Symbolism was a late 19th-century art movement of French and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts seeking to represent absolute truths symbolically through language and metaphorical images, mainly as a reaction against naturalism and realism.

In literature, the style originates with the 1857 publication of Charles Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal. The works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire admired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stock tropes and images. The aesthetic was developed by Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine during the 1860s and 1870s. In the 1880s, the aesthetic was articulated by a series of manifestos and attracted a generation of writers.  The term "symbolist" was first applied by the critic Jean Moréas, who invented the term to distinguish the Symbolists from the related Decadents of literature and art.

Etymology
The term symbolism is derived from the word "symbol" which derives from the Latin symbolum, a symbol of faith, and symbolus, a sign of recognition, in turn from classical Greek σύμβολον symbolon, an object cut in half constituting a sign of recognition when the carriers were able to reassemble the two halves. In ancient Greece, the symbolon was a shard of pottery which was inscribed and then broken into two pieces which were given to the ambassadors from two allied city states as a record of the alliance.

Precursors and origins
Symbolism was largely a reaction against naturalism and realism, anti-idealistic styles which were attempts to represent reality in its gritty particularity, and to elevate the humble and the ordinary over the ideal. Symbolism was a reaction in favour of spirituality, imagination, and dreams. Some writers, such as Joris-Karl Huysmans, began as naturalists before becoming symbolists; for Huysmans, this change represented his increasing interest in religion and spirituality.  Certain of the characteristic subjects of the Decadents represent naturalist interest in sexuality and taboo topics, but in their case this was mixed with Byronic romanticism and the world-weariness characteristic of the fin de siècle period.

The Symbolist poets have a more complex relationship with Parnassianism, a French literary style that immediately preceded it.  While being influenced by hermeticism, allowing freer versification, and rejecting Parnassian clarity and objectivity, it retained Parnassianism's love of word play and concern for the musical qualities of verse. The Symbolists continued to admire Théophile Gautier's motto of "art for art's sake", and retained – and modified – Parnassianism's mood of ironic detachment. Many Symbolist poets, including Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine, published early works in Le Parnasse contemporain, the poetry anthologies that gave Parnassianism its name. But Arthur Rimbaud publicly mocked prominent Parnassians and published scatological parodies of some of their main authors, including François Coppée – misattributed to Coppée himself – in L'Album zutique.

One of Symbolism's most colourful promoters in Paris was art and literary critic (and occultist) Joséphin Péladan, who established the Salon de la Rose + Croix. The Salon hosted a series of six presentations of avant-garde art, writing and music during the 1890s, to give a presentation space for artists embracing spiritualism, mysticism, and idealism in their work. A number of Symbolists were associated with the Salon.

Movement

The Symbolist Manifesto

Jean Moréas published the Symbolist Manifesto ("Le Symbolisme") in Le Figaro on 18 September 1886 (see 1886 in poetry). The Symbolist Manifesto names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. Moréas announced that symbolism was hostile to "plain meanings, declamations, false sentimentality and matter-of-fact description", and that its goal instead was to "clothe the Ideal in a perceptible form" whose "goal was not in itself, but whose sole purpose was to express the Ideal."
Ainsi, dans cet art, les tableaux de la nature, les actions des humains, tous les phénomènes concrets ne sauraient se manifester eux-mêmes; ce sont là des apparences sensibles destinées à représenter leurs affinités ésotériques avec des Idées primordiales.

(Thus, in this art movement, representations of nature, human activities and all real life events don't stand on their own; they are rather veiled reflections of the senses pointing to archetypal meanings through their esoteric connections.)

In a nutshell, as Mallarmé writes in a letter to his friend Henri Cazalis, 'to depict not the thing but the effect it produces'.

In 1891, Mallarmé defined Symbolism as follows, "To name an object is to suppress three-quarters of the delight of the poem, which consists in the pleasure of guessing little by little; to suggest is, that is the dream. It is the perfect use of this mystery that constitutes the symbol: to evoke an object, gradually in order to reveal a state of the soul or, inversely, to choose an object and from it identify a state of the soul, by a series of deciphering operations... There must always be enigma in poetry."

While describing the pre-World War I friendship, which defied the pervasive anti-German sentiment and revanchism of the Belle Epoque, between French symbolists Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé and young and aspiring German symbolist poet Stefan George, Michael and Erika Metzger have written, "For the Symbolists, the pursuit of 'art for art's sake', was a highly serious – nearly a sacred – function, since beauty, in and of itself, stood for a higher meaning beyond itself. In their ultimate higher striving, the French Symbolists are not far from the Platonic ideals of the Good, the True, and the Beautiful, and this idealistic aspect was undoubtedly what appealed to George far more than the Estheticism, the Bohemianism, and the apparent Nihilism so often superficially associated with this group."

Techniques

The symbolist poets wished to liberate techniques of versification in order to allow greater room for "fluidity", and as such were sympathetic with the trend toward free verse, as evident in the poems of Gustave Kahn and Ezra Pound. Symbolist poems were attempts to evoke, rather than primarily to describe; symbolic imagery was used to signify the state of the poet's soul. T. S. Eliot was influenced by the poets Jules Laforgue, Paul Valéry and Arthur Rimbaud who used the techniques of the Symbolist school, though it has also been said  that 'Imagism' was the style to which both Pound and Eliot subscribed (see Pound's Des Imagistes). Synesthesia was a prized experience; poets sought to identify and confound the separate senses of scent, sound, and colour. In Baudelaire's poem Correspondences (which mentions forêts de symboles ("forests of symbols") and is considered the touchstone of French Symbolism):

Il est des parfums frais comme des chairs d'enfants,Doux comme les hautbois, verts comme les prairies,– Et d'autres, corrompus, riches et triomphants,Ayant l'expansion des choses infinies,Comme l'ambre, le musc, le benjoin et l'encens,Qui chantent les transports de l'esprit et des sens.

(There are smells that are fresh like children's skin, calm like oboes, green like meadows– And others, rotten, heady, and triumphant,having the expansiveness of infinite things, like amber, musk, benzoin, and incense,which sing of the raptures of the soul and senses.)

and Rimbaud's poem Voyelles:

A noir, E blanc, I rouge, U vert, O bleu : voyelles…
(A black, E white, I red, U green, O blue: vowels…)

– both poets seek to identify one sense experience with another. The earlier Romanticism of poetry used symbols, but these symbols were unique and privileged objects.  The symbolists were more extreme, investing all things, even vowels and perfumes, with potential symbolic value. "The physical universe, then, is a kind of language that invites a privileged spectator to decipher it, although this does not yield a single message so much as a superior network of associations." Symbolist symbols are not allegories, intended to represent; they are instead intended to evoke particular states of mind.  The nominal subject of Mallarmé's "Le cygne" ("The Swan") is of a swan trapped in a frozen lake.  Significantly, in French, cygne is a homophone of signe, a sign. The overall effect is of overwhelming whiteness; and the presentation of the narrative elements of the description is quite indirect:

Le vierge, le vivace, et le bel aujourd'huiVa-t-il nous déchirer avec un coup d'aile ivreCe lac dur oublié que hante sous le givreLe transparent glacier des vols qui n'ont pas fui!Un cygne d'autrefois se souvient que c'est luiMagnifique mais qui sans espoir se délivre…
(The virgin, lively, and beautiful today – will it tear us up with a drunken wingbeat this hard forgotten lake that lurks beneath the frost, the transparent glacier of flights not taken with a blow from a drunken wing? A swan of long ago remembers that it is he, magnificent but without hope, who breaks free…)

Paul Verlaine and the poètes maudits
Of the several attempts at defining the essence of symbolism, perhaps none was more influential than Paul Verlaine's 1884 publication of a series of essays on Tristan Corbière, Arthur Rimbaud, Stéphane Mallarmé, Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, Gérard de Nerval, and "Pauvre Lelian" ("Poor Lelian", an anagram of Paul Verlaine's own name), each of whom Verlaine numbered among the poètes maudits, "accursed poets."

Verlaine argued that in their individual and very different ways, each of these hitherto neglected poets found genius a curse; it isolated them from their contemporaries, and as a result these poets were not at all concerned to avoid hermeticism and idiosyncratic writing styles. They were also portrayed as at odds with society, having tragic lives, and often given to self-destructive tendencies. These traits were not hindrances but consequences of their literary gifts. Verlaine's concept of the poète maudit in turn borrows from Baudelaire, who opened his collection Les fleurs du mal with the poem Bénédiction, which describes a poet whose internal serenity remains undisturbed by the contempt of the people surrounding him.

In this conception of genius and the role of the poet, Verlaine referred indirectly to the aesthetics of Arthur Schopenhauer, the philosopher of pessimism, who maintained that the purpose of art was to provide a temporary refuge from the world of strife of the will.

Philosophy
Schopenhauer's aesthetics represented shared concerns with the symbolist programme; they both tended to consider Art as a contemplative refuge from the world of strife and will. As a result of this desire for an artistic refuge, the symbolists used characteristic themes of mysticism and otherworldliness, a keen sense of mortality, and a sense of the malign power of sexuality, which Albert Samain termed a "fruit of death upon the tree of life." Mallarmé's poem Les fenêtres expresses all of these themes clearly.  A dying man in a hospital bed, seeking escape from the pain and dreariness of his physical surroundings, turns toward his window but then turns away in disgust from

… l'homme à l'âme dureVautré dans le bonheur, où ses seuls appétitsMangent, et qui s'entête à chercher cette ordurePour l'offrir à la femme allaitant ses petits, …

(… the hard-souled man,Wallowing in happiness, where only his appetitesFeed, and who insists on seeking out this filthTo offer to the wife suckling his children, …)

and in contrast, he "turns his back on life" (tourne l'épaule à la vie) and he exclaims:

Je me mire et me vois ange! Et je meurs, et j'aime– Que la vitre soit l'art, soit la mysticité –A renaître, portant mon rêve en diadème,Au ciel antérieur où fleurit la Beauté!

(I look at myself and I seem like an angel! and I die, and I love– Whether the mirror might be art, or mysticism –To be reborn, bearing my dream as a crown,Under that former sky where Beauty flourishes!)

Symbolists and decadents
The symbolist style has frequently been confused with the Decadent movement, the name derived from French literary critics in the 1880s, suggesting the writers were self indulgent and obsessed with taboo subjects. While a few writers embraced the term,  most avoided it. Jean Moréas' manifesto was largely a response to this polemic. By the late 1880s, the terms "symbolism" and "decadence" were understood to be almost synonymous. Though the aesthetics of the styles can be considered similar in some ways, the two remain distinct. The symbolists were those artists who emphasized dreams and ideals; the Decadents cultivated précieux, ornamented, or hermetic styles, and morbid subject matters. The subject of the decadence of the Roman Empire was a frequent source of literary images and appears in the works of many poets of the period, regardless of which name they chose for their style, as in Verlaine's "Langueur":

Je suis l'Empire à la fin de la Décadence,Qui regarde passer les grands Barbares blancsEn composant des acrostiches indolentsD'un style d'or où la langueur du soleil danse.
(I am the Empire at the endgame of decadence, watching the great pale barbarians passing by, all the while composing lazy acrostic poems in a gilded style where the languishing sun dances.)

