to a native Scottish point of view". It is thus possible that this anti-Scottish world-view reflected that of Jocelin's, at least before he left the abbey.

After his election to the prestigious bishopric of Glasgow in 1174, Jocelin would continue exerting influence on his home monastery. Jocelin brought one of his monks from the abbey, a man called Michael, who acted as Jocelin's chaplain while Bishop of Glasgow. He did not resign his position as abbot until after his consecration in 1175. Jocelin consecrated his successors as abbot, and continued to spend a great deal of time there. Moreover, he used his position as bishop to offer the monastery patronage and protection.

Bishop of Glasgow
 After the death of his friend Bishop Enguerrand, Jocelin was elevated to the bishopric of Glasgow. He was elected on 23 May 1174. The election, like many other Scottish episcopal elections of the period, was done in the presence of the king, William the Lion, at Perth, near Scone, the chief residence of Scotland's kings. The election was probably done by compromissarii, meaning that the general chapter of the bishopric of Glasgow had selected a small group to which they delegated the power of election. Pope Alexander III was later told that Jocelin was elected by the dean and chapter of the see. The Chronicle of Melrose states that he was elected "by demand of the clergy, and of the people; and with the consent of the king himself", perhaps indicating that the decision had already been made by the Glasgow clergy before the formal election at Perth. The election was certainly an achievement. Cistercian bishops were rare in Great Britain, and Jocelin was only the second Cistercian to ascend a Scottish bishopric. Jocelin was required to go to France to obtain permission from the General Chapter of the Cistercian order at Cîteaux to resign the abbacy. Pope Alexander III had already sanctioned his consecration, and gave permission for the consecration to occur without forcing Jocelin to travel to Rome. Conveniently, it was at Cistercian house of Clairvaux that, sometime before 15 March 1175, Jocelin was consecrated by the Papal legate Eskil, Archbishop of Lund and Primate of Denmark. Jocelin had returned to the Kingdom of Scotland by 10 April, and it is known that on 23 May he had consecrated a monk named Laurence as his successor at Melrose.

He was soon faced with a political challenge to the independence of his church. The challenge came from the English church, and was not new, but had lain dormant for some decades. The reason it was awakened was that in the summer of 1174 King William had invaded northern England, and on 13 July, having been caught underprotected during a siege at Alnwick, was captured and taken into English custody. The capture was disastrous for the king, leading to a revolt by Gilla Brigte, Lord of Galloway, and to many of William's discontented subjects "ruthlessly" slaying "their English and French neighbours" and perpetrating a "most wretched and widespread persecution of the English both in Scotland and Galloway", that is, of the English and French-speaking settlers William and his predecessors had planted around the castles and towns of his Gaelic-speaking territories in order to increase royal authority. Worse still, and more significantly for Jocelin, in the following year King Henry II of England forced William to sign the Treaty of Falaise, a treaty which made William Henry's vassal specifically for Scotland and sanctioned the subordination of the kingdom's bishoprics to the English church.

Jocelin did not, in the end, submit either to the Archbishop of York or even the Archbishop of Canterbury and managed to obtain a Papal Bull which declared the see of Glasgow to be a "special daughter" of the Roman Patriarchate. Jocelin, moreover, does not seem to have been interested in the independence of the other "Scottish" sees, but merely to maintain his own episcopal independence, i.e. that of the bishopric of Glasgow. On 10 August 1175, along with many other Scottish-based magnates and prelates, Jocelin was at Henry's court giving his obedience to the king as stipulated in the treaty. Jocelin again appeared at King Henry's court in January 1176. This time church matters were on the agenda. When the Archbishop of York confronted Jocelin over the subordination of the bishopric of Glasgow to the archbishopric of York, Jocelin refused to acknowledge this part of the treaty, and presented him with the Papal Bull declaring Glasgow to be a "special daughter".

This Bull was confirmed by Pope Alexander's successor Pope Lucius III. Jocelin had obtained this confirmation while at Rome in late 1181 and early 1182. He had been sent there by King William, along with abbots of Melrose, Dunfermline and Kelso and the prior of Inchcolm, in order to appeal to the Pope regarding his stance in a struggle over the Bishopric of St Andrews and the sentence of excommunication and interdict the Pope had placed over the king and kingdom. The dispute concerned the election to the bishopric of John the Scot, which had been opposed by the king, who organised the election of his own candidate, Hugh. The mission was successful. The Pope lifted the interdict, absolved the king and appointed two legates to investigate the issue of the St Andrews succession. The Pope even sent the king a Golden Rose, an item usually given to the Prefect of Rome. The issue of the succession, however, did not go away. In 1186, Jocelin, along with the abbots of Melrose, Dunfermline and Newbattle, excommunicated Hugh on the instructions of Pope Lucius. Hugh travelled to Rome in 1188, and obtained absolution, but he died of the pestilence in that city a few days later, thus allowing the issue to be resolved.

