This article describes the grammar of Tigrinya, a South Semitic language which is spoken primarily in Eritrea and Ethiopia, and is written in Ge'ez script.

Nouns

Gender

Like other Afro-Asiatic languages, Tigrinya has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, and all nouns belong to either one or the other. Grammatical gender in Tigrinya enters into the grammar in the following ways:
Verbs agree with their subjects in gender (unless the subject is first person).
Second and third person personal pronouns (you, he, she, they, etc. in English) are distinguished by gender.
Adjectives and determiners agree with the nouns they modify in gender.

Some noun pairs for people distinguish masculine and feminine by their endings, with the feminine signaled by t. These include agent nouns derived from verbs — ከፈተ käfätä 'open', ከፋቲ käfati 'opener (m.)', ከፋቲት käfatit 'opener (f.)' — and nouns for nationalities or natives of particular regions — ትግራዋይ tǝgraway 'Tigrean (m.)', ትግራወይቲ tǝgrawäyti 'Tigrean (f.)'.

Grammatical gender normally agrees with biological gender for people and animals; thus nouns such as ኣቦ 'abbo 'father', ወዲ wäddi 'son, boy', and ብዕራይ bǝ'ǝray 'ox' are masculine, while nouns such as ኣደ addä 'mother', ጓል gʷal 'daughter, girl', and ላም lam or ላሕሚ lah.mi 'cow' are feminine.  However, most names for animals do not specify biological gender, and the words ተባዕታይ täba'tay 'male' and ኣንስተይቲ anǝstäyti must be placed before the nouns if the gender is to be indicated.

The gender of most inanimate nouns is not predictable from the form or the meaning. Grammars sometimes disagree on the genders of particular nouns; for example, ጸሓይ ṣäḥay 'sun' is masculine according to Leslau, feminine according to Amanuel. This disagreement seems to be due to dialectal differences.

Number

Tigrinya has singular and plural number, but nouns that refer to multiple entities are not obligatorily plural.  That is, if the context is clear, a formally singular noun may refer to multiple entities: ሓሙሽተ ḥammuštä 'five', ሰብኣይ säb'ay 'man', ሓሙሽተ ሰብኡት ḥammuštä säbut, 'five men'.  It is also possible for a formally singular noun to appear together with plural agreement on adjectives or verbs: ብዙሓት bǝzuḥat 'many (pl.)', ዓዲ 'addi 'village'; ብዙሓት ዓዲ bǝzuḥat 'addi 'many villages'.  The conventions for when this combination of singular and plural is or is not possible appear to be complex.

As in Arabic, Tigre, and Ge'ez, noun plurals are formed both through the addition of suffixes to the singular form ("external" plural) and through the modification of the pattern of vowels within (and sometimes outside) the consonants that make up the noun root ("internal" or "broken" plural).
In some cases suffixes may also be added to an internal plural.
The most common patterns are as follows.  In the designation of internal plural patterns, "C" represents one of the consonants of the noun root.  Note that some nouns (for example, ዓራት 'arat 'bed') have more than one possible plural.
External plural
 -at, -tat
 ዓራት 'arat 'bed', ዓራታት(ዓራውቲ) 'aratat 'beds'
 እምባ ǝmba 'mountain', እምባታት ǝmbatat 'mountains'
 -ot (following deletion of -a or -ay)
 ጐይታ gʷäyta 'master', ጐይቶት gʷäytot 'masters'
 ሓረስታይ ḥarästay 'farmer', ሓረስቶት ḥarästot 'farmers'
 -ǝtti, -wǝtti (sometimes with deletion of final -t)
 ገዛ gäza 'house', ገዛውቲ gäzawǝtti 'houses'
 ዓራት 'arat 'bed', ዓራውቲ 'arawǝtti 'beds'
Internal plural
 'aCCaC
 ፈረስ färäs 'horse', ኣፍራሰ 'afras 'horses'
 እዝኒ 'ǝzni 'ear', ኣእዛን 'a'zan 'ears'
 'aCaCǝC
 ንህቢ nǝhbi 'bee', ኣናህብ 'anahǝb 'bees'
 በግዕ bäggǝ' 'sheep' (s.), ኣባግዕ 'abagǝ' 'sheep' (p.)
 CäCaCu
 ደርሆ därho 'chicken', ደራሁ därahu 'chickens'
 ጕሒላ gʷǝḥila 'thief', ጕሓሉ gʷǝḥalu 'thieves'
 C{ä,a}CaCǝC
 መንበር mänbär 'chair', መናብር mänabǝr 'chairs'
 ሓርማዝ ḥarmaz 'elephant', ሓራምዝ ḥaramǝz 'elephants'
 ...äCti for the plural of agent and instrument nouns derived from verbs
 ቀላቢ k'ällabi 'feeder', ቀለብቲ k'älläbti 'feeders'
 ኣገልጋሊ 'agälgali 'server', ኣገልገልቲ 'agälgälti 'servers'
 መኽደኒ mäxdäni 'cover', መኽደንቲ mäxdänti 'covers'
 CǝCawǝCti
 ክዳን kǝdan 'clothing', ክዳውንቲ kǝdawǝnti 'articles of clothing'
 ሕጻን ḥǝs'an 'infant', ሕጻውንቲ ḥǝs'awǝnti 'infants'
 CäCaCǝCti
 መጽሓፍ mäs'ḥaf 'book', መጻሕፍቲ mäs'aḥǝfti 'books'
 ኮኸብ koxäb 'star', ከዋኽብቲ käwaxǝbti 'stars'
 ...C*aC*ǝC..., where "C*" represents a single root consonant
 ወረቐት wäräx'ät 'paper', ወረቓቕቲ wäräx'ax'ti 'papers'
 ተመን tämän 'snake', ተማምን tämamǝn 'snakes'
Among the completely irregular plurals are ሰበይቲ säbäyti 'woman', ኣንስቲ 'anǝsti 'women' and ጓል gʷal 'girl, daughter', እዋልድ 'awalǝd 'girls, daughters' (alongside ኣጓላት 'agʷalat).

Expression of possession, genitive

Tigrinya has two ways to express the genitive relationships that are expressed in English using possessives (the city's streets), of phrases (the streets of the city), and noun-noun compounds (city streets).
Prepositional phrases with the preposition ናይ nay 'of'
 ሓደ ḥadä 'one', ሰብ säb 'person', ቈልዓ kʷ'äl'a 'child', ናይ ሓደ ሰብ ቈልዓ nay ḥadä säb kʷ'äl'a 'one person's child', nat can come before and after the possessee
 መስተዋድድ mästäwadǝd 'preposition', ተሰሓቢ tësëḥabi 'object', ናይ መስተዋድድ ተሰሓቢ nay mästäwadǝd täsäḥabi 'object of a preposition'
Noun-noun constructions, with the "possessor" following the "possessed thing"
 ጓል gʷal 'daughter', ሓወይ ḥawwäy 'my brother', ጓል ሓወይ gʷal ḥawwäy 'my brother's daughter (niece)'
 መዓልቲ mä'alti 'day', ሓርነት ḥarǝnnät 'freedom', መዓልቲ ሓርነት ኤርትራ mä'alti ḥarǝnnät 'ertǝra 'Eritrean Liberation Day'

Pronouns

Personal pronouns
In most languages, there is a small number of basic distinctions of person, number, and often gender that play a role within the grammar of the language.
Tigrinya and English are such languages.
We see these distinctions within the basic set of
independent personal pronouns, for example,
English I, Tigrinya ኣነ anä; English she, Tigrinya ንሳ nǝssa.
In Tigrinya, as in other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear in three other places within the grammar of the languages as well.
 Subject–verb agreement
 All Tigrinya verbs agree with their subjects; that is, the person, number, and (second and third person) gender of the subject of the verb are marked by suffixes or prefixes on the verb.  Because the affixes that signal subject agreement vary greatly with the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are normally not considered to be pronouns and are discussed elsewhere in this article under verb conjugation.
 Object pronoun suffixes
 Tigrinya verbs often have additional morphology that indicates the person, number, and (second and third person) gender of the object of the verb.

 While suffixes such as -yya in this example are sometimes described as signaling object agreement, analogous to subject agreement, they are more often thought of as object pronoun suffixes because, unlike the markers of subject agreement, they do not vary significantly with the tense/aspect/mood of the verb.  For arguments of the verb other than the subject or the object, a separate set of related suffixes have a dative, benefactive, adversative, instrumental, or locative meaning ('to', 'for', 'against', 'with', 'by', 'at').

 Suffixes such as -lla in this example will be referred to in this article as prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such as 'for her', to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such as -yya 'her'.
 Possessive suffixes
 Tigrinya has a further set of morphemes that are suffixed to either nouns or prepositions. These signal possession on a noun and prepositional object on a preposition.  They will be referred to as possessive suffixes.
 ገዛ gäza 'house', ገዛይ gäza-y 'my house', ገዛኣ gäza-'a 'her house'
 ብዛዕባ bǝza'ba 'about', ብዛዕባይ bǝza'ba-y 'about me', ብዛዕብኣ bǝza'bǝ-'a 'about her'

In each of these four aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object-pronoun suffixes, and possessive suffixes, Tigrinya distinguishes ten combinations of person, number, and gender. For first person, there is a two-way distinction between singular ('I') and plural ('we'), whereas for second and third persons, there is a four-way distinction for the four combinations of singular and plural number and masculine and feminine gender ('you m. sg.', 'you f. sg.', 'you m. pl.', 'you f. pl.', 'he', 'she', 'they m.', 'they f.').

Like other Semitic languages, Tigrinya is a pro-drop language. That is, neutral sentences, in which no element is emphasized, normally use the verb conjugation rather than independent pronouns to indicate the subject, and incorporates the object pronoun into the verb: ኤርትራዊ እዩ 'erǝtrawi 'ǝyyu 'he's Eritrean,' ዓዲመያ 'addimäyya 'I invited her'.  The Tigrinya words that translate directly as 'he' and 'I' do not appear in these sentences, while the word 'her' is indicated by the 'a' at the end of the verb (thus, the person, number, and (second or third person) gender of the subject and object are all marked by affixes on the verb).  When the subject in such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: ንሱ ኤርትራዋይ እዩ nǝssu 'erǝtraway ̈'ǝyyu 'he's Eritrean,' ኣነ ዓዲመያ anǝ 'addimäyya 'I invited her'.  When the object is emphasized, instead of an independent pronoun, the accusative marker nǝ- is used with the appropriate possessive suffix: ንኣኣ ዓዲመያ nǝ'a'a 'addimäyya 'I invited her'.

The table below shows alternatives for many of the forms. In each case, the choice depends on what precedes the form in question. For the possessive suffixes, the form depends on whether the noun or preposition ends in a vowel or a consonant, for example, ከልበይ kälb-äy 'my dog', ኣዶይ 'addo-y 'my mother'.  For the object pronoun suffixes, for most of the forms there is a "light" (non-geminated) and a "heavy" (geminated) variant, a pattern also found in a number of other Ethiopian Semitic languages, including Tigre and the Western Gurage languages.  The choice of which variant to use is somewhat complicated; some examples are given in the verb section.