Periodical literature

A number of important literary publications were founded by symbolists or became associated with the style. The first was La Vogue initiated in April 1886. In October of that same year, Jean Moréas, Gustave Kahn, and Paul Adam began the periodical Le Symboliste. One of the most important symbolist journals was Mercure de France, edited by Alfred Vallette, which succeeded La Pléiade; founded in 1890, this periodical endured until 1965. Pierre Louÿs initiated La conque, a periodical whose symbolist influences were alluded to by Jorge Luis Borges in his story Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote. Other symbolist literary magazines included La Revue blanche, La Revue wagnérienne, La Plume and La Wallonie.

Rémy de Gourmont and Félix Fénéon were literary critics associated with symbolism. The symbolist and decadent literary styles were satirized by a book of poetry, Les Déliquescences d'Adoré Floupette, published in 1885 by Henri Beauclair and Gabriel Vicaire.

In other media

Visual arts

Symbolism in literature is distinct from symbolism in art although the two were similar in many aspects. In painting, symbolism can be seen as a revival of some mystical tendencies in the Romantic tradition, and was close to the self-consciously morbid and private decadent movement.

There were several rather dissimilar groups of Symbolist painters and visual artists, which included Paul Gauguin, Gustave Moreau, Gustav Klimt, Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis, Jacek Malczewski, Odilon Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin-Latour, Gaston Bussière, Edvard Munch, Fernand Khnopff, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop. Symbolism in painting was even more widespread geographically than symbolism in poetry, affecting Mikhail Vrubel, Nicholas Roerich, Victor Borisov-Musatov, Martiros Saryan, Mikhail Nesterov, Léon Bakst, Elena Gorokhova in Russia, as well as Frida Kahlo in Mexico, Elihu Vedder, Remedios Varo, Morris Graves and David Chetlahe Paladin in the United States. Auguste Rodin is sometimes considered a symbolist sculptor.

The symbolist painters used mythological and dream imagery. The symbols used by symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references. More a philosophy than an actual style of art, symbolism in painting influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau style and Les Nabis.

Music

Symbolism had some influence on music as well. Many symbolist writers and critics were early enthusiasts of the music of Richard Wagner, an avid reader of Schopenhauer.

The symbolist aesthetic affected the works of Claude Debussy. His choices of libretti, texts, and themes come almost exclusively from the symbolist canon.  Compositions such as his settings of Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire, various art songs on poems by Verlaine, the opera Pelléas et Mélisande with a libretto by Maurice Maeterlinck, and his unfinished sketches that illustrate two Poe stories, The Devil in the Belfry and The Fall of the House of Usher, all indicate that Debussy was profoundly influenced by symbolist themes and tastes.  His best known work, the Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, was inspired by Mallarmé's poem, L'après-midi d'un faune.

The symbolist aesthetic also influenced Aleksandr Scriabin's compositions. Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire takes its text from German translations of the symbolist poems by Albert Giraud, showing an association between German expressionism and symbolism. Richard Strauss's 1905 opera Salomé, based on the play by Oscar Wilde, uses a subject frequently depicted by symbolist artists.

Prose fiction
Symbolism's style of the static and hieratic adapted less well to narrative fiction than it did to poetry. Joris-Karl Huysmans' 1884 novel À rebours (English title: Against Nature or Against the Grain) explored many themes that became associated with the symbolist aesthetic.  This novel, in which very little happens, catalogues the psychology of Des Esseintes, an eccentric, reclusive antihero. Oscar Wilde was influenced by the novel as he wrote Salome, and Huysman's book appears in The Picture of Dorian Gray: the titular character becomes corrupted after reading the book.

Paul Adam was the most prolific and representative author of symbolist novels. Les Demoiselles Goubert (1886), co-written with Jean Moréas, is an important transitional work between naturalism and symbolism. Few symbolists used this form.  One exception was Gustave Kahn, who published Le Roi fou in 1896.  In 1892, Georges Rodenbach wrote the short novel Bruges-la-morte, set in the Flemish town of Bruges, which Rodenbach described as a dying, medieval city of mourning and quiet contemplation: in a typically symbolist juxtaposition, the dead city contrasts with the diabolical re-awakening of sexual desire. The cynical, misanthropic, misogynistic fiction of Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly is sometimes considered symbolist, as well. Gabriele d'Annunzio wrote his first novels in the symbolist manner.

Theatre

The characteristic emphasis on an internal life of dreams and fantasies have made symbolist theatre difficult to reconcile with more recent trends. Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam's drama Axël (rev. ed. 1890) is a definitive symbolist play.  In it, two Rosicrucian aristocrats become enamored of each other while trying to kill each other, only to agree to commit suicide mutually because nothing in life could equal their fantasies.  From this play, Edmund Wilson adopted the title Axel's Castle for his influential study of the symbolist literary aftermath.

Maurice Maeterlinck, also a symbolist playwright, wrote The Blind (1890), The Intruder (1890), Interior (1891), Pelléas and Mélisande (1892), and The Blue Bird (1908).
Eugénio de Castro is considered one of the introducers of Symbolism in the Iberian Peninsula. He wrote Belkiss, "dramatic prose-poem" as he called it, about the doomed passion of Belkiss, The Queen of Sheba, to Solomon, depicting in an avant-garde and violent style the psychological tension and recreating very accurately the tenth century BC Israel. He also wrote King Galaor and Polycrates' Ring, being one of the most prolific Symbolist theoriticians.

Lugné-Poe (1869–1940) was an actor, director, and theatre producer of the late nineteenth century. Lugné-Poe "sought to create a unified nonrealistic theatre of poetry and dreams through atmospheric staging and stylized acting". Upon learning about symbolist theatre, he never wanted to practice any other form. After beginning as an actor in the Théâtre Libre and Théâtre d'Art, Lugné-Poe grasped on to the symbolist movement and founded the Théâtre de l'Œuvre where he was manager from 1892 until 1929. Some of his greatest successes include opening his own symbolist theatre, producing the first staging of Alfred Jarry's Ubu Roi (1896), and introducing French theatregoers to playwrights such as Ibsen and Strindberg.

The later works of the Russian playwright Anton Chekhov have been identified by essayist Paul Schmidt as being much influenced by symbolist pessimism. Both Konstantin Stanislavski and Vsevolod Meyerhold experimented with symbolist modes of staging in their theatrical endeavors.

Drama by symbolist authors formed an important part of the repertoire of the Théâtre de l'Œuvre and the Théâtre d'Art.

Effect

Among English-speaking artists, the closest counterpart to symbolism was aestheticism. The Pre-Raphaelites were contemporaries of the earlier symbolists, and have much in common with them. Symbolism had a significant influence on modernism (Remy de Gourmont considered the Imagists were its descendants) and its traces can also be detected in the work of many modernist poets, including T. S. Eliot, Wallace Stevens, Conrad Aiken, Hart Crane, and W. B. Yeats in the anglophone tradition and Rubén Darío in Hispanic literature. The early poems of Guillaume Apollinaire have strong affinities with symbolism. Early Portuguese Modernism was heavily influenced by Symbolist poets, especially Camilo Pessanha; Fernando Pessoa had many affinities to Symbolism, such as mysticism, musical versification, subjectivism and transcendentalism.

Edmund Wilson's 1931 study Axel's Castle focuses on the continuity with symbolism and several important writers of the early twentieth century, with a particular emphasis on Yeats, Eliot, Paul Valéry, Marcel Proust, James Joyce, and Gertrude Stein.  Wilson concluded that the symbolists represented a dreaming retreat into
<blockquote>things that are dying–the whole belle-lettristic tradition of Renaissance culture perhaps, compelled to specialize more and more, more and more driven in on itself, as industrialism and democratic education have come to press it closer and closer.</blockquote>

After the beginning of the 20th century, symbolism had a major effect on Russian poetry even as it became less popular in France. Russian symbolism, steeped in the doctrines of Eastern Orthodoxy and the spiritual ideas of Vladimir Solovyov, had little in common with the French style of the same name. It began the careers of several major poets such as Alexander Blok, Andrei Bely, and Marina Tsvetaeva. Bely's novel Petersburg (1912) is considered the greatest example of Russian symbolist prose.

Primary influences on the style of Russian Symbolism were the irrationalistic and mystical poetry and philosophy of Fyodor Tyutchev and Solovyov, the novels of Fyodor Dostoyevsky, the operas of Richard Wagner, the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and Friedrich Nietzsche, French symbolist and decadent poets (such as Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine and Charles Baudelaire), and the dramas of Henrik Ibsen.

The style was largely inaugurated by Nikolai Minsky's article The Ancient Debate (1884) and Dmitry Merezhkovsky's book On the Causes of the Decline and on the New Trends in Contemporary Russian Literature (1892). Both writers promoted extreme individualism and the act of creation. Merezhkovsky was known for his poetry as well as a series of novels on god-men, among whom he counted Christ, Joan of Arc, Dante, Leonardo da Vinci, Napoleon, and (later) Hitler. His wife, Zinaida Gippius, also a major poet of early symbolism, opened a salon in St Petersburg, which came to be known as the "headquarters of Russian decadence". Andrei Bely's Petersburg (novel) a portrait of the social strata of the Russian capital, is frequently cited as a late example of Symbolism in 20th century Russian literature.

In Romania, symbolists directly influenced by French poetry first gained influence during the 1880s, when Alexandru Macedonski reunited a group of young poets associated with his magazine Literatorul. Polemicizing with the established Junimea and overshadowed by the influence of Mihai Eminescu, Romanian symbolism was recovered as an inspiration during and after the 1910s, when it was exampled by the works of Tudor Arghezi, Ion Minulescu, George Bacovia, Mateiu Caragiale, Tristan Tzara and Tudor Vianu, and praised by the modernist magazine Sburătorul.

The symbolist painters were an important influence on expressionism and surrealism in painting, two movements which descend directly from symbolism proper.  The harlequins, paupers, and clowns of Pablo Picasso's "Blue Period" show the influence of symbolism, and especially of Puvis de Chavannes.  In Belgium, symbolism became so popular that it came to be known as a national style, particularly in landscape painting: the static strangeness of painters like René Magritte can be considered as a direct continuation of symbolism. The work of some symbolist visual artists, such as Jan Toorop, directly affected the curvilinear forms of art nouveau.

Many early motion pictures also employ symbolist visual imagery and themes in their staging, set designs, and imagery. The films of German expressionism owe a great deal to symbolist imagery. The virginal "good girls" seen in the cinema of D. W. Griffith, and the silent film "bad girls" portrayed by Theda Bara, both show the continuing influence of symbolism, as do the Babylonian scenes from Griffith's Intolerance. Symbolist imagery lived on longest in horror film: as late as 1932, Carl Theodor Dreyer's Vampyr showed the obvious influence of symbolist imagery; parts of the film resemble tableau vivant re-creations of the early paintings of Edvard Munch.