It is certainly obvious that Jocelin was one of the most respected figures in the kingdom. In this era, the Pope appointed Jocelin Judge-delegate (of the Papacy) more times than any other cleric in the kingdom. As a bishop and an ex-abbot, various bishoprics and monasteries called him in to mediate disputes, as evidenced by his frequent appearance as a witness in dispute settlements, such as the dispute between Arbroath Abbey and the Bishopric of St Andrews, and a dispute between Jedburgh Abbey and Dryburgh Abbey. Jocelin had the respect of the secular elite too. He witnessed 24 royal charters and 40 non-royal charters, including charters issued by David, Earl of Huntingdon (the brother of King William), Donnchadh, Earl of Carrick, and Alan Fitzwalter, High Steward of Scotland. Jocelin had been with King William when he visited the English court in 1186, and again accompanied the king to England when the king travelled to Woodstock near Oxford to marry Ermengarde de Beaumont on 5 September 1186. The marriage was blessed by Bishop Jocelin in their chamber, and it was to Jocelin's escort that King William entrusted her for the journey to Scotland. When a son was born to William and Ermengarde, the future King Alexander II, it was Jocelin who performed the baptism. In April 1194, Jocelin again travelled to England in King William's company when William was visiting King Richard I. Jocelin's intimacy with the king would be the key to earning his patronage, thus making possible the legacy that Jocelin would leave to Glasgow.

Legacy and death

His years at Glasgow left a mark on history that can be compared favourably with any previous or future bishop. Jocelin commissioned his namesake Jocelin of Furness, the same man who had written the Life of St. Waltheof, to write a Life of St. Kentigern, a task all the more necessary because, after 1159, the Papacy claimed the right to canonise saints. Kentigern, or Mungo as he is popularly known, was the saint traditionally associated with the see of Glasgow, and his status therefore reflected on Glasgow as a church and cult-centre. There had already been a cathedral at Glasgow before Jocelin's episcopate. The idea that the ecclesiastical establishment before Jocelin was simply a small church with a larger Gaelic or British monastic establishment has been discredited by scholars. Jocelin did, though, expand the cathedral significantly. As the Chronicle of Melrose reports for 1181, Jocelin "gloriously enlarged the church of St Kentigern". However, more work was created for the builders when, sometime between the years 1189 and 1195, there was a fire at the cathedral. Jocelin thus had to commission another rebuilding effort. The new cathedral was dedicated, according to the Chronicle of Melrose, on 6 July 1197. It was built in the Romanesque manner, and although little survives of it today, it is thought to have been influenced by the cathedral of Lund, the archbishop of which had consecrated Jocelin as bishop.

However, he left a still greater legacy to the city of Glasgow. At some point between the years 1175 and 1178, Jocelin obtained from King William a grant of burghal status for the settlement of Glasgow, with a market every Thursday. The grant of a market was the first ever official grant of a weekly market to a burgh. Moreover, between 1189 and 1195, King William granted the burgh an annual fair, a fair still in existence today, increasing Glasgow's status as an important settlement. As well as new revenues for the bishop, the rights entailed by Glasgow's new burghal status and market privileges brought new people to the settlement, one of the first of whom was one Ranulf de Haddington, a former burghess of Haddington. The new settlement was laid out (probably under the influence of the burgh of Haddington) around Glasgow Cross, down the hill from the cathedral and old fort of Glasgow, but above the flood level of the River Clyde.

When Jocelin died, he was back at Melrose Abbey, where his career had begun. He may have retired to Melrose knowing his death was near. Jocelin certainly did die at Melrose, passing away on St Patrick's Day (17 March) 1199. He was buried in the monks' choir of Melrose Abbey Church. Hugh de Roxburgh, Chancellor of Scotland, was elected as Jocelin's replacement. The Chronicle of Melrose has only a short obituary.

