Spiros J. Latsis (; born 1946) is a Greek billionaire, and business magnate. He is the son of the late tycoon Yiannis Latsis, who died in 2003. In 2018, Spiros Latsis ranked #729 on the Forbes World's Billionaires list, with wealth listed at US $3.2 billion.

Early life
Spiro Latsis is the son of Yiannis Latsis and Erietta Tsoukala. He has two sisters, Marianna and Margarita Latsis. He was educated at the London School of Economics (LSE) where, in 1968, he obtained a bachelor's degree in economics. In 1970, he received a master's degree in logic and scientific method. He went on to pursue his doctorate and obtained a PhD in philosophy from the LSE in 1974. His doctoral advisor was Imre Lakatos.

Career and family business
His father John Latsis started building the family fortune in 1938 as a trader and later a ship-owner. He grew his business into a fleet of ships by the 1960s. He built up a number of business interests in the areas of shipping, real estate, construction and oil, plus banking and finance. Latsis joined the family business initially in the banking arm.

From 1989, Latsis became a director of some companies within the EFG Group, the family banking Holding Group, including Private Financial Holdings Limited which became EFG Private Bank Limited in London, and EFG Consolidated Holding SA in Luxembourg. The following year, he also assumed the role of director of Eurofinanciere d'Investissements SAM in Monaco and became a non-Executive Director of Eurobank Ergasias SA in Athens. Dr Latsis officially assumed the role of Chairman of the EFG Group in 1997.

After the death of his father in 2003, Latsis took over the direction of the Latsis Group of companies. Since that time, Latsis, while remaining Chairman of EFG Bank (the family bank holding company) has become a director of EFG International and Consolidated Lamda Holdings, serves as President of Societe d'Etudes et Economiques in Geneva, and is Chairman of several other companies including Paneuropean Oil and Industrial Holdings S.A. in Luxembourg.

In 2015 Latsis was the second wealthiest Greek, ranked #782 on the 2015 Forbes list of the world's richest people. Latsis saw his wealth significantly decline during Greece's recession, with stocks of his EFG Eurobank, Lamda Development and Hellenic Petroleum all falling significantly in 2011, but recovered in 2013. Latsis invited the President of the European Commission, José Manuel Durão Barroso, who had been a student friend at the University of Geneva, to be a guest on his yacht. Subsequently, allegations were made in the press that this somehow influenced Commission decisions but Barroso dismissed those.

In 2020 Latsis was officially dropped off by the Forbes world's richest people list.

Business interests
The family's largest holding is its EFG Bank European Financial Group in Luxembourg, a private banking group that operates in many jurisdictions. The Group holds over 40% of EFG International listed in Switzerland on the Zurich Stock Exchange, which is a global private banking group offering private banking and asset management services. EFGI's group of private banking businesses operates in around 30 locations worldwide, with 3,151 employees and manages CHF153.8bn of client assets as of December 2019.

The Latsis family fortune, managed by Spiro Latsis, includes more than 42% in Hellenic Petroleum, a major petroleum player in Southern Europe, through its ownership of Paneuropean Oil and Industrial Holdings S.A.. The Latsis group also controls Lamda Development, a real estate group based in Athens. Lamda Development projects include The Mall Athens, which opened in 2005, and Golden Hall Mall, also in Athens. Latsis also started PrivateAir, a jet charter service with over 50 planes in its repertoire serving affluent European and American travelers, and which he has since sold.

Honours, recognition, and philanthropy
In 2006 Latsis received an honorary doctorate from Witten/Herdecke University in Witten, Germany recognizing his work in the field of economics.

In addition to his various business holdings, Latsis (with his family) helps to fund the John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation and the International Latsis Foundation in Geneva. In 2012, he transferred around $300 million of his Greek banking stock holdings to various members of the Latsis family, with a contribution also going to the Foundation.

The John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation helps to fund programs in the areas of education, scientific research, social welfare, and culture. The Geneva Foundation funds five scientific awards per annum as well as a number of conferences at the Swiss Polytechnic Institutes in Lausanne and Zurich as well as the University of Geneva.

References

1946 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Athens
Greek businesspeople in shipping
People in the petroleum industry
Trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study
Greek billionaires
Greek expatriates in Switzerland
Greek philanthropists
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Honorary Fellows of the London School of Economics

Spiros Latsis


A Gentleman After Dark is a 1942 crime/drama film starring Brian Donlevy and Miriam Hopkins.

Plot
We pick up the story when the editor of the New York Chronicle sits on New Year's Eve 1923 awaiting news on the theft of legendary Mrs. Reginald Thorndyke's jewelry, a bracelet worth about $50,000. Meanwhile, Tom Gaynor, Captain of the Detective Bureau, finds out that the jewel thief in fact is none other than the notorious Harry "Heliotrope" Melton. The Heliotrope's signatory is that he always wears a heliotrope flowers in his jacket lapel. His lover and partner in crime, Flo, is just about to give birth at a hospital, when Harry comes to bring her a bracelet as a gift of love. Detective Gaynor believes that Harry deep down is essentially a nice person, with a lot of goodness inside. Gaynor thinks Harry has been led to walk the wrong path because of outer circumstances.

Gaynor is set on helping Harry bring his life back on track, so he informs him that the Insurance Companies Protective Association has put up a reward for any information that helps catch the thief and bring back the bracelet. Harry denies any involvement in the disappearance of the bracelet to the detective. Harry also tells Gaynor that he is about to better his life and become a better man now that he has become a father. The problem is that Flo, who didn't want to have Harry's child in the first place, explains to Gaynor that she isn't interested in moving to the country, become a lawful citizen, and start anew with Harry.

Harry also has a male partner called Eddie. When Harry tells Gaynor about his new plans to become a model citizen, Eddie wants to partner up with Flo instead of him. Faced with this fact, Harry agrees to do a last job with the two of them, a jewel heist at a socialite party hosted by Pamela Cartwright. After the heist is done, Eddie gets back at Harry by trying to frame him for the job. Harry manages to hide the stolen jewelry before detective Gaynor comes to visit, spoiling Eddie's plans. Harry finds out about the relation between Eddie and Flo when he finds them both embracing. in the ensuing gunfight, Harry kills Eddie, and tells Flo he will stop all her attempts of seeing their daughter Diana again.

Doing what he believes is the best for his daughter Diana, Harry turns himself in to the police, and Diana is taken into custody by detective Gaynor, with Harry's consent., until he is out of prison.

Diana remains in Gaynor's custody for many years while Harry is serving his prison sentence. One day, Flo reads her daughter Diana's engagement announcement in the newspaper. She is aware of the fact that her daughter is in Gaynor's custody. Gaynor is now a Supreme Court Justice, and Flo decides to use Diana to blackmail Gaynor into helping her.

Still in prison, Harry finds out about Flo's plans from a pal named Stubby. To stop her Harry breaks out of prison and starts looking for Flo. Eventually he finds her with her new partner in crime, Enzo Calibra. A brawl ensues, and in the following gunfight, one of Enzo's bodyguards accidentally kills him. Flo manages to escape the scene, but Harry catches up with her in her hotel room. He corners her, and when she tries to get away, she takes a step in the wrong direction, off the balcony, and falls down to her death.

When Diana's wedding takes place a while later, Harry sends her a box of heliotrope flowers, his favorites.

Cast
Brian Donlevy as Harry 'Heliotrope Harry' Melton
Miriam Hopkins as Flo Melton
Preston Foster as Lt. Tom Gaynor
Harold Huber as Stubby
Phillip Reed as Eddie Smith
Gloria Holden as Miss Clark
Sharon Douglas as Diana Melton
Ralph Morgan as Morrison
Stephanie Foster as Diana Melton as a child

Production
The project's first title was Heliotrope Harry. It was based on a story which Paramount had filmed in 1920 and 1936 (as Forgotten Faces). Small bought the rights to it in 1941. Rex Harrison was originally sought for the lead role.

Ilona Massey was originally cast in the female lead but was replaced by Miriam Hopkins.

References

External links

1942 films
1942 crime drama films
American crime drama films
1940s English-language films
Films scored by Dimitri Tiomkin
Films directed by Edwin L. Marin
Films set in the 1920s
Films set in New York City
United Artists films
Films produced by Edward Small
American black-and-white films
1940s American films

A Gentleman After Dark


"Dancing in the Dark" is a 1983 song by English pop singer Kim Wilde, released as the second single from her third studio album, Catch as Catch Can (1983). The song marked a change in direction for the singer, with more of a dance-oriented style than her earlier work. It did not meet with the success of previous singles, only just scraping into the UK Top 75. Its peak at No. 67 was Wilde's lowest chart showing up to this point and would remain so until 1990's "Time". The single remains Wilde's final UK release with her original record label, RAK Records.

Release and critical reception
The track was written by Nicky Chinn and Paul Gurvitz, making it only the second track Wilde recorded not written by her father and brother (the latter did, however, receive production credits). It was remixed by Nile Rodgers for the extended 12" release, which also included an instrumental version of the song. The B-side of the single was "Back Street Driver", an outtake from the Catch as Catch Can (1983) album sessions. A promotional music video was made for the single, which featured Wilde dressed in black and performing the song to camera, backed by a silhouetted male dancer. "Dancing in the Dark" received mixed reviews in the press, as did the album, with some commenting on the song's risqué lyrics, which detail a romantic encounter with a stranger.

Although it did make the top 30 in a number of European countries, Wilde considered this her "rock bottom" and was unhappy with the song.
"No-one expected that 'Dancing in the Dark' would do so badly. Every Monday I woke up in fear and asked my record company if the record had made the charts yet. They reacted coldly. Kim Wilde had disappointed her entourage. And I lost my self-confidence. No, it wasn't really a good song. My brother and father went through a less creative period. They own up to that now. And it can't be a success every time, of course. I still thought I'd failed though."