Symbolists

Precursors

 William Blake (1757–1827) English poet and artist (Songs of Innocence)
 Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) German painter (Wanderer above the Sea of Fog)
 Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher (Sartor Resartus)
 Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837) Russian poet and writer (Eugene Onegin)
 Prosper Mérimée (1803–1870) French novelist
 Đorđe Marković Koder (1806–1891) Serbian poet (Romoranka)
 Gérard de Nerval (1808–1855) French poet
 Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808–1889) French writer
 Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) American poet and writer (The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket)
 Mikhail Lermontov (1814–1841) Russian poet and writer (A Hero of Our Time)
 Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867) French poet (Les Fleurs du mal)
 Gustave Flaubert (1821–1880) French writer (Madame Bovary)
 Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882) English poet and painter (Beata Beatrix)
 Christina Rossetti (1830–1894) English poet

Authors

Armenian
 Misak Metsarents (1886–1908)
 Levon Shant (1869–1951)
 Siamanto (1878–1915)
 Daniel Varujan (1884–1915)
 Gostan Zarian ( 1885–1969)

Belgian
 Albert Giraud (1860–1929)
 Charles van Lerberghe (1861-1907)
 Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949)
 Albert Mockel (1866–1945)
 Georges Rodenbach (1855–1898)
 Emile Verhaeren (1855–1916)

Dutch
 Marcellus Emants (1848-1923)
 Louis Couperus (1863–1923)
 J. H. Leopold (1865–1925)

English
 Edmund Gosse (1849–1928)
 William Ernest Henley (1849–1903)
 Arthur Symons (1865–1945)
 Renée Vivien (1877–1909)

French
 Paul Adam (1862–1920)
 Albert Aurier (1865–1892)
 Léon Bloy (1846–1917)
 Early Henri Barbusse (1873–1935)
 Henri Cazalis (1840–1909)
 Georges Duhamel (1884–1966)
 Paul Fort (1872–1960)
 Rémy de Gourmont (1858–1915)
 Nicolette Hennique (born 1886)
 Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848-1907)
 Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (1838–1889)
 Alfred Jarry (1873–1907)
 Gustave Kahn (1859–1936)
 Jules Laforgue (1860–1887), Uruguayan (wrote in French)
 Comte de Lautréamont (1846–1870), Uruguayan (wrote in French)
 Jean Lorrain (1855–1906)
 Stéphane Mallarmé (1842–1898)
 Alexandre Mercereau (1884–1945)
 Oscar Milosz (1877–1939) Lithuanian (wrote in French)
 Jean Moréas (1856–1910) Greek (wrote in French)
 Saint-Pol-Roux (1861–1940)
 Émile Nelligan (1879–1941) Canadian (wrote in Quebec French)
 Germain Nouveau (1851–1920)
 Rachilde (1860–1953)
 Henri de Régnier (1864–1936)
 Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891)
 Jules Romains (1885–1972)
 Albert Samain (1858–1900)
 Marcel Schwob (1867–1905)
 Paul Valéry (1871–1945)
 Paul Verlaine (1844–1896)
 Francis Vielé-Griffin (1863–1937)
 Charles Vildrac (1882–1971)

Georgian
 Valerian Gaprindashvili (1888–1941)
 Paolo Iashvili (1894–1937)
 Sergo Kldiashvili (1893–1986)
 Giorgi Leonidze (1899–1966)
 Kolau Nadiradze (1895–1991)
 Grigol Robakidze (1880–1962)
 Titsian Tabidze (1895–1937)
 Sandro Tsirekidze (1894–1923)

German and Austrian
 Stefan George (1868–1933) German
 Hugo von Hofmannsthal (1874–1929) Austrian
 Alfred Kubin (1877–1959) Austrian
 Gustav Meyrink (1868–1932) Austrian
 Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926) Austro-Bohemian
 Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931) Austrian

Irish language
See Also: Modern literature in Irish
 Patrick Pearse (1879 - 1916)
 Máirtín Ó Direáin (1910 - 1988)

Polish
See Also: Young Poland movement
 Stanisław Korab-Brzozowski (1876–1901)
 Antoni Lange (1861–1929)
 Tadeusz Miciński (1873–1918)

Portuguese and Brasilian
  (1861–1934)
 João da Cruz e Sousa (1861–1898) Brazilian
 Raul Brandão (1867–1930)
  (1868–1946)
 Eugénio de Castro (1869–1944)
 Alphonsus de Guimaraens (1870–1921) Brazilian
 António Nobre (1867–1900)
 Camilo Pessanha (1867–1926)
 Augusto Gil (1873–1929)
 Mário de Sá-Carneiro (1890–1916)

Russian
 Innokenty Annensky (1855–1909)
 Konstantin Balmont (1867–1942)
 Andrei Bely (1880–1934)
 Marina Tsvetaeva (1892-1941)
 Alexander Blok (1880–1921)
 Valery Bryusov (1873–1924)
 Georgy Chulkov (1879–1939)
 Zinaida Gippius (1869–1945)
 Vyacheslav Ivanov (1866–1949)
 Fyodor Sologub (1863–1927)
 Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900)
 Dmitry Merezhkovsky (1865–1941)
 Teffi (1872–1952)
 Maximilian Voloshin (1877–1932)

Scottish Gaelic
 Fr. Allan MacDonald (1859 - 1905)
 Sorley MacLean (1911 - 1996)
 Deòrsa Mac Iain Dheòrsa (1915 - 1984)

Serbian
 Svetozar Ćorović (1875–1919)
 Jovan Dučić (1871–1943)
 Petar Kočić (1877–1916)
 Veljko Petrović (poet) (1884–1967)
 Vladislav Petković Dis (1880–1917)
 Sima Pandurović (1883–1960)
 Milan Rakić (1876–1938)
 Isidora Sekulić (1877–1958)
 Jovan Skerlić (1877–1914)
 Borisav Stanković (1876–1927)
 Aleksa Šantić (1868–1924)

Others
 Josip Murn Aleksandrov (1879–1901) Slovene
 George Bacovia (1881–1957) Romanian
 Jurgis Baltrušaitis (1873–1944) Lithuanian
 Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986), Argentine
 Otokar Březina (1868–1929) Czech
 Mateiu Caragiale (1885–1936) Romanian
 Dimcho Debelyanov (1887–1916) Bulgarian
 Viktors Eglītis (1877–1945) Latvian
 Ady Endre (1877–1919) Hungarian
 Dumitru Karnabatt (1877–1949) Romanian
 Ivan Krasko (1876–1958) Slovak
 Stuart Merrill (1863–1915) American
 Giovanni Pascoli (1855–1912) Italian

Influence in English literature
English language authors who influenced or were influenced by symbolism include:

 Conrad Aiken (1889–1973)
 Max Beerbohm (1872–1956)
 Christopher Brennan - (1870-1932)
 Roy Campbell (1900-1957)
 Hart Crane (1899–1932)
 Olive Custance (1874–1944)
 Ernest Dowson (1867–1900)
 T. S. Eliot (1888–1965)
 James Elroy Flecker (1884–1915)
 John Gray (1866–1934)
 George MacDonald (1824–1905)
 Arthur Machen (1863–1947)
 Katherine Mansfield (1888–1923)
 Edith Sitwell (1887–1964)
 Clark Ashton Smith (1893–1961)
 George Sterling (1869–1926)
 Wallace Stevens (1879–1955)
 Algernon Charles Swinburne (1837–1909)
 Francis Thompson (1859–1907)
 J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1970)
 Rosamund Marriott Watson (1860–1911)
 Oscar Wilde (1854–1900)
 W. B. Yeats (1865–1939)

Symbolist visual artists

French
 Edmond Aman-Jean (1858–1936)
 Émile Bernard (1868–1941)
 Gaston Bussière (painter) (1862–1929)
 Eugène Carrière (1849–1906)
 Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (1824–1898)
 Maurice Denis (1870-1943)
 Henri Fantin-Latour (1836–1904)
 Charles Filiger (1863–1928)
 Paul Gauguin (1848–1903)
 Charles Guilloux (1866–1946)
 Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer (1865–1953)
 Pierre Félix Masseau (1869-1937)
 Edgar Maxence (1871–1954)
 Gustave Moreau (1826–1898)
 Gustav-Adolf Mossa (1883–1971)
 Alphonse Osbert (1857–1939)
 Armand Point (1861–1932)
 Ary Renan (1857–1900)
 Odilon Redon (1840–1916)
 Alexandre Séon (1855–1917)

Russian
See Also: Russian Symbolism and the Blue Rose group.
 Léon Bakst (1866–1924)
 Alexandre Benois (1870–1960)
 Ivan Bilibin (1876–1942)
 Victor Borisov-Musatov (1870–1905)
 Konstantin Bogaevsky (1872–1943)
 Wassily Kandinsky (early works) (1866–1944)
 Mikhail Nesterov (1862–1942)
 Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947)
 Konstantin Somov (1869–1939)
 Viktor Vasnetsov (1848–1926)
 Mikhail Vrubel (1856–1910)

Belgian
 Félicien Rops (1855–1898)
 Fernand Khnopff (1858–1921)
 James Ensor (1860–1949)
 Égide Rombaux (1865–1942)
 Léon Frédéric (1865–1940)
 William Degouve de Nuncques (1867–1935)
 Jean Delville (1867–1953)
 Léon Spilliaert (1882–1946)

Romanian

 Octavian Smigelschi (1866–1912) Austro-Hungarian born, culturally Romanian
 Mihail Simonidi (1870–1933)
 Lascăr Vorel (1879–1918)
 Apcar Baltazar (1880–1909)
 Ion Theodorescu-Sion (1882–1939)

German
 Eugen Bracht (1842–1921)
 Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach (1851–1913)
 Fritz Erler (1868–1940)
 Ludwig Fahrenkrog (1867–1952)
 Fidus (1868–1948)
 Otto Greiner (1869–1916)
 Ludwig von Hofmann (1861–1945)
 Max Klinger (1857 – July 1920)
 Emil Nolde (1867–1953)
 Max Pietschmann (1865–1952)
 Paul Schad-Rossa (1862–1916)
 Sascha Schneider (1870–1927)
 Clara Siewert (1862–1945)
 Franz von Stuck (1863–1928)
 Hans Unger (1872–1936)
 Oskar Zwintscher (1870–1916)

Swiss
 Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901)
 Ferdinand Hodler (1853–1918)
 Carlos Schwabe (1866–1926)

Austrian
 Albin Egger-Lienz (1868–1926)
 Rudolf Jettmar (1869–1939)
 Gustav Klimt (1862–1918)
 Alfred Kubin (1877–1959)
 Karl Mediz (1868–1945)
 Richard Müller (1874–1954)

Others
 George Frederic Watts (1817–1904) English
 James A. McNeill Whistler (1834–1903) American
 Albert Pinkham Ryder (1847–1917) American
 John William Waterhouse (1849–1917) English
 Luis Ricardo Falero (1851–1896) Spanish
 Jacek Malczewski (1854–1929) Polish
 Ancell Stronach (1901–1981) Scottish
 Jan Toorop (1858–1928) Dutch
 Giovanni Segantini (1858–1899) Italian
 Edvard Munch (1863–1944) Norwegian
 Arthur Bowen Davies (1863–1928) American
 Eliseu Visconti (1866–1944) Brazilian
 John Duncan (1866–1945) Scottish
 Early František Kupka (1871–1957) Czech
 Hugo Simberg (1873–1917) Finnish
 Frances MacDonald (1873–1921) Scottish
 Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1875–1911) Lithuanian
 Stevan Aleksić (1876–1923) Serbian
 Felice Casorati (1883–1963) Italian
 Anselmo Bucci (1887–1955) Italian
 Ze'ev Raban (1890–1970) Polish/Israeli
 Beda Stjernschantz (1867—1910) Finnish

Symbolist playwrights

 Gerhart Hauptmann (1862–1946) German
 Federico García Lorca (1898–1936) Spanish
 Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949) Belgian
 Máirtín Ó Direáin (1910 - 1988), Irish
 Lugné-Poe (1869–1940) French
 Reinhard Sorge (d. 1916) German

Composers affected by symbolist ideas

 Richard Wagner (1813–1883) German
 Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893) Russian
 Gabriel Fauré (1845–1924) French
 Charles Loeffler (1861–1935) American
 Claude Debussy (1862–1918) French
 Richard Strauss (1864–1949) German
 Erik Satie (1866–1925) French