Within second and third person, there is a set of additional "polite" independent pronouns, for reference to people that the speaker wishes to show respect towards.
This usage is an example of the so-called T-V distinction that is made in many languages.  The polite pronouns in Tigrinya are just the plural independent pronouns without -xat- or -at: ንስኹም nǝssǝxum 'you m. pol.', ንስኽን nǝssǝxǝn 'you f. pol.', ንሶም nǝssom 'he  pol.', ንሰን nǝssän 'she pol.'.  Although these forms are most often singular semantically — they refer to one person — they correspond to second or third person plural elsewhere in the grammar, as is common in other T-V systems.

For second person, there is also a set of independent vocative pronouns, used to call the addressee.  These are ኣታ atta (m. sg.), ኣቲ atti (f. sg.), ኣቱም attum (m. pl.), ኣተን attän.

For possessive pronouns ('mine', 'yours', etc.), Tigrinya adds the possessive suffixes to nat- (from the preposition nay 'of'): ናተይ natäy 'mine', ናትካ natka 'yours m. sg.', ናትኪ natki 'yours f. sg.', ናታ nata 'hers', etc.

Reflexive pronouns
For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Tigrinya adds the possessive suffixes to one of the nouns ርእሲ rǝ'si 'head', ነፍሲ näfsi 'soul', or ባዕሊ ba'li 'owner': ርእሰይ rǝ'säy / ነፍሰይ näfsäy / ባዕለይ ba'läy 'myself', ርእሳ rǝ'sa / ነፍሳ näfsa / ባዕላ ba'la 'herself', etc.

Demonstrative pronouns
Like English, Tigrinya makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these') and far ('that, those') demonstrative pronouns and adjectives.  Besides singular and plural, as in English, Tigrinya also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender.

Adjectives
Tigrinya adjectives may have separate masculine singular, feminine singular, and plural forms, and adjectives usually agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify.  The plural forms follow the same patterns as noun plurals; that is, they may be formed by suffixes or internal changes or a combination of the two.  Some common patterns relating masculine, feminine and plural forms of adjectives are the following.  Note that ä in the patterns becomes a after pharyngeal or glottal consonants (as elsewhere in Tigrinya).
 masculine CǝC(C)uC, feminine CǝC(C)ǝCti, plural CǝC(C)uCat

 masculine CäCCiC, feminine CäCCaC, plural CäCCäCti or CäCCaCti

 masculine and feminine the same , plural -(t)at. In the following case, the adjective is formed from adding -"am" to a noun, a feature shared with Amharic

Adjectives modifying plural animate nouns must be plural, but adjectives modifying plural inanimate nouns may be singular:

However, nouns referring to multiple entities may be singular when the context makes the plurality clear, and these singular nouns may be modified by plural adjectives:

Adjectives are used less often in Tigrinya than in English.  Most adjectives have a corresponding verb that is derived from the same consonantal root, and this verb often appears where English would have an adjective.  For example:

In particular, an adjective may be replaced by the relative perfect form of the corresponding verb:

Determiners

Demonstrative adjectives
As with the demonstrative pronouns, the Tigrinya demonstrative adjectives divide into expression for near ('this, these') and far ('that, those') referents, with separate forms for the four combinations of singular and plural number and masculine and feminine gender.
Like other adjectives, demonstrative adjectives precede the noun, but they are often accompanied by a second copy or slightly modified form that follows the noun.
The vowel beginning the form following the noun is often dropped and in writing may then be represented by an apostrophe: እዚ ሰብ'ዚ ǝzi säbzi 'this man'.

Articles
Like other Semitic languages, Tigrinya has no indefinite article (English a), but has a definite article (English the).  In Tigrinya, as in Tigre, but unlike in the Southern Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Amharic, this takes the form of a word that appears at the beginning of the noun phrase.  The definite article is derived from, and almost identical to, the distal demonstrative adjective (English 'that'), as can be seen in the table below.

When the definite article is preceded by the accusative marker/preposition ን nǝ or the preposition ብ bǝ, the vowel sequence ǝ+ǝ merges into the vowel ä: በቲ መጋዝ bäti mägaz 'with the saw'.  After other prepositions, the initial vowel of the article is often dropped: ካብቲ እተሓደረሉ ቦታ kabti ǝttäḥadärällu bota 'from the place where he spent the night'.

Verbs

In Tigrinya, as in other Semitic languages, a verb is a complex object, the result of selections by the speaker/writer along at least four separate dimensions.
 Root
 At the heart of a Semitic verb is its root, most often consisting of three consonants.   This determines the basic lexical meaning of the verb.  For example, the Tigrinya root meaning 'break' consists of the three consonants {sbr}.
 Derivational pattern
 The root may be altered in one of several ways that modify the basic meaning of the verb.  In Tigrinya there are five such possibilities (though not all are possible for each verb).  For example, the verb can be made passive: the sense 'be broken' is derived from the root {sbr} 'break' with the addition of the PASSIVE morpheme, though the form's actual realization depends on choices on other dimensions.
 Tense/Aspect/Mood
 The root must be assigned a particular basic tense/aspect/mood (TAM).  In Tigrinya there are four possibilities, conventionally referred to as perfect, imperfect, jussive/imperative, and gerundive.  Once a lexical root, possibly altered through the addition of a derivational element, has been assigned a basic TAM, it becomes a pronounceable stem, though still not a complete word.  For example, {sbr}+PASSIVE 'be broken' in the imperfect becomes sǝbbär 'is broken'.
 Conjugation
 Semitic verbs are conjugated; that is, they agree with the verb's subject in person, number, and gender.  For example, if the subject of the imperfect of the passive of {sbr} is third person plural masculine ('they'), the form becomes the word ይስበሩ yǝsǝbbäru 'they are broken'.

In addition to these basic dimensions of variation characterizing all Tigrinya verbs, there are four additional possible modifications.
 A direct object or prepositional object suffix (see #Personal pronouns) may be added to the verb.  For example, the prepositional object -läy 'for me' could be suffixed to the word ይስበሩ yǝsǝbbäru 'they are broken' to give ይስበሩለይ yǝsǝbbäruläy 'they are broken for me'.
 The verb may be negated.  This requires a prefix and sometimes a suffix.  For example, the word ይስበሩለይ yǝsǝbbäruläy 'they are broken for me' is negated by the prefixing of ay- and the suffixing of -n: ኣይስበሩለይን ayyǝsǝbbäruläyǝn 'they are not broken for me'.
 One or more morphemes including the relativizing morpheme zǝ- and various prepositions and conjunctions may be prefixed to the verb.  For example, with the relativizing prefix, the form ኣይስበሩለይን ayyǝsǝbbäruläyǝn 'they are not broken for me' becomes ዘይስበሩለይ zäyyǝsǝbbäruläy '(those) that are not broken for me'.  (The negative suffix -n does not occur in subordinate clauses.)
 The aspect of the verb may be modified through the addition of an auxiliary verb.  Auxiliaries are usually treated as separate words in Tigrinya but in some cases are written as suffixes on the main verb.  For example, with the auxiliary allo in its third person plural masculine form, the word ዘይስበሩለይ zäyyǝsǝbbäruläy '(those) that are not broken for me' takes on continuous aspect: ዘይስበሩለይ ዘለዉ zäyyǝsǝbbäruläy zälläwu '(those) which are not being broken for me'.  (The relativizing prefix zǝ- must also appear on the auxiliary.)

Prepositions
Tigrinya has both simple and compound prepositions.  The main simple prepositions are the following.

With personal pronouns as objects, the pronouns take the form of possessive suffixes. In some cases, these are suffixed to a modified version of the preposition, and for the third person forms, there may be various possibilities: ንዕኡ nǝ'ǝ'u ንእኡ  nǝ'ǝ'u ንኡ nǝ'u 'for him'.

The compound prepositions consist of one of the simple prepositions, usually ኣብ ab, followed by a relational noun or a form related to a noun.  Some compound prepositions alternate with simple prepositions consisting only of the second word: ድሕሪ dǝḥri ኣብ ድሕሪ ab dǝḥri 'after, behind', ቅድሚ qǝdmi ኣብ ቅድሚ ab qǝdmi 'before, in front of'.  Other examples: ኣብ ውሽጢ ab wǝšt'i 'inside', ኣብ ጥቓ ab t'ǝx'a 'near', ኣብ ልዕሊ ab lǝ'ǝli 'above, on',  ኣብ ትሕቲ ab tǝḥti 'below',  ኣብ ማእከል ab ma'käl 'in the middle of, among', ኣብ መንጎ ab mängo 'between'.

Bibliography

Dan'el Täxlu Räda (1996, Eth. Cal.) Zäbänawi säwasəw kʷ'ankʷ'a Təgrəñña. Mäx'älä.
Leslau, Wolf (1941) Documents tigrigna: grammaire et textes. Paris: Libraire C. Klincksieck.
Mason, John (Ed.) (1996) Säwasǝw Tǝgrǝñña, Tigrinya grammar. Lawrenceville, NJ, USA: Red Sea Press.   (, paperback)
Praetorius, F. (1871) Grammatik der Tigriñasprache in Abessinien. Halle.  (1974 reprint)
Tadross, Andrew & Abraham Teklu. (2015) The Essential Guide to Tigrinya: The Language of Eritrea and Tigray Ethiopia.

References

Grammar
Semitic grammars

Tigrinya grammar


The Namibia national inline hockey team is the national men's inline hockey team of Namibia.

The sport of inline hockey was introduced to Namibia in 1995, and the Namibia Ice and InLine Hockey Association (NIIHA) was organized to promote inline hockey, with the potential of competition in ice hockey. Although Namibia has not yet been represented in ice hockey competition, the NIIHA has, since 2005, sponsored national teams to represent Namibia internationally in inline hockey. The national team participated in the 2005 tournament in Kuopio, Finland, where it was awarded the Fair Play Trophy, the 2006 tournament in Budapest, Hungary, and the 2007 tournament in Passau, Germany.  In 2008, two 18 and under teams played in the FIRS Junior world championship, and the FIRS Ladies World championship, and a 14-years old and under team participated in AAU competition in the United States in Philadelphia.

The NIIHA has been a member of the International Ice Hockey Federation since 31 May 1998, but is not currently ranked in the IIHF World Ranking and is not actively competing in any IIHF World Championship events.

See also
Ice hockey in Africa

References
Namibia Ice and InLine Hockey Association
www.iihf.com

Inline hockey
National inline hockey teams
Inline hockey in Namibia
Men's sport in Namibia

Namibia national inline hockey team


Joel M. Stern was chairman and chief executive officer of Stern Value Management, formerly Stern Stewart & Co, and the creator and developer of economic value added. He was a recognised authority on financial economics, corporate performance measurement, corporate valuation and incentive compensation and was a pioneer and leading advocate of the concept of shareholder value. He was also active in academia, and in the media.