Notes

References

 Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History: AD 500–1286, 2 Vols, (Edinburgh, 1922), vol. ii
 Anderson, Alan Orr, Scottish Annals from English Chroniclers: AD 500–1286, (London, 1908), republished, Marjorie Anderson (ed.) (Stamford, 1991)
 Barrow, G. W. S. (ed.), The Acts of William I, Regesta Regum Scottorum, vol. ii,  (Edinburgh, 1971)
 Barrow, G. W. S., "David I and Glasgow", in G.W.S. Barrow (ed.), The Kingdom of the Scots, 2nd Edition, (Edinburgh, 2003), pp. 203–213
 Barrow, G.W.S., "The Reign of William the Lion", in G.W.S. Barrow (ed.), Scotland and its Neighbours in the Middle Ages, (Edinburgh, 1972), pp. 67–89
 Broun, Dauvit, "A New Look at Gesta Annalia attributed to John of Fordun", in Barbara Crawford (ed.), Church, Chronicle and Learning in Medieval and Early Renaissance Scotland, (Edinburgh, 1999), pp. 9–30
 Dowden, John, The Bishops of Scotland, ed. J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912)
 Duncan, A. A. M., "Jocelin (d. 1199)", in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 29 Nov 2006
 Duncan, A. A. M., Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom, (Edinburgh, 1975)
 Duncan, A. A. M., "Sources and Uses of the Chronicle of Melrose,", in Simon Taylor (ed.), Kings, Clerics and Chronicles in Scotland, 500–1297, (Dublin, 2000)
 Fawcett, Richard, & Oram, Richard, Melrose Abbey, (Stroud, 2004)
 Howlett R. (ed.), Chronicles of Stephen, Henry II and Richard I, (Rolls Series, no. 82)
 Oram, Richard, The Lordship of Galloway, (Edinburgh, 2000)
 Owen, D. D. R., The Reign of William the Lion: Kingship and Culture,, (East Linton, 1997)
 Scott, W. W., "William I [William the Lion] (c.1142–1214)", in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 , accessed 1 Dec 2006
 Shead, Norman F., "Glasgow: An Ecclesiastical Burgh", in M. Lynch, M. Spearman & G. Stell (eds.), The Scottish Medieval Town, (Edinburgh, 1988), pp. 116–132
 Shead, Norman F., "Jocelin, abbot of Melrose), and bishop of Glasgow)", in The Innes Review, vol. 54, no. 1 (Spring, 2003), pp. 1–22
 Skene, Felix J. H., John of Fordun's Chronicle of the Scottish Nation, (Edinburgh, 1872)
 Skene, William F., Johnnis de Fordun: Chronica Gentis Scotorum, (Edinburgh, 1871)
 Stringer, Keith J., "Reform Monasticism and Celtic Scotland", in Edward J. Cowan & R. Andrew McDonald (eds.), Alba: Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages, (East Lothian, 2000), pp. 127–165

Further reading
 Driscoll, Stephen T., Excavations at Glasgow Cathedral, Society for Medieval Archaeology Monograph 18, (Leeds, 2002)
 Driscoll, Stephen T., "Excavations in Glasgow Cathedral: A preliminary report on the archaeological discoveries made in 1992–3", in Glasgow Archaeological Journal, 17, (1992), pp. 63–76
 Duncan, A.A.M., "St Kentigern in Glasgow Cathedral in the twelfth century", in Richard Fawcett (ed.), Medieval Art and Architecture in the Diocese of Glasgow, (Leeds, 1998)
 Forbes, A.P. (ed.), Lives of St Ninian and St Kentigern, (Edinburgh, 1874)

External links

Cynthia Whidden Green, "Saint Kentigern, Apostle to Strathclyde: A critical analysis of a northern saint"
Catholic Encyclopedia, "Jocelin"
The Glasgow Story, "Bishop Jocelin"
"Melrose Abbey — Factsheet", BBC website

See also
Christianity in Medieval Scotland
Roman Catholicism in Great Britain
Scotland in the High Middle Ages

1130s births
1199 deaths
Abbots of Melrose
Bishops of Glasgow
Clergy from the Scottish Borders
Scoto-Normans
12th-century Scottish Roman Catholic bishops
Burials at Melrose Abbey

Jocelin of Glasgow


Henry Robert Stephens (5 August 1665 – 15 June 1723) was a Belgian Jesuit theologian.

Life
Stephens was born at Liège and entered the Society of Jesus on 7 September 1683. For over twenty years he was attached to the episcopal seminary of Liège, first as professor of dogmatic theology and later as its superior. During this period the Jansenists were active in Belgium, both in attacking the Jesuits and in opposing the papal decrees condemnatory of Jansenism. All of Father Stephens's published works were occasioned by these attacks.