 Alexander Scriabin (1872–1915) Russian
 Maurice Ravel (1875–1937) French
 Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1875–1911) Lithuanian
 Mieczysław Karłowicz (1876–1909) Polish
 Cyril Scott (1879–1970) English
 Karol Szymanowski (1882–1937) Polish
 Lili Boulanger (1893–1918) French

Gallery

See also
 Abbaye de Créteil
 Belle Époque Sigmund Freud
 Mystical Anarchism
 Synthetism
 The Yellow Book Visionary art

References

Further reading
 Anna Balakian, The Symbolist Movement: a critical appraisal. New York: Random House, 1967
 Michelle Facos, Symbolist Art in Context. London: Routledge, 2011
 Russell T. Clement, Four French Symbolists: A Sourcebook on Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, and Maurice Denis. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996.
 Bernard Delvaille, La poésie symboliste: anthologie. Paris: Seghers, 1971.
 John Porter Houston and Mona Tobin Houston, French Symbolist Poetry: An Anthology. Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1980.
 Philippe Jullian, The Symbolists. Oxford: Phaidon; New York: E.P. Dutton, 1973.
 Andrew George Lehmann, The Symbolist Aesthetic in France 1885–1895. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1950, 1968
 The Oxford Companion to French Literature, Sir Paul Harvey and J. E. Heseltine (eds.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
 Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony. London: Oxford University Press, 1930.
 Arthur Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature. E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc. (A Dutton Paperback), 1958
 Edmund Wilson,  Axel's Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870–1930. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1931 (online version).  (Library of America)
 Michael Gibson, Symbolism London: Taschen, 1995
 Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal. "Theatre As Church: The Vision of the Mystical Anarchists" in Russian History, 1977, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1977), pp. 122-141. Available Online.

External links

 Collection of German Symbolist art The Jack Daulton Collection
 Les Poètes maudits by Paul Verlaine
 ArtMagick The Symbolist Gallery
 What is Symbolism in Art Ten Dreams Galleries – extensive article on Symbolism
 Symbolism  Gustave Moreau, Puvis de Chavannes, Odilon Redon
 Literary Symbolism Published in A Companion to Modernist Literature and Culture'' (2006)

Art movements
Literary movements
19th century in art
19th-century theatre
Fantastic art
French poetry
Modern art
Modernism

Symbolism (arts)


Unione Sportiva Dilettantistica Noto Calcio is an Italian association football club located in Noto, Sicily. It currently plays in Serie D.

History
The club was founded in 1963 as Netina.

In summer 1980 it was merged with Franco Mola and was renamed with the current name.

In the 2009–10 season of Eccellenza Sicily/B it was promoted to Serie D.

Colors and badge
Its official color is garnet.

Stadium
The sports center at which the known football matches internal dispute arises in Contrada Zupparda less than a mile from the town of Noto. The structure is dedicated to the memory of Giovanni Palatucci, police officer, decorated for bravery medal by the civil and the title of "Servant of God" for having rescued, during the Second World War, more than 5000 people from the Nazi-Fascist .

The sports center was born in the '80s with the funds allocated in view of the Italian World Cup. The structure was not completed, it remained unused, a victim of vandalism and fell completely abandoned for twenty years. In May 2010 after extensive renovations, the sports center was inaugurated and handed over to the sports Noto.
The center hosts a sports stadium, a tennis workout, swimming pool, tennis courts, basketball and volleyball, Motocross, a multi-service building and large parking areas internal and external.

The stadium has a natural grass playing field and the central court has about 5000 seats, with the press box, and just expects the construction of the roof.
The multi-service building has direct access to the playing field of the stadium, inside it contains the changing rooms for teams and referees, the infirmary, as well as gyms, offices and conference rooms.

References

External links
Official homepage

Football clubs in Italy
Football clubs in Sicily
Association football clubs established in 1963
1963 establishments in Italy

USD Noto Calcio


Oliver Twist; or, The Parish Boy's Progress (1838) is Charles Dickens's second novel. It was first published as a book by Richard Bentley in 1838. It tells the story of an orphan boy and his adventures among London's slums. Oliver is captured by, and forced to work among, pickpockets and thieves until redeemed by a gentleman who has taken an interest in him. Characters include Fagin, Nancy, Bill Sykes, and the Artful Dodger. The book is one of the earliest examples of the social novel. It draws the reader's attention to evils such as child labour, the recruitment of children as criminals, and the presence of street children.

The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of hardships as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. It is likely that Dickens's own early youth as a child labourer contributed to the story's development. The book influenced American writer Horatio Alger, Jr. and his stories of poor boys living on the streets of nineteenth-century New York City.

The book has been adapted to a popular musical play called Oliver! and several movies, notably a 1948 production starring Alec Guiness as Fagin. A Disney animated feature about alley cats called Oliver & Company has also been released.

Plot Summary
Oliver Twist is born into a life of poverty. He is raised in a workhouse in the fictional town of Mudfog. He is orphaned by his father's odd absence and his mother's death in childbirth. His mother was welcomed only in the workhouse and robbed of her gold name locket (a small case worn round someone's neck). Oliver is not well provided for under the Poor Law and spends nine years living in the "care" of a woman named Mrs Mann, who embezzles much of the money given to her to take care of the babies by the parish. Oliver is brought up with little food.

Around the time of Oliver's ninth birthday, Mr Bumble, the parish beadle, removes Oliver from the baby farm and puts him to work picking and weaving oakum (loose fibre from untwisting old rope) at the main workhouse. Oliver, who works very hard, and has very little food,stays in the workhouse for six months. One day, the very hungry boys decide to draw lots; the loser must ask for more food. This task falls to Oliver, who at the next meal begs the master for food with his famous request: "Please, sir, I want some more".

The board of well-fed gentlemen who manage the workhouse offer £5 to any person wishing to take on Oliver as an apprentice. Mr Gamfield, a brutal chimney sweep, almost claims Oliver. However, when Oliver begs not to be sent away with "that dreadful man", a kind magistrate lets Oliver not be taken away by Mr Gamfield. Later, Mr Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish, takes Oliver into his service. He treats Oliver better and, because of Oliver's sad face, uses him as a mourner at children's funerals. Mr Sowerberry is in an unhappy marriage, and his wife looks down on Oliver and misses few opportunities to give him less food and treat him badly. He also suffers at the hands of Noah Claypole and Charlotte, the Sowerberrys' maidservant, who is in love with Noah.

Wanting to bait Oliver, Noah insults Oliver's mother, calling her "a regular right-down bad 'un". Angry, Oliver assaults. Mrs Sowerberry takes Noah's side, helps him to punch and beat Oliver. Once Oliver is sent to his room for the night, he cries. The next day Oliver runs away from the Sowerberrys' house and later decides to run away to London to seek a better life.

Nearing London, Oliver sees Jack Dawkins, a pickpocket, known by the nickname the "Artful Dodger", and his sidekick, a funny boy named Charley Bates. Oliver's innocent and trusting nature fails to see any bad in their actions. The Dodger provides Oliver with a free meal and tells him of a gentleman in London who will "give him lodgings(a place to live) for nothing, and never ask for change". Grateful for the assistance, Oliver follows the Dodger to the "old gentleman's" house. In this way, Oliver falls in with an Jewish criminal known as Fagin. Not able to run away, Oliver lives with Fagin and his gang of juvenile pickpockets at Saffron Hill for some time, unaware of their criminal occupations. He believes they make wallets and handkerchiefs. He is also does not know about Fagin's lessons with the boys, whereupon he pretends to be an English gentleman browsing shops, and the boys must pick everything from his pockets while staying out of sight. Oliver considers this a strange game. Fagin has Oliver in this training until he successfully picks everything off him. Fagin rewards Oliver with a shilling and orders him out on the street with Charley Bates and the Artful Dodger.

Oliver follows the pair to "make handkerchiefs", only to learn that their real mission is to pick pockets. The Dodger and Charley steal the handkerchief of an old gentleman named Mr. Brownlow and then flee. When he finds his handkerchief missing, Mr. Brownlow turns round, sees Oliver running away in fright, and pursues him, thinking he was the thief. Others join the chase, capture Oliver, and bring him before the magistrate. Curiously, Mr. Brownlow has second thoughts about the boy – he seems not to believe he is a pickpocket. To the judge's evident disappointment, a bookstall holder who saw the Dodger commit the crime clears Oliver, who, by now actually ill, faints in the courtroom. Mr. Brownlow takes Oliver home and, along with his housekeeper Mrs. Bedwin, cares for him. While recovering, both Mrs. Bedwin and Mr. Brownlow notice how Oliver bears a striking resemblance to a painting of a woman who was the wife of a dead friend of Mr. Brownlow's.

Oliver stays with Mr. Brownlow, recovers quickly. His bliss is interrupted when Fagin, fearing Oliver might tell the police about his criminal gang, decides that Oliver must be brought back to his hideout. When Mr. Brownlow sends Oliver out to pay for some books, one of the gang, a young woman named Nancy, whom Oliver had previously met at Fagin's, approached him with help from her abusive lover, the robber Bill Sikes, and Oliver is quickly bundled back to Fagin's lair. The thieves take the five-pound note Mr. Brownlow had entrusted to him, and strip him of his new clothes. Oliver, shocked, flees and attempts to call for police assistance, but is dragged back by the Artful Dodger, Charley, and Fagin. Nancy, alone, is sympathetic towards Oliver and saves him from beatings by Fagin and Sikes.

In a renewed attempt to draw Oliver into a life of crime, Fagin forces him to participate in a burglary. Nancy reluctantly assists in recruiting him, all the while assuring the boy that she will help him if she can. Sikes, after threatening to kill him if he does not cooperate, puts Oliver through a small window and orders him to unlock the front door. The robbery goes wrong, and the people in the house shoot Oliver in his left arm. After being abandoned by Sikes, the wounded Oliver makes it back to the house and ends up under the care of the people he was supposed to rob: Miss Rose and her guardian Mrs. Maylie.

The mysterious man Monks plots with Fagin to destroy Oliver's reputation. The two of them agree on a plan to make sure he does not find out about his past. Monks is apparently related to Oliver in some way. Back in Oliver's hometown, Mr Bumble has married Mrs Corney, the matron of the workhouse where the story first began, only to find himself in an unhappy marriage, constantly arguing with his wife. After one such argument, Mr Bumble walks to a pub where he meets Monks, who questions him about Oliver. Bumble informs Monks that he knows someone who can give Monks more information for a price, and later Monks meets secretly with the Bumbles. After Mrs Bumble tells Monks all she knows for a price, Monks takes the locket and ring proving Oliver's parentage, and drops them into the river flowing under his place. Monks tells these events to Fagin, not knowing that Nancy is eavesdropping on their conversations and plans to inform Rose Maylie and Mrs Maylie. Mr Brownlow returns to London, where Oliver sees him, and brings him to meet the Maylies.

Now ashamed of her role in Oliver's kidnapping and worried for his safety, Nancy goes to Rose Maylie, staying in London. She knows that Monks and Fagin are plotting to get their hands on the boy again, and offers to meet again any Sunday night on London bridge. Rose tells Mr Brownlow, and the two then make plans with all their party in London. The first Sunday night, Nancy tries to leave for her walk, but Sikes do not give permission when she does not say exactly where she is going. Fagin realizes that Nancy is up to something and resolves to find out what her secret is.

