Katherine Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk, suo jure 12th Baroness Willoughby de Eresby ( Willoughby; 22 March 1519 – 19 September 1580), was an English noblewoman living at the courts of King Henry VIII, King Edward VI and Queen Elizabeth I. She was the fourth wife of Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, who acted as her legal guardian during his third marriage to Henry VIII's sister Mary. Her second husband was Richard Bertie, a member of her household. Following Charles Brandon's death in 1545, it was rumoured that King Henry had considered marrying Katherine as his seventh wife, while he was still married to his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, who was Katherine's close friend.

An outspoken supporter of the English Reformation, she fled abroad to Wesel and later the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the reign of Queen Mary I, to avoid persecution.

Family
Katherine Willoughby, born at Parham Old Hall, Suffolk, on 22 March 1519 and christened in the church there four days later, was the daughter of William Willoughby, 11th Baron Willoughby de Eresby, and his second wife, María de Salinas. Lord Willoughby's first wife, Mary Hussey, the daughter of William Hussey, Chief Justice of the King's Bench, had died childless before 1512, and in June 1516 he married María de Salinas. Doña María de Salinas had come to the English court with Henry VIII's Queen consort, Catherine of Aragon, and was one of the queen's ladies-in-waiting and closest friends. The king favoured another match bolstering his own marital alliance with Spain, and even named one of his warships the Mary Willoughby. It seems Katherine was named for the queen, but her mother's lifelong friendship with Catherine of Aragon did not prevent her daughter from becoming one of England's Marian exiles later in life.

Katherine had two brothers, Henry and Francis, who died as infants.

Early life
According to Goff, Katherine likely spent her early childhood at Parham, as her mother was in almost constant attendance on Henry VIII's Queen, Catherine of Aragon. On 14 October 1526, when Katherine was seven years of age, Lord Willoughby died after falling ill during a visit to Suffolk and was buried at Mettingham. As his only surviving child, Katherine inherited the barony. Her father held some thirty manors in Lincolnshire, and almost the same number in Norfolk and Suffolk, worth over £900 per annum, and Katherine is said to have been 'one of the greatest heiresses of her generation'. However, her inheritance became a subject of dispute for many years, as there was doubt as to which lands had been settled on the heirs male and which on the heirs general, and the matter was further complicated by a deed which Lord Willoughby had drawn up before leaving for France to campaign in Henry VIII's wars in 1523. In 1527 Katherine's uncle, Sir Christopher Willoughby, accused his sister-in-law, Catherine's mother, María de Salinas, of withholding documents from him which established the title to various estates, and of having kept him out of possession of estates which rightfully belonged to him.

At her father's death, Katherine's wardship fell to the king, who on 1 March 1528 sold it to his brother-in-law Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. On acquiring Katherine's wardship, Suffolk immediately intervened in the family quarrel with a letter to Cardinal Wolsey, and his intervention appears to have cowed Sir Christopher Willoughby, who wrote to Wolsey that the Cardinal's anger was 'worse to him than death'.

Katherine is said to have been betrothed to Henry Brandon, 1st Earl of Lincoln (died 1534), Suffolk's son by his third wife, Mary Tudor. Mary Tudor died at Westhorpe, Suffolk, on 25 June 1533, and on 21 July the young Katherine was one of the chief mourners at her funeral. As early as 1531 it had been rumoured in the household of Henry VIII's future wife, Anne Boleyn, that Suffolk was personally interested in Catherine, and six weeks after Mary Tudor's death the Imperial Ambassador, Eustace Chapuys, reported to Charles V that:

On Sunday next the Duke of Suffolk will be married to the daughter of a Spanish lady named Lady Willoughby. She was promised to the Duke's son, but he is only ten years old, & although it is not worth writing to your Majesty, the novelty of the case made me mention it'.