Works
In "Specimen doctrinæ a Jesuitis in Seminario Leodiensi traditæ" the Jesuits were accused, among other things, of corrupting faith and morals by their teaching. In answer to these accusations Stephens published a set of theses, "Conclusiones theologicæ miscellaneæ" (Liège, 1702) and had them publicly defended by one of his pupils.

In answer to another Jansenistic work known as the "Epistola Leodiensis de formula Alexandri VII", he published his "Vera defensio authoritatis Ecclesiæ" (Liège, 1707). The Jansenist, Henry Denys, thereupon defended the "Epistola" in an anonymously published work which called forth Stephens's "Author epistolæ Leodiensis denuo confutatus" (Liège, 1709).

His other works are the "Dissertatio theologica de Condemnatione Libri Janseniani" (Liège, 1710) and the "Consilium pacis adversariis propriis inter se disputantibus" (Liège, 1710). In all these works his name appears in the Latinized form of Stephani.

References

Attribution
 The entry cites:
Sommervogel, Bibl. de la Comp. de J., VII (Brussels, 1896).

1665 births
1723 deaths
Jesuits of the Austrian Netherlands
Clergy from the Prince-Bishopric of Liège
Roman Catholic theologians of the Spanish Netherlands
Jesuit theologians

Henry Robert Stephens


A military withdrawal or retreat is a type of military operation. It generally means pulling back forces while maintaining contact with the enemy. There are several reasons why a military force would retreat. A force might pull back to occupy ground that is easier to defend. A retreat may be used to lead an enemy into an ambush. It may be moving back as quickly as possible in order to save your army from defeat. A withdrawal or retreat can be risky. It requires discipline to keep forces organized and not turn a retreat into a rout. Care must also be taken so a retreat does not damage a force's morale.

Tactical withdrawal
A withdrawal may be necessary when a defending force is outmatched or on disadvantageous ground. But it is usually important to cause as much damage to an enemy as possible. In such a case, the retreating force may employ a number of tactics and strategies. These are to slow an enemy's progress. This could include setting mines or booby traps during or before withdrawal. Sometimes ambush by a small force can slow or stop an enemy advance. Also, leading the enemy into prepared artillery barrages, or the use of scorched earth tactics.

Rout

In warfare, the long-term strategy is the defeat of the enemy. An effective tactical method is to demoralize the enemy. This is usually done by defeating their army. This is also done by routing them from the battlefield. Once a force had become disorganized it loses its ability to fight as a unit. The victors can chase down the fleeing soldiers. The victors can also attempt to cause as many casualties as possible. They also may try to take as many prisoners as possible.

However a commander must decide if the advantages of a pursuit is worth the risk the enemy is only pretending to retreat (a feigned retreat is an effective tactic).

Feigned retreat
The act of feigning a withdrawal or rout is to lure an enemy away from a defended position. It may lure them into a prepared ambush. It is an ancient tactic, and has been used throughout the history of warfare.

Two famous examples are:
 William the Conqueror used a feigned retreat during the Battle of Hastings. He lured much of Harold's infantry from their advantageous defenses on higher ground. When they followed his "retreating" force they were destroyed by a charge of William's Norman cavalry.
 Ancient Mongols were famed for, among other things, their extensive use of feigned retreats. Their fast, light cavalry made successful pursuit by an enemy almost impossible. In the heat of a battle, the Mongol army would pretend to be defeated, exhausted or confused. They would suddenly retreat from the battlefield. The opposing force, thinking they had routed the Mongols, would give chase. The Mongol cavalry would, while retreating, fire backwards with the wind on their pursuers, killing many (See Parthian shot). When the pursuing forces stopped chasing the (significantly faster) Mongol cavalry, the cavalry would then turn and charge the pursuers. This generally succeeded. This was used partly as a defeat in detail tactic to allow the Mongols to defeat larger armies by breaking them down into smaller groups.

Occupied withdrawal
Withdrawal of a military occupation may be due to political reasons. The purpose of 'Troop withdrawal' from occupied lands may not involve engagement with an enemy. It may be conducted during a period of ceasefire or relative peace, as in the cases of Palestine.

References

Military terminology

Withdrawal (military)


Georges Bizet (; 25 October 18383 Juin 1875), registered at birth as Alexandre César Léopold Bizet, wis a French componer o the romantic era. Best kent for his operas in a career cut short bi his early daith, Bizet achieved few successes afore his feenal wark, Carmen, that haes acome ane o the maist popular an frequently performed warks in the enteer opera repertoire.