Meanwhile, Noah has fallen out with the undertaker Mr Sowerberry, stolen money from him, and fled to London with Charlotte. Using the name "Morris Bolter", he joins Fagin's gang for protection and becomes a practicer of "the kinchin lay" (robbing of children), and Charlotte is put with the girls. Fagin sends Noah to watch the Artful Dodger on trial, after he is caught with a stolen silver snuff box; the Dodger is convicted while showing his style, with a punishment of transportation to Australia. Next, Noah is sent by Fagin to spy on Nancy, and discovers her meeting with Rose and Mr Brownlow on the bridge, hearing their discussion of why she did not appear the prior week and how to save Oliver from Fagin and Monks.

Fagin passes the information on to Sikes angrily, making the story to make it sound as if Nancy had informed on him, when she had not. Believing Nancy to be a traitor, Sikes beats her to death. He then escaped to the countryside. There, Sikes is haunted by visions of Nancy and alarmed by news of her murder spreading across the countryside. He returns to London to find a hiding place and intends to steal money from Fagin and flee to France, only to die by accidentally hanging himself while attempting to lower himself from a rooftop to flee from a mob angry at Nancy's murder.

Resolution
While Sikes is running away the mob, Mr Brownlow forces Monks to listen to the story connecting him, once called Edward Leeford, and Oliver as half-brothers, or to face the police for his crimes. Their father, Edwin Leeford, was once friends with Brownlow. Edwin had been in a sad marriage that produced Monks, only to have Monks' mother separate. Edwin had associated with an older gentleman who was friends to him and Mr. Brownlow, who had had two daughters, one who was a girl of seventeen and the other a toddler. Edwin fell in love with the elder daughter, Agnes, but their relationship had been secretive. Edwin had to help a dying friend in Rome, and then died there himself, leaving Agnes, "his guilty love", in England, whereupon she died after giving birth to Oliver. Mr Brownlow has a picture of Agnes and had begun asking questions when he noticed a marked resemblance between her and Oliver. Monks had hunted his brother to destroy him, to gain all in their father's will. Meeting with Monks and the Bumbles in Oliver's native town, Brownlow asks Oliver to give half his inheritance to Monks to give him a second chance; Oliver is more than happy to comply. Monks moves to "the new world", where he dies in prison.

Fagin is arrested, tried and condemned to the gallows. On the eve of Fagin's hanging, Oliver, accompanied by Mr Brownlow in an emotional scene, visits Fagin in Newgate Prison, in hope of retrieving papers from Monks. Fagin is lost in a world of his own fear of death.

On a happier note, Monks revealed that Rose was the younger sister of Agnes, and thus Oliver's aunt. She marries her sweetheart Harry Maylie, who gives up his political ambitions to become a parson, drawing all their friends to settle near them. Oliver lives happily with Mr Brownlow, who adopts him. Due to Noah's cooperation with the law during the pursuit of Fagin, he is granted immunity and becomes a paid, semi-professional police informer. The Bumbles lose their positions and are reduced to poverty, ending up in the workhouse themselves. All the members of Fagin's gang suffer unhappy endings, with one exception. Charley Bates, horrified by Sikes' murder of Nancy, becomes an honest citizen, moves to the country, and eventually becomes rich. The novel ends with the tombstone of Oliver's mother on which is written only one name: Agnes.
1830s books
Books by Charles Dickens
Books first published in serial form
English novels

Oliver Twist


Cuisine refers to any style of cooking, including its practices, traditions and recipes. A cuisine is usually associated with a specific culture. It is mainly influenced by the ingredients that are available to that culture. Cooking methods, customs and ingredients together form meals that are unique to a particular region. When people talk about Italian cuisine, they are referring to the food that Italians are famous for. Cuisine is a French word that means "kitchen", but it originally comes from the Latin word coquere, which means "to cook".

Traditionally, cuisines are shaped by a number of things. In some religious traditions, certain foods are forbidden by law (an example is pork in Islam). Climate and trade affect the what ingredients are available. Climate may also affect the methods by which food is prepared. Before the exploration of Asia and America by Europeans, certain foods were not known to European cuisine. Tomatoes, maize, avocados and cacao, for example, did not enter European diets until merchants brought these ingredients back from the New World. In modern times, cuisines are becoming more and more multicultural. New cuisines continue to develop even today.

Cuisines have different courses or three meals Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner. Ancient Greeks had breakfast—bread dipped in wine.  The bread was made from barley, the main source of all bread in ancient times.  It was probably hard, which is why the Greeks would dip it in the wine, to soften it and make it easier to eat.

The history of breakfast goes back to the ancient Greeks who ate something called a teganites (τηγανίτης), which resembled a pancake. These were made with wheat flour, olive oil, honey, and curdled milk, and usually topped with honey or cheese.

Related pages

 :Category:Foods by nationality
 Diet
 Food

References

Cuisine


Pierre Mulele (11 August 1929 – 3 or 9 October 1968) was a Congolese rebel active in the Simba rebellion of 1964. Mulele had also been minister of education in Patrice Lumumba's cabinet. With the assassination of Lumumba in January 1961 and the arrest of his recognised deputy Antoine Gizenga one year later, Mulele became one of the top Lumumbists determined to continue the struggle. He went to Cairo as the representative of the Lumumbists' Congo National Liberation Committee based in Brazzaville. From Cairo he proceeded to China in 1963 to receive military training, and also took a group of Congolese youths with him, who received training in guerrilla tactics. Mulele was lured out of exile after Mobutu Sese Seko promised him amnesty, but Mobutu had him tortured and executed after Mulele returned to the Congo. He was a member of the Bapende ethnic group.

Career

Simba rebellion
In January 1964, a new conflict broke out as Congolese rebels calling themselves "Simba" (Swahili for "lion") rebelled against the government. They were led by Mulele, Gaston Soumialot and Christophe Gbenye, former members of Antoine Gizenga's Parti Solidaire Africain (PSA).

During the Simba rebellion, Mulele, who had previously undergone training in the Eastern Bloc as well as China, led a Maoist faction in the Kwilu Province. This came to be known as the Kwilu rebellion. Mulele was an avowed Maoist, and for this reason his insurgency was supported by communist China. By the end of April 1964, Mulele's rebellion had been rendered somewhat less dangerous by the government. The Soviet Union, with an embassy in the national capital of Leopoldville, did not support Mulele's Kwilu revolt and had no part in its preparation: lack of support from the Soviets was in the first place responsible for Mulele turning to China as his patron.

Nonetheless, by August the Simba insurgents had captured Stanleyville and set up a rebel government there. However, the Congolese central government requested foreign intervention, and the troops fighting under the command of Soumialot and Gbenye were routed in November 1964, after intense drives by central government troops officered by foreign mercenaries. The landing of Belgian paratroopers in Stanleyville also proved instrumental in the rebels' defeat, as did key military assistance from the United States. On 24 November 1964, five United States Air Force C-130 transports dropped 350 Belgian paratroopers of the Paracommando Regiment onto the airfield at Stanleyville to rescue 2,000 European civilians being held hostage by the Simbas. This move made the United States very unpopular in Africa at the time. After the rebellion's defeat, Mulele fled into exile in Congo-Brazzaville.

In 1968, then-President Joseph-Désiré Mobutu (later Mobutu Sese Seko) lured Mulele out of exile by promising him amnesty. Mulele returned to Congo-Kinshasa, believing he would be granted amnesty. Instead, he was publicly tortured and executed: his eyes were pulled from their sockets, his genitals were ripped off, and his limbs were amputated one by one, all while he was alive. What was left was dumped in the Congo River.

Ideology and Maoism
When the Kwilu rebellion broke out in 1964, the revolt was led by Mulele in a way reminiscent of the Chinese communist revolutionary codes. Mulele required his fighters to adhere to a very strict moral code, emphasising self-discipline and respect for civilians. The tribal peasant fighters proved difficult to control and many disregarded Mulele's orders. The eight instructions on conduct Mulele issued to his guerrilla fighters showed the great influence Maoist writings regarding "people's war" had on the Kwilu insurgency. Mulele's code of conduct was as follows:
Respect all men, even bad ones.
Buy the goods of villagers in all honesty and without stealing.
Return borrowed things in good time and without trouble.
Pay for things which you have broken and in good spirit.
Do not harm or hurt others.
Do not destroy or trample on other people's land.
Respect women and do not amuse yourselves with them as you would like to.
Do not make your prisoners of war suffer.
The attempt to adapt Maoist Chinese practice to African conditions also extended to Mulele's use of the peasants as the mainstay of his revolution.

Personal life

Mulele was born in Isulu-Matende. He, alongside Antoine Gizenga, received his early secondary education at a seminary in Kinzambi. He continued his education at the Ecole Moyenne de Leverville established by the Huileries du Congo Belge and coordinated under the Brothers of Charity for a further three years.

He married Léonie Abo, a fellow fighter who spent five years in the underground rebel movement alongside guerrillas loyal to Mulele. In 1968, after her husband's assassination, she fled to Congo-Brazzaville where she has since lived. Abo has made a great effort to preserve the memory of her late husband.  The Belgian book Une Femme du Congo (A Congolese Woman), by Ludo Martens, tells Abo's life story.

Notes

References
 Martens, Ludo. Pierre Mulele ou la Seconde Vie de Patrice Lumumba. EPO. (unknown ISBN)
 Martens, Ludo. 10 jaar revolutie in Kongo, 1958-1966: De strijd van Patrice Lumumba en Pierre Mulele. EPO.

1929 births
1968 deaths
People from Kwilu Province
Maoists
Democratic Republic of the Congo rebels
People of the Congo Crisis
20th-century executions for treason
Executed politicians
People executed by dismemberment
People executed for treason against the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo exiles
Democratic Republic of the Congo torture victims
Democratic Republic of the Congo expatriates in the Republic of the Congo
Executed Democratic Republic of the Congo people
Government ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Lumumba Government members
Maoist theorists
20th-century executions by the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Publicly executed people
Parti Solidaire Africain politicians

Pierre Mulele


Aldo Fabrizi (; born Aldo Fabbrizi; 1 November 1905 – 2 April 1990) was an Italian actor, director, screenwriter and comedian, best known for the role of the heroic priest in Roberto Rossellini's Rome, Open City and as partner of Totò in a number of successful comedies.

Life and career
Born in Rome into a humble family, Fabrizi debuted on stage in a suburban theater in 1931. He soon got local success thanks to his comical sketches and macchiette (i.e. comical monologues caricaturing stock characters), and became a star of the Roman revue and avanspettacolo. He made his film debut during the war, in 1942, and in a short time established himself as one of the most talented actors of the time, spacing from comedy to drama. After a number of successful comedies, in 1945 he played the iconic Don Pietro in the neo-realist drama Rome, Open City, and following the critical and commercial success of the film he had a number of leading roles in other neo-realist films. Already active as a screenwriter, in 1948 he debuted as a director with the drama Immigrants. In the 1950s and 1960s he was often paired on the screen with Totò and with Peppino De Filippo. In 1964 he got a large success on stage with the musical comedy Rugantino, he also toured across Europe, in Latin America and in Broadway.

Like the Italian actor Totò and others, Fabrizi was also initiated to the Scottish Rite Freemasonry.

Personal life
Fabrizi was married to the singer Beatrice Rocchi, best known with her stage name Reginella, until her death in 1981. His sister Elena Fabrizi was also an actress.