Although Suffolk was forty-nine and Katherine only fourteen, the marriage was a successful one. The Willoughby inheritance was not fully settled until the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, but Suffolk was able to force Sir Christopher Willoughby to relinquish possession of some of the contested Willoughby estates, and Suffolk eventually became the greatest magnate in Lincolnshire. As such, he played an important role in quelling the Lincolnshire rebellion in 1536, and built an imposing residence at Grimsthorpe, which came into Catherine's possession at the death of Elizabeth de Vere, Dowager Countess of Oxford, widow of the 13th Earl.

The Duke and Duchess had two sons, Henry Brandon, 2nd Duke of Suffolk, born 18 September 1534 at Catherine's mother's house in the Barbican, and Charles Brandon, 3rd Duke of Suffolk, born 1537. The marriage brought Catherine into the extended royal family, because Henry VIII's will made his younger sister Mary Tudor's descendants the next heirs to the throne after his own children. The Duke and Duchess of Suffolk officially greeted Anne of Cleves when she arrived in England in 1539 to marry the king, and in 1541 they helped arrange a royal progress for the king and his next wife, Catherine Howard. This progress later became notorious for the queen's alleged adulterous trysts with her kinsman, Thomas Culpeper, though the duke and duchess's home at Grimsthorpe Castle was "one of the very few places on the route ... where Katherine Howard had not misbehaved herself".

Personality and beliefs

Noted for her wit, sharp tongue, and devotion to learning, by the last years of Henry VIII's reign the Duchess of Suffolk was also an outspoken advocate of the English Reformation. She became a close friend of Henry's last queen, Catherine Parr, particularly after the Duke died in 1545, and was a strong influence on the queen's religious beliefs. In 1546, as these views grew controversial, the king ordered the queen's arrest, though his wife managed to cajole him into cancelling this.

The Duchess of Suffolk once gave a banquet and during a party game afterwards named Bishop Gardiner as the man she loved least. She named her pet spaniel "Gardiner", provoking much amusement when she called her dog to heel. Several years later when Gardiner was imprisoned during the reign of King Edward VI, she is quoted as saying, "It was merry with the lambs when the wolf was shut up."

Suffolk died 22 August 1545, and it was rumoured that the king was considering the Duchess—still only in her mid-twenties—as his seventh wife. In February 1546, Van der Delft wrote: "I hesitate to report there are rumours of a new queen. Some attribute it to the sterility of the present Queen, while others say that there will be no change during the present war. Madame Suffolk is much talked about and is in great favour; but the king shows no alteration in his behaviour to the queen, although she is said to be annoyed by the rumour". But their friendship remained strong, and after Henry VIII's death in 1547, the Duchess helped fund the publication of one of Catherine Parr's books, The Lamentation of a Sinner. She also became a patron of John Day, England's leading religious publisher; Day printed various books with the Duchess of Suffolk's coat of arms from 1548 onward. Beginning in 1550, the Duchess helped establish stranger churches for foreign Protestants, principally Dutch, who were fleeing religious persecution on the Continent.

After Henry VIII's death

The dowager queen Catherine Parr remarried to Thomas Seymour shortly after the death of the king. In August 1548, she gave birth to a daughter and died several days later, presumably of childbed fever. Upon her death, her widower went to London with their new baby daughter. Months later, Seymour was arrested, tried, and executed for treason. Their daughter, Mary, was left an orphan aged only seven months. The Duchess of Suffolk was appointed guardian. The Duchess could not support the young infant so she wrote to Sir William Cecil, asking for funds. The letter reflects her resentment towards the child. The letter was obviously taken into account for in January 1550, an act in Parliament was passed restoring Mary to what was left of her father's property. No claim was ever made and the queen's daughter seems to disappear from history at this time. Parr's biographer Linda Porter believes that the child died and was buried near the Duchess's estate in Grimsthorpe. Years later, the Duchess also became the custodian of one of her Brandon step-granddaughters, Lady Mary Grey, when the latter was placed under house arrest after marrying without royal consent.