Charts

Personnel
 Ricky Wilde : Keyboards, bass, Linn programmes, synclavier, backing vocals
 Mark Hayward Chaplin : Bass guitar, backing vocals
 Trevor Murrell : Drums
 Gary Barnacle : Saxophone
 Pete Schwier, Will Gosling, Simon Schofield, Keith Fernley : Engineers

Covers
The song was also recorded in 1983 by Dutch-based singer Tony Sherman and released as a single. In 1985, it was recorded by Stacey Q on her debut album.

References

External links

Kim Wilde songs
1983 songs
Songs written by Nicky Chinn
Songs written by Paul Gurvitz
RAK Records singles
Songs about dancing

Dancing in the Dark (Kim Wilde song)


Alexander Auldjo (October 21, 1758 – May 21, 1821) was a businessman and political figure in Lower Canada.

Auldjo was born in Aberdeen, Scotland in 1758. He came to Montreal around 1778. He became a fur trader. Later he exported wheat and imported goods from England. In 1796, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada for Montreal West. He also became a Justice of the Peace. Auldjo was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel during the War of 1812. In 1817, he became a shareholder in the Bank of Montreal. His brother George was Lord Provost of Aberdeen.

1758 births
1821 deaths
People from Aberdeen
Fur traders
People from Montreal

Alexander Auldjo


The Nord-100 was a 16-bit minicomputer series made by Norsk Data, introduced in 1979. It shipped with the Sintran III operating system, and the architecture was based on, and backward compatible with, the Nord-10 line.

The Nord-100 was originally named the Nord-10/M (M for Micro) as a bit sliced OEM processor. The board was laid out, finished, and tested when they realized that the central processing unit (CPU) was far faster than the Nord-10/S. The result was that all the marketing material for the new NORD-10/M was discarded, the board was rechristened the Nord-100, and extensively advertised as the successor of the Nord-10 line. Later, in an effort to internationalize their line, the machine was renamed ND-100.

Performance

CPU
The ND-100 line used a custom processor, and like the PDP-11 line, the CPU decided the name of the computer.

Nord-100/CE, Commercial Extended, with decimal arithmetic instructions (The decimal instruction set was later renamed CX)
ND-110, incrementally improved ND-100
ND-110/CX, an ND-110 with decimal instructions
ND-120/CX, full redesign

The ND-100 line was machine-instruction compatible with the Nord-10 line, except for some extended instructions, all in supervisor mode, mostly used by the operating system. Like most processors of its time, the native bit grouping was octal, despite the 16-bit word length.

The ND-100 series had a microcoded CPU, with downloadable microcode, and was considered a complex instruction set computer (CISC) processor.

===ND-100===

The ND-100 was implemented using medium-scale integration (MSI) logic and bit-slice processors.

The ND-100 was frequently sold together with a memory management unit card, the MMS. The combined power use of these boards was 90 watts. The boards would usually occupy slots 2 and 3, for the CPU and MMS, respectively. Slot 1 was reserved for the Tracer, a hardware debugger system.

ND-100/CE
The CE stood for Commercial Extended. The processor was upgraded by replacing the microcode PROM.

It added instruction for decimal arithmetic and conversion, stack instructions, segment-change instructions used by the OS, a block move, test-and-set, and a read-without-cache instruction.

ND-110
The ND-110 was an incremental improvement over the ND-100.

The ND-110 combined the memory management system and CPU, formerly separate cards, on one board. The single CPU/MMS board was plugged into the memory management board slot, usually numbered 3. Power consumption was reduced from 90 watts to 60.

The ND-110 made extensive use of Programmable Array Logic (PALs) and gate arrays, with semi-custom Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) chips.

The ND-110 had three gate arrays:

 The Micro Instruction Controller, the MIC, also known as RMIC, for Rask MIC (Speedy MIC). It replaced three 74S482 sequencers and about 30 other ICs.
 The Arithmetical and Logical Unit gate array (ALU, also known as the BUFALU). Replaced four Am2901 bit-slice processors, and some added registers like the data bus register the general purpose register, and the internal register block.
 The Micro Address Controller (The MAC, also called RMAC, for Rask MAC (Speedy MAC). It implemented hardware address arithmetic, which in the ND-100 had been done in microcode.

Along with the macro-instruction cache memory also in the ND-100, the ND-110 had a unique implementation of cache memory on the micro-instruction level. The step termed mapping in the ND-100 was then avoided because the first micro-instruction word of a macro-instruction was written into the control store cache.

Unlike the ND-100 CPU, it handled synchronous interrupts as traps, similar to how it was handled by the ND-500.

The control store consisted of 4K x 4 bit 40ns static random-access memory (SRAM) chips. This meant that the control store was writable. It was loaded at power up and Master Clear from two 32Kx8 bit erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) units.

The CPU clock and the bus arbitration network were implemented using 15ns PALs.

The main oscillator was a 39.3216 MHz crystal oscillator.

ND-110/CX
This was the ND-110 with the CX microcode programmable read-only memory (PROM). The added instructions were the same as the /CE.

ND-120/CX
The ND-120 CPU was a complete reimplementation on an LSI chip (The so-called Delilah chip), and was originally intended to be sold as the ND-1000, to reflect the technology change, which paralleled the change from the ND-500 series to the ND-5000 (codenamed Samson).

The Samson/Delilah naming scheme may reflect that around the time of the development of the ND-120, it was increasingly clear that the mixed 16/32-bit architecture was a bottleneck for the ND-500(0) architecture; Internal technical documentation used at Norsk Data for the Delilah chip has a drawing of a grinning woman with hair in her clenched fist.

References

External links

Norsk Data minicomputers
16-bit computers

Nord-100


Robert Jones Burdette (July 30, 1844 – November 19, 1914) was an American humorist and clergyman who became noted through his paragraphs in The Hawk Eye newspaper in Burlington, Iowa. Mary G. Burdette was his sister.

Early life
He was born in Greensboro, Pennsylvania, and received a secondary education in Peoria, Illinois. During the Civil War he served as a private in the 47th Illinois infantry. In 1869 he became night editor of the Peoria Daily Transcript and afterward was associated with other newspapers.  He joined the staff of the Burlington Hawkeye in 1872, and his humorous paragraphs soon began to be quoted in newspapers throughout the country.

With the encouragement of his first wife, the former Caroline S. Garret of Peoria, he began speaking in public. Consequently, he made a number of successful lecture tours. His lecture, "The Rise and Fall of the Mustache," was delivered well over three thousand times during a 30-year period. He also wrote the poem "Orphan Born," as well as "My First Cigar." He was sometimes referred to as the Burlington Hawkeye Man. In 1884, he left the Hawkeye to replace Stanley Huntley as the staff humorist for the Brooklyn Daily Eagle.

Ministerial career

He became a licensed minister of the Baptist church in 1897 and took charge of the Temple Baptist Church, Los Angeles, California, in 1903, becoming its pastor emeritus in 1909. His first wife died after 16 years of marriage, and in 1899 he married Clara (Bradley) Baker (1855-1954), a Pasadena widow active in the Temple Baptist Church and various civic organizations. She was a founder of Alpha Phi Fraternity, author of several books, and a philanthropist.

During his final years, the couple lived in Pasadena, in a home on Orange Grove Boulevard, where he died in 1914.

Legacy
Robert Jones Burdette's writings were the source of humorous lectures by John Austen Hamlin on Hamlin's tours to promote his Wizard Oil patent medicine.

A collection of Burdette's writings, edited by Clara, was published in 1922 under the title Robert J. Burdette: His Message.

Partial list of books
The Rise and Fall of the Mustache and other Hawkeyetems (1877)
Hawkeyes (1880)
Life of William Penn (1882)
Innach Gerden and Other Comic Sketches (1886)
Chimes from a Jester's Bells (1897)
Old Time and Young Tom (1912)
Gems of Modern Wit and Humor with stories and introduction by Robert J Burdette (1903)
American Biography & Genealogy, Volume I, Chicago: Lewis Pub. Co. (1910)
As Thy Day, Saalfield Publishing Co., Akron Ohio (date unknown) credited as Robert J. Burdette, D.D. and others

References

Other reading
Obituary at PA-Roots

External links

 My First Cigar – humorous poem by Burdette.
 Many Robert J. Burdette stories read in Mister Ron's Basement Podcast (now indexed), including the entire ninety-two-minute long Rise and Fall of the Mustache lecture from 1877

 Robert J. Burdette letters, MSS SC 701 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University

1844 births
1914 deaths
19th-century Baptist ministers from the United States
20th-century Baptist ministers from the United States
American biographers
American male biographers
American humorists
People from Burlington, Iowa
People from Greene County, Pennsylvania
Writers from Peoria, Illinois
Union Army soldiers
Writers from Iowa
Writers from Los Angeles
Writers from Pennsylvania
Historians from Illinois

Robert Jones Burdette


Exercise bulimia is a subset of the psychological disorder called bulimia in which a person is compelled to exercise in an effort aimed at burning the calories of food energy and fat reserves to an excessive level that negatively affects their health. The damage normally occurs through not giving the body adequate rest for athletic recovery compared to their exercise levels, leading to increasing levels of disrepair. If the person eats a normally healthy and adequate diet but exercises in levels they know require higher levels of nutrition, this can also be seen as a form of anorexia.