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After graduating from the University of Chicago's graduate program in Finance and Economics (MBA, Chicago-Booth, 1964), he joined the Chase Manhattan Bank where he ultimately ran Chase Financial Policy, their global consulting operation. During this time, he developed EVA. In 1982, after 18 years at Chase Manhattan, he started Stern Stewart.

He is the author of two books and the co-author of six others – all in financial economics. He served as the executive editor of the Journal of Applied Corporate Finance and was a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Financial Management and Analysis.

He taught at or has served on the adjunct faculties of several graduate business schools in America and abroad, including University of Maryland's Robert H. Smith School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University's Tepper School of Business, The University of Chicago (Chicago-Booth), the University of Cape Town, Singapore Management University, Universidad Francisco Marroquín, Universidad EAFIT, and the Lauder Business School.  He is also part of the Executive Advisory Committee of the William E. Simon Graduate School of Business Administration at the University of Rochester and was a member of the University of Chicago's Council on the Graduate School of Business.

His media involvements include being the financial policy columnist for the London Sunday Times and The Financial Times. He has also written for the Wall Street Journal editorial page, the New York Times and Fortune amongst others. He also has appeared on national business news programs, including Bloomberg TV's Taking Stock with Pimm Fox, CNBC Asia's Squawk Box, CNN's Moneyline and Wall Street Week, where he was a rotating panelist for 17 years.

He died on May 21, 2019.

References

External links
Joel Stern – Stern Value Management Executive Profile
Joel Stern - Articles
 University of Chicago Graduate School of Business: The Origins of EVA
 Joel Stern interviewed at UFM, Guatemala
 Joel Stern's company website, Stern Value Management
 Joel Stern's interactive online learning platform
 Economic Value Added (EVA), interview with Joel Stern

Corporate finance theorists
University of Chicago Booth School of Business alumni
American chief executives of financial services companies
Year of birth missing
2019 deaths

Joel Stern


The tradition and art of heraldry first appeared in Spain at about the beginning of the eleventh century AD and its origin was similar to other European countries: the need for knights and nobles to distinguish themselves from one another on the battlefield, in jousts and in tournaments. Knights wore armor from head to toe and were often in leadership positions, so it was essential to be able to identify them on the battlefield.

Features

The design of the arms themselves, excepting for the rules of heraldry, were up to the owner, and sometimes the design had a specific meaning or symbolism. Originally, anyone could bear (display) arms. Later, it became more of a practice for the nobility.  Until the end of the middle ages only the paternal arms were used but later both the paternal and maternal arms were displayed. The arms of the maternal and paternal grandfathers were impaled (shield cut in half vertically, showing the respective arms on each half). During the 18th and 19th centuries, the use of four quarterings came into use by the nobility (the shield was cut into four parts and the design of the arms of each grandparent was placed in each quarter).
The order of display was:
 Paternal grandfather
 Maternal grandfather
 Paternal grandmother
 Maternal grandmother

Origins and history

The Spanish nobility, unlike their other European counterparts, was based almost entirely on military service.  Few families of eminence came from the law, commerce or the church. The great families of Spain and Portugal fought their way to their rank, which allowed commoners to join the ranks of the nobility through loyal and successful military service. Many poor families came to prominence and wealth quickly as a result of their successful military exploits.  In Spanish heraldry, arms are a symbol of lineage and a symbol of the family as well.  Spanish arms are inheritable like any other form of property.

Descent of Spanish arms

The descent of Spanish arms and titles differs from much of Europe in that they can be inherited through females.  Also, illegitimacy did not prevent the descent of arms and titles. The great Spanish families believed that a family pedigree could be more damaged by misalliance than by illegitimacy.  Indeed, the patents of nobility of many Spanish families contained bequeathals to illegitimate branches in case no legitimate heirs were found.  Illegitimacy in Spain was divided into three categories.

 Natural children: Those born of single or widowed parents who could be legitimized by the marriage of their parents or by a declaration by their father that they were his heirs.
 Spurious children: Those whose parents were not in a position to marry. These children had to be legitimized by a petition of royal ratification.
 Incestuous children: Those born of parents too closely related to marry or who were under a religious vow.  These hijos required a papal dispensation in order to inherit their parent's arms or property. These papal dispensations were granted so often that every diocese in Spain had signed blanks ready to affix the appropriate name.

Style and practice
Spanish heraldry style and practice follows the Iberian branch of the Latin heraldry tradition, that also includes the Portuguese heraldry, with which it shares many features. The most common shape of heraldic shield used in Spain is the Iberian style (also referred as "Peninsular", "Spanish" or "Portuguese") which has a simple shape, square on top and round at the bottom. The charges shown on Spanish armorial bearings can depict historical events or deeds of war. They are also characterized by a widespread use of orles and borders around the edge of the shield. In addition to borders, Spain and Portugal marshal arms more conventionally by quartering. The Iberian heraldry also allows words and letters on the shield itself, a practice which is considered incorrect in northern Europe. While crests are common in Portugal, they are more rare in Spain, with the helmets of Spanish coats of arms being instead usually topped by feathers.

Definitions

The "coat" of arms, or more correctly the achievement, in Spain is composed of the shield, a cape which can be simply drawn or ornate, a helmet (optional) or a Crown if for a member of the nobility and a motto (optional).  In Spanish heraldry, that which is placed on the shield itself is the most important.

In English, Scottish and Irish heraldry one can find many additional accessories not often found or used in Spanish heraldry.  They can include, in addition to the shield, a helmet, mantling (cloth cape), wreath (a circle of silk with gold and silver cord twisted around and placed to cover the joint between the helmet and crest), the crest, the motto, chapeau, supporters (animals real or fictitious or people holding up the shield), the compartment (what the supporters are standing on), standards and Ensigns (personal flags), Coronets of rank, insignia of orders of chivalry and badges. In general, the older the arms, the simpler or plainer is the achievement.

Military heraldic coronets

Regulation

The Chronicler King of Arms in the Kingdoms of Spain was a civil servant who had the authority to grant armorial bearings. The office of the King of Arms in Spain originated from those of the heralds ().  In the early days of heraldry, anyone could bear arms and there arose disputes between individuals and families.  These disputes were originally settled by the King, in the case of a dispute between nobles or by a lower ranked official when the dispute involved non-nobles.  Eventually, the task of settling these disputes was passed on to officials called heralds who were originally responsible for setting up tournaments and carrying messages from one noble to another.

The Spanish Cronista de Armas heraldic office dates back to the 16th century. But prior to that, heralds were usually named after provinces and non-capital cities, whilst reyes de armas were named after the Spanish kingdoms. Various chroniclers of arms were named for Spain, Castile, León, Frechas, Seville, Córdoba, Murcia, Granada (created in 1496), Estella, Viana, Navarre, Catalonia, Sicily, Aragon, Naples, Toledo, Valencia and Majorca. While these appointments were not hereditary, at least fifteen Spanish families produced more than one herald each in the past five hundred years (compared to about the same number for England, Scotland and Ireland collectively). The Spanish Cronistas had judicial powers in matters of noble titles. They also served as an accreditation office for pedigrees and grants of arms.

The post of King of Arms took several forms and eventually settled on a Corps of Chronicler King of Arms (Cuerpo de Cronista Rey de Armas) which was headed by an Elder or Dean (Decano).  It usually consisted of four officers and two assistants or undersecretaries which usually acted as witnesses to documents. The entire corps wore a distinctive uniform. The corps were considered part of the royal household and was generally responsible to the Master of the King's stable (an important position in the Middle Ages).

Appointments to the Corps of King of Arms were made by the King or reigning Queen. These appointments were for life and while not intended to be hereditary, often went from father to son or other close family member. The Spanish heralds had other duties which pertained to matters of protocol and often acted as royal messengers and emissaries. They could, and can, make arrangements for areas currently or previously under the rule of the Spanish crown

The precise functions and duties of the King of Arms were clearly defined by the declarations of several Kings and are still in force today. In modern times the Corps of Chronicler King of Arms went through several changes. Important changes were made in 1915, it was abolished in 1931 and restored in 1947–1951.  The last Chronicler Kings of Arms appointed by the Spanish Ministry of Justice was Don Vicente de Cadenas y Vicent, died in 2005. The government of the autonomous community of Castile and León has appointed Don Alfonso Ceballos-Escalera y Gil, Marques de la Floresta and Vizconde de Ayala as (Chronicler of Arms for Castile and León). Don Alfonso also serves as personal heraldic officer to the King of Spain. Formerly, everything that the Spanish heralds do must be approved by the Ministry of Justice. However, more recent legislation has established the Cronista de Castile and León as the modern equivalent of the Spanish King of Arms with the authority to make grants of arms to citizens of Spain and individuals from families associated with its former colonies without reference to the Ministry of Justice.

National and civic arms

Like most European countries, Spain has a national coat of arms. Many cities also have civic coats of arms; some are recent grants, others date back to the medieval period. Toledo, in previous periods the most important city of Spain, has a particularly elaborate coat of arms; it uses the double-headed eagle of the Holy Roman Empire as supporter on its coat of arms; this represents its former importance and power. Madrid, the capital, has a less elaborate coat of arms, depicting a bear taking fruit from a tree.

Coats of arms are regularly depicted on various buildings and objects belonging to national or local government; in Madrid, even such unglamorous objects as manhole covers are decorated with the civic coat of arms.

Personal arms
Some ancient Spanish families bear personal arms. The Dukes of Alba, historically among the most powerful noble families in Europe, bear an elaborate achievement of arms, featuring the 'arms of justice' symbolising their hereditary office as Constables of Navarre. The monarch and the heir apparent have their own personal coats of arms.

Heraldic regulation

Spain originally had a corporation of heralds (Spanish 'cronistas de armas') linked with the royal palace. However, the Spanish body of heralds was abolished in 1931 with the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic. Since the restoration of Juan Carlos I in 1975, Spain's first post-republican herald has been appointed.

As in other European nations, arms are regulated, and it is unlawful to assume arms belonging to someone else.

Spanish coats of arms are divided in the same fashion used by other European countries. Since coats of arms were granted to new separate families, there was the need to join multiple coats of arms into one when a new branch of a family was formed. Thus Spanish escutcheons are commonly parted.

The tradition of differentiating between the coat of arms proper and a lozenge granted to women did not develop in Spain. Both men and women inherited a coat of arms from their fathers (or a member of a clan who had adopted them). In the case of women they could also adopt the arms of their husbands.