In 1551 both the Duchess's teenage sons, Henry Brandon, 2nd Duke of Suffolk and Charles Brandon, 3rd Duke of Suffolk, already students at Cambridge, died within an hour of each other of the sweating sickness. Four months afterwards, attempting to reconcile herself to this tragedy, Katherine wrote to Sir William Cecil that "truly I take this [God's] last (and to the first sight most sharp and bitter) punishment not for the least of his benefits, in as much as I have never been so well taught by any other before to know his power, his love, and mercy, my own wickedness, and that wretched state that without him I should endure here". In recovering from this misfortune and its severe test to her faith, Katherine built a new life. In this period she employed Hugh Latimer as her chaplain.

She married her second husband, Richard Bertie (25 December 1516 – 9 April 1582), a member of her household, out of love and shared religious beliefs, but she continued to be known as the Duchess of Suffolk, and her efforts to have her husband named Lord Willoughby de Eresby were unsuccessful. In 1555, during the reign of Queen Mary I, the Berties were among the Marian exiles who left for the Continent. Their persecution by Stephen Gardiner, the Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor, and subsequent wanderings were recounted in Foxe's Book of Martyrs, in an account probably written by Richard Bertie himself for the 1570 edition. During this period Sigismund II Augustus, the King of Poland and Duke of Lithuania appointed them as administrators of Lithuania, based at Kražiai.

After their return to England, they lived at Katherine's estate, Grimsthorpe in Lincolnshire, and at court. By Richard Bertie, Katherine was the mother of Peregrine Bertie (named for their peregrinations in exile), who married Mary de Vere, only sister of the whole blood of Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, and of Susan Bertie, who married, firstly, Reginald Grey, 5th Earl of Kent, and, secondly, Sir John Wingfield, a nephew of Catherine's friend, Bess of Hardwick.

Literary tributes
Katherine and Richard Bertie's exile became the basis of a ballad by Thomas Deloney (1543–1600), The most Rare and Excellent History, Of the Duchess of Suffolks Calamity, and of Thomas Drue's play, The Life of the Duchess of Suffolk, published in 1624. It may also have been the subject of an unpublished play from 1600 by William Haughton, The English Fugitives. Katherine's second marriage to one of her servants and subsequent persecution also present parallels to the plot of John Webster's The Duchess of Malfi.

Issue
By her first marriage, she had two sons:
 Henry Brandon, 2nd Duke of Suffolk (18 September 1535 – 14 July 1551), died of the sweating sickness
 Charles Brandon, 3rd Duke of Suffolk (1537/38 – 14 July 1551), died of the sweating sickness an hour after his older brother.

By her second marriage, she had a daughter and a son:
 Susan Bertie, Countess of Kent (1554 – unknown), married, firstly, in 1570, Reginald Grey of Wrest, 5th Earl of Kent and, secondly, on 30 September 1581, John Wingfield by whom she had two sons Peregrine Wingfield and Robert Wingfield.
 Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby (12 October 1555 – 1601), married 1577 Mary de Vere, daughter of John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford and Margery Golding. They had seven children.

In fiction
Catherine's story is very fictionalised in The Sixth Wife: A Novel by Suzannah Dunn
Her character is played by Rebekah Wainwright in the historical fiction series The Tudors, where she is called Catherine Brooke, and much of her story has been changed.
Catherine and her second husband Bertie appear in Stanley Weyman's 1891 novel The Story of Francis Cludde. It covers the period 1555–58, when the eponymous hero helps them escape Mary's agents and reach safety in Germany; he also is made godfather to their son Peregrine. As with most of Weyman's novels, the historical detail is accurate and well researched.

Notes

References

: Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900, Volume 4, p. 403.

Further reading
My Lady Suffolk: A Portrait of Catherine Willoughby, Duchess of Suffolk by Evelyn Read (1963) ASIN B000JE85OK
Queen Katherine Parr by Anthony Martienssen, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York 1973
Women, Reform and Community in Early Modern England: Katherine Willoughby, Duchess of Suffolk, and Lincolnshire's Godly Aristocracy, 1519–1580: 19 (Studies in Modern British Religious History) by Melissa Franklin Harkrider
The Mistresses of Henry VIII by Kelly Hart

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English baronesses
Katherine
1519 births
1580 deaths
People of the Elizabethan era
Suffolk
English ladies-in-waiting
Daughters of barons
Hereditary women peers
English Anglicans
Marian exiles
Katherine
Katherine
English people of Spanish descent
Wives of knights
16th-century English women
16th-century English nobility

Katherine Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk


Menawa, first called Hothlepoya (), was a Muscogee (Creek) chief and military leader.  He was of mixed race, with a Creek mother and a fur trader father of mostly Scots ancestry.  As the Creek had a matrilineal system of descent and leadership, his status came from his mother's clan.