In a brilliant student career at the Conservatoire de Paris, Bizet wan mpny prizes, includin the prestigious Prix de Rome in 1857. He wis recognised as an ootstaundin pianist, tho he chuise nae tae capitalise on this skill an rarely performed in public. Returnin tae Paris efter awmaist three years in Italy, he foond that the main Parisian opera theatres preferred the established clessical repertoire tae the warks o newcomers. His keybuird an orchestral composeetions war likeweys lairgely ignored; as a result, his career stawed, an he earned his leevin mainly bi arrangin an transcrivin the muisic o others. Restless for success, he begoud mony theatrical projects in the 1860s, maist o that war abandoned. Naither o his twa operas that reached the stage in this time—Les pêcheurs de perles an La jolie fille de Perth—war immediately successfu.

Efter the Franco-Proushie War o 1870–1871, in that Bizet served in the Naitional Gaird, he haed little success wi his ane-act opera Djamileh, tho an orchestral suite derived frae his incidental muisic tae Alphonse Daudet's play L'Arlésienne wis instantly popular. The production o Bizet's feenal opera, Carmen, wis delayed acause o fears that its themes o betrayal an murther wad offend audiences. Efter its premiere on 3 Mairch 1875, Bizet wis convinced that the wark wis a failyie; he dee'd o a hert attack three month later, unawaur that it wad pruive a spectacular an endurin success.

Bizet's mairiage tae Geneviève Halévy wis intermittently happy an produced ane son. Efter his daith, his wark, apairt frae Carmen, wis generally neglectit. Manuscripts war gien awey or lost, an published versions o his warks war frequently revised an adaptit bi ither haunds. He foondit na schuil an haed na obvious disciples or successors. Efter years o neglect, his warks began tae be performed mair frequently in the 20t century. Later commentators hae acclaimed him as a componer o brilliance an oreeginality that's prematur daith wis a signeeficant loss tae French muisical theatre.

1838 births
1875 daiths
19t-century clessical componers
19t-century clessical pianists
19t-century French muisickers
Buirials at Père Lachaise Seemetry
Chevaliers o the Légion d'honneur
Componers for piano
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
French atheists
French clessical componers
French clessical pianists
French male clessical componers
French opera componers
French Romantic componers
Male opera componers
Muisickers frae Paris
Prix de Rome for composeetion
Pupils o Antoine François Marmontel
Daiths frae hert-relatit cause

Georges Bizet


The Railway Labor Act is a United States federal law that governs labor relations in the railroad and airline industries. The Act, enacted in 1926 and amended in 1934 and 1936, seeks to substitute bargaining, arbitration, and mediation for strikes to resolve labor disputes. Its provisions were originally enforced under the Board of Mediation, but they were later enforced under a National Mediation Board.

Earlier laws

In 1877, protests broke out in Martinsburg, West Virginia when the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) cut worker pay for the third time in a year. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews sent militia under Colonel Charles J. Faulkner to restore order but was unsuccessful largely because of militia sympathies with the workers. The governor reluctantly called for federal assistance, which restored peace to Martinsburg but proved to be controversial, with many newspapers critical of the governor's characterization of the strikes as an "insurrection", rather than an act of desperation. One notable paper recorded a striking worker's perspective that he "had might as well die by the bullet as to starve to death by inches." A day after federal troops had restored order in Martinsburg, similar protests erupted in Maryland and spread to New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Missouri. The strikes, which lasted six weeks, would come to be known as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877.

Congress later passed the Arbitration Act of 1888, which authorized the creation of arbitration panels with the power to investigate the causes of labor disputes and to issue non-binding arbitration awards. The Act was a complete failure since only one panel was ever convened under the Act: in the case of the 1894 Pullman Strike, it issued its report only after the strike had been ended by a federal court injunction, backed by federal troops.

Congress attempted to correct the shortcomings in the Erdman Act, enacted in 1898. The Erdman Act likewise provided for voluntary arbitration but made any award issued by the panel binding and enforceable in federal court. It also outlawed discrimination against employees for union activities, prohibited "yellow dog contracts" (in which an employee agreed not to join a union during employment), and required both sides to maintain the status quo during any arbitration proceedings and for three months after an award was issued. The arbitration procedures were rarely used. A successor statute, the Newlands Labor Act of 1913, which created the Board of Mediation, proved to be more effective. It was largely superseded when the federal government nationalized the railroads in 1917, after the US entered World War I. (See United States Railroad Administration.)