Tinctures

Examples of Spanish heraldry overseas

Current

Historical

Spanish Empire

Overseas Provinces

See also

Armorial of Spain
Armorial of Spanish monarchs in Italy
Armorial of the Spanish Armed Forces
Flag of Spain
List of Spanish flags
Symbols of Francoism

References

Spanish Heraldry. A work by Al Sosa

External links

 Francisco Franco, Decreto del 13 de abril de 1951.
 Decreto 105/1991, (Boletín Oficial de Castilla y León de 16 May 1991)
Royal Society of Armigers of Spain

Spanish heraldry


Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann (30 May 1797 – 26 November 1873), also known as Karl Friedrich Naumann, was a German mineralogist and geologist. The crater Naumann on the Moon is named after him.

Life
Naumann was born at Dresden, the son of a distinguished musician and composer. He received his early education at Pforta, studied at Freiberg under Werner, and afterwards at Leipzig and Jena. He graduated at Jena, and was occupied in 1823 in teaching in that town and in 1824 at Leipzig. In 1826 he succeeded Mohs as professor of crystallography, in 1835 he became professor also of geognosy at Freiberg; and in 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geognosy in the University of Leipzig. At Freiberg he was charged with the preparation of a geological map of Saxony, which he carried out with the aid of Bernhard von Cotta in 1846.

Naumann was a man of encyclopedic knowledge, lucid and fluent as a teacher. Early in life (1821-1822) he traveled  in Norway, and his observations on that country, and his subsequent publications on crystallography, mineralogy and geology. His sketches were admired by Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Gustav Carus, who copied them to use as material for their paintings. In 1869, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1873. He died at Leipzig that year.

He published Beiträge zur Kenntniss Norwegens (2 vols., 1824); Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (1828); Lehrbuch der reinen und angewandten Krystallographie (2 vols. and atlas, 1830); Elemente der Mineralogie (1846; ed. 9, 1874; the 10th ed. by F. Zirkel, 1877); and Lehrbuch der Geognosie (2 vols. and atlas, 1849-1854, ed. 2, 1858-1872).

References

1797 births
1873 deaths
Scientists from Dresden
People from the Electorate of Saxony
19th-century German geologists
Leipzig University alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Wollaston Medal winners

Georg Amadeus Carl Friedrich Naumann


The Kelvin scale (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature. It is named in honour of the physicist William Thomson, the first Lord Kelvin (1824–1907).
0 degree Celsius = 273 kelvin

Definition

The Kelvin scale is defined by a specific relationship between the pressure of a gas and the temperature. This says that "the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the temperature in Kelvin". This means that Kelvin is an absolute temperature scale, and scientists use this scale more than any other.

The kelvin is a base SI unit of measurement, since 2018 defined by setting the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to 1.380649×10−23 J⋅K−1.

The temperature of the triple point of water is a hundredth of a degree Celsius above the freezing point, or 0.01 °C. The coldest possible temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273.15 degrees Celsius, or zero kelvin (0 K). By writing temperatures in kelvins one does not need to use negative numbers.

The absolute temperature scale was designed so that a change in temperature of 1 kelvin is equal to a change of 1 degree Celsius. This means that it is easy to convert a temperature from degrees Celsius to kelvin.
 To change a temperature in degrees Celsius into Kelvins you must add 273.15 units. For example, 0 degrees Celsius (0 °C), which is the temperature at which water freezes, is 273.15 kelvins (273.15 K).
 To change a temperature in Kelvins into degrees Celsius you must subtract 273.15 units. For example, 310 kelvins is 36.85 degrees Celsius, which is roughly the normal temperature of a human body.

It is important to notice that the name of this unit is simply kelvin (with a lowercase initial), not "degree Kelvin". In English, it undergoes normal plural inflection as kelvins. For example, the boiling point of liquid nitrogen is 77 kelvins.

In everyday use, the kelvin is most commonly used to measure very low or very high temperatures, such as the temperature of liquid nitrogen or the temperature of a light bulb filament.

References

Related pages
 Temperature
 Celsius

SI units
Units of temperature

Kelvin


Benefactor is a video game for the Amiga developed by the Swedish team Digital Illusions CE (DICE) and published in 1994 by Psygnosis.

Gameplay

Benefactor is a mix between a puzzle game and a platform game. It has a similar concept to Psygnosis's earlier, very successful Lemmings.

The player plays Ben E. Factor, who has resigned from the military to become an overall all-around good guy. Factor's mission is to save a group of "Merry Men", who have been kidnapped from their home planet and imprisoned over 60 levels.

Ben E. Factor is controlled directly, like a platform game character. Factor has to avoid all enemy creatures (hitting them would reduce health), and pull switches to extend the land, or many other things. Factor can find keys on the level to open the locks in the Merry Men's cells. When freed, a Merry Man automatically proceeds on a pre-set mission, with the aid of helping Factor to free the other Merry Men and complete the level. Once all Merry Men on a level have been freed, Factor has to go back to his starting point to complete the level. Although colliding with monsters reduces Factor's health, Merry Men are not harmed by monsters.

There are three difficulty levels: easy, normal and hard. On easy, enemies do less damage. On hard enemies do more damage and any damage taken is carried over to the next level. Score is gained by picking up bonus items and at the end of each level score is awarded based on how much health the player has got left.

In later levels, some of the Merry Men are "evil". "Evil" Merry Men, distinguished by their monochrome appearance, do not follow any preset pattern but instead walk blindly forwards, like the lemmings in the Lemmings games, without regard to dangers lying in their path. "Evil" Merry Men have to be turned into "good" Merry Men by dropping a bucket of paint over them before they can be rescued.

There is no "lives" counter in the game, meaning the player can make unlimited attempts. There is also a password displayed at the completion of each level allowing the player to continue playing from the start of the next level.

Benefactor has support for data disks but no official data disks for it have ever been published. (One unofficial data disk with seven new levels is available for download on Aminet.)

In keeping with Psygnosis's tradition of including references to earlier games, Benefactor includes a level called Lemmings? in which Ben E. Factor has to clear a path for twenty "evil" Merry Men marching blindly forwards across a series of pillars. This level is a reference to the game Lemmings and even the music comes from that game. This is the only level where "evil" Merry Men can use the exit without first becoming "good".

Development
During development, Frederick Lilligren of DICE noted that Benefactors gameplay had been compared to that of Lemmings. In Amiga Powers May 1993 issue, it had a projected release date of September.

Release
A version for the Mega Drive was planned but never released.

References

External links
Benefactor at HOL
Benefactor at Lemon Amiga

1994 video games
Amiga games
Amiga-only games
Cancelled Sega Genesis games
Amiga CD32 games
Digital Illusions CE games
Platform games
Psygnosis games
Video games developed in Sweden
Video games scored by Olof Gustafsson

Benefactor (video game)


In chess, the Monticelli Trap is a combination  in the Bogo–Indian Defence, named for Italian champion Mario Monticelli from the game Monticelli versus Prokeš, Budapest 1926. Although it is called a  trap because White wins the exchange, Black does obtain some compensation.

The trap begins with the moves:
1. d4 Nf6
2. c4 e6
3. Nf3 Bb4+

Black plays the Bogo–Indian Defence.
4. Bd2 Bxd2+
5. Qxd2 b6
6. g3 Bb7
7. Bg2 O-O
8. Nc3 Ne4
9. Qc2 Nxc3
10. Ng5! (see diagram)

Discussion
White threatens mate with 11.Qxh7# as well as 11.Bxb7 winning a bishop and a rook. After either 10...Ne4 11.Bxe4 or 10...Qxg5 11.Bxb7, Black loses the exchange, but obtains compensation in the form of one or more pawns and possibly a weakened white king. It is unclear if the position is a forced win for White.

Former world champion José Raúl Capablanca allowed 10.Ng5 twice in consecutive games as Black against Max Euwe in Amsterdam, 1931, drawing both times. The second game continued:

10...Ne4 11.Bxe4 Bxe4 12.Qxe4 Qxg5 13.Qxa8 Nc6 14.Qb7 Nxd4 15.Rd1 c5 16.e3 Nc2+ 17.Kd2 Qf5 18.Qg2 Nb4 19.e4 Qf6 20.Kc1 Nxa2+ 21.Kb1 Nb4 22.Rxd7 Nc6 23.f4 e5 24.Rhd1 Nd4 25.Rxa7 exf4 26.gxf4 Qxf4 27.Re1 Nf3 28.Re2 Nd4 29.Re1 ½–½

The line has been played several times over the years at the highest levels, including Portisch–Andersson 1983, which ended in a draw, and Aronian–Postny 2005, which White won. The offer of the exchange has in fact been refused by White in grandmaster games (either by 10.Qxc3 or 10.Ng5 Ne4 11.Bxe4 Bxe4 12.Nxe4).

See also
 List of chess openings named after people

References
Notes

Bibliography

Chess traps
1926 in chess

Bogo-Indian Defence, Monticelli Trap


Keith Lemon: The Film is a 2012 British comedy film written and directed by Paul Angunawela, and co-written by and starring Leigh Francis as television personality Keith Lemon. The film co-stars Verne Troyer as his guardian angel (In his final film appearance before his death in April 2018), Archimedes, Kevin Bishop as his best friend, Dougie, Laura Aikman as Keith's girlfriend Rosie and Kelly Brook as herself. The film also features a selection of celebrity cameos, including appearances by David Hasselhoff, Ronan Keating, Gary Barlow, Peter Andre, Fearne Cotton, Emma Bunton and Jedward, amongst others.

The film's plot surrounds Lemon's rags to riches story, after achieving success on the basis of a mobile phone with a lemon sweet stuck on the back. It received a rare 0% on Rotten Tomatoes and is considered by critics to be one of the worst movies ever made. On 13 January 2014, Francis confirmed that the writing of a sequel had been completed. He also announced at the 2015 National Television Awards on 21 January 2015 that the sequel had been pushed back and that he would instead focus on other projects.

Plot
Keith Lemon (Leigh Francis) is an aspiring business entrepreneur from Leeds, who is trying to secure investment for his invention, the Securipole (a metal pole put in the driveway to prevent car theft). He travels to London to present the Securipole at an inventor's convention, putting his friend Dougie (Kevin Bishop) in charge of his business while he is away. Keith's girlfriend Rosie (Laura Aikman) advises that he should start the Securipole business slowly and try to sell some poles in Leeds first, but Keith is too eager for the Securipole to be an overnight success and ignores her.

At the convention, Keith's demonstration of the Securipole fails to attract investors and leaves the public underwhelmed. Keith is devastated by his failure, but is approached by another entrepreneur named Kushvinder (Harish Patel), who offers to give him rights to his own unsuccessful invention, a touch-screen mobile phone without buttons, which Keith reluctantly accepts. In Leeds, a shipment of one million Securipoles arrives at Keith's office, to Rosie and Dougie's dismay. Before going to London, Keith had ordered the Securipoles (his dyscalculia leading him to believe that he had only ordered one thousand), from a benefactor named Evil Steve (Leigh Francis), who is notorious for torturing and even killing clients who fail to pay him. Rosie and Dougie are unable to pay for the poles or contact Keith, so Evil Steve kidnaps Rosie. Before she is taken away, she orders Dougie to travel to London and find Keith.