Awards and recognition
Fabrizi during his career won two Nastro d'Argento Awards, for best actor for  Alessandro Blasetti's Prima comunione and for best supporting actor in  Ettore Scola's We All Loved Each Other So Much, and a special David di Donatello for his career in 1988. He was also awarded at the 1952 Cannes Film Festival for best screenplay for Cops and Robbers. In 1990 Poste italiane  issued a stamp in his honor.

Actor filmography

        Avanti, c'è posto... (Before the Postman) by  Mario Bonnard (script too )  (1942) as Cesare Montani
	 Campo de' fiori (The Peddler and the Lady) by  Mario Bonnard (script too) (1943) as Peppino Corradini
	 L'ultima carrozzella by  Mario Mattoli (script too)	(1943) as Antonio Urbani, detto "Toto"
	 Circo equestre Za-Bum (episode Dalla finestra and  Il postino) by  Mario Mattoli (1944) as The postman (segments "Dalla finestra" and "Il postino")
	 Roma città aperta by  Roberto Rossellini	(1945) as Don Pietro Pellegrini
	 Mio figlio professore by  Renato Castellani (script too) (1946) as Orazio Belli
 To Live in Peace by  Luigi Zampa (script too )	(1947) as Tigna
        Il vento m'ha cantato una canzone by Camillo Mastrocinque
	 Il delitto di Giovanni Episcopo by  Alberto Lattuada (script too) (1947) as Giovanni Episcopo
        Tombolo, paradiso nero by  Giorgio Ferroni	(1947) as Andrea Rascelli
	 Christmas at Camp 119 by  Pietro Francisci (script too) (1947) as Giuseppe Mancini, il romano
	 Emigrantes by  Aldo Fabrizi	(1948) as Giuseppe Bordoni
	 Benvenuto, reverendo! by  Aldo Fabrizi  (1949) as Don Peppino
	 Francesco, giullare di Dio by  Roberto Rossellini	(1950) as Nicolaio, il tiranno di Viterbo
	 Prima comunione by  Alessandro Blasetti	(1950) as Carlo Carloni
	 Vita da cani by  Steno & Mario Monicelli (script too) (1950) as Nino Martoni
	 Antonio di Padova (Anthony of Padua) by  Pietro Francisci	(1951) as Ezzelino Da Romano
	 Tre passi a Nord (Three steps North) by  William Lee Wilder (1950) as Pietro
	 Rome-Paris-Rome by  Luigi Zampa	(1951) as Vincenzo Nardi
	 Cameriera bella presenza offresi... by  Giorgio Pàstina	(1951) as Il commendatore Giovanni Marchetti
	 Parigi è sempre Parigi by  Luciano Emmer	(1951) as Andrea De Angelis
	 Guardie e ladri by  Steno & Mario Monicelli (script too)	(1951) as Lorenzo Bottoni
	 The Passaguai Family  by  Aldo Fabrizi (1951) as Giuseppe Passaguai
	 Fiorenzo il terzo uomo by  Stefano Canzio (cameo)	(1951) as Guest star
 The Passaguai Family Gets Rich by  Aldo Fabrizi	(1952) as Giuseppe Passaguai
	 Papà diventa mamma by Aldo Fabrizi	(1952) as Sor Pepe
	 Altri tempi (episode Il carrettino dei libri vecchi) by  Alessandro Blasetti	(1952) as Bookseller
	 Cinque poveri in automobile by  Mario Mattoli (script too)	(1952) as Cesare Baroni
	 Una di quelle by  Aldo Fabrizi	(1953) as Un medico
	 Siamo tutti inquilini by  Mario Mattoli	(1953) as Augusto
	 La voce del silenzio by  Georg Wilhelm Pabst	(1953) as Pio Fabiani
	 Too Young for Love  by  Lionello De Felice	(1953) as Coletti, padre di Annette
        Funniest Show on Earth by Mario Mattoli   (1953) (uncredited)
	 Cafè Chantant by  Camillo Mastrocinque	(1953) as Se stesso / Himself
	 Questa è la vita (episode Marsina stretta) by  Aldo Fabrizi	(1954) as Il Professore Fabio Gori (segment "Marsina stretta")
	 Cento anni d'amore (episode Garibaldina) by  Lionello De Felice	(1954) as Don Pietro, Priest of Monterotondo (segment "Garibaldina")
	 Cose da pazzi by  Georg Wilhelm Pabst	(1954) as Gnauli
	 Carousel of Variety  by  Aldo Quinti & Aldo Bonaldi	(1955)
	 Accadde al penitenziario by  Giorgio Bianchi	(1955)
	 Io piaccio by  Giorgio Bianchi	(1955) as Giuseppe Tassinetti
	 I pappagalli by  Bruno Paolinelli	(1955) as Antonio, the door-keeper
	 Un po' di cielo by  Giorgio Moser	(1955) as Pietro Maltoni
	 The Two Friends by  Carlo Borghesio (script too)	(1955) as Giovanni Bellini
        I pinguini ci guardano by Guido Leoni     (1956) (voice)
	 They Stole a Tram by  Aldo Fabrizi	(1956) as Cesare Mancini
	 Guardia, guardia scelta, brigadiere e maresciallo by  Mauro Bolognini	(1956) as Brigadiere Pietro Spaziani
	 Donatella by  Mario Monicelli	(1956) as Padre di Donatella
        Allow Me, Daddy! by Mario Bonnard     (1956) as Alessandro Biagi - il suocero di Nardi
        Il maestro  by  Aldo Fabrizi (1957) as Giovanni Merino
	 Festa di maggio (Premier mai) by  Luis Saslavsky (1958) as Le vieux camionneur
	 I prepotenti di Mario Amendola (script too)	(1958) as Cesare Pinelli
	 I tartassati by  Steno (script too)	(1959) as Maresciallo Fabio Topponi
	 Ferdinando I re di Napoli by  Gianni Franciolini	(1959) as Il contadino
	 Prepotenti più di prima by  Mario Mattoli (script too)	(1959) as Cesare Pinelli
	 Un militare e mezzo by  Steno (script too)	(1960) as Sgt. Giovanni Rossi
	 La sposa bella (The angel wore red) by  Nunnally Johnson	(1960) as Canon Rota
	 Toto, Fabrizi and the Young People Today by  Mario Mattoli	(1960) as Giuseppe D'Amore
	 Le meraviglie di Aladino by  Mario Bava	(1961) as Sultan
	 Gerarchi si muore by  Giorgio Simonelli	(1961) as Comm. Frioppi
	 Fra' Manisco cerca guai by  Armando William Tamburella	(1961) as Fra Pacifico detto 'Fra Manisco'
	 Gli italiani e le donne (episode Chi la fa, l'aspetti) by  Marino Girolami	(1962)
	 Twist, lolite e vitelloni by  Marino Girolami	(1962) as Cav. Rossi
	 I quattro monaci by  Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia	(1962) as Fra' Giocondo
        The Four Musketeers  by  Carlo Ludovico Bragaglia	(1963) as Bouboule
	 The Shortest Day by  Sergio Corbucci (cameo)	(1963) as Facchino
         The Lightship by  Ladislao Vajda (in Germany)	(1963) as Don Amilcare
	 Totò contro i quattro by  Steno	(1963) as
	 I quattro tassisti (episode L'uomo in bleu) by Giorgio Bianchi	(1963) as Sor Gigi (segment "L'uomo in blue")
	 Made in Italy by  Nanni Loy	(1965) as Piras, Gaviro's Father (segment "2 'Il Lavoro', episode 2")
	 Sette monaci d'oro by  Marino Girolami	(1966) as Fra' Ugone, padre priore
	 Three Bites of the Apple by  Alvin Ganzer	(1967) as Dr. Manzoni
        Cose di Cosa Nostra (Gang War) by  Steno (script too)	(1971) as Il brigadiere Aldo Panzarani
	 La Tosca by  Luigi Magni	(1973) as Il governatore
	 C'eravamo tanto amati (We All Loved Each Other So Much) by  Ettore Scola	(1974) as Romolo Catenacci
	 I baroni by  Giampaolo Lomi	(1975) as Monsignore
	 Nerone by  Mario Castellacci & Pier Francesco Pingitore	(1977) as Generale Galba
	 Il ginecologo della mutua by  Aristide Massaccesi	(1977) as Pietro Massone
	 Giovanni Senzapensieri by  Marco Colli	(1985) as Gino (final film role)

Film director filmography
 Emigrantes (script too) (1948)
 Benvenuto, reverendo! (producer and script too) (1949)
 The Passaguai Family (producer and script too)  (1951)
 The Passaguai Family Gets Rich (producer and script too) (1952)
 Papà diventa mamma (producer and script too) (1952)
 Una di quelle (producer and script too) (1953)
 Questa è la vita (episode Marsina stretta, script too) (1954)
 Hanno rubato un tram (script too) (1954)
 Il maestro (script too) (1957)

References

External links

 Sito amatoriale su Aldo Fabrizi
 La radio di Aldo Fabrizi

Italian male film actors
Italian male stage actors
Italian male comedians
Male actors from Rome
1905 births
1990 deaths
Nastro d'Argento winners
Film directors from Rome
20th-century Italian male actors
David di Donatello Career Award winners
20th-century Italian comedians
Burials at Campo Verano
Comedians from Rome

Aldo Fabrizi


Passover songs are songs from the seder, the festive meal associated with the Jewish festival of Passover.

Songs before the meal

Songs before the meal include:
 The Seder (Kadesh Urchatz): a table of contents of the seder ceremony, naming the 15 sections of the seder.
 Kiddush: The Kiddush is traditionally sung to a special melody used only on the Three Pilgrimage Festivals.
 Ma Nishtana: The Four Questions are traditionally asked by the youngest child at the table who is able.
 Avadim Hayinu: A single sentence stating, "We were slaves to Pharaoh in Egypt—now we are free."
 Baruch Hamakom: A song praising God, both in general and for giving the Torah to the Jewish People.
 Vehi Sheamda: In every generation arises those who would destroy us, but the holy one saves us from their hands.
 Dayenu: It would have been enough for us.
 Al Achat: A follow-up to Dayenu saying "How much more so we should be grateful to God" that all of the items of Dayenu were done for us.
 B'tzeit Yisrael: "When Israel went forth from Egypt, the house of Jacob from barbarous people"
 Ma Lecha Hayam: A poetic description of the sea turning back, mountains skipping like rams, the hills like lambs.

Ma Nishtanah

"Ma Nishtanah" (the "Four Questions") is the four questions sung at the Passover seder by the youngest child at the table who is able. The questions are asked as part of the haggadah, after the Yachatz (יחץ), as part of the Maggid (מגיד).

Dayenu

"Dayenu" is a Hebrew song, traditionally sung during the celebration of Passover. The word itself essentially means "It would have been enough for us." "Day" is the Hebrew word for "enough" and the suffix "enu" means "our".

The song goes through a series of gifts believed granted by God to the Israelites (such as Torah or Shabbat), proclaiming that any of them alone would have been sufficient, to express greater appreciation for them as a whole.

It is 15 verses long, sequentially recounting each divine intervention in the story of the Exodus. After each divine act, the chorus "(if God had done only this) it would have been enough for us" is sung.