He grew up among the Upper Creek in present-day Alabama and, as an adult, became part of the "Red Sticks", a group that opposed assimilation and worked to revive traditional practices.  During the Creek War (1813–1814), he led Red Sticks warriors and survived the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. To carry out punishment for the crime of an unauthorized land cession, in 1825 Menawa led about 150 lawmenders in an attack on chief William McIntosh, who had signed the Treaty of Indian Springs that year without the consent of the Creek National Council. They killed him, burned his mansion, and confiscated his property, including livestock and 100 slaves.

Early life and education
He was born at the village of Oakfuskee, located on the Tallapoosa River in present-day Alabama.  The site is now covered by the lower part of Lake Martin, created by a dam.

His mother was a high-status Creek woman and his father a mostly Scots fur trader; such strategic alliances were common, as both cultures believed they benefited.  As the Creek were matrilineal, Menawa was reared within the Creek tribe and gained his status from his mother's clan. Her eldest brother would have acted as his mentor, teaching him men's ways and introducing him to the men's societies.

Career
When Hothlepoya became the second chief of Oakfuskee, he was given the name Menawa.

During the early 1800s, he was one of the principal leaders of the "Red Sticks" or Upper Creeks, who worked to revive traditional practices and resisted assimilation to European-American ways.  He emerged to lead warriors in the Creek War (1813–1814), which began as a civil war among the Creek people, where strong divisions had arisen with the Lower Creek, who comprised the majority of the population.  During this period, the British were already at war against the United States during the War of 1812. They supported the Red Sticks' resistance to United States settlers' incursions into their territory.

Menawa was second in command of the Red Sticks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, when they were defeated by General Andrew Jackson commanding militias of Tennessee, Georgia and the Mississippi Territory, as well as allied Cherokee.  Menawa was wounded seven times during the battle, but he escaped and survived his wounds.

After the war, Menawa continued to oppose the European-American encroachment on Creek lands. Lower Creek chiefs had ceded town lands in 1790, 1802 and 1804.  In 1825, Chief William McIntosh, a Lower Creek, was one of several chiefs who signed the Treaty of Indian Springs with the US, ceding most of the remaining Creek land east of the Mississippi River.  The tribe had been under severe pressure from Georgia, but the Upper Creek, the majority, continued to oppose such cessions.  The Creek National Council had passed a law declaring land cessions a capital crime, and declared the signers of the 1825 treaty to be traitors. It ordered their execution.

On April 30, 1825, Menawa led a party of 120-150 lawmenders from towns of the ceded land; they executed chief William McIntosh, and Etommee Tustunnuggee, who had alienated communal Creek land without the consent of the National Council.  They burned down McIntosh's mansion at Indian Springs, and confiscated his 100 slaves, livestock and produce. Later that day they caught Samuel and Benjamin Hawkins, his sons-in-law and also signatories to the treaty. They hanged Samuel and shot Benjamin, but he escaped.

In 1826, Menawa was a member of the Creek National Council, along with Opothleyahola and Selocta Chinnabby, that went to Washington D.C., to protest the Treaty of Indian Springs. The Creek leaders signed the Treaty of Washington (1826) with the US government, which nullified the Treaty of Indian Springs. In this new treaty, the Creek still ceded land to Georgia—in compensation, they received an immediate payment of $217,660 and a perpetual annuity of $20,000. The state of Georgia ignored the new treaty and worked to evict the Creek from their lands.