After Keith is attacked by a group of muggers, a talking satellite navigation app on Kushvinder's phone leads him to the office of Archimedes (Verne Troyer), an advice guru who tries to solve the problems of those in need. Archimedes hears out Keith's plight and manages to get him an appearance on a television chat show hosted by David Hasselhoff (playing an exaggerated version of himself). On the show, Keith tries to promote Kushvinder's phone, but the audience is uninterested. Thinking quickly, he sticks a lemon-shaped sweet on the phone, making it look like it has a lemon on the cover, which immediately impresses the audience. The "Lemon Phone" becomes an overnight success, and Keith is instantly propelled into the life he has always wanted. He becomes a household name, earns billions of pounds from the Lemon Phone, and starts dating Kelly Brook (playing an exaggerated version of herself) who, unbeknownst to Keith, is only dating him so she can divorce him and take his money later. Despite Archimedes' advice however, Keith prefers his new celebrity lifestyle and decides not to return to Leeds, the Securipole business or Rosie.

Keith hosts a toga party at a luxury venue, but during the party he is confronted by Dougie, who tells him Evil Steve has kidnapped Rosie and is going to kill her unless he pays for the Securipoles. Refusing to listen and no longer caring about what he left behind in Leeds, Keith dismisses Dougie and throws him out. This angers Archimedes, who also leaves. Going back to Leeds, Dougie decides to rescue Rosie himself, dressing up as Rambo and storming into Evil Steve's warehouse lair, but his plan fails when he accidentally knocks himself out on a metal bar. Back at the party, as Keith and Kelly take to the stage to sing together, the Lemon Phone is suddenly revealed to have a major technical fault that causes the owner's mouth to sag, giving them a speech impediment. The mouths of everyone who were using the phone immediately sag, including those of Kelly and some of Keith's celebrity friends. Outraged, the crowd at the party turn on Keith and chase him on to the roof of the building. Realising the error of his ways, Keith finds Archimedes and begs for forgiveness, but Kelly and the angry mob force him over the balcony. As he falls to the ground, he is saved by Archimedes, who reveals that he is a guardian angel, and explains that he put Keith through this experience to teach him not to ignore his friends and loved ones in the pursuit of success.

Archimedes flies Keith back to Leeds, dropping him over Evil Steve's lair and proceeding to Heaven. Keith falls through the roof, causing rubble to fall on top of Evil Steve, and rescues Rosie from being lowered into a vat of liquid hot metal. He apologises to his friends for ignoring them, and proposes to Rosie. At first, Rosie is angered by Keith's actions and refuses to forgive him (especially when Keith off-handedly confesses that Kelly Brook was the superior girlfriend), but she soon accepts both his apology and proposal, and with their relationship repaired, Keith, Rosie and Dougie leave the warehouse. During the end credits, Keith explains through a voice-over that he settled down and had a family with Rosie, and converted the Securipoles into water pumps for countries in the "Fourth World".

Cast
 Leigh Francis as Keith Lemon, Craig David, Mel B, Evil Steve, The Bear and Avid Merrion
 Verne Troyer as Archimedes
 Kevin Bishop as Dougie
 Laura Aikman as Rosie
 Kelly Brook as herself
 Harish Patel as Kushvinder
 Nina Wadia as Pat
 Paddy McGuinness as Gary
 Graeme Keast as Crazy audience member (Hoff Hour)

Celebrity cameos

 Peter Andre
 Gary Barlow
 Fearne Cotton
 Emma Bunton
 Melanie Chisholm
 Gino D'Acampo
 Jason Donovan
 David Hasselhoff
 Jedward
 Vernon Kay
 Ronan Keating
 Chris Moyles
 Billy Ocean
 Rizzle Kicks
 Phillip Schofield
 Tinchy Stryder
 Holly Willoughby
 Denise van Outen

Reception

Critical response
The film was universally panned. Rotten Tomatoes gave it a rare 0% score, based on twelve reviews.

In a one-star review in The Daily Telegraph, Robbie Collin said "it may be the most staggeringly perfunctory piece of filmmaking I have ever seen." Phelim O'Neill, in another one-star review for The Guardian, said "the script ... must have taken longer to read than it did to write." In writing for Total Film, George Bass describes the funniest moment in the film as "a bus sign ("T'LEEDS"). Six letters and an apostrophe. Save yourself the ticket."

In a scathing review, Mark Kermode described the film as "unbelievably puerile" and "shockingly terrible", saying that he had found the experience of digging a five pence coin from the armrest of his chair less revolting than the film. He later placed it at number one on his worst films of 2012 list and, in 2018, at number five of his worst movies of the past ten years.

Box office
The movie debuted at #5 at the UK Box Office, earning £1,196,310 in revenue. In its opening weekend, the film was the highest ranking debut film at the box office. During its second weekend, the movie dropped to #9, earning £370,735, for a two-week total gross of £2,531,902. It went on to make a total of £4,017,234.

Awards

The film won three BARFTA awards (a spoof award given to poorly-reviewed films, similar to the Razzies);
Worst Film, Worst Dialogue and Worst Female Acting Performance.

Distribution
Keith Lemon: The Film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the UK on 10 December 2012. The set includes an uncut version of the film which was not shown in cinemas.

References

External links

2012 films
2012 comedy films
British comedy films
Films based on television series
Films shot in Northern Ireland
Films shot in London
Films set in London
Lionsgate films
2010s English-language films
2010s British films

Keith Lemon: The Film


Joseph Robinson (ca. 1742 – August 24, 1807) was an American-born lawyer, judge and political figure on Prince Edward Island. He served in the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island from 1790 to 1794.

He was born in the Province of Virginia and later moved to South Carolina. He was a major and later lieutenant-colonel in the Loyalist militia during the American Revolutionary War and fought at the Battle of Ninety-Six Court-House in 1775. At the end of the war, he first settled in Jamaica, then New Brunswick and finally went to St John's Island (later renamed Prince Edward Island), in 1789 at the invitation of governor Edmund Fanning. In 1790, he was named an assistant judge in the Supreme Court. In the same year, he was elected to the assembly. He served as speaker from 1790 to 1794, when he resigned his seat after being named to the Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island. In 1796, he published the pamphlet To the farmers in the Island of St. John, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which raised the issue of absentee landlords who failed to pay their quit rents. In 1797, Robinson resigned his seat on the bench to become a practising attorney. He died in Charlottetown in 1807.

He was a slave owner.

References

Speakers of the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island
Members of the Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island
Judges in Prince Edward Island
1807 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
United Empire Loyalists
Colony of Prince Edward Island judges

Joseph Robinson (loyalist)


The Like Minded-Group of Developing Countries (LMDC) is a group of developing countries who organise themselves as a block negotiators in international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization, they represent more than 50% of the world's
population.

According to a statement by the Chinese diplomat Sha Zukang in 2005, the member countries of the Like Minded Group are Algeria, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bhutan, China, Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe.

However, following the LMDC countries who negotiate in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change fora, the members are Algeria, Bangladesh, Bolivia, China, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Mali, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Venezuela and Vietnam.

Members

References

External links
 Written submission on Elements of the 2015 Agreed Outcome of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
 LMDC Opening Plenary Statement in the ADP 2.1 of the UNFCCC
 Written statement submitted by South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre
 Written statement submitted by South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre
 Statement by H.E. Ambassador SHA Zukang, on behalf of the Like Minded Group, at the Meeting between the President of the General Assembly and the Commission on Human Rights
 India hosts meeting of LMDC countries

Intergovernmental organizations
United Nations coalitions and unofficial groups

Like-Minded Developing Countries


Hugo Chávez, the President of Venezuela, died on 5 March 2013. He was 58 years old. Because of his death, the Venezuelan constitution required an election for a new president to be held within 30 days. Vice President Nicolás Maduro became temporary president. On 14 April, he was officially elected.

Chávez' funeral was held on 8 March. Maduro originally said that Chávez' body would be embalmed and permanently displayed in a glass coffin at a military museum. However, on 13 March Maduro announced that this would not happen. This was because the government could not get prepared in the short time that had passed. Maduro extended the National Mourning for four days more, to eleven days. By the end of this, Chávez' body was moved to the Museum of the Revolution at Fort Montana. This had been where Chávez had tried to overthrow the government in 1992.

Chávez's body was never embalmed. He was buried at a cemetery in Venezuela.

References

21st century in Venezuela
Chavez
March events
2013 in South America

Death and funeral of Hugo Chávez


An episode is a singular part of a story, radio or television program. Episodes often follow in an order. They are often 20 to 40 minutes long, and follow the same storyline.

Origin of the word
Episode comes from the Greek word epeisodion which refers to the spoken words between two songs in a Greek tragedy. The word was first used in English in 1773 to mean an "outstanding incident, experience." By the 1930s, the word was used to refer to each broadcast of a radio program that was part of a series.

References

Television
Radio
Books

Episode


The Municipalities o Colombie is decentralisit subdiveesions o the Republic o Colombie.  Municipalities mak up maist o the depairtments o Colombie wi 1,102 municipalities (municipios). Ilkane is led bi a mayor (alcalde) elect bi popular vote an represents the maximum executive govrenment offeecial at a municipality level unner the mandate o the govrenor o their depairtment that is a representative o aw municipalities in the depairtment; municipalities is groupit tae shape depairtments.

The municipalities o Colombie is groupit in an associe cried the Federación Colombiana de Municipios (Colombie Federation o Municipalities) an aw, that functions as a union unner the private law an unner the constitutional richt tae free association tae defend their common interests.

References

Freemit airtins
  Colombie Federation o Municipalities

Subdiveesions o Colombie
Colombie, Municipalities o

Municipalities o Colombie


Otep (also written as OTEP or OT3P) is an American nu metal band. The band was started in 2000 in Los Angeles by Otep Shamaya.

History
After a few shows Otep were signed to Capitol Records. On June 18, 2002 Otep's first album Sevas Tra was released. House of Secrets was released July 27, 2004. On October 30, 2007 Otep's third album The Ascension was released. Otep's fourth album Smash the Control Machine was released on August 18, 2009. Atavist was released on 26 April 2011. On November 6, 2012, Otep released their first live album, Sounds Like Armageddon. The band's sixth studio album Hydra was released on January 22, 2013. In an interview Otep said that it is the band's last album.

References

2000 establishments in the United States
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
Nu metal bands

Otep


Lloyd Barnes (born 1944 in Jamaica), popularly known as Bullwackie, is a reggae music producer and the founder of the independent record label Wackies, which specialized in Jamaican music.

Career
Barnes was a protégé of Prince Buster, and recorded several singles during the 1960s. Lloyd Barnes worked for Duke Reid's Treasure Isle label as an engineer before emigrating to The Bronx, New York, in the early 1970s. Here he founded the Wackie's House Of Music record store, and behind this shop-front was the first significant reggae studio and label in the United States. The Bullwackie's and Wackies labels followed, along with other imprints such as Senrab, Hamma, and Senta.