Symptoms

Exercise Bulimia can sometimes go unnoticed because exercise is something that is seen as healthy, but just because a person looks healthy does not mean they are. Compulsive exercisers will often schedule their lives around exercise just as those with eating disorders schedule their lives around eating (or not eating). Other indications of compulsive exercise are:
Missing work, school and other important events in order to work out
Working out with an injury or while sick
Working out secretly or away from noticeable sight
Becoming unusually depressed if unable to exercise
Working out for hours at a time each day
Not taking any rest or recovery days
Defining self-worth in terms of performance
Justifies excessive behavior by defining self as a "special" elite athlete
Depression or agitation when unable to work out
Amenorrhea, the stop of a woman's menstrual cycle
Isolation from others while working out
Lack of interest in friends and eating
Lack of sleep

See also
Overtraining
Anorexia athletica

Notes

References
About.com  Exercise & Eating
Activity Disorders
Culture-bound syndromes
Eating disorders
Physical exercise

Exercise bulimia


West High School (commonly West, West High, or WHS) is a public high school located in Sioux City, Iowa with an enrollment of approximately 1,404 students. The school is a part of the Sioux City School District and is one of three public high schools in Sioux City.

History
West High School first opened its doors in 1972. Also in 1972, Sioux City's North High School opened, and a new building for Sioux City  East High School opened. North High School and West High School replaced Sioux City's first high school, Central High (named Sioux City High School until the opening of East High School in 1918) which opened in 1892.

In 2000, West High's feeder middle school, West Middle School began construction of a new building directly west of West High School, which opened in January 2002. Unlike West High School, West Middle School opened in its original building in 1918. Due to construction of West Middle School, the track, baseball, and softball fields had to be  moved and replaced, in order to make room for the new West Middle School.

On October 25, 2008, Sarah Palin (Vice-Presidential candidate for John McCain) held a rally in the school gym for the 2008 United States presidential election.

In October 2009. construction began on an expansion to the school building for 10 new brand new science classrooms. The expansion is directly integrating into the main academic classroom on the south side, towards the east end of the building.  Similar to the original construction, Sioux City's East and North High schools also had new science wings, and are nearly identical in function and size. West High's science classes began on March 7, 2011 in the new addition.

West High was named the 2010 School of Character by Character Counts of Iowa.

In September 2011 the school's lunchroom "The Den" was opened.

In 2011, West High became a recipient of Iowa's Safe and Supportive Schools grant.  Funds from this were used to improve the school.

Athletics and arts
Former West High basketball standout Kirk Hinrich, former Chicago Bulls point guard, graduated in 1999. That year, the West High School basketball team won the Iowa State Basketball Championship.  In 2009, the West High School basketball team competed for a spot in the Iowa State Championship for the first time since 1999. They lost to Sioux City East High School.

The Wolverines compete in the Missouri River Conference in the following sports:

 Baseball
 Basketball
 Bowling
 Cross country
 Football
 Golf
 Soccer
 Softball
 Swimming
 Tennis
 Track
 Volleyball
 Wrestling
 Hockey

In 1999, the boys' basketball team won the Class 4A State Championship.

From 2007-2011, the West High School jazz band competed for state jazz championship at the Iowa Jazz Championships in Des Moines, IA. They received 7th place in Class 4A in 2007. In 2015, the West High School Marching Band earned 1st place in class 2A at the Quad State Marching Competition in Vermillion. They also won Best Music, Best Color guard, and Best Visual Design.

As of 2009, the West High dance squad has entered in 136 competition routines at the Iowa Contest and has placed 1st 104 times, 2nd 24 times, 3rd 7 times, and 4th 1 time.

See also
List of high schools in Iowa

References

External links

Public high schools in Iowa
Schools in Sioux City, Iowa
Educational institutions established in 1972
1972 establishments in Iowa

West High School (Sioux City, Iowa)


The Long Depression was a worldwide price and economic recession, beginning in 1873 and running either through March 1879, or 1896, depending on the metrics used. It was most severe in Europe and the United States, which had been experiencing strong economic growth fueled by the Second Industrial Revolution in the decade following the American Civil War. The episode was labeled the "Great Depression" at the time, and it held that designation until the Great Depression of the 1930s. Though it marked a period of general deflation and a general contraction, it did not have the severe economic retrogression of the Great Depression.

Great Britain was the hardest hit; during this period it lost some of its large industrial lead over the economies of continental Europe.   While it was occurring, the view was prominent that British economy had been in continuous depression from 1873 to as late as 1896 and some texts refer to the period as the Great Depression of 1873–1896, with financial and manufacturing losses reinforced by a long recession in the agricultural sector.

In the United States, historians refer to the Depression of 1873–1879, kicked off by the Panic of 1873, and followed by the Panic of 1893, book-ending an era of prosperity. The U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research dates the contraction following the panic as lasting from October 1873 to March 1879.  At 65 months, it is the longest-lasting contraction identified by the NBER, eclipsing the Great Depression's 43 months of contraction.  In the United States, from 1873 to 1879, 18,000 businesses went bankrupt, including 89 railroads.  Unemployment peaked in 1878 at 8.25%.

Background

The period preceding the depression was dominated by several major military conflicts and a period of economic expansion. In Europe, the end of the Franco-Prussian War yielded a new political order in Germany, and the £200 million indemnity imposed on France led to an inflationary investment boom in Germany and Central Europe.  New technologies in industry such as the Bessemer converter were being rapidly applied; railroads were booming.
In the United States, the end of the Civil War and a brief post-war recession (1865–1867) gave way to an investment boom, focused especially on railroads on public lands in the Western United States – an expansion funded largely by foreign investors.

Causes of the crisis

In 1873, during a decline in the value of silverexacerbated by the end of the German Empire's production of thaler coinsthe US government passed the Coinage Act of 1873 in April. This essentially ended the bimetallic standard of the United States, forcing it for the first time onto a pure gold standard. This measure, referred to by its opponents as "the Crime of 1873" and the topic of William Jennings Bryan's Cross of Gold speech in 1896, forced a contraction of the money supply in the United States. It also drove down silver prices further, even as new silver mines were being established in Nevada, which stimulated mining investment but increased supply as demand was falling. Silver miners arrived at US mints, unaware of the ban on production of silver coins, only to find their product no longer welcome. By September, the US economy was in a crisis, deflation causing banking panics and destabilizing business investment, climaxing in the Panic of 1873.

The Panic of 1873 has been described as "the first truly international crisis".  The optimism that had been driving booming stock prices in central Europe had reached a fever pitch, and fears of a bubble culminated in a panic in Vienna beginning in April 1873. The collapse of the Vienna Stock Exchange began on May 8, 1873, and continued until May 10, when the exchange was closed; when it was reopened three days later, the panic seemed to have faded, and appeared confined to Austria-Hungary. Financial panic arrived in the Americas only months later on Black Thursday, September 18, 1873, after the failure of the banking house of Jay Cooke and Company over the Northern Pacific Railway. The Northern Pacific railway had been given  of public land in the Western United States and Cooke sought $100,000,000 in capital for the company; the bank failed when the bond issue proved unsalable, and was shortly followed by several other major banks. The New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days on September 20.

The financial contagion then returned to Europe, provoking a second panic in Vienna and further failures in continental Europe before receding. France, which had been experiencing deflation in the years preceding the crash, was spared financial calamity for the moment, as was Britain.

Some have argued the depression was rooted in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War that devastated the French economy and, under the Treaty of Frankfurt, forced that country to make large war reparations payments to Germany. The primary cause of the price depression in the United States was the tight monetary policy that the United States followed to get back to the gold standard after the Civil War. The U.S. government was taking money out of circulation to achieve this goal, therefore there was less available money to facilitate trade.  Because of this monetary policy the price of silver started to fall causing considerable losses of asset values; by most accounts, after 1879 production was growing, thus further putting downward pressure on prices due to increased industrial productivity, trade and competition.

In the US the speculative nature of financing due to both the greenback, which was paper currency issued to pay for the Civil War and rampant fraud in the building of the Union Pacific Railway up to 1869 culminated in the Crédit Mobilier scandal. Railway overbuilding and weak markets collapsed the bubble in 1873. Both the Union Pacific and the Northern Pacific lines were central to the collapse; another railway bubble was the Railway Mania in the United Kingdom.

Because of the Panic of 1873, governments depegged their currencies, to save money. The demonetization of silver by European and North American governments in the early 1870s was certainly a contributing factor. The US Coinage Act of 1873 was met with great opposition by farmers and miners, as silver was seen as more of a monetary benefit to rural areas than to banks in big cities. In addition, there were US citizens who advocated the continuance of government-issued fiat money (United States Notes) to avoid deflation and promote exports. The western US states were outragedNevada, Colorado, and Idaho were huge silver producers with productive mines, and for a few years mining abated.  Resumption of silver dollar coinage was authorized by the Bland–Allison Act of 1878.  The resumption of the US government buying silver was enacted in 1890 with the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.

Monetarists believe that the 1873 depression was caused by shortages of gold that undermined the gold standard, and that the 1848 California Gold Rush, 1886 Witwatersrand Gold Rush in South Africa and the 1896–99 Klondike Gold Rush helped alleviate such crises. Other analyses have pointed to developmental surges (see Kondratiev wave), theorizing that the Second Industrial Revolution was causing large shifts in the economies of many states, imposing transition costs, which may also have played a role in causing the depression.

Course of the depression

Like the later Great Depression, the Long Depression affected different countries at different times, at different rates, and some countries accomplished rapid growth over certain periods. Globally, however, the 1870s, 1880s, and 1890s were a period of falling price levels and rates of economic growth significantly below the periods preceding and following.

Between 1870 and 1890, iron production in the five largest producing countries more than doubled, from 11 million tons to 23 million tons, steel production increased twentyfold (half a million tons to 11 million tons), and railroad development boomed. But at the same time, prices in several markets collapsedthe price of grain in 1894 was only a third what it had been in 1867, and the price of cotton fell by nearly 50 percent in just the five years from 1872 to 1877, imposing great hardship on farmers and planters. This collapse provoked protectionism in many countries, such as France, Germany, and the United States, while triggering mass emigration from other countries such as Italy, Spain, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Similarly, while the production of iron doubled between the 1870s and 1890s, the price of iron halved.