Menawa is said to have been among the hundreds who died during the general removal of the Creek to Indian Territory in the 1830s. According to the memoirs of Lt Edward Deas, who led the third detachment of 2,420 Creeks from Alabama to Oklahoma, Menawa is said to have been alive on December 21, 1836 in Little Rock, Arkansas.  According to Deas, "The land party eventually arrived near Little Rock but Tuscoona Harjo, Menawa, and four hundred of their people, refused to travel much farther beyond that that. Menawa was too intoxicated to travel while Harho 'evinced a stubborn obstinate disposition.' " Menawa is not listed on the muster rolls after the group reached Fort Gibson in Indian Territory on January 23, 1837.  Menawa, therefore, possibly died between those two places and his burial place was along the way and is unknown.  However, none of Lt Deas' dispatches to his commander or to Washington, D.C. makes mention of Menawa dying along the "Creek Trail of Tears". His death would have been important, and thus would have been mentioned by Deas. So, a conclusion can be inferred that he made it to Arkansas Territory, now the State of Oklahoma, and was buried there quietly when he died after 1837.

References

External links
 detailed biography
 "Treaty With The Creeks, Jan. 24, 1826", Digital Library, Oklahoma State University
 Historical Marker Database - Menawa, War Chief

Native American leaders
Muscogee people
People of the Creek War
American people of Scottish descent
Year of birth uncertain
1760s births

1830s deaths
American Métis people
18th-century Native Americans
19th-century Native Americans
People from Alabama
Native American people from Alabama

Menawa


Harald Fairhair's campaign in Götaland was an attack that took place in the 870s.

Snorri Sturluson writes in Harald Fairhair's saga that Harald Fairhair disputed the Swedish king Eric Eymundsson's hegemony in what is today southern Norway.

He attacked and forced Viken to accept his rule and then plundered and burnt in Rånrike. Because of this the Norwegian skald Þorbjörn hornklofi boasted that the Swedes stayed indoors whereas the Norwegians were out on the sea.

The Gauts (Geats) did not accept this and assembled their forces. In the spring, they put stakes in Göta älv to stop Harald's ships. Harald Fairhair put his ships alongside the stakes and plundered and burnt everything he could reach.
The Norwegian skald said of this:

The Geats arrived to the ships with a great army to fight king Harald, but they lost after great losses.

Then the Norwegians travelled far and wide in Götaland, winning most of the battles. In one of the battles, the Geatish commander Hrani the Geat fell. Harald then proclaimed himself the ruler of all land north of Göta älv and north and west of lake Vänern and placed Guttorm Haraldsson to defend the region with a large force.

References
 Sturluson, Snorri. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, translated Lee M. Hollander. Reprinted University of Texas Press, Austin, 1992.

Battles involving Norway
Battles involving the Vikings
G
Geats
Battles involving Sweden
Götaland
870s conflicts
9th century in Norway
Harald Fairhair

Harald Fairhair's campaign in Götaland


Christopher Winship (born March 5, 1950) is Diker-Tishman Professor of sociology at Harvard University, and principal of the Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations at Harvard. He is best known for his contributions to quantitative methods in sociology and, since 1995, has served as editor of Sociological Methods and Research. He received the 2006 Paul Lazarsfeld Award from the Methodology Section of the American Sociological Association, which recognizes outstanding contributions over a career to sociological methodology.

He grew up in New Britain, Connecticut and earned his bachelor's degree in mathematics and sociology from Dartmouth College in 1977. He holds a Ph.D in sociology from Harvard.

After leaving Harvard he did a one-year post-doctoral fellowship at the Institute for Research on Poverty at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and a two-year fellowship at the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago.

In 1980 he joined the Sociology Department at Northwestern University. During his twelve years at Northwestern he was Director of the Program in Mathematical Methods in the Social Sciences and for four years chair of the Department of Sociology. He was a founding member of Northwestern's Department of Statistics, and held a courtesy appointment in Economics.

From 1984 to 1986, he was the director of the Economics Research Center at NORC.

He returned to Harvard in 1992, and served as the Chair of Harvard's sociology department from 1998 to 2001.