Barnes also recorded the group Aksumites, including recordings by Andrew McCalla and Joe Aksumite, two of the group members who have recorded with him since the inception of Wackie's House of Music, and during the late 1970s and early 1980s he produced artists such as Horace Andy, Sugar Minott, Junior Byles, Roland Alphonso, Tyrone Evans, and Lee "Scratch" Perry. Later productions included work by Jackie Mittoo. Barnes also operated a sound system, which he used as an outlet for the Wackies recordings.

Barnes presently resides in the Wakefield neighborhood in the New York City borough of the Bronx, where he owns and operates a music studio.

References

Jamaican record producers
Dub musicians
1944 births
Living people

Lloyd Barnes


107 Piccadilly is a Grade-II listed building on Piccadilly and Lena Street in Manchester, England. Situated near Piccadilly Gardens, it was originally built as a packing warehouse and showroom with offices for cotton manufacturer Sparrow Hardwick & Company.

It was designed by influential Mancunian architect Charles Heathcote in a lively Jacobean-Baroque style. The building was completed in 1899. The exterior consists of red sandstone and red brick. The five-storey building has an eye-catching central gable on the front façade reminiscent of Jacobean architecture. The use of arched and square windows give the building a playful appearance. The building gained Grade-II listing in 1974. It has since been converted to an Abode Hotel and restaurant.

See also

Listed buildings in Manchester-M1

References

Grade II listed buildings in Manchester
Baroque Revival architecture
Industrial buildings completed in 1899
Grade II listed industrial buildings
1899 establishments in England

107 Piccadilly


Essential Logic are an English post-punk band formed in 1978 by saxophonist Lora Logic after leaving X-Ray Spex. The band initially consisted of Lora on vocals, Phil Legg on guitar and vocals, William Bennett (later of Whitehouse) on guitar, Mark Turner on bass guitar, Rich Tea (Richard Thompson) on drums and Dave Wright on saxophone. Turner was later replaced by Sean Oliver (later of Rip, Rig & Panic) on bass. The band split in 1981 and reformed in 2001.

History
They formed in 1978 with Logic fresh out of art school. Their first 7" was released on their own record label, Cells. They released a self-titled EP on Virgin Records in 1979, before signing to Rough Trade. Their debut studio album, Beat Rhythm News, was released in 1979, followed by several 7"s before the band split in 1980.

Between 1978 and 1981, Logic also performed as a member of Red Crayola, as well as playing on recordings by Kollaa Kestää, The Stranglers, The Raincoats and Swell Maps.

Lora Logic released a solo LP, Pedigree Charm, in 1982 on the Rough Trade label. Soon afterwards, she gave up recording and performing when she turned to the Hare Krishna religion, though she did record and perform under the X-Ray Spex name again when they reformed in 1995.

She resumed with Essential Logic in 2001, and released a four-track EP of new material. The new line-up included ex-members of the ska group Bad Manners and guitarist Gary Valentine of Blondie. A year later, a further four tracks from a recording session in 1998 were made available from the website, Vitaminic.

In 2003, an anthology of Essential Logic recordings was issued, entitled Fanfare in the Garden, on the Kill Rock Stars record label. In 2022 the band released its second studio album, Land of Kali.

Discography
 Albums

 Singles & EPs

References

External links
 Essential Logic at AllMusic

English post-punk music groups
English new wave musical groups
Musical groups established in 1978
Musical groups disestablished in 1981
Musical groups reestablished in 1981

Essential Logic


Amedeo P. Giorgi is an American psychologist known for his contributions to phenomenology and humanistic psychology. He developed the Descriptive Phenomenological Method in Psychology.

Career
Giorgi received his PhD in experimental psychology from Fordham University in 1958. After working as a human factors consultant to government and industry for several years, Giorgi moved into an academic career, beginning at Manhattan College, followed by Duquesne University, and later the University of Quebec at Montreal.

He is a professor at Saybrook University in San Francisco, with which he has been associated since 1986. Becoming critical of mainstream psychology after obtaining his PhD, Giorgi began to seek alternative approaches to the study of psychological material. In so doing, he studied philosophical phenomenology, especially the work of Edmund Husserl and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and adopted that approach as a framework for developing an alternative approach to the understanding of psychological problems. Giorgi's speciality is in the area of psychological research practices, especially qualitative research approaches. He is the developer of a phenomenological method (The Descriptive Phenomenological Method in Psychology) based on the thought of Husserl and Merleau-Ponty. He has directed over 100 dissertations that have used the method on a wide variety of psychological problems, and he has published over 100 articles on the phenomenological approach to psychology. Giorgi has lectured on phenomenological psychology in Europe, Asia, Latin America, Australia and South Africa. He is the founder and original editor (for over 25 years) of the Journal of Phenomenological Psychology and is author of the classic text 'Psychology as a Human Science: A Phenomenologically based Approach' (New York: Harper & Row, 1970). In addition, he has published, inter alia, 'Phenomenology and Psychological Research' (Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 1985 - Editor) and 'Qualitative Research in Psychology' (Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 1986 - Editor, with P. D. Ashworth & A. J. J. de Koning).

Giorgi and Adrian Van Kaam were founding members of the "Duquesne School" of psychology, where he began formalizing phenomenological methods for psychology. He was a key figure in the history of the humanistic psychology movement, alongside such notable pioneers as Carl Rogers and Fritz Perls. He is a noted historian of the field of psychology, particularly alternative strands.

In May 2010, he was the invited speaker of the annual conference of the Interdisciplinary Coalition of North American Phenomenologists.

References

Living people
21st-century American psychologists
Phenomenologists
Saybrook University faculty
Year of birth missing (living people)

Amedeo Giorgi


Opera (Inglis plural: operas; Italian plural: opere) is a form o theatre in that muisic haes a leadin role an the pairts are takken bi sangsters. Such a 'wark' (the leeteral translation o 'opera') is teepically a collaboration atween a componer an a librettist an incorporates a nummer o the performin airts, sic as actin, scenery, costumes an whiles dance or ballet. The performance is teepically gien in an opera hoose, accompanied bi an orchestra or smawer muisical ensemble, that syne the early 19t century haes been led bi a conductor.

Notes

Opera history
Muisical forms
Italian wirds an phrases

Opera


Media Piracy in Emerging Economies is a report released by the Social Science Research Council in 2011. It contends that "high prices for media goods, low incomes, and cheap digital technologies are the main ingredients of global media piracy. If piracy is ubiquitous in most parts of the world, it is because these conditions are ubiquitous."

Reception
The Guardian'''s Cory Doctorow commented that "This report and its researchers are rare examples of academic rigour in a world of special pleading and cooked industry statistics." Computerworld UK blogger Glyn Moody wrote that "Given the scope and rigour of this report, I think it will go down as a decisive moment when the discourse around piracy changed fundamentally, with the content industries being forced, finally, to explain and justify their methodologies, rather than simply stating their claimed results." Reuters' blogger Felix Salmon also hailed it as "The best report ever on media piracy". Canadian academic Michael Geist, writing in the Toronto Star, found that "While setting the record straight on piracy myths is valuable, the report's most important contribution comes from chronicling how piracy is primarily a function of market failure." Gilberto Gil, former culture minister of Brazil, was quoted saying the study is "required reading for anyone concerned with copyright and enforcement, or with the challenges of cultural globalization".

Magellan Media's founder Brian O'Leary invited to comment by O'Reilly Radar blogger Jenn Webb, was only in partial agreement with the report, noting that "Concerns about convenience, availability and usability (the absence of onerous rights restrictions) factor into individual decisions about what and whether to pirate media products. This doesn't refute the Social Science Research Council's claim that higher prices in lower-wealth countries can lead to piracy. It does suggest that it may not be enough to just lower prices. I do agree fully with the SSRC's conclusion that enforcement has limited impact." Ars Technica'''s Nate Anderson emphasized that the SSRC "report debunks alleged link between piracy and terrorism" put forward by a 2009 report of the RAND Corporation and funded by the motion picture business.

References

External links
 Report page at SSRC
 Talk given by its editor, Joe Karaganis at the Berkman Center (includes video)
 The Simple Economics of Piracy (Or, Would You Pay $136 for Tron Legacy?) article by Karaganis in The Huffington Post; comment by Reihan Salam
 Interview with Karaganis by Felix Salmon

Copyright infringement
2011 non-fiction books

Media Piracy in Emerging Economies


The Karlal (Urdu: کرڑال also known as Kard'al, Karaal, Karhral, or Kiraal) is a Hindko-speaking tribe in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.  The majority of the tribe is found mainly in Abbottabad District, inhabiting the hilly area of the Galyat and the Nara tract. A minority are also settled in the Haripur District.

Early history
The tribe trace their descent from a Sardar Kallar Shah, son of Sultan Sujann Shah, who is believed to have come from southern Afghanistan. It is believed that he was a descendant of Alexander the Great. In Haripur and Abbottabad, they are known as Sultan Chief Sardars, a name they acquired during the time of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1296), when the tribal members were made rulers of the galliyat region of Hazara.

In the middle ages
It does seem that throughout the middle ages, the Karlal maintained their independence. During Mughal era (1550-1730), when the Gakkars were trying to extend their authority in the entire lower Hazara from their base in Khanpur in what is now Haripur District, the leader of Karlal tribe Morcha Kulli Khan at that time was able to murder the Ghakkar chief and retained his tribes independence. Similarly the Turks, whose territory lay to the north, were also never able to extend their authority over this tribe although enjoying suzerainty over large portion of Pakhal Sarkar (an old name for Hazara). In the Durrani period (1740-1800), no attempt was made by Afghan rulers to subdue their territory. However, when the Sikhs captured lower Hazara they tried to gain control over entire lower Hazara including Karlal territory.

In 1822, Ranjit Singh sent a large force under famous General Amar Singh Majitta which was defeated by Karlals with great slaughter under their Charismatic chief Sarrdar Hassan Ali Khan . Amar Singh was also murdered by the Karlal s. Lepel Griffin, author of a colonial history of Hazara, writes in his book about this battle of Sumandar Khata. From 1822 to 1845 Karlal tribe fought many battles with Sikhs and were able to retain their independence. In 1844 once again Lahore Darbar sent a large force under Diwan Mulraj and Hari Singh to subdue Karlal country. Taking advantage of the difficult geographical terrain of their country, the Karlals were able to defeat Sikh army at place called Nah and killed more than 150 Sikh soldiers.

At the time of mutiny in 1857, the Karlals tried to revolt against the rule of East India Company, however, British were able to imprison Karlal chief Sardar Hassan Ali Khan Karlal and many mutineers of this tribe were hanged along with  Dhund Abbasi tribesmen (Mutiny Reports 1857 of Hazara District).