Many countries experienced significantly lower growth rates relative to what they had experienced earlier in the 19th century and to what they experienced afterwards:

Austria-Hungary
The global economic crisis first erupted in Austria-Hungary, where in May 1873 the Vienna Stock Exchange crashed. In Hungary, the panic of 1873 terminated a mania of railroad-building.

Chile
In the late 1870s the economic situation in Chile deteriorated. Chilean wheat exports were outcompeted by production in Canada, Russia and Argentina and Chilean copper was largely replaced in international markets by copper from the United States and Spain. Income from silver mining in Chile also dropped. Aníbal Pinto, president of Chile in 1878, expressed his concerns the following way:

This "mining discovery" came, according to historians Gabriel Salazar and Julio Pinto, into existence through the conquest of Bolivian and Peruvian lands in the War of the Pacific. It has been argued that economic situation and the view of new wealth in the nitrate was the true reason for the Chilean elite to go into war with its neighbors.

Another response to the economic crisis, according to Jorge Pinto Rodríguez, was the new pulse of conquest of indigenous lands that took place in Araucanía in the 1880s.

France
France's experience was somewhat unusual. Having been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War, the country was required to pay £200 million in reparations to the Germans and was already reeling when the 1873 crash occurred. The French adopted a policy of deliberate deflation while paying off the reparations.

While the United States resumed growth for a time in the 1880s, the Paris Bourse crash of 1882 sent France careening into depression, one which "lasted longer and probably cost France more than any other in the 19th century". The Union Générale, a French bank, failed in 1882, prompting the French to withdraw three million pounds from the Bank of England and triggering a collapse in French stock prices.

The financial crisis was compounded by diseases impacting the wine and silk industries French capital accumulation and foreign investment plummeted to the lowest levels experienced by France in the latter half of the 19th century. After a boom in new investment banks after the end of the Franco-Prussian War, the destruction of the French banking industry wrought by the crash cast a pall over the financial sector that lasted until the dawn of the 20th century. French finances were further sunk by failing investments abroad, principally in railroads and buildings. The French net national product declined over the ten years from 1882 to 1892.

Italy
A ten-year tariff war broke out between France and Italy after 1887, damaging Franco-Italian relations which had prospered during Italian unification. As France was Italy's biggest investor, the liquidation of French assets in the country was especially damaging.

Russia
The Russian experience was similar to the US experiencethree separate recessions, concentrated in manufacturing, occurred in the period (1874–1877, 1881–1886, and 1891–1892), separated by periods of recovery.

Great Britain

Great Britain, which had previously experienced crises every decade since the 1820s, was initially less affected by this financial crisis, even though the Bank of England kept interest rates as high as 9 percent in the 1870s.

The 1878 failure of the City of Glasgow Bank in Scotland arose through a combination of fraud and speculative investments in Australian and New Zealand companies (agriculture and mining) and in American railroads.

Building on an 1870 reform, and the 1879 famine, thousands of Irish tenant farmers affected by depressed producer prices and high rents launched the Land War in 1879, which resulted in the reforming Irish Land Acts.

United States

In the United States, the Long Depression began with the Panic of 1873. The National Bureau of Economic Research dates the contraction following the panic as lasting from October 1873 to March 1879.  At 65 months, it is the longest-lasting contraction identified by the NBER, eclipsing the Great Depression's 43 months of contraction. Figures from Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz show net national product increased 3 percent per year from 1869 to 1879 and real national product grew at 6.8 percent per year during that time frame. However, since between 1869 and 1879 the population of the United States increased by over 17.5 percent, per capita NNP growth was lower. Following the end of the episode in 1879, the U.S. economy would remain unstable, experiencing recessions for 114 of the 253 months until January 1901.

The dramatic shift in prices mauled nominal wages in the United States, nominal wages declined by one-quarter during the 1870s, and as much as one-half in some places, such as Pennsylvania. Although real wages had enjoyed robust growth in the aftermath of the American Civil War, increasing by nearly a quarter between 1865 and 1873, they stagnated until the 1880s, posting no real growth, before resuming their robust rate of expansion in the later 1880s. The collapse of cotton prices devastated the already war-ravaged economy of the southern United States. Although farm prices fell dramatically, American agriculture continued to expand production.

Thousands of American businesses failed, defaulting on more than a billion dollars of debt. One in four laborers in New York were out of work in the winter of 1873–1874 and, nationally, a million became unemployed.

The sectors which experienced the most severe declines in output were manufacturing, construction, and railroads. The railroads had been a tremendous engine of growth in the years before the crisis, yielding a 50% increase in railroad mileage from 1867 to 1873. After absorbing as much as 20% of US capital investment in the years preceding the crash, this expansion came to a dramatic end in 1873; between 1873 and 1878, the total amount of railroad mileage in the United States barely increased at all.

The Freedman's Savings Bank was a typical casualty of the financial crisis. Chartered in 1865 in the aftermath of the American Civil War, the bank had been established to advance the economic welfare of America's newly emancipated freedmen. In the early 1870s, the bank had joined in the speculative fever, investing in real estate and unsecured loans to railroads; its collapse in 1874 was a severe blow to African-Americans.

The recession exacted a harsh political toll on President Ulysses S. Grant.  Historian Allan Nevins says of the end of Grant's presidency:

Recovery began in 1878. The mileage of railroad track laid down increased from  in 1878 to 11,568 in 1882. Construction began recovery by 1879; the value of building permits increased two and a half times between 1878 and 1883, and unemployment fell to 2.5% in spite of (or perhaps facilitated by) high immigration.

Business profits declined briefly  between 1882 and 1884. The recovery in railroad construction reversed itself, falling from  of track laid in 1882 to  of track laid in 1885; the price of steel rails collapsed from $71/ton in 1880 to $20/ton in 1884. Manufacturing again collapseddurable goods output fell by a quarter again. The decline became a brief financial crisis in 1884, when multiple New York banks collapsed; simultaneously, in 1883–1884, tens of millions of dollars of foreign-owned American securities were sold out of fears that the United States was preparing to abandon the gold standard. This financial panic closed  eleven New York banks, more than a hundred small state banks, and led to defaults on at least $32 million worth of debt. Unemployment, which had stood at 2.5% between recessions, surged to 7.5% in 1884–1885, and 13% in the northeastern United States, even as immigration plunged in response to deteriorating labor markets.

The 1880s saw an extraordinarily large expansion of industry, of railroads, of physical output, of net national product, and real per capita income. As Friedman and Schwartz admit, the decade from 1869 to 1879 saw a 3-percent-per annum increase in money national product, an outstanding real national product growth of 6.8 percent per year in this period, and a phenomenal rise of 4.5 percent per year in real product per capita. Even the alleged "monetary contraction" never took place, the money supply increasing by 2.7 percent per year in this period. From 1873 through 1878, before another spurt of monetary expansion, the total supply of bank money rose from $1.964 billion to $2.221 billion—a rise of 13.1 percent or 2.6 percent per year. In short, a modest but definite rise, and scarcely a contraction.

Reactions to the crisis

Protectionism

The period preceding the Long Depression had been one of increasing economic internationalism, championed by efforts such as the Latin Monetary Union, many of which then were derailed or stunted by the impacts of economic uncertainty. The extraordinary collapse of farm prices provoked a protectionist response in many nations. Rejecting the free trade policies of the Second Empire, French president Adolphe Thiers led the new Third Republic to protectionism, which led ultimately to the stringent Méline tariff in 1892. Germany's agrarian Junker aristocracy, under attack by cheap, imported grain, successfully agitated for a protective tariff in 1879 in Otto von Bismarck's Germany over the protests of his National Liberal Party allies. In 1887, Italy and France embarked on a bitter tariff war. In the United States, Benjamin Harrison won the 1888 US presidential election on a protectionist pledge.

As a result of the protectionist policies enacted by the world's major trading nations, the global merchant marine fleet posted no significant growth from 1870 to 1890 before it nearly doubled in tonnage in the prewar economic boom that followed. Only the United Kingdom and the Netherlands remained committed to low tariffs.

Monetary responses

In 1874, a year after the 1873 crash, the United States Congress passed legislation called the Inflation Bill of 1874 designed to confront the issue of falling prices by injecting fresh greenbacks into the money supply. Under pressure from business interests, President Ulysses S. Grant vetoed the measure. In 1878, Congress overrode President Rutherford B. Hayes's veto to pass the Silver Purchase Act, a similar but more successful attempt to promote "easy money".

Strikes

The United States endured its first nationwide strike in 1877, the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. This led to widespread unrest and often violence in many major cities and industrial hubs including Baltimore, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Reading, Saint Louis, Scranton, and Shamokin.

New Imperialism

The Long Depression contributed to the revival of colonialism leading to the New Imperialism period, symbolized by the scramble for Africa, as the western powers sought new markets for their surplus accumulated capital. According to Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), the "unlimited expansion of power" followed the "unlimited expansion of capital".

In the United States, beginning in 1878, the rebuilding, extending, and refinancing of the western railways, commensurate with the wholesale giveaway of water, timber, fish, minerals in what had previously been Indian territory, characterized a rising market.  This led to the expansion of markets and industry, together with the robber barons of railroad owners, which culminated in the genteel 1880s and 1890s. The Gilded Age was the outcome for the few rich. The cycle repeated itself with the Panic of 1893, another huge market crash.