Songs after the meal

Eliyahu HaNavi
"Eliyahu HaNavi" (Elijah the Prophet) entreats the prophet Elijah, an invited guest at the Passover meal, to return soon with the messiah. Of unknown authorship, the refrain is based on First Kings 17:1. This is often sung at the opening of the door for Elijah, upon pouring the fourth cup. This song is also part of the traditional Saturday night Havdalah service.  The refrain is:

The full song has nine verses recounting the courageous and saintly deeds of Elijah, each beginning with אִישׁ (ish) – "The man (who)". followed by a word in an alphabetic acrostic; then the quotation of Malachi 3:23–24,and then concluding with "Happy is he who has seen his [Elijah's] face in a dream".

Songs of the Nirtzah
The following are traditionally sung in the Nirtzah, the last of the 15 sections of the seder, devoted almost exclusively to singing.

L'shana Haba'ah

"L'Shana haba'ah bi'Yerushalayim": The whole line means "Next year in Jerusalem!" In Israel, many have started to recite "L'Shana haba'ah bi'Yerurshalayim habenuyah" ("Next year in rebuilt Jerusalem"). This line is used both as the conclusion of the Passover Seder and after the Ne'ila (Concluding) service on Yom Kippur.

Ki Lo Naeh
Ki Lo Naeh (also known as Adir Bimlukha): This song makes no mention of Passover but recites, in each stanza, two majestic descriptions of God, followed by the designation of a multitude (scholars, the faithful, the angels, etc.) who praise Him, the three lines being in a continuing alphabet acrostic, with the refrain, "Thine and thine, thine yes thine, thine only thine. Thine, Lord, is the kingship." And the stanza concludes with כִּי לוֹ נָאֶה, כִּי לוֹ יָאֶה׃ – (ki lo no'eh, ki lo yo'eh) – "For Him praise is due, for Him praise is fitting." The song apparently is inspired by Psalm 74:16 ("Yours is the day, Yours is the night") and by a Midrashic passage (Genesis Rabbah 6:2) which enlarges on those words. The authorship and date of composition are unknown, it was originally sung year-round at meals, it was not part of the Seder in the 11th century but came to be part of the Seder by the time of Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg in the 13th century.

Adir Hu

"Adir Hu" (Mighty is He): a hymn naming the virtues of God in order of the Hebrew alphabet, expressing hope that God will rebuild the Holy Temple speedily. Most of the virtues of God are adjectives (for instance, Holy (Kadosh) is he); however, a few are nouns (for instance, Lord is he). The traditional melody is a bouncy, major one. Other melodies, however, have been composed for the alphabetical song. There is also a feminist variant of the song by Rabbi Jill Hammer which calls God "She" and, quoting Rabbi Hammer, "emphasizes God's sharing in human joys and griefs, and God's ability to renew life through the strength of the earth."

Echad Mi Yodea

"Echad Mi Yodea" (Who Knows One?): Starting at one and going up to thirteen, each verse describes a different religious or worldly concept associated with its number. For example, the fifth verse is about the five books of the Torah whereas the ninth verse describes the nine months of pregnancy. After singing each new verse, all the preceding verses are repeated in decreasing order back down to one.

Chad Gadya

"Chad Gadya" ("One Kid" 'i.e., baby goat]) is an Aramaic song describing the consuming of each entity by the next, from a goat, through a cat, dog, a stick, fire, water, an ox, a butcher, and the angel of death, all the way up to God. Many think it metaphorically tells the history of the Jews from their beginning to the future Messianic time.

References

External links
 Chabad.org: Passover Songs

Songs in Hebrew

Passover songs


Zerah Colburn (January 13, 1832 – April 26, 1870) was an American publisher and engineer specialising in steam locomotive design, technical journalist.

Career
Without any formal schooling, Colburn was a teenage prodigy. Barely in his teens at the start of the railroad boom, he found work in Lowell, Massachusetts as an apprentice in the "drafting room" of the Lowell Machine Shops where America's first steam locomotives were taking shape.

While working among the locomotives Colburn also began to write and before long compiled his first regular newssheet – Monthly Mechanical Tracts.

As he moved about the locomotive works of New England gathering experience and an eye for engineering detail, he also produced his first book, The Throttle Lever. Designed as an introduction to the steam locomotive, this became the standard U.S. textbook on building locomotives. It not only took Colburn, then not 20, deeper into the world of publishing, but also earned him wider respect amongst railroad men across America – locomotive builders and train operators.

Colburn worked or was associated with a number of locomotive works between 1854 and 1858, including: Baldwin Locomotive Works, Tredegar Locomotive Works – part of Tredegar Iron Works at Richmond, Virginia, Rogers Locomotive Works, and the New Jersey Locomotive and Machine Company.

In 1853 he joined the American Railroad Journal, the leading American railroad newspaper. Colburn, who had a fiery temper, parted from this publication after a dispute with the editor and launched his own weekly paper – the Railroad Advocate.

The Advocate increased his sphere of influence and paved the way for a partnership with a young man, of similar age – Alexander Lyman Holley. Together they developed the paper but Colburn, ever restless, sold half to Holley, then took off West to start a venture with a sawmill and then tried his hand at selling railroad tires.

Returning from a visit to England as the Advocate's roving reporter, he and Holley relaunched the Advocate as American Engineer. From the first issue to the last, it remained a weekly paper reporting technical and business aspects of locomotive manufacture and railroad operation in America in the 1850s. Following the panic of 1857, the paper had to close.

The duo visited Britain to compile a massive report about the successful state of Europe's railways to sell to the presidents of America's railroads. The report was a success, but by 1858 Colburn returned to England to take up a job as editor of The Engineer, Britain's leading weekly technical journal.  In this position, Colburn made friends with members of the Institutions of Civil and Mechanical Engineers and became a member of both. He gave frequent lectures and contributed at meetings. It is almost certain that while in London Colburn met Isambard Kingdom Brunel. In 1860, Colburn returned to America on the maiden voyage of the Great Eastern, Brunel's leviathan steamship. In America he launched a new weekly engineering newspaper, The Engineer, but this lasted only a few months and Colburn returned to England to take up his previous position at The Engineer in London. Four years later, Colburn was dismissed from The Engineer as a result of personal scandal, taking up engineering consultancy and beginning work on a two-volume textbook on locomotive engineering that would forever define him as a leading engineer. This work, Locomotive Engineering and the mechanism of railways, was not published in its final form until 1871 – a year after his death. It was completed by the well-known locomotive engineer D. K. Clark, a close friend of Colburn's.

In 1864 he was awarded a Telford Medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers  for his paper "On American Iron Bridges"  In 1869 he received a second Telford Medal for "On American Locomotives and Rolling Stock".

In 1866, Colburn founded Engineering in London as a weekly rival to The Engineer using funds provided by Henry Bessemer, the English engineer and inventor known chiefly in connection with the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel. Engineering was an instant success and soon overtook The Engineer as Colburn's writing style and wide engineering knowledge gave readers the information they needed.

Personal life
Colburn was the nephew of his namesake, Zerah Colburn, a noted arithmetical prodigy.

In 1853 Colburn married Adelaide Felecita Driggs, 12 years his senior. They had a daughter, Sarah Pearl. For some reason, he became estranged from his wife whereupon Colburn bigamously married Elizabeth Suzanna Browning from London in New York in September 1860.  He went through a second marriage ceremony with Elizabeth, this time in London in 1864 which led to his sacking from The Engineer.

Colburn had a career of breakneck speed; he was a restless man, quick of brain and quick of temper; he fell into jobs and fell in with people, but then throughout his life, fell out with them too.

Ultimately overwork, an addiction to laudanum, alcohol and poor financial management took their toll. But Colburn suffered from another flaw. Following his numerous visits to the 1867 Paris Exhibition on behalf of Engineering, where he contracted syphilis, he became increasingly delighted by London prostitutes whose pleasures he much enjoyed. In the divorce petition filed against him by his wife Elizabeth, Colburn is accused of infecting her with syphilis, physical abuse, and adultery with five different prostitutes. Colburn, sensing the impending shame offered by Fleet Street journalists and their diligence to seek out and publish the truth, became depressed and reckless, leading to his return to the U.S. – where he found himself disowned by his wife Adelaide Felicita Colburn and daughter Sarah Pearl – and eventual suicide at age 38.  He was discovered near death by two boys taking their dog for a walk in Tudor's Pear Orchard, Belmont, Massachusetts, with a derringer in his hand.

References

Further reading

External links

1832 births
1870 deaths
1870s suicides
American railroad mechanical engineers
American mechanical engineers
American people in rail transportation
Suicides by firearm in Massachusetts
Engineers from Massachusetts
Locomotive builders and designers
19th-century American journalists
American male journalists
19th-century American engineers
19th-century American male writers

Zerah Colburn (locomotive designer)


Pipistrellus raceyi, also known as Racey's pipistrelle, is a bat from Madagascar, in the genus Pipistrellus. Although unidentified species of Pipistrellus had been previously reported from Madagascar since the 1990s, P. raceyi was not formally named until 2006. It is apparently most closely related to the Asian species P. endoi, P. paterculus, and P. abramus, and its ancestors probably reached Madagascar from Asia. P. raceyi has been recorded at four sites, two in the eastern and two in the western lowlands. In the east, it is found in open areas and has been found roosting in a building; in the west it occurs in dry forest. Because of uncertainties about its ecology, it is listed as "Data Deficient" on the IUCN Red List.

With a forearm length of 28.0 to 31.2 mm (1.10 to 1.23 in), Pipistrellus raceyi is small to medium-sized for a species of Pipistrellus. The body is reddish above and yellow-brown below. The wings are dark and the feet are small. Males have a long penis and baculum (penis bone), which is somewhat similar to those of P. endoi, P. abramus and P. paterculus. In the skull, the rostrum (front part) is less flat than in related species and the supraorbital ridges (above the eyes) are prominent. The fourth upper premolar does not touch the upper canine and the second lower premolar is well-developed.

Taxonomy
Since they were first recorded in 1905, when Thomas and Schwann described the species Vespertilio matroka (currently Neoromicia matroka), the classification and status of small vespertilionid bats ("pipistrelles") from Madagascar have remained unclear. Although several species were recorded, they remained little known. A species of the genus Pipistrellus with affinities to  Oriental (southeastern Asian) species was first recorded in 1995, and several later authors recorded one or more unidentified Pipistrellus species.

In 2006, Paul Bates and colleagues reported on a collection of 44 Malagasy "pipistrelles" received by the Harrison Institute, which included several species new to Madagascar, as well as a single species new to science. This species, a member of Pipistrellus, was described as Pipistrellus raceyi. In a 2007 article, Steven Goodman mentioned it as part of a flurry of new bat species from Madagascar; the number of species increased from 27 in 1995 to 37 in 2007. The specific name, raceyi, honors bat researcher Paul Racey and the describers suggested the common name "Racey's pipistrelle bat". P. raceyi closely resembles the Asian species P. endoi, P. paterculus, and P. abramus, and Bates and colleagues hypothesized that it may be related to these species. If this is true, the ancestors of P. raceyi presumably reached Madagascar from Asia, not from Africa like most of the island's bat fauna. P. raceyi shares this distinction with a few other Malagasy bats: the large fruit bat Pteropus rufus and both species of the small insectivorous bat Emballonura recorded on Madagascar.