Sardar Hassan Ali khan Karlal was  one of the most illustrious military commander and mujahid of early 19th century from Hazara. His historic endeavors for the freedom and struggle against both Sikhs and English have been well preserved in the historical annals. English gazetteers of that era, Wajabul Arz of 1874 and Tarikh Hazara of that time contain detailed accounts of the bravery, courage and military stratagem of this great hero. Karlals were the only tribe which under the sagacious leader ship Sardar Hassan Hassan Ali khan were able to retain their independence by defeating the most powerful army in the entire Northern India at that time.

Recent history
During Pakistan movement Karlal tribe wholeheartedly supported Muslim League. In 1944 elder of Karlal tribe Capt Sardar Muhammad Zain Khan Karlal joined Muslim league with other notables of this tribe.In same year he was nominated as member of All India Muslim League organizing Committee by Quaid -e Azam Mohammad  Ali Jinnah.In 1946 elections he  was elected as Member NWFP Legislative Assembly from the lone constituency of Abbottabad on All India Muslim League  ticket in  spite of the strong support of the congress by the more populous tribes of District Hazara. In struggle for Pakistan, Captain Sardar Zain Muhammad khan was able to motivate his entire tribe for cause of the creation of Pakistan. Captain Capt Sardar Zain Muhammad Khan Karlal also had  the unique honor of representing entire Hazara District in the historic Delhi All India Muslim Parliamentarians convention held in April 1946 under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah which finally voted for the partition of India and creation of Pakistan.

In the civil disobedience movement started by Muslim League in NWFP now Khyber Pukhtunkhaw against Congress government Capt Sardar Zain Muhammad khan along with many Karlal tribesmen was imprisoned in February 1947. After the creation of Pakistan Capt Sardar Zain Muhammad Khan also served as Parliamentary Secretary for Revenue in NWFP government.

References

Ethnic groups in Pakistan
Pakistani tribes
Ethnic groups in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Abbottabad District

Karlal


Arameans, also known as Syriacs are a predominantly Syriac Christian ethnic group whose origins remain in what is today Iraq, Turkey and Syria and fled to Western Europe, North America and the Caucasus due persecution over the past centuries. The Arameans speak Aramaic which once was the language of the whole Middle East.

Their culture has survived for thousands of years despite efforts by their Arab, Turkish and Kurdish neighbors to demolish it: it remains a strong influence on their way of life.
Today there are about 3-5 million Arameans worldwide with the majority living in the diaspora.

References

Ethnic groups

Arameans


Yes is an English word that shows acceptance or agreement, or making a positive response or exclamation. It is the opposite of no.

Yes may also mean:

In music:
 Yes (band), a progressive rock band from the United Kingdom
 Yes (album), their debut album
 The Yes Album, their third album
 Yes (Mika Nakashima album)
 Yes (Morphine album)
 Yes! (Chad Brock album)
 "Yes!" (song), a song from this album
 "Yes" (McAlmont and Butler song)

In other uses:
 Yes (movie), a movie by Sally Potter
 yes (Unix), a Unix shell command to print a string repetitively
 yes (Israel), an Israeli satellite television provider
 YES (Your Extraordinary Saturday), a children's program
 YES Network, the television home of the New York Yankees and New Jersey Nets
 YES! Magazine, an American magazine
 Yes! Roadster, a German sports car
 YES Prep Public Schools, a network of charter schools in Houston, Texas, United States
 Yale Entrepreneurial Society, an American non-profit organization
 Youth Empowerment Scheme, a children's charity in Belfast, Northern Ireland
 Young Epidemiology Scholars, a college scholarship program
 Yasuj Airport's IATA code

Basic English 850 words

Yes


Joseph John O'Connor ( – 2 February 1959) was an Irish republican, soldier and politician.

O'Connor was born in the 1880s and remembered seeing Charles Stewart Parnell as a child. He joined the Irish Volunteers in 1913 and by 1916 he was a captain in command of A Company, 3rd Battalion, Dublin Brigade under Éamon de Valera. When the vice-commandant failed to show for the 1916 Easter Rising de Valera made O'Connor his second in command. O'Connor remained with his company and de Valera at Bolands Mill until they became the last battalion to surrender. He was imprisoned at Frongoch internment camp in Wales and released in the 1917 amnesty.

Returning to Dublin O'Connor joined "The Squad" under Michael Collins and killed Captain John FitzGerald of the "Cairo Gang" on Bloody Sunday in 1920. By the end of the Irish War of Independence he was Commandant of the 3rd Battalion "Dev's Own". He was a member of the Irish Republican Army's "Banned Convention" in 1922 and in the Battle of Dublin during the Irish Civil War he held the Fianna HQ in York Street near St Stephen's Green. He escaped to Limerick and succeeded Ernie O'Malley as the Quarter-Master-General of the IRA with the rank of brigadier-general.

After the Civil War he became a cattle salesman and farmer. At the 1925 Seanad election, he was elected as a Cumann na nGaedheal senator, serving until 1936. Despite joining Fine Gael he presented de Valera with a scroll of those killed in the Easter Rising in a 20th anniversary remembrance. He also sued O'Malley in 1936 when his memoirs accused O'Connor of cowardice and he won £550 in damages.

References

1880s births
1941 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) members
20th-century Irish farmers
Members of the 1925 Seanad
Members of the 1928 Seanad
Members of the 1931 Seanad
Members of the 1934 Seanad
Cumann na nGaedheal senators
Fine Gael senators

Joseph O'Connor (Irish politician)


SPIE (formerly the Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers, later the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers) is an international not-for-profit professional society for optics and photonics technology, founded in 1955. It organizes technical conferences, trade exhibitions, and continuing education programs for researchers and developers in the light-based fields of physics, including: optics, photonics, and imaging engineering.  The society publishes peer-reviewed scientific journals, conference proceedings, monographs, tutorial texts, field guides, and reference volumes in print and online. SPIE is especially well-known for Photonics West, one of the laser and photonics industry's largest combined conferences and tradeshows which is held annually in San Francisco.  SPIE also participates as partners in leading educational initiatives, and in 2020, for example, provided more than $5.8 million in support of optics education and outreach programs around the world.

Former names
On July 1, 1955 SPIE was founded as the Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers in California to specialize in the application of photographic instrumentation. In 1964 the society changed its name to the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers.

In 1977 SPIE moved its headquarters to Bellingham, Washington, and in 1981 the Society began doing business as (DBA) SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering to reflect a changing membership. In 2007, the society ended its DBA and is now referred to simply as SPIE, the international society for optics and photonics.

Conferences and exhibitions

SPIE Conferences and Exhibitions connect optical science and the optics retail  industry. The society is affiliated with over 140 meetings and events each year.

Publications
The society's first publication, SPIE Newsletter, was launched in 1957. In 1959, the society published its first book, SPIE Photographic Instrumentation Catalog. The newsletter morphed into the society's first journal, now known as Optical Engineering, SPIE's flagship monthly journal. Throughout the years, SPIE has created many publications including journals, magazines, newspapers, websites, and books.

SPIE publishes:
 Twelve scientific online journals (open access materials available)
 SPIE Technical Paper Proceedings (see Proceedings of SPIE)
 At least 25 original technical books per year via SPIE Press

Scientific journals
All SPIE journals are peer-reviewed.

 Advanced Photonics Co-published by SPIE and Chinese Laser Press, Advanced Photonics is a highly selective, open access, international journal publishing innovative research in all areas of optics and photonics, including fundamental and applied research.
 Journal of Applied Remote Sensing (JARS) is an online-only, quarterly published journal on remote sensing.
 Journal of Astronomical Telescopes, Instruments, and Systems (JATIS) is published quarterly and covers development, testing, and application of telescopes, instrumentation, techniques, and systems for ground- and space-based astronomy.
  Journal of Biomedical Optics (JBO) is published monthly with the latest on optical technology in health care and research.
 Journal of Electronic Imaging (JEI), co-published bi-monthly with the Society for Imaging Science and Technology, publishes papers on electronic imaging science and technology.
 Journal of Medical Imaging (JMI) is published quarterly and covers fundamental and translational research and applications focused on photonics in medical imaging, which continue to yield physical and biomedical advancements in early detection, diagnostics, and therapy of disease as well as in the understanding of normal.
 Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology (JM3) is published quarterly and focuses on lithographic technologies and the core enabling technologies that address the patterning needs of the electronics industry.
 Journal of Nanophotonics (JNP) is an online-only, quarterly published journal on fabrication and application of nanostructures that generate or manipulate light from the infrared to the ultraviolet regimes.
 Journal of Optical Microsystems (JOM) is published quarterly and contains papers on cutting-edge research of optical and photonic microsystems, from materials and fabrication of micro-optical and photonic components, through assembly and packaging, to systems and applications.
 Journal of Photonics for Energy (JPE) is an e-journal published quarterly that covers fundamental and applied research applications of photonics for renewable energy harvesting, conversion, storage, distribution, monitoring, consumption, and efficient usage.
 Neurophotonics, published quarterly, is at the interface of optics and neuroscience covering advances in optical technology applicable to study of the brain and their impact on the basic and clinical neuroscience applications.
 Optical Engineering (OE) is the flagship monthly journal of the society, with papers on research and development in all areas of optics, photonics, and imaging science and engineering.

SPIE Press
SPIE Press, the only independent, not-for-profit book publisher specializing in optics and photonics technologies, produces print monographs, handbooks, tutorial texts, and field guides, as well as electronic books and apps for mobile devices. Its origins date back to 1989 with the publication of The New Physical Optics Notebook.

Digital Library
The SPIE Digital Library publishes online technical papers from SPIE Journals and Conference Proceedings from 1962 to the present, as well as eBooks published by SPIE Press. There are more than 500,000 articles, with more than 18,000 new research papers added annually.

Photonics Focus
Photonics Focus is the Society's bimonthly membership magazine focused on photonics applications, career development, and the photonics industry. The magazine launched in January 2020 replacing SPIE Professional, which was the Society's quarterly magazine that covered optics industry insights, technology overviews, and career trends. It ran from 2006 through 2019.

SPIE Newsroom
The SPIE Newsroom is a technical news website launched in March 2006. The SPIE Newsroom covers technical developments in optics and photonics. SPIE Newsroom articles are based around 13 technical communities. The communities are Astronomy, Biomedical Optics & Medical Imaging, Defense & Security, Electronic Imaging & Signal Processing, Illumination & Displays, Lasers & Sources, Micro/Nano Lithography, Nanotechnology, Optical Design & Engineering, Optoelectronics & Communications, Remote Sensing, Sensing & Measurement, Solar & Alternative Energy.

SPIE Open Access
SPIE started an open access program in January 2013 to promote knowledge  of technology and retail industry developments in optics and photonics. All articles published in SPIE journals for which authors pay voluntary page charges are freely accessible.