Recovery
In the United States, the National Bureau of Economic Analysis dates the recession through March 1879.  In January 1879, the United States returned to the gold standard which it had abandoned during the Civil War; according to economist Rendigs Fels, the gold standard put a floor to the deflation, and this was further boosted by especially good agricultural production in 1879.  The view that a single recession lasted from 1873 to 1896 or 1897 is not supported by most modern reviews of the period.  It has even been suggested that the trough of this business cycle may have occurred as early as 1875.
In fact, from 1869 to 1879, the US economy grew at a rate of 6.8% for real net national product (NNP) and 4.5% for real NNP per capita. Real wages were flat from 1869 to 1879, while from 1879 to 1896, nominal wages rose 23% and prices fell 4.2%.

Explanations
Irving Fisher believed that the Panic of 1873 and the severity of the contractions which followed it could be explained by debt and deflation and that a financial panic would trigger catastrophic deleveraging in an attempt to sell assets and increase capital reserves; that selloff would trigger a collapse in asset prices and deflation, which would in turn prompt financial institutions to sell off more assets, only to further deflation and strain capital ratios. Fisher believed that had governments or private enterprise embarked on efforts to reflate financial markets, the crisis would have been less severe.

David Ames Wells (1890) wrote of the technological advancements during the period 1870–1890, which included the Long Depression. Wells gives an account of the changes in the world economy transitioning into the Second Industrial Revolution in which he documents changes in trade, such as triple expansion steam shipping, railroads, the effect of the international telegraph network and the opening of the Suez Canal.  Wells gives numerous examples of productivity increases in various industries and discusses the problems of excess capacity and market saturation.

Wells' opening sentence:

The economic changes that have occurred during the last quarter of a centuryor during the present generation of living menhave unquestionably been more important and more varied than during any period of the world's history.

Other changes Wells mentions are reductions in warehousing and inventories, elimination of middlemen, economies of scale, the decline of craftsmen, and the displacement of agricultural workers. About the whole 1870–90 period Wells said:

Some of these changes have been destructive, and all of them have inevitably occasioned, and for a long time yet will continue to occasion, great disturbances in old methods, and entail losses of capital and changes in occupation on the part of individuals.  And yet the world wonders, and commissions of great states inquire, without coming to definite conclusions, why trade and industry in recent years has been universally and abnormally disturbed and depressed.

Wells notes that many of the government inquiries on the "depression of prices" (deflation) found various reasons such as the scarcity of gold and silver. Wells showed that the US money supply actually grew over the period of the deflation. Wells noted that deflation lowered the cost of only goods that benefited from improved methods of manufacturing and transportation. Goods produced by craftsmen and many services did not decrease in value, and the cost of labor actually increased.  Also, deflation did not occur in countries that did not have modern manufacturing, transportation, and communications.

Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, author of A Monetary History of the United States, on the other hand, blamed this prolonged economic crisis on the imposition of a new gold standard, part of which he referred to by its traditional name, The Crime of 1873. Additionally, Friedman pointed to the expansion of the gold supply through Gold cyanidation as a contributor to the recovery.  This forced shift into a currency whose supply was limited by nature, unable to expand with demand, caused a series of economic and monetary contractions that plagued the entire period of the Long Depression. Murray Rothbard, in his book History of Money and Banking of the United States, argues that the long depression was only a misunderstood recession since real wages and production were actually increasing throughout the period. Like Friedman, he attributes falling prices to the resumption of a deflationary gold standard in the U.S. after the Civil War.

Interpretations

Most economic historians see this period as negative for the most industrial nations. Many argue that most of the stagnation was caused by a monetary contraction caused by abandonment of the bimetallic standard, in favor of a new fiat gold standard, starting with the Coinage Act of 1873.

Other economic historians have complained about the characterization of this period as a "depression" because of conflicting economic statistics that cast doubt on this interpretation. They note it saw a relatively large expansion of industry, of railroads, of physical output, of net national product, and of real per capita income.

As economists Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz have noted, the decade from 1869 to 1879 saw a growth of 3 percent per year in money national product, an outstanding real national product growth of 6.8 percent per year, and a rise of 4.5 percent per year in real product per capita. Even the alleged "monetary contraction" never took place, the money supply increasing by 2.7 percent per year. From 1873 through 1878, before another spurt of monetary expansion, the total supply of bank money rose from $1.964 billion to $2.221 billion, a rise of 13.1 percent, or 2.6 percent per year. In short, it was a modest but definite rise, not a contraction. Although per-capita nominal income declined very gradually from 1873 to 1879, that decline was more than offset by a gradual increase over the course of the next 17 years.

Furthermore, real per capita income either stayed approximately constant (1873–1880; 1883–1885) or rose (1881–1882; 1886–1896), so the average consumer appears to have been considerably better off at the end of the "depression" than before. Studies of other countries where prices also tumbled, including the United States, Germany, France, and Italy, reported more markedly positive trends in both nominal and real per capita income figures. Profits generally were also not adversely affected by deflation, although they declined (particularly in Britain) in industries struggling against superior, foreign competition.  Furthermore, some economists argue a falling general price level is not inherently harmful to an economy and cite the economic growth of the period as evidence. As economist Murray Rothbard has stated:

Unfortunately, most historians and economists are conditioned to believe that steadily and sharply falling prices must result in depression: hence their amazement at the obvious prosperity and economic growth during this era. For they have overlooked the fact that in the natural course of events, when government and the banking system do not increase the money supply very rapidly, freemarket capitalism will result in an increase of production and economic growth so great as to swamp the increase of money supply. Prices will fall, and the consequences will be not depression or stagnation, but prosperity (since costs are falling, too), economic growth, and the spread of the increased living standard to all the consumers.

Accompanying the overall growth in real prosperity was a marked shift in consumption from necessities to luxuries: by 1885, "more houses were being built, twice as much tea was being consumed, and even the working classes were eating imported meat, oranges, and dairy produce in quantities unprecedented". The change in working class incomes and tastes was symbolized by "the spectacular development of the department store and the chain store".

Prices certainly fell, but almost every other index of economic activity - output of coal and pig iron, tonnage of ships built, consumption of raw wool and cotton, import and export figures, shipping entries and clearances, railway freight clearances, joint-stock company formations, trading profits, consumption per head of wheat, meat, tea, beer, and tobacco - all of these showed an upward trend.

A large part at least of the deflation commencing in the 1870s was a reflection of unprecedented advances in factor productivity. Real unit production costs for most final goods dropped steadily throughout the 19th century and especially from 1873 to 1896. At no previous time had there been an equivalent "harvest of technological advances... so general in their application and so radical in their implications". That is why, notwithstanding the dire predictions of many eminent economists, Britain did not end up paralyzed by strikes and lockouts. Falling prices did not mean falling money wages. Instead of inspiring large numbers of workers to go on strike, falling prices were inspiring them to go shopping.

See also

 Crisis theory
 Economic history
 Equine Influenza of 1872
 Gilded Age
 Great Depression of British Agriculture (1873–1896)
 Kondratiev wave
 List of economic crises
 List of recessions in the United States
 New Imperialism
 Panic of 1873
 Panic of 1893
 Second Industrial Revolution

Footnotes

Further reading

 Samuel Bernstein, "American Labor in the Long Depression, 1873–1878," Science and Society, vol. 20, no. 1 (Winter 1956), pp. 59–83. In JSTOR.

1873 establishments
1896 disestablishments
Economic collapses
Recessions
Late modern Europe
19th-century economic history
1870s economic history
1880s economic history
1890s economic history
1873 in economics

Long Depression


Arabesque was a disco girl group. It was created in 1977 in Frankfurt, West Germany. When the trio formed in 1977, it had members: Karen Ann Tepperis, Mary Ann Nagel and Michaela Rose. They released a single called, "Hello Mr. Monkey". It became very successful in Asia, especially Japan and Korea.

Shortly after the release, Mary Ann Nagel decided to leave the group.Her spot was taken by Heike Rimbeau. In 1978, they released the successful album, Friday Night. Karen Ann Tepperis had a son in 1978 and left the group. A former gymnast named Jasmin Vetter replaced her. Heike left the group in 1979 due to her pregnancy. A country singer named Elke Brückheimer replaced Heike for a few months. Finally in June 1979, Sandra Ann Lauer was accepted into the group. The trio had members Michaela, Jasmin and Sandra from 1979, until they split.

The first album they released with Sandra was City Cats. In 1980, they released their most successful album, Marigot Bay. Apart from it being popular in Asia, it was the first album that was successful in their native country. That same year they released Midnight Dancer. In 1981, "In For A Penny, In For A Pound" was released. Caballero was released in 1982. Their last 3 albums had different musical genres than just disco. Why No Reply, Dance Dance Dance and Time To Say Goodbye were not as successful as their previous albums. Two songs from their last album, "Ecstasy" and "Time to Say Goodbye" became very popular in the 1980s.

Arabesque split up in 1984 because Sandra wanted to sing by herself. Jasmin and Michaela formed their own group called "Rouge". It lasted until 1988.

References

German musical groups
1977 establishments in Europe
1984 disestablishments in Europe
Girl groups
Musical groups established in 1977
1970s establishments in Germany
Musical groups disestablished in 1984

Arabesque (group)


The Specialist, Organised & Economic Crime Command is a unit within the Gangs and Organised Crime group of Specialist Crime & Operations within London's Metropolitan Police Service. The unit's main responsibility is to both investigate and take steps to prevent fraud, along with a wide range of other fraudulent crimes which require specialist knowledge and training to investigate. The unit was previously known as the Fraud Squad, or by its previous Specialist Operations designation, SO6.

History
Formed in 1946, the unit was originally known as Metropolitan and City Police Fraud Department or "C6 Branch". It was the first integrated cross-border, co-operative unit set up jointly between London's two police services; the City of London Police due to their expertise in business and stock market fraud, and the Metropolitan Police with their investigative experience.