The Adamson Act, enacted in 1916, provided workers with an eight-hour day at the same daily wage they had received previously for a ten-hour day, and it required time-and-a-half pay for overtime work. Another law enacted that year, amid increasing concerns about the war in Europe, gave US President Woodrow Wilson the power to "take possession of and assume control of any system of transportation" for transportation of troops and war material.

Wilson exercised that authority on December 26, 1917. While Congress considered nationalizing the railroads on a permanent basis after the war, the Wilson administration announced that it was returning the railroad system to its owners. However, Congress tried to preserve, the most successful features of the federal wartime administration, which were the adjustment boards, by creating a Railroad Labor Board (RLB) with the power to issue nonbinding proposals for the resolution of labor disputes, as part of the Esch–Cummins Act (Transportation Act of 1920).

The RLB soon destroyed whatever moral authority its decisions might have had in a series of decisions. In 1921, it ordered a twelve percent reduction in employees' wages, which the railroads were quick to implement. The following year, when shop employees of the railroads launched a national strike, the RLB issued a declaration that purported to outlaw the strike, and the US Department of Justice obtained an injunction that carried out that declaration. From then on, railway unions refused to have anything to do with the RLB.

Passage and amendment
The RLA was the product of negotiations between the major railroad companies and the unions that represented their employees. Like its predecessors, it relied on boards of adjustment, established by the parties, to resolve labor disputes, with a government-appointed Board of Mediation to attempt to resolve those disputes that board of adjustment could not. The RLA promoted voluntary arbitration as the best method for resolving those disputes that the Board of Mediation could not settle.

Congress strengthened the procedures in the 1934 amendments to the Act, which created a procedure for resolving whether a union had the support of the majority of employees in a particular "craft or class", while turning the Board of Mediation into a permanent agency, the National Mediation Board (NMB), with broader powers.

Congress extended the RLA to cover airline employees in 1936.

Bargaining and strikes
Unlike the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), which adopts a less interventionist approach to the way the parties conduct collective bargaining or resolve their disputes arising under collective bargaining agreements, the RLA specifies both (1) the negotiation and mediation procedures that unions and employers must exhaust before they may change the status quo and (2) the methods for resolving "minor" disputes over the interpretation or application of collective bargaining agreements.

The RLA permits strikes over major disputes only after the union has exhausted the RLA's negotiation and mediation procedures and bars almost all strikes over minor disputes. The RLA also authorizes the courts to enjoin strikes if the union has not exhausted those procedures.

On the other hand, the RLA imposes fewer restrictions on the tactics that unions may use when they do have the right to strike. The RLA, unlike the NLRA, allows secondary boycotts against other RLA-regulated carriers and permits employees to engage in other types of strikes, such as intermittent strikes, that might be unprotected under the NLRA.

"Major" and "minor" disputes
The RLA categorizes all labor disputes as either "major" disputes, which concern the making or modification of the collective bargaining agreement between the parties, or "minor" disputes, which involve the interpretation or application of collective bargaining agreements. Unions can strike over major disputes only after they have exhausted the RLA's "almost interminable" negotiation and mediation procedures. They cannot, on the other hand, strike over minor disputes, either during the arbitration procedures or after an award is issued.

The federal courts have the power to enjoin a strike over a major dispute if the union has not exhausted the RLA's negotiation and mediation procedures. The Norris-LaGuardia Act dictates the procedures that the court must follow. Once the NMB releases the parties from mediation, however, they retain the power to engage in strikes or lockouts, even if they subsequently resume negotiations or the NMB offers mediation again.

The federal courts likewise have the power to enjoin a union from striking over arbitrable disputes, that is minor disputes. The court may, on the other hand, also require the employer to restore the status quo as a condition of any injunctive relief against a strike.

Major dispute bargaining is handled through the "Section 6" process, named for the section of the Act that describes the bargaining process. The railroad carriers have formed a coalition for national handling of Railway Labor Act bargaining under Section 6, named the National Carriers Conference Committee (NCCC). The railroad unions also form coalitions of various unions to increase bargaining power in the Section 6 process.

Discipline  and replacement of strikers
Carriers may lawfully replace strikers engaged in a lawful strike but may not, however, discharge them except for misconduct or eliminate their jobs to retaliate against them for striking. It is not clear whether the employer can discharge workers for striking before all of the RLA's bargaining and mediation processes have been exhausted.

The employer must also allow strikers to replace replacements hired on a temporary basis and permanent replacements who have not completed the training required before they can become active employees. The employer may, on the other hand, allow less senior employees who crossed the picket line to keep the jobs they were given after crossing the line, even if the seniority rules in effect before the strike would have required the employer to reassign their jobs to returning strikers.