Awards
The society issues several awards:

Gold Medal of the Society Award (since 1977)
SPIE Visionary Award (since 2005)
SPIE President's Award (since 1966)
SPIE Directors' Award (since 1963)
A.E. Conrady Award in Optical Engineering (since 1990)
Aden and Marjorie Meinel Technology Achievement Award (since 1979)
Biophotonics Technology Innovator Award (since 2013)
Britton Chance Biomedical Optics Award (since 2012)
Chandra S. Vikram Award in Optical Metrology (since 2009)
Dennis Gabor Award in Diffractive Optics (since 1983)
Diversity Outreach Award (since 2020)
Early Career Achievement Awards (since 2008)
Frits Zernike Award for Microlithography (since 2004)
G.G. Stokes Award in Optical Polarization (since 2004)
George W. Goddard Award in Space and Airborne Optics (since 1961)
Harold E. Edgerton Award (since 1989)
Harrison H. Barrett Award in Medical Imaging (since 2019)
Joseph W. Goodman Book Writing Award (since 2006)
Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award in Photonics (since 2020)
Maria J. Yzuel Educator Award (since 2003)
Mozi Award (since 2018)
Rudolf and Hilda Kingslake Award in Optical Design (since 1974)
Prism Awards for Photonics Innovation (since 2008)
SPIE-Franz Hillenkamp Postdoctoral Fellowship Award (since 2018)
SPIE Presidential Award for Outstanding Student Chapter (since 2022)

See also
 American Institute of Physics
 European Photonics Industry Consortium
 IEEE, IEEE Photonics Society, IEEE Communications Society
 International Commission for Optics
 Photo instrumentation
 Optical Society of America
 Society for Imaging Science and Technology

References

External links

1955 establishments in California
Bellingham, Washington
Engineering societies based in the United States
Non-profit academic publishers
Optics institutions
Organizations based in Washington (state)
International scientific organizations

SPIE


Wiener Blut  ('Viennese Blood', 'Vienna Blood' or 'Viennese Spirit') Op. 354 is a waltz by Johann Strauss II first performed by the composer on 22 April 1873. The new dedication waltz was to celebrate the wedding of the Emperor Franz Joseph I's daughter Archduchess Gisela Louise Maria and Prince Leopold of Bavaria. However, the waltz was also chiefly noted by Strauss' biographers as the début of Strauss with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra where for many years, the Philharmonic had dismissed any association with the 'Waltz King' as it had not wished to be associated with mere 'light' or 'pops' music. The festival ball celebrating the event was held at the Musikverein Hall which is the venue for the present day Neujahrskonzert.

'Wiener Blut' is one of a handful of late works by Strauss that were not composed for the stage; at this point in his career he was concentrating on writing for the performing stage, and not for the ballroom, and had written at least two operettas before penning this waltz, with Die Fledermaus still to come.

Description

The waltz begins with a high spirited melody in C major with references to later waltz sections briefly played. It is the gentle first waltz melody which is instantly recognisable, with lyrical grace and an enthusiasm not apparent in his earlier light-hearted creations. Waltz 2A is rather more subdued although waltz 2B uplifts the mood to the one listeners would be familiar with since the beginning of the piece. As a composition befitting the wedding of royalty, the waltz has its moments of grandeur (Section 3) where a triumphant melody in the home key of C major gave way into a rousing Viennese tune in F major. The waltz has only 4 two-part sections as opposed to the earlier pattern of 5 two-part sections propounded by Josef Lanner and his father Johann Strauss I. The fourth section begins quietly in F major, with a climax with cymbals to come. The coda recalls earlier sections (2 and 3) in a different key of E major before the first waltz theme comes in again. The finale is exciting, with a stirring timpani drumroll and a strong brass flourish.

In popular culture
Vienna Blood is a 1942 German film based on the operetta; the waltz of the same name features prominently in the movie.
It is a recurring motif in the 1936 film Ladies in Love
It is a running motif in the 1941 Alfred Hitchcock film Suspicion.
An album (1997) by Austrian Neue Deutsche Härte band Stahlhammer
A song composed by German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein from the album Liebe ist für Alle Da (2009) Liebe ist f%C3%BCr alle da

References

Waltzes by Johann Strauss II
Compositions set in Vienna
1873 compositions
Compositions in C major

Wiener Blut (waltz)


The Pleiades are seven nymphs in Greek mythology, and companions of Artemis. They were the seven daughters of Atlas and the nymph Pleione.  They were all born on Mount Cyllene, which is in Arcadia.

The Pleiades
Maia, who was the eldest.  She was the mother of Hermes by Zeus.
Elektra, who was the mother of Dardanus and Iasion by Zeus.
Taygete, who was the mother of Lacedaemon by Zeus.
Alkyone, who was the mother of Hyrieus by Poseidon.
Kelaino, who was mother of Lycus and Eurypylus by Poseidon.
Asterope (also called Sterope), who was mother of Oenomaus by Ares.
Merope, who was youngest, and married Sisyphus.

Nymphs

Pleiades (mythology)


Religious ecstasy is a type of altered state of consciousness characterized by greatly reduced external awareness and reportedly expanded interior mental and spiritual awareness, frequently accompanied by visions and emotional (and sometimes physical) euphoria.

Although the experience is usually brief in time, there are records of such experiences lasting several days or even more, and of recurring experiences of ecstasy during a person's lifetime.

In Sufism, the term is referred to as wajad and the experience is referred to as either jazbah (jadbah o jedbah for Maghreb) or majzoobiyat.

Context

The adjective "religious" means that the experience occurs in connection with religious activities or is interpreted in context of a religion. Journalist Marghanita Laski writes in her study "Ecstasy in Religious and Secular Experiences", first published in 1961:
Epithets are very often applied to mystical experiences including ecstasies without, apparently, any clear idea about the distinctions that are being made. Thus we find experiences given such names as nature, religious, aesthetic, neo-platonic, etc.. experiences, where in some cases the name seems to derive from a trigger, sometimes from the over belief.

History

Ancient
Yoga provides techniques to attain a state of ecstasy called samādhi. According to practitioners, there are various stages of ecstasy, the highest being Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Bhakti Yoga in particular places emphasis on ecstasy as being one of the fruits of its practice.

In Buddhism, especially in the Pali Canon, there are eight states of trance also called absorption. The first four states are Rupa or, materially-oriented. The next four are Arupa or non-material. These eight states are preliminary trances which lead up to final saturation. In the Visuddhimagga, great effort and years of sustained meditation are practiced to reach the first absorption, and not all individuals are able to accomplish it at all.

In the Dionysian Mysteries of ancient Greece, initiates used intoxicants, ecstatic dance and music to remove inhibitions and social constraints.

Modern
Modern meditator experiences in the Thai Forest Tradition, as well as other Theravadan traditions, demonstrate that this effort and rarity is necessary only to become completely immersed in the absorptions and experience no other sensations. It is possible to experience the absorptions in a less intense state with much less practice.

In the monotheistic tradition, ecstasy is usually associated with communion and oneness with God. However, such experiences can also be personal mystical experiences with no significance to anyone but the person experiencing them. Some charismatic Christians practice ecstatic states (such as "being slain in the Spirit") and interpret these as given by the Holy Spirit. The firewalkers of Greece dance themselves into a state of ecstasy at the annual Anastenaria, when they believe themselves under the influence of Saint Constantine.

Historically, large groups of individuals have experienced religious ecstasies during periods of Christian revivals, to the point of causing controversy as to the origin and nature of these experiences. In response to claims that all emotional expressions of religious ecstasy were attacks on order and theological soundness from the Devil, Jonathan Edwards published his influential Treatise on Religious Affections. Here, he argues, religious ecstasy could come from oneself, the Devil, or God, and it was only by observing the fruit, or changes in inner thought and behaviour, that one could determine if the religious ecstasy had come from God.

In modern Pentecostal, charismatic and spirit-filled Christianity, numerous examples of religious ecstasy have transpired, similar to historic revivals. These occurrences however, have changed significantly since the time of the Toronto Blessing phenomena and several other North American so-called revivals and outpourings from the mid-1990s. From that time, religious ecstasy in these movements has been characterized by increasingly unusual behaviors that are understood by adherents to be the anointing of the holy spirit and evidence of God's "doing a new work". One of the most controversial and strange examples is that of spiritual birthing a practice during which women, and at times even men, claim to be having actual contractions of the womb while they moan and retch as though experiencing childbirth. It is said to be a prophetic action bringing spiritual blessings from God into the world. Many believe spiritual birthing to be highly demonic in nature and more occult-like than Christian. Religious ecstasy in these Christian movements has also been witnessed in the form of squealing, shrieking, an inability to stand or sit, uttering apocalyptic prophecies, holy laughter, crying and barking. Some people have made dramatic claims of sighting "gold dust", "angel feathers", "holy clouds", or the spontaneous appearance of precious gem stones during ecstatic worship events. Others have claimed to have received spontaneous gold tooth fillings. The Range Christian Fellowship in the conservative Australian city of Toowoomba demonstrates such displays of religious ecstasy on an almost weekly basis. In addition to all the above, worshippers there also use textile banners and during moments of religious ecstasy believe these banners carry special powers of "anointing" as a result of divinely inspired artwork.

In hagiography (writings about Christian saints) many instances are recorded in which saints are granted ecstasies. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia religious ecstasy (called "supernatural ecstasy") includes two elements: one, interior and invisible, in which the mind rivets its attention on a religious subject, and another, corporeal and visible, in which the activity of the senses is suspended, reducing the effect of external sensations upon the subject and rendering him or her resistant to awakening. The witnesses of a Marian apparition often describe experiencing these elements of ecstasy.

Modern Witchcraft traditions may define themselves as "ecstatic traditions", and focus on reaching ecstatic states in their rituals. The Reclaiming Tradition and the Feri Tradition are two modern ecstatic Witchcraft examples.

According to the Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba, God-intoxicated souls known in Sufism as masts experience a unique type of spiritual ecstasy: "[M]asts are desperately in love with Godor consumed by their love for God. Masts do not suffer from what may be called a disease. They are in a state of mental disorder because their minds are overcome by such intense spiritual energies that are far too much for them, forcing them to lose contact with the world, shed normal human habits and customs, and civilized society and live in a state of spiritual splendor but physical squalor. They are overcome by an agonizing love for God and are drowned in their ecstasy. Only the divine love embodied in a Perfect Master can reach them."

See also

Notable individuals or movements
 , a prophetic sect, founded by Montanus and two female colleagues, Prisca (or Priscilla) and Maximilla, who attained ecstatic visions through fasting and prayer.
 , who intended his music to induce religious ecstasy.

  experienced an ecstasy during a church-service towards the end of his life that caused him to stop writing.
 , religious ecstasy and ritual madness.
 , Mystic, first entered states of ecstasy while studying religious texts when taken ill in a Carmelite cloister.
 , abbess and mystic.
 , founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, immersed into deeper and deeper stages of ecstasy towards Krishna during the last 24 years of his life.

 , mystic poet
 , mystic poet

  mystic poet
 , burned at the stake for her writings.

References

Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity
Religious practices
Spirituality

ja:エクスタシー

Religious ecstasy