The increasing complexity of business fraud as time progressed, and hence the lessened chances of securing a successful prosecution, saw the implementation of the Serious Fraud Office in 1987. Due to the Serious Fraud Office making C6 obsolete, the City of London Police and the Metropolitan Police reverted to having their own Fraud Squads. The MPS' was then called SO6. Staffed by about 140 detectives, specialised teams within the Squad included the Commercial Crimes Intelligence Bureau, a Financial Investigations Unit, the Fraud Prevention Office, a Surveillance Unit, a Crime Management Unit and a fledgling Computer Crime Unit.

In October 2000, the Fraud Squad was renamed Economic and Specialist Crime as part of the Specialist Crime Directorate, and its remit was expanded substantially to cover a wider range of financial and economic crime and fraud. Several other autonomous units, such as the Arts and Antiquities Squad, were merged with the new unit.
The Proactive Money Laundering Investigation Team, formed in 2003, has a remit to deal with high-level money laundering, and also are active in removing substantial amounts of criminal cash from the organised criminal networks working in and around London.

Structure
The Specialist, Organised & Economic Crime Command is made up of several teams and sub-units:
 Art and Antiques Unit
 The Branch Intelligence Unit
 The Criminal Finance Team (CFT)
 The Dedicated Cheque and Plastic Crime Unit
 The Extradition and International Assistance Units
 The Financial Investigation Development Unit
 The Flying Squad
 The Fraud Squads
 Project Genesius
 The Kidnap Unit
 The London Regional Asset Recovery Team (London RART)
 Operation Maxim
 Middle Market Drugs Partnership
 Operation Nexus
 The Police Central e-crime Unit (PCeU)
 The Proactive Money Laundering Taskforce (PMLT)
 The Projects Team
 Operation Sterling
 The Stolen Vehicle Unit (SVU)
 The Trafficking and Prostitution Unit
 The Special Intelligence Section (SIS)

See also
 Serious Organised Crime Agency
 Specialist Crime Directorate

References

Metropolitan Police units
Financial crime prevention


A jib is a triangular sail that sets ahead of the foremast of a sailing vessel. Its tack is fixed to the bowsprit, to the bows, or to the deck between the bowsprit and the foremost mast. Jibs and spinnakers are the two main types of headsails on a modern boat.

Modern yachts and small craft

Boats may be sailed using a jib alone, but more commonly jibs make a minor direct contribution to propulsion compared to a main sail. Generally, a jib's most crucial function is as an airfoil, increasing performance and overall stability by reducing turbulence on the main sail's leeward side.

On boats with only one jib, it is common for the clew of the jib to be abaft the mast, meaning the jib and mainsail overlap. An overlapping jib is called a genoa jib or simply a genoa (see illustration). These are efficiently used when reaching more broadly than a close reach. Alternatively, a boat may carry smaller jibs, to compensate aerodynamics when the main sail is reefed; these more rugged sails are called storm jibs or spitfires.

On a boat with two staysails the inner sail is called the staysail, and the outer (foremost) is called the jib. This combination of two staysails is called a cutter rig (or in North America a yankee pair) and a boat with one mast rigged with two staysails and a mainsail is called a cutter.

On cruising yachts, and nearly all racing sailboats, the jib needs to be worked when tacking. On these yachts, there are two sheets attached to the clew of the jib. As the yacht comes head to wind during a tack, the active sheet is released, and the other sheet (the lazy sheet) on the other side of the boat is pulled in. This sheet becomes the new active sheet until the next tack.

Traditional vessels

Schooners typically have up to three jibs. The foremost one sets on the topmast forestay and is generally called the jib topsail, a second on the main forestay is called the jib, and the innermost is called the staysail. Actually, all three sails are both jibs and staysails in the generic sense.

Original usage in 18th and 19th century square-rigged ships distinguished between the fore staysail, set on the forestay running from the foremast head to the ship's peak, the foremost part of the hull, and the jibs set on stays running to the bowsprit. Jibs, but not staysails, could also be "set flying," i.e. not attached to the standing rigging. Sails set beyond the peak were typically called jibs, set on stays running from the fore topmast to the bowsprit, or the fore topgallant mast to the jibboom or even the fore royal mast to the flying jibboom. A large square-rigged ship typically has four jibs, but could have as many as six.

From forward to aft, these sails are called:

 Jib of jibs
 Spindle jib
 Flying jib
 Outer jib
 Inner jib
 Fore (topmast) staysail.

The first two were rarely used except by clipper ships in light winds and were usually set flying. A storm jib was a small jib of heavy canvas set to a stay to help to control the ship in bad weather.

Idiom
The jib is referenced in the idiom usually spoken as "I like the cut of your jib", generally seen as signifying approval of one's general appearance or respect for their character. The phrase alludes to the maritime practice of identifying far-away ships by noting the "cut" (general shape and configuration) of their sails to determine their status as friend or foe. One such report from the Naval Chronicle (1805)—"we perceived by the cut of their sails, then set, that they were French Ships of War"—is often cited as an early inspiration for the idiom.

Sir Walter Scott used the expression to denote approval in the 1824 novel St. Ronan's Well: "If she disliked what the sailor calls the cut of their jib. John Russell Bartlett later defined the idiom in his 1848 Dictionary of Americanisms as "The form of his profile, the cast of his countenance". This usage alludes to a frequent variation of meaning which describes approval, specifically, of the shape of one's nose, which roughly approximates the frontal position and triangular shape of the jib sail on a boat.

See also
 Lateen sail
 Sail plan

References

Nautical terminology
Sailboat components
Sailing rigs and rigging
Sailing ship components
Shipbuilding

Jib


is a 1986 Japanese arcade gemme frae Taito an the first instawment in the Arkanoid gemme series. It wis adapted tae many video gemme consoles an home computers such as ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, BBC Micro, MSX, Atari 8-bit family, Apple II, the Nintendo Entertainment System, Amiga, Atari ST, Apple IIGS and IBM PC.

Arkanoid gameplay resembles Breakout, introducit bi Atari in 1976. The player controls a smaa spaceship an destroys coloured blocks tae advance. The player haes tae destroy aw the blocks in the level tae unlock anither level.

A sequel tae Arkanoid, Arkanoid: Revenge of Doh, wis released in 1987.

1986 video gemmes
Nintendo Entertainment System gemmes
Arkanoid gemmes

Arkanoid


Ponta da Piedade (Portuguese for "point of mercy") is a headland with a group of rock formations along the coastline of the town of Lagos, in the Portuguese region of the Algarve. Consisting of yellow-golden cliff-like rocks up to 20 meters high, they are one of the most famous touristic attractions of Portugal. Several grottos in Ponta da Piedade can be visited by boat. The location also contains a lighthouse, dating back to 1913.

Lagos, Portugal
Geologic formations of Europe

Ponta da Piedade


Wondosson Kassa, also known as Wond Wossen Kassa (1903 – 19 December 1936), was a member of the royalty of the Ethiopian Empire, an army commander, and a patriot.

Biography
Leul Wondosson Kassa was the eldest son of Ras Kassa Haile Darge.  Ras Kassa was a loyal ally of Negus Tafari Makonnen, who ultimately was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia.

On 31 March 1930, during the Battle of Anchem, Wondosson Kassa made a name for himself fighting against and defeating Ras Gugsa Welle.  He fought for his father and the Imperial Army and was on the side of Negus Tafari Makonnen.  After Ras Gugsa Welle was killed, Negus Tafari gave Ras Kassa all of the lands controlled by Gugsa Welle.  As a result, Wondosson Kassa was made Shum of Begemder Province.

During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Wondosson Kassa again fought for his father on what was known as the "northern front." At the Second Battle of Tembien, the armies of his father and of Ras Seyum Mangasha were defeated in battle and bombed out of existence as they withdrew.  Wondosson joined his father and the Emperor and was at the Battle of Maychew.

During the early days of the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, Wondosson Kassa was part of the armed Ethiopian resistance.  Late in July 1936, he took part in the ill-fated attack on Addis Ababa along with his younger brothers, Aberra Kassa and Asfawossen Kassa.  After the failure of that attack, he fled to avoid capture.  However, on 19 December 1936, Wondosson Kassa was captured by the Wollo Oromo in a cave near the source of the Tekezé River.  His place of capture was close to the Plains of Anchem where he had defeated Gugsa Welle in 1930.  Some of the Oromo who captured him are said to have been among the Oromo who arrived late for the Battle of Anchem.  Wondosson Kassa was executed by the Italians as a rebel.

See also
 Monarchies of Ethiopia
 Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles

Notes
Footnotes

Citations

References

Ethiopian nobility
Ethiopian Royal Family
Ethiopian princes
Ethiopian military personnel
Executed Ethiopian people
Executed military personnel
1903 births
1936 deaths

Wondosson Kassa


Matthew Dent (born in 1981 in Bangor, Wales) is a British graphic designer. His designs were selected for the new reverse sides of seven coins of the pound sterling, after a competition open to the public by the Royal Mint on 2 April 2008.

Dent studied art at Coleg Menai and graduated in graphic design from the University of Brighton.
The competition was to re-design the reverses of all circulation British coins (except the two pound coin which had only been introduced eleven years earlier). His entry was selected as the best of 4,000 and he was given a one-off payment of £35,000.

Dent's designs were inspired by heraldry. He divided the shield of the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom among the pence coins, so that when they are placed together they show the entire shield. The full shield appears on his pound coin, which before the competition had no fixed design, instead changing every year to represent Scotland, Wales, England and Northern Ireland.

In 2011 he designed a commemorative fifty pence coin for the Royal Mint to celebrate 50 years of the World Wildlife Fund. It featured 50 small pictures of plants, animals and natural resources.

In 2012 he designed a limited edition two pound coin featuring the face of Charles Dickens made up from his book titles, to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Dickens's birth.