Representation elections
The NMB has the responsibility for conducting elections when a union claims to represent a carrier's employees. The NMB defines the craft or class of employees eligible to vote, which almost always extends to all of the employees performing a particular job function throughout the company's operations, rather than just those at a particular site or in a particular region.

A union seeking to represent an unorganized group of employees must produce signed and dated authorization cards or other proof of support from at least 50% of the craft or class. A party attempting to oust an incumbent union must produce evidence of support from a majority of the craft or class and then the NMB must conduct an election.  If the employees are unrepresented and the employer agrees, the NMB may certify the union based on the authorization cards alone.

The NMB usually uses mail ballots to conduct elections, unlike the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), which has historically preferred walk-in elections under the NLRA. The NMB can order a rerun election if it determines that either an employer or union has interfered with employees' free choice.

Protecting employees' rights
Unlike the NLRA, which gives the NLRB nearly exclusive power to enforce the Act, the RLA allows employees to sue in federal court to challenge an employer's violation of the Act. The courts can grant employees reinstatement and backpay, along with other forms of equitable relief.

Constitutionality
At least one court has ruled that imposition of railroad contract terms does not violate the Constitution's prohibition in Article I, Section 9 against bills of attainder, because they are not a punishment for specific people.

See also
US labor law
History of rail transport in the United States
:Category:Rail transportation labor disputes in the United States

References

Sources

 Leslie, Douglas (editor), "The Railway Labor Act", Washington, D.C., BNA Books 1995 .
 Wilner, Frank N, "Understanding the Railway Labor Act", Omaha, Nebraska, Simmons-Boardman Books 2009, $39.95, . Translalert.com or 800-228-9670.

External links
 As codified in 45 U.S.C. chapter 8 of the United States Code from the LII
 Railway Labor Act (details) as amended in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
 National Mediation Board
 Critique of the RLA's election procedures
 Analysis of the RLA's bargaining requirements
 Description of Coalition Bargaining pages 9 to 20

1926 in American law
1926 in rail transport
69th United States Congress
United States federal labor legislation
United States federal transportation legislation
United States railroad regulation
United States federal legislation articles without infoboxes
1926 in economics
1926 in labor relations

Railway Labor Act


Shandon is an unincorporated community in southwestern Morgan Township, Butler County, Ohio, United States. It is located on Paddy's Run, a tributary of the Great Miami River, about four miles west of Ross at the intersection of State Routes 126 and 748 in section 25 of R1ET3N of the Congress Lands. It was originally called Glendower (in reference to Owain Glyndŵr) as the town was settled by immigrants from Wales. It was later called New London and this survives in the names of Alert-New London and Hamilton-New London Roads. The town is in the Ross Local School District.

History
The foundation for the first Welsh settlement in Ohio was laid on June 29, 1801, when William and Morgan Gwilym purchased land in what is now Morgan Township at the Cincinnati Land Office. The township was named after General Daniel Morgan for his victories in the American Revolutionary War; he too was a Welsh descendant from the colony of Virginia. Settlement in the Paddy's Run area started in 1802, a year before Ohio became the 17th state. The land was then in Hamilton County. Ohio's first General Assembly carved Butler County out of Hamilton County March 24, 1803. Hamilton was selected as the county seat July 15, 1803. Shandon may be the Butler County community that's had the most names in its 200-year history. Although settled by Welsh, its first post office created June 10, 1831 bore an Irish name, Paddy's Run. It's also been known, officially and unofficially, as Cambria, Glendower, Vaughan, New London and Bagdad before becoming Shandon more than 110 years ago.

Ohio nineteenth Governor William Bebb (December 8, 1802 - October 23, 1873) was an early resident of Paddy's Run, before entering politics he ran a boarding school for boys here which was called "Bebb's High".

Some original Welsh settlers are also buried in the New London (Paddy's Run) Cemetery. The cemetery is adjacent to the old Congregational Church. The church was founded 1803, a brick Meetinghouse was built in 1824 and it is now being restored as the Community House. The present church was built in 1854. The church and cemetery are on Alert-New London Road in Morgan Township.