Description
Pipistrellus raceyi is a small to medium-sized pipistrelle. It is long-furred and the body is reddish above, with the head a trifle darker, and yellowish-brown below. The glandular swellings on the muzzle, next to the nose, are hairless. The dark, short, round ears bear three to five ridges. The crescent-shaped tragus (a projection on the inner side of the outer ear) is about half as long as the ear and contains a slight constriction on the back side of its base. The wings are dark. The third through fifth metacarpals (hand bones) are about equally long, but the first phalange (finger bone) on the third finger is short. P. endoi has a longer first phalange on the third metacarpal. P. raceyi has short tibiae (lower leg bones) and small feet and the tail is shorter than the head and body. Forearm length is 28.0 to 31.2 mm (1.10 to 1.23 in), tail length is 22.9 to 30.3 mm (0.90 to 1.19 in), hindfoot length is 5.3 to 7.5 mm (0.21 to 0.30 in), and ear length is 7.5 to 10.6 mm (0.30 to 0.42 in) in 13 measured specimens. Females average slightly larger than males.

Males have a long, straight penis with a notch between the shaft and the narrow, egg-shaped glans penis. Near the top, the penis is haired, but the base is almost naked. In the baculum (penis bone), the shaft is long and narrow and slightly curved. The length of the penis and baculum distinguish P. raceyi from all comparably sized African and Malagasy vespertilionids. P. endoi, P. paterculus, and P. abramus have more similar bacula, but that of P. abramus is more curved, the shaft and the tip are more robust in P. paterculus, and the proximal (near) end is more robust in P. endoi. In males, penis length is 9.6 to 11.8 mm (0.38 to 0.46 in) and baculum length is 8.8 to 10.0 mm (0.35 to 0.39 in).

In the skull, there is a well-defined lowered area in the middle of the rostrum (front part), which nearly touches the back margin of the large, V-shaped nasal aperture (opening for the nose). Next to the aperture are two elevated areas, above the incisors. The zygomatic arches (cheekbones) are slender. The supraorbital ridges (located above the eyes) are well-developed. P. abramus, P. endoi, and P. paterculus have a flatter rostrum and less prominent supraorbital ridges. The braincase is of average size and bears a poorly developed sagittal crest on its roof. The supraoccipital, the backmost part of the skull, is convex. The sides of the concave palate are about parallel.

The dental formula is  (two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in the upper jaw, and three incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in the lower jaw). Because the ancestors of P. raceyi lost the first upper incisor and first and third upper and lower premolars, the upper incisors are designated I2 and I3 and the premolars are designated P2 and P4 (uppers) and p2 and p4 (lowers). I2 has a well-developed second cusp in addition to the main cusp and I3 about reaches the height of the second cusp of I2. The stout upper canine bears a single cusp. P2 is prominent and is displaced slightly towards the inner side of the toothrow. P4 does not contact the canine. The first and second upper molar (M1 and M2) are about equally large, but M3 is smaller. Each of the lower incisors bears three cusps and the third (i3) may touch the lower canine (c1). The latter tooth has a second cusp, which reaches higher than i3. The p2 touches the back of c1 and attains between 59-100% the crown area of p4. The first two lower molars (m1 and m2) have the back group of cusps (talonid) larger than the front one (trigonid), and m3 is again smaller.

Distribution, ecology, and behavior
Pipistrellus raceyi is known from four places on Madagascar, all below 80 m (260 ft) altitude, of which two are on the west and two on the east side of the island. Among the eastern collection sites, Kianjavato is a rural town surrounded by farmland and secondary forests, where P. raceyi were collected while leaving a hollow in the concrete wall of a house and in a mistnet over a river, and Tampolo is in a heavily disturbed agriculturally used area. Both western localities, Kirindy and Mikea, are in dry forest. In Kirindy, the pipistrelle Hypsugo anchietae has also been recorded. The true distribution of P. raceyi is probably larger than that currently known. Nothing is known about the diet, but vespertilionid bats generally eat insects.

There is very limited data on reproduction. Young are probably born near the start of the rainy season, in November–December, when food is plentiful. Six bats were caught at the roost site in Kianjavato, of which only one was a male; this led Bates and colleagues to suggest that the species may be polygynous, with groups consisting of a male and multiple females.

Conservation status
The IUCN Red List has assessed Pipistrellus raceyi as "Data Deficient" because of insufficient knowledge about its abundance and habitat requirements. All four known sites are near forest, but that may be a sampling artifact. Although deforestation may pose a threat, each of the collection sites has some sort of forest protection measures in place.

References

Literature cited
 Bates, P.J.J., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., Harrison, D.L. and Goodman, S.M. 2006. A description of a new species of Pipistrellus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) from Madagascar with a review of related Vespertilioninae from the island (subscription required). Acta Chiropterologica 8(2):299–324.
 Emmons, L.H. and Feer, F. 1997. Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide. 2nd ed. The University of Chicago Press, 307 pp.
 Goodman, S.M. 2007. An island of discoveries: Madagascar reveals a swarm of new bat species . Bats 25(2):12–14.
 Hill, J.E. and Harrison, D.L. 1987. The baculum in the Vespertilioninae (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) with a systematic review, a synopsis of Pipistrellus and Eptesicus, and the descriptions of a new genus and subgenus. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Zoology Series 52(7):225–305.

Pipistrellus
Mammals described in 2006
Bats of Africa
Mammals of Madagascar

Pipistrellus raceyi


Grand Cane is a village in DeSoto Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 242 at the 2010 census, up from 191 in 2000. It is part of the Shreveport–Bossier City Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is the hometown of women's basketball pioneer Linda Gamble.

History

Prior to the incorporation of the village of Grand Cane in 1899, the settlement of four families (Thomas Abington, Israel Rogers, Wright Hobgood, and John Wagner) influenced the development of the area around two wagon trails that intersected in the sparsely populated area known as the Grand Cane Territory. In 1881, Amanda Hobgood (widow of Wright Hobgood) deeded land to the New Orleans & Pacific Railway and had the village of Grand Cane laid out in lots and streets. By 1899, the village was incorporated, and the first mayor was E.R. Fortson. The first village councilmen were Paul E. Allen, Loderick Monroe Cook, and Dr. J.B. Johns. The population soon grew to almost 500.

As the village developed, spurred by the railway and the two crossroads (LA Hwys. 171 and 3015),a business community developed which included seven stores, a dentist, bank, post office, blacksmith shop, livery stable, two hotels, four doctors (Drs. Broadway, Leopold, Bannaman, & Curtis), three drug stores (Edwards, Leopold, & Allen), telephone office, newspaper, restaurant, two cotton gins, and various distinguished residential homes. The community was enhanced by the first accredited public high school in Louisiana, and a Presbyterian, Methodist, and two Baptist churches.

The village continued to thrive until the Great Depression of 1929. The downward spiral continued with the demise of the Texas & Pacific Railway in the late 1950s. The steady decline of agricultural industry, the lack of new businesses, the loss of the public school, and a general movement away from the rural area saw the end of the village as a center for trade. Grand Cane, like so many small towns left behind by progress, simply went to sleep until 1993, when the village used funds from a rural development grant from the state of Louisiana to purchase the Hicks & Richardson building.

This action spurred the passage of a preservation ordinance, creating the Grand Cane Preservation Commission, which resulted in the subsequent listing on the National Register of Historic Places of several buildings in the Historic District (Platt, Old Post Office, Cook & Douglas, Hicks & Richardson, & Ricks Bros.). These buildings joined the Village Hall and the Grand Cane Methodist Church that had obtained earlier listings.

Present day
The Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995, including the Village Hall (Bank of Grand Cane) which gained National Register status earlier in 1988. The Historic District status recognizes the fact that the exterior of the buildings in this short block and a half have remained much the same as when they were built around the turn of the century. Grand Cane is the home of the historic Cook-Hill House Bed and Breakfast. Buildings listed on the National Register include the following. The W.W. Platt Dental Office was built in 1939. The George N. Parker Company building (1910) was a general merchandise store advertised as "The Shoe and Hat Specialist". The Cook & Douglas Building (1903, owners L.M. Cook & Charles A. Douglas), advertised as a general merchandise and plantation supply store, with "Highest prices paid for Cotton & Cotton Seed"; the adjoining side building served as a storage for the Cook & Douglas Building. The Bank of Grand Cane Building (circa 1902), served as a bank until 1970, when the building was donated to the village. It now is the Grand Cane village hall and is affectionately referred to as "the Village". The first Grand Cane Bank was headed by W.H. Smith. The bank has a very colorful history, and was robbed several times. The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 11, 1988.  The Hicks & Richardson Building, circa 1902, housed an established "General Merchandise and Plantation supplies" store. It featured staples and fancy groceries along with buggies and wagons. The Ricks Brothers Building, circa 1915, later became Gamble Brothers. General merchandise and groceries were sold and delivered to homes. Today, these buildings house shops, restaurants, the village hall, a community theater and a "mall" of diverse businesses.

In September 2009 the Village of Grand Cane Cultural District was certified by the Louisiana Cultural Districts, Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism. This initiative has added to the community revitalization with added cultural activity by the DeSoto Arts Council and the establishment of the DeSoto Arts Council Gallery, where original art can be purchased tax free. The DAC Gallery is located in the Hicks-Richardson Building. Also located in the Hicks Richardson Building is the Back Alley Theater and the Raven Book Store.

Geography
Grand Cane is located in central Desoto Parish at  (32.083747, -93.809170). U.S. Route 171 passes through the center of town, leading southeast  to Mansfield, the parish seat, and north  to Stonewall.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the village of Grand Cane has a total area of , of which , or 1.82%, is water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 191 people, 87 households, and 54 families residing in the village. The population density was . There were 107 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the village was 55.86% White, 40.99% African American, 2.09% Native American, 0.52% from other races, and 0.52% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.14% of the population.

There were 87 households, out of which 32.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 13.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.82.

In the village, the population was spread out, with 24.1% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 20.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.

The median income for a household in the village was $31,429, and the median income for a family was $36,250. Males had a median income of $29,500 versus $23,125 for females. The per capita income for the village was $15,461. About 15.7% of families and 16.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.2% of those under the age of eighteen and 21.6% of those 65 or over.

Climate
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Grand Cane has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Notable people
C.L. Bryant (born 1956), African-American Baptist minister and talk show host over KEEL radio in his native Shreveport, resides with his wife in Grand Cane.
Rudy Leopold (1905-1965), Major League Baseball pitcher for Chicago White Sox, born in Grand Cane.
B. H. "Johnny" Rogers (1905-1977), Louisiana state representative 1950-1952 and state senator 1952–1968; farmer and Grand Cane native

References

External links
 Village of Grand Cane

Villages in DeSoto Parish, Louisiana
Villages in Louisiana
Villages in Shreveport – Bossier City metropolitan area
Populated places established in 1899

Grand Cane, Louisiana


An emulsion is what you get when you put two or more liquids together and the two liquids do not mix. Immiscible liquids do not mix together. For example, if you add oil to water, the oil floats on the surface of the water. And if you shake the two together then leave them to stand, tiny droplets of oil float upwards. These droplets join together until eventually the oil is floating on the water again. To stop the two liquids separating, we need a substance called an emulsifier.

Emulsifiers are molecules that have two different ends, a hydrophilic end (water-loving) that forms chemical bonds with water but not with oils, and a hydrophobic end (water-hating lipophile) that forms chemical bonds with oils but not with water.

Uses of Emulsion

 Usually used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, personal hygiene.
 Microemulsions are used to deliver vaccines to kill various microbes.
 It is used in chemical synthesis mainly in the manufacture of polymer dispersions.
 It is used in firefighting.
 Nanoemulsions such as soybean oil are used to kill microbes.

Related pages
 Emulsifier

References

Physical chemistry

Emulsion