References

External links

1981 births
Alumni of the University of Brighton
British graphic designers
Living people
People from Bangor, Gwynedd
British currency designers

Matthew Dent (designer)


Hieronymus Bosch, (born Jeroen Anthonissen van Aken, c. 1450 – 9 August 1516) was an early Dutch painter. He lived, worked and died in 's-Hertogenbosch, a Dutch town. This was then the capital of the Duchy of Brabant, a region which included much of modern Belgium and Holland.

Many of his works depict temptation, sin and punishment in hell. The paintings have a dreamlike surreal quality, with sexual and sadistic images. The intent was probably serious, to warn of the punishment which awaited sinners in hell.

The paintings often look like, and certainly did influence, the modern art movement known as surrealism. Bosch used images of demons, half-human animals and machines, to evoke fear and confusion, and to portray the evil of man. His works contain complex, highly original, imaginative, and dense use of symbolic figures and iconography, some of which was obscure even in his own time.

Today only 25 paintings are known to be by him; Philip II of Spain collected some of the best, which are now in the Prado Museum, Madrid.

People from 's-Hertogenbosch
Dutch painters
1450s births
1516 deaths

Hieronymus Bosch


The Man in the iron mask was a prisoner of Louis XIV whose identity is not known. The man was imprisoned from 1669 until his death in 1703. The man was forced to wear a black cloth over his face most of the time; no one saw his face. The prisoner always had the same guardian. Most of the facts that are known are from correspondence, mostly of his guardian with his superiors. When he was first imprisoned, the identity of the man was given as Eustache Dauger. He is buried in the graveyard of the church Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis in Paris. His tombstone says his name was Marchiali. Other sources also give the names Marchioly, or Marchialy.

History
The first time this man is mentioned is in a letter Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine wrote to Sophia of Hanover in 1711. She tells that he had to wear a mask, all the time, but knows nothing about his identity. In a letter of 1698, one of the guardians of the Bastille mentions that an elderly prisoner was being brought to the Bastille, and that this prisoner had to wear a mask. The guardian of the prisoner is Bénigne Dauvergne de Saint-Mars. This person had written many letters to François Michel Le Tellier de Louvois, the minister of war at the time. There was heavy censorship at the time; about 90% of the letters were lost.

On  24th August 1669, a man was imprisoned in Pinerolo. Pinerolo was called Pignerol and was part of France at the time. On 19th August, Louvois announced that this prisoner from Dunkerque was a very important person, but that he had not yet been arrested. The prisoner's name was given as Eustache Dauger. In Pinerolo, he met other important prisoners, such as Nicolas Fouquet or Antoine Nompar de Caumont. Dauger was allowed to talk to Fouquet. At times, Daguer acted as a servant to Fouquet, when Fouquet's servant was ill. In 1678, Fouquet asked for more freedom, and this wish was granted. At Fouquet's death in 1680, a hole was discovered between his cell and that of Caumont. From then onwards, both Fouquet's servant and Dauger were separated from Caumont. Both the man with the iron mask, and the servant of Fouquet were transferred to Exilles, which is only  away.

In 1682, the two were separated. Fouquet's servant died in 1687. As Exilles was threatened by war, the man with the iron mask was transferred to the island of Sainte-Marguerite, next to Cannes. At that time, only one other person was imprisoned in Sainte-Marguerite. In September 1698, Dauger was transferred to the Bastille in Paris, where he died in 1703. Each time, the unknown prisoner was transferred this also applied to Saint-Mars, who rose in position. The transfer also applied to the few other prisoners Saint-Mars had to guard.

When he was in public, or with strangers, Dauger had to wear a mask. He also could not contact anyone. When he was transferred, people saw that no one could see his face, hear his voice, or speak to him.

Despite this, people always looked that he felt relatively at ease. He received new washed clothes twice a week, and could ask for any book he wanted. He was allowed to play the lute, and could see a doctor when there was the need to do so. Saint-Mars was given 12 livres a day, for food and drink of this prisoner. The cell that he occupied in Sainte Marguerite cost 5.000 livres to build. In Pinerolo, a special cell was built that had to be entered through three doors. This cell was soundproof, nothing could be heard outside the cell. Saint-Mars was personally responsible for the well-being of the man in the iron mask. There are testimonials that officers had to take off their hat in his presence, and that they were only allowed to put it back on when told to do so.

There are accounts that at the time of his death, the prisoner was about 60 years old. When he was transferred to Exilles in 1687, the prisoner had gray hair.

The mask

The man with the iron mask did not wear a mask all the time. It is likely, that he only wore it when he was transferred, so that people could not recognize him. If he had worn the mask all the time, this would have led to infections. In addition, as the prisoner was male, the hair growing in his face needed cutting from time to time. The need for wearing a mask is mentioned only twice: In the document which ordered his transfer to the Bastille, and for the transfer to the island near Cannes.

Voltaire's invention?
Voltaire was immured in the Bastille, in 1717. According to him, this prisoner was an older brother of the King. In 1751, he published his work A century of Louis XIV, where he spends a section detailing the story of the man with the iron mask. According to Voltaire, the man was imprisoned in 1661, after the death of Cardinal Mazarin. It is possible that most of what is known today was an invention of Voltaire, who used this man to give an example of how bad an absolute ruler could be.

The real Eustache Dauger
When he announced the arrival of the prisoner in the very first letter,  Louvois gave his name as "Eustache Dauger". Historians have found out that there was a man by that name, who was alive at that time. The full name of this man was Eustache Dauger de Cavoye. According to the records, Eustache was born on 30 August 1637 and was the son of François Dauger, a guard in the service of Cardinal Richelieu. They also found out, that Eustache seems to have been involved in what became known as Affair of the Poisons. This "affair" lasted from 1675 to about 1680. Many noblemen were poisoned, or executed for witchcraft. Eustache fell into disgrace when it became known that he had participated in lavish parties that included black masses, and possibly homosexual sex. In the 1930s, it was revealed that the real Eustache Dauger died in the Prison Saint-Lazaire in Paris. In the 17th century, the prison was an asylum for mentally ill people, run by monks. Many noble families used it to get rid of the "black sheep" of the family. Records show that the man really named Dauger was kept in Saint-Lazaire in Paris at about the same time the false Dauger was kept in Pignerolo. According to Louis-Henri de Loménie de Brienne who was also imprisoned in Saint-Lazaire at the time, the real Eustache Dauger de Cavoye died as a result of heavy drinking in the late 1680s. Historians consider all this proof enough that he was not involved in any way with the man in the mask.

Theories about the identity

Candidates
There are several theories, who this prisoner could have been. Some of the more likely ones are given below

Brother of Louis XIV
Voltaire thought that this man was a twin brother of Louis XIV. According to Voltaire, this man had grown up in a different place than Louis XIV. He said that the man was imprisoned in 1661, a few months after the death of Jules Mazarin. Marcel Pagnol also has this hypothesis.

Illegitimate child of the Queen
Another hypothesis is that the prisoner was a illegitimate child of the Queen, Anne of Austria. The father would either be Cardinal Mazarin, or George Villiers, 1. Duke of Buckingham or one of the musketeers. Cardinal Richelieu would have arranged this meeting. This theory is less likely, however, because the child would have had no right to the throne, and imprisoning him would therefore have been no use.

Father of Louis XIV
The prisoner might have been the father of Louis XIV. Richelieu would have had a liaison with queen Anne, and both Louis XIV and Louis XIII would have been there to prevent Gaston de Bourbon, duc d'Orléans from becoming king.

Someone knowing about Louis' origins
The autopsy of Louis XIII found that Louis XIII was unable to father children. Anyone knowing this would know about the origins of Louis XIV, and would be potentially dangerous to him. This theory is that the prisoner was in fact the doctor who had performed the autopsy.

Summary
Today, there is no convincing theory that could explain who this man really was. The last person to have known the identity of this prisoner was probably Michel Chamillart, one of the ministers of the government of Louis XIV. Chamillart died in 1723.

Relative of the king
Those theories that see the prisoner as part of the family of Louis XIV neglect that there was a lot of social control back then. The birth of a child in the court of the king, or even among nobles was a public event. Several hundred people were present at the birth of Louis XIV. The "secret birth" of a twin brother of Louis is highly unlikely. The amount of social control made it almost impossible that Anne of Austria had an affair. Anne was pregnant several times, which means that her husband, Louis XIII was able to father children. Another fact that speaks against the theory that the prisoner was a relative of the king is that the prisoner had the post of a servant, at times. At the times of Louis XIV, people of noble birth would not become servants.

Servant
The theories that see the prisoner as a servant also have their weaknesses: Even though he was imprisoned, he had a comfortable life. A simple servant would have been killed, and no one would have cared about his comfort. Despite this, Louis XIV, the king himself took interest in the well-being of the prisoner.

Literature
There are several books and movies about this man. The best known of these are probably the story by Alexandre Dumas called "The Vicomte de Bragelonne" (which is the third volume of his work  The Three Musketeers), the story The Twins, by Victor Hugo and The Iron Mask by Marcel Pagnol. Dumas also gives a summary of the theories about the prisoner, which were common at his time.

References

17th century in France
Year of birth unknown
1703 deaths
18th century in France

Man in the iron mask


Lolita fashion is a fashion subculture that started in Japan. It is based on Victorian era clothing.

There are many types of lolita fashion. These include Gothic lolita, sweet lolita, and classic lolita. Lolita fashion brands include Baby, The Stars Shine Bright, Moi-même-Moitié, Angelic Pretty, and Manifesteange Metamorphose temps de fille. Gothic lolita began in the late 1990s in Harajuku. The visual kei musician Mana dresses in the gothic lolita style. He helped make the style popular. Some people outside of Japan wear lolita fashion. The 2002 novel Kamikaze Girls has a sweet lolita character called Momoko.