Residents
Murat Halstead

References

Bert S. Barlow, W.H. Todhunter, Stephen D. Cone, Joseph J. Pater, and Frederick Schneider, eds. Centennial History of Butler County, Ohio. Hamilton, Ohio: B. F. Bowen, 1905.
Butler County Engineer's Office. Butler County Official Transportation Map, 2003. Fairfield Township, Butler County, Ohio: The Office, 2003.
A History and Biographical Cyclopaedia of Butler County, Ohio with Illustrations and Sketches of Its Representative Men and Pioneers. Cincinnati, Ohio: Western Biographical Publishing Company, 1882.
Shandon

External links
Church is central to Butler Co. Village
Christmas in Shandon
Ohio's nineteenth Governor William Bebb of Paddy's Run

Populated places established in 1801
1801 establishments in the Northwest Territory
Unincorporated communities in Butler County, Ohio
Unincorporated communities in Ohio

Shandon, Ohio


Satcom, a portmanteau of satellite communications, was a brand of artificial geo-stationary communications satellites originally developed and operated by RCA American Communications (RCA Americom) that facilitated wide-area telecommunications by receiving radio signals from Earth, amplifying them, and relaying them back down to terrestrial receivers.

Satcom was one of the early geostationary satellites; the first were the Syncom series, in 1964. The first Satcom satellite, Satcom 1, was launched on 13 December 1975. The last satellite, Satcom K2, was placed into orbit on 27 November 1985 and was de-orbited in February 2002. Satcom was first superseded and then replaced by the GE series of satellites.

The Satcom system passed to General Electric with its purchase of RCA in 1986. RCA Americom became GE American Communications (GE Americom) and the satellite construction division became GE Astro Space. GE Astro Space was sold to Martin Marietta (now Lockheed Martin Space Systems) in 1993. In 2001, GE sold GE Americom to SES Global, creating SES Americom.

History
Most early commercial communications satellites were built for and operated by telecommunications companies. RCA, with its own RCA Astro Electronics satellite construction business, identified a role for itself as a satellite owner/operator.

Satcom 1 was used as the launching ground for many cable TV services including HBO, Showtime, Superstation TBS, Nickelodeon, the CBN cable network (now Freeform), ESPN, and The Weather Channel.  The satellite spurred the cable television industry to unprecedented heights with the assistance of HBO (who moved their programming from the competing Westar 1, where they had been since their nationwide debut in 1975, to Satcom 1 in February 1976). Cable television networks relay signals to ground-based cable television headends using satellites, which allowed cable TV to enter into the suburban and metropolitan markets, thus allowing HBO to accumulate 1.6 million subscribers by the end of 1977.

A notable legal battle involved Ted Turner suing RCA to get a Satcom 1 transponder in 1980 for the launch of CNN on 1 June 1980. CNN had been scheduled for a Satcom 3 transponder but that satellite failed to reach geosynchronous orbit upon its launch on 7 December 1979.

Shortly after its launch, Satcom 1 was the first satellite used by broadcast TV networks in the United States. The networks ABC, NBC, and CBS distributed their programming content to some local affiliate stations, which had before relied on AT&T's terrestrial microwave and coaxial networks to distribute and relay programming (although NBC used it on an experimental basis for this purpose in the late 1970s). The networks fed to both Satcom 1 and AT&T's network at the same time (for the benefit of those stations who hadn't yet been equipped with Earth station equipment for reception of the satellite) up until the breakup of AT&T in 1984, when the networks switched exclusively to satellite distribution on Satcom 1 (and later satellites), due to the much lower transmission costs, as well as due to AT&T's divestiture itself.

The reason that Satcom 1 was so widely used by both cable and broadcast TV networks is that it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 (24 transponders as opposed to Westar 1's 12), which resulted in lower transponder usage costs in general.

Satellite fleet
All the remaining Satcom satellites were retired in the early 2000s and replaced by the GE/AMC series, originally by GE Americom, then sold to SES.

Wideband SATCOM On-The-Move
Wideband satellite communication solutions delivers reliable and secure high data rate broadband military communication in Ka, Ku and X bands while on-the-move (SOTM), capable of supporting numerous users simultaneously.

The Wideband satellite communication solutions allow military units and operational forces secure and reliable connectivity while maneuvering in challenging environments on land, sea or air.

SOTM adds significant mobility to satellite networks and provides real global on-the-go connectivity compared to terrestrial networks that are limited by line-of-sight (LOS) connections.

Moreover, the triple band SATCOM on-the-move version can includes real-time uninterrupted voice, video and data connectivity at high data rates, robust dynamic performance, GPS independent and modem agnostic, integrated on tracked and wheeled platforms and advanced algorithms to address multi-path interference

External links
 Astronautix
 Sky Rocket
 Satellite Communications, 3rd Edition
 What is SwiftBroadband
 Wideband SATCOM On-The-Move
Communications satellites
RCA brands

Satcom (satellite)