He is currently doing research on several topics: The Ten Point Coalition, a group of black ministers who are working with the Boston police to reduce youth violence; statistical models for causal analysis; the effects of education on mental ability; causes of the racial difference in performance in elite colleges and universities; changes in the racial differential in imprisonment rates over the past sixty years.

References

External links
Harvard Faculty biographical note and CV

1950 births
American sociologists
People from Topeka, Kansas
Harvard University faculty
Hotchkiss School alumni
Dartmouth College alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison alumni
University of Chicago alumni
Northwestern University faculty
Living people
Academic journal editors

Christopher Winship


Scott Campbell Covington (born January 17, 1976) is a former American football quarterback. He played five seasons in the National Football League (NFL) for the Cincinnati Bengals and St. Louis Rams and one season in the Canadian Football League (CFL) for the Toronto Argonauts.

College
Covington played in college football at the University of Miami.   He was the starting quarterback for the Miami Hurricanes in 1997 after Ryan Clement suffered an injury in the middle of the season. Covington had an average college career, mostly serving as a backup for Clement. He did not earn a chance to start until his senior year in 1998, helping the Hurricanes to a 9–3 record, including a season defining win against the then #3 UCLA Bruins, 49–45, in the final regular season game.

NFL career
Covington was drafted in the 1999 NFL Draft by the Cincinnati Bengals, for whom he played with for three seasons. He spent the majority of those three seasons as the third-string quarterback, behind the likes of Akili Smith and Scott Mitchell. He appeared in just 3 games, completing 4 of 5 passes for 23 yards and running the ball twice for -4 yards. In 2002, he joined the St. Louis Rams, where he played for two seasons. He played in just one game, but he also started it in place of an injured Kurt Warner. He completed 2 of 5 passes for 7 yards and was sacked twice before being replaced by Jamie Martin. He was released during the 2004 offseason.

Post NFL career
After sitting out the entire 2004 season, Covington was signed by the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League (CFL) on March 1, 2005. He was released on June 18.

References

1976 births
Living people
American football quarterbacks
Cincinnati Bengals players
Miami Hurricanes football players
St. Louis Rams players
Players of American football from Fresno, California
Dana Hills High School alumni
Players of American football from Orange County, California

Scott Covington


The Israel West Bank barrier is a wall built by the State of Israel to separate Palestinian territories from Israel. It is built mostly of fences and in some places it is built of high concrete walls. It is 708 kilometers (439 miles) long.

Construction
The barrier was built in the Second Intifada that began in September 2000. It is when the Israeli government argued that it necessary to stop the violence and suicide bombing attacks coming from the West Bank.

Arguments
There are many arguments about the barrier. People who want the barrier say it is needed to protect Israeli civilians from Palestinian terrorism. Since the barrier was built, the number of attacks has gone down, especially in areas where the barrier has been fully completed. Israel says that it is necessary for the country's security.

People who are against the barrier say that it is against international law because Israel and the Palestinians have not agreed where the border between them should be and have not reached a consensus. While the Palestinian Authority is in charge for water sources, the economic system, etc. in the West Bank, Palestinians who travel to Israel for medical, educational or work purposes have said that the barrier has negative effects on daily life and gives them less freedom (due to checkpoints).

Other websites
Q&A: What is the West Bank barrier? on the BBC website
The Security Barrier on the ADL website

Arab–Israeli conflict
Buildings and structures in Israel
Buildings and structures in Palestine
Politics of Palestine
Defensive walls
West Bank

Israeli West Bank barrier


Penton was an information services and marketing company. The company's three largest revenue streams came from events, digital and marketing services. Although Penton had a long history (see below) as a trade publisher, in 2015 it reported that 35 percent of its EBITDA derived from digital products, 54 percent from events, and 11 percent from print. The main industry segments served by Penton include agriculture, transportation, natural products/food, infrastructure, and design and manufacturing.