Fashion

Lolita fashion


Jonathan Corwin (also Curwin or Corwen, November 14, 1640 – June 9, 1718) was a New England merchant, politician, and magistrate.  He is best known as one of the judges involved in the Salem witch trials of 1692, although his later work also included service as an associate justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature, the highest court of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

Life

Jonathan Corwin was born on November 14, 1640, in Salem, a leading port town of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, one of five children born to George and Elizabeth (Herbert) Corwin. His father had arrived in Salem in 1638 and his mother was the daughter of Northampton mayor John Herbert. His father was a wealthy merchant and shipbuilder in Salem, and Jonathan continued in the mercantile trade. He married Elizabeth Gibbs (née Sheaf), widow of Robert Gibbs, in 1675 and had ten children.

Corwin was also involved in public affairs. He was twice elected to the colonial assembly, in 1682 and in 1689, and he was a stalwart supporter of the old regime when the Dominion of New England was established in 1686. He was also an active magistrate of the local courts, hearing cases dealing with petty crimes and minor charges such as drunkenness and burglary.

Salem witch trials

When reports of witchcraft began circulating in Essex County, Corwin was one of the magistrates called on to make preliminary inquiries into the reports.  He and John Hathorne, another local magistrate, held hearings in early March 1692 in which testimony was gathered from Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborne, the first three women accused of being witches. Due to the uncertain constitutionality of the Massachusetts government in 1692 (its charter was vacated in 1684, and it had reformed with the charter following the 1689 Boston revolt that ended Dominion rule of Sir Edmund Andros), there was a reluctance among colonial leaders to establish courts to hear the cases until Sir William Phips arrived in May 1692 with the charter that established the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

By this time a significant number of people had been jailed on accusations of witchcraft in the Salem area. Phips, who was appointed governor of the province, as one of his early acts established a special court of Court of Oyer and Terminer to hear the accumulated cases. Corwin was not initially assigned to the court, but when Nathaniel Saltonstall resigned in protest over the first hanging, Phips assigned Corwin to the panel.

Corwin signed several arrest warrants and transcribed a few of the hearings but scarcity of records from the 1692 events makes it impossible to determine Corwin's overall role in the trials as well as his attitude toward the acceptance in court of spectral evidence, the idea that actions seen in visions could be an indicator of witchcraft. The special court convicted nineteen of witchcraft and sentenced them to the gallows before it was disbanded in October 1692. The provincial court system was set up in January 1693, with the Superior Court of Judicature, the province's high court, hearing the remaining witchcraft cases.

Corwin's own mother-in-law, Margaret Sheaf Thacher (née Webb; born 1625, Boston, to Henry and Dorabell (née Smith) Webb — died February 23, 1694, Boston), was accused of witchcraft by her servant, Mercy Short. Thacher held extensive holdings in Boston, including her home and acreage which was next to Governor William Phips' house. Several years after her first husband's death, she married the Reverend Thomas Thacher. From 1669 to his death in 1678, Thacher served as the founding minister of the Old South Church. Thacher, known as a woman of great piety, was never charged, but Short would spend some time behind bars after confessing to witchcraft herself.

Later life

Corwin was not initially appointed to the Superior Court; he was appointed to the Governor's Council from 1692 to 1714, and served as a judge in the Court of Common Please for Essex County from 1692 to 1708. In that year he was nominated by Governor Joseph Dudley to be an associate justice of the Superior Court following the resignation of John Leverett; he would hold that post until his death in 1717.

Legacy

Corwin's son George (not to be confused with Corwin's nephew, High Sheriff George Corwin) went to Harvard and became minister at the First Church in Salem. Corwin's house is the only remaining structure in Salem with direct ties to the Salem witch trials of 1692. It is now a museum that focuses on seventeenth-century furnishings, architecture, and lifestyle.

Notes
 Corwin, Edward Tanjore.  Corwin Genealogy, google.com; accessed October 2, 2015.

References

External links
 Salem Witch Magistrates
 Timeline of the Salem Witch Trials

1640 births
1718 deaths
People of the Salem witch trials
Justices of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature

Jonathan Corwin


A link, also called a Gunter's link, was a unit of length in the imperial and US customary systems. Links were commonly used in measuring land in the English-speaking world before the twentieth century, but are never used. Link is abbreviated as ln. It was invented by Edmund Gunter, a professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, the same man who made the chain. He made the link as a low-technology piece of equipment that could survey small areas of land very accurately, whereas the chain could measure towns and large areas of land.

Old units of measurement
Units of mass

Link (unit)


T2 were an English progressive rock band, best known for their 1970 album, It'll All Work Out in Boomland. It is generally regarded as an excellent album.

Origins
T2 evolved from an earlier band, Neon Pearl, which was led by their drummer, Pete Dunton. Dunton was by 1968 a member of Please, which also included fellow Neon Pearl member Bernard Jinks. When that band broke up in 1969, due to Dunton's joining Gun alongside Adrian Gurvitz, Jinks became a member of Bulldog Breed.

Career
T2 was formed when Dunton reunited with bassist Jinks, and late period Bulldog Breed guitarist, Keith Cross. The trio played a form of psychedelic or proto-prog rock, which was similar in content to that played by the earlier bands its members had been in. T2 were formed and managed by John Morphew, who had previously managed Bulldog Breed; he financed the formation and successfully signed them to Decca for the then enormous sum of £10,000 in advance royalties and steered their path to what should have been a successful career. However, internal strife caused Morphew to give up on the band and leave them to their own devices.

Recording It'll All Work Out in Boomland, the trio played a series of successful dates, including an appearance on BBC 2 and returned to the studio to begin work on their follow-up. However, the number of LPs pressed was limited and associated publicity was poor, hence finding a copy in a record shop was difficult. (As a result, the rarity of the album meant that a mint copy of the LP some 20 years later would be quoted at around £200). In 1972, while recording material for their second album, T2 disbanded due to internal conflict. The breakup caused the unfinished album to be shelved until the early 1990s.

It'll All Work Out in Boomland was issued on CD format by the German label World Wide Records, remastered from the original recording tapes. However, apparently both the original mix down information and the original mix down tapes had been lost, and as a result there are some minor aural differences between the LP and CD versions. A South Korean label had previously issued the album on CD, but this was suspected to have been copied from an original vinyl pressing. The CD issue sparked a brief T2 reunion, but without Keith Cross. The band now consisted of Dunton, Jinks and Moore. T2 released Second Bite (1992), Waiting For The Band (1993) and On The Frontline (1994). By the time Waiting For The Band was released, Jinks had left the group and Moore had shifted to bass to accommodate their new guitarist, Ray Lee.

In 1992, the Swedish neo-prog band Landberk covered 'No More White Horses' on their album Lonely Land. Decca Records released box sets, Legend of a Mind (2003) and Strange Pleasures (2008). Each included a remastered track from It'll All Work Out in Boomland, respectively 'No More White Horses' and 'JLT'. The sound quality of both tracks is much superior to the World Wide Records issues.

Concurrent with the reformation of T2, an album of acetate demos recorded in 1970 was released in 1997.  Known initially as Fantasy and later issued simply as T2 or 1970, this album featured material written by the original lineup in the period after the release of It'll All Work Out In Boomland. In 2012, a third album of demos entitled 1971-1972 was released by Acme records, compiling material written and recorded by Dunton and a further succession of musicians, after Cross and Jinks had departed the lineup.

Drummer and vocalist Peter Dunton died of brain cancer on January 20, 2022.

Discography
1970: It'll All Work Out in Boomland
1992: Second Bite
1993: Waiting For The Band
1994: On The Front Line
1997: Fantasy (aka T2 or 1970) - demos recorded in 1970
2012: 1971-1972 - demos recorded during the eponymous period

Albums under various formations
1967: Neon Pearl—As Neon Pearl
1968: Complete Collection 65-68—As The Flies
1969: Please 68-69—As Please (Released in 1998)
1969: Seeing Stars—As Please (Released in 2001)
1969: Made in England—As Bulldog Breed
1972: Bored Civilians—As Keith Cross & Peter Ross

References

English art rock groups
English hard rock musical groups
English progressive rock groups
Decca Records artists
Musical groups established in 1970
Musical groups disestablished in 1972
Musical groups reestablished in 1992
Musical groups disestablished in 1997

T2 (band)


Professor Robert Harvey Cassen OBE (born 1935), is a British economist and former Professor of the Economics of Development at the University of Oxford.

Biography

Robert Cassen was born on 24 March 1935 and educated at Bedford School, at New College, Oxford, at the University of California, Berkeley, and at Harvard University, where he completed his doctorate in economics. He taught in the department of economics at the London School of Economics between 1961 and 1969, was Senior Economist at the Overseas Development Ministry between 1966 and 1967, Senior Economist at the World Bank between 1969 and 1972 (and again between 1980 and 1981), Special Advisor to the House of Commons Select Committee on Overseas Development between 1973 and 1974, Director of the Oxford Department of International Development between 1986 and 1993, Professor of the Economics of Development at the University of Oxford between 1986 and 1997, and Professorial Fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford between 1986 and 1997. He has been visiting professor at the London School of Economics since 1997.

He was appointed OBE in the 2008 New Year Honours.

Publications

India: Population, Economy, Society, 1978
Planning for Growing Populations, 1979
World Development Report, 1981
Rich Country Interests and Third World Development, 1982
Soviet Interests in the Third World, 1985
Does Aid Work?, 1986, 2nd edition 1994
Poverty in India, 1992
Population and Development: Old Debates, New Conclusions, 1994
India: The Future of Economic Reform, 1995
21st Century India: Population, Economy, Human Development and the Environment, 2004
Tackling Low Educational Achievement, 2007

References

1935 births
People educated at Bedford School
Alumni of New College, Oxford
English economists
Fellows of St Antony's College, Oxford
Living people
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Academics of the London School of Economics
University of California, Berkeley alumni

Robert Cassen