The company was descended from Penton Publishing, founded by John Penton in Cleveland in 1904 to bring together production of several trade magazine titles, including Foundry, which he had created in Detroit in 1892. However, after the Penton/Prism merger, the company is now headquartered in New York City, although it continues to maintain offices in Cleveland and other U.S. cities, with an employee base of approximately 1,350 people.

Due to reduced advertising sales as customers shifted to digital media from print, Penton went through "pre-packaged" bankruptcy reorganization in 2010.

On September 15, 2016, it was announced that Penton was to be bought by UK based company Informa for $1.56 billion. The sale closed on November 2, 2016. Penton was integrated into Informa Business Intelligence in 2017.

Early history

Penton's history began with two Cleveland companies, Penton Publishing Co., founded by John A. Penton—an iron molder by trade—in 1904, and the Industrial Publishing Co. John Penton had been involved in publishing trade magazines since 1887, creating Foundry in Detroit (1892), and then the Iron and Steel Press Co in Cleveland (1901). In Cleveland, he also published The Iron Trade Review, which became IndustryWeek.

By the 1920s, the company was a large business magazine publisher, for several years printing "Time" under contract. Between 1938 and 1945, Penton helped the United States Census establish the Standard Industrial Classification system, a digital coding system for industries.

Penton was owned by Pittway from 1976 to 1998.

Content
Penton's global headquarters was in the Penton Media Building in Downtown Cleveland, Ohio from 2000 to 2006.

Numerous corporate acquisitions, sales, and mergers have occurred over the years. Wasserstein & Co. purchased Prism Business Media from Primedia in August 2005 for $385 million. Prism Business Media was then merged when Wasserstein purchased Penton Media in November 2006 for $194 million. The combined entity took the Penton Media name, later dropping the "Media" part. After the merger, Penton became one of the largest B2B media companies in the world.

In late 2010, Penton acquired Nation's Restaurant News. In early 2011, Penton sold Mix, Electronic Musician, Radio, and Sound & Video Contractor magazines to NewBay Media.

Also in 2011, Penton acquired EyeTraffic Media, an online marketing firm.  This was Penton's first marketing services acquisition. Also in 2011, Penton acquired Nine Lives Media, an IT publisher with industry-related blogs. In 2012, Penton acquired Highline LP of the United Kingdom, adding to its digital aviation business. and Penton acquired Farm Progress from Fairfax Media Limited of Sydney, Australia, expanded its agriculture sector becoming the lead in agriculture information and marketing solutions.

Additionally in 2012, Penton's Technology Media Group went all digital. In the same year, David Kieselstein became CEO and was tasked with broadening Penton's digital solutions, entering new industry sectors, and exploring growth markets.

In April 2013, Penton acquired myITforum.com, an online community for Microsoft Management professionals. In the same month, Penton published the final issue of California Farmer, California's oldest farm magazine. Stating that the magazine wasn't as profitable as its other publications, Penton merged it with another property, Western Farm Press.

In August 2013, Penton acquired Aviation Week from McGraw Hill Financial. In October 2013, Penton announced that Broadcast Engineering magazine would cease publication after 54 years. In January 2015, Penton acquired iNET Interactive, a Cincinnati-based event and digital information company, focused on the cloud computing, hosting and data center segments.

Subsequent acquisitions include World Tea Media (producer of the World Tea Expo), MRO Network (an online media outlet for the global aviation maintenance, repair, and operations community), and TU-Automotive (an automotive technology hub).

Data Solutions

Despite its long history as a trade publisher, in March 2014 Penton moved towards monetizing its large (then 16 million records) database to support marketing campaigns. In order to do so, it created the Penton SmartReach division to sell subscriber data directly rather than through third-party list vendors. As of 2016, the database had grown to some 20 million records.

Penton analyses publicly available data for customers in industry sectors including agriculture, transportation, food, design and manufacturing, and infrastructure. One of Penton's data solutions tools, NEXT Trend, for example, provides analysis for the natural products and food industry. In 2014, it predicted 50 percent growth by 2018 in the healthy, organic, and natural products market. NEXT Trend also makes data-based predictions about the market for specific ingredients, such as chia.

NEXT Accelerator is an online community for natural product entrepreneurs. It has been described as "an online portal open to anyone building a natural products startup...with video content and reading materials, worksheets, legal templates and regulatory documents and supplier and vendor information that can help young companies start and grow." Members also have access to a vetted list of service providers such as packaging vendors, branding consultants, and attorneys with relevant experience.

Govalytics captures and analyzes data generated by U.S. city and county governments for vendors marketing to municipalities. The company plans to expand coverage to the top 100 metropolitan statistical areas.

Events

In addition to trade publishing and data solutions, Penton runs an events portfolio based on some of its media offerings, serving vendors and customers in the aviation, agriculture, and natural products segments. These include a series of Aviation Week MRO conferences,; the Farm Progress show; and the Natural Products Expos.

References

Further reading

 The History of Penton Publishing, Cleveland, Ohio: Penton Publishing, 1994.

External links
  (Archive), see official website  which redirect to Informa Website)

Magazine publishing companies of the United States
Publishing companies established in 1904
Publishing companies disestablished in 2017
Defunct companies based in New York City
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2010
2016 mergers and acquisitions
Defunct publishing companies of the United States
1904 establishments in Ohio
2017 disestablishments in New York (state)
American companies established in 1904
American companies disestablished in 2017

Penton (company)


Paschal de l'Estocart (1538 or 1539 – after 1587) was a French Renaissance composer.

Not much of his life is known.  He was born in Noyon, was in Lyons between 1559 and 1565, and was married in the latter year.  In his youth he is known to have visited Italy, but the exact years are not known.  He was the protégé of the protestant Seigneurs (Lords) de la Marck and in 1582 he worked for Charles III, Duke of Lorraine. In 1584 he was in the service of the Abbot of Valmont; also that year he won the harpe d'argent (the silver harp) on the musical competition (called a "Puy") at Evreux, for his five-voice motet Ecce quam bonum et quam jucundum. His works show that he belonged to the Huguenot circles of his days.

His style of composing is considered to be quite innovative.

Publications
(Selection)
 126 Quatrains du Sieur de Pibrac, 1582
 Livres des Octonaires de la Vanité du Monde, 1582
 Sacrae Cantiones, 1582
 150 Pseaumes de David..., 1583 (for 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 voices)
 - given in reprint by Pierre Pidoux and Hans Holliger in 1954 (Bärenreiter-Verlag).

Sources
Edith Wéber, La musique protestante de langue française, 1979

References

External links

 Music on website Arno Rog (formerly known as free-sheetmusic.org)

1539 births
16th-century deaths
People from Noyon
French classical composers
French male classical composers
Renaissance composers

Paschal de l'Estocart


The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) is a classification of the health components of functioning and disability.

The ICF received approval from all 191 World Health Organization (WHO) member states on May 22, 2001, during the 54th World Health Assembly. Its approval followed nine years of international revision efforts coordinated by WHO. WHO's initial classification for the effects of diseases, the International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH), was created in 1980.

The ICF classification complements WHO's International Classification of Diseases-10th Revision (ICD), which contains information on diagnosis and health condition, but not on functional status. The ICD and ICF constitute the core classifications in the WHO Family of International Classifications (WHO-FIC).

Overview
The ICF is structured around the following broad components:

 Body functions and structure
 Activities (related to tasks and actions by an individual) and participation (involvement in a life situation)
 Additional information on severity and environmental factors

Functioning and disability are viewed as a complex interaction between the health condition of the individual and the contextual factors of the environment as well as personal factors. The picture produced by this combination of factors and dimensions is of "the person in his or her world". The classification treats these dimensions as interactive and dynamic rather than linear or static. It allows for an assessment of the degree of disability, although it is not a measurement instrument. It is applicable to all people, whatever their health condition. The language of the ICF is neutral as to etiology, placing the emphasis on function rather than condition or disease. It also is carefully designed to be relevant across cultures as well as age groups and genders, making it highly appropriate for heterogeneous populations.

Benefits
There are benefits of using the ICF for both the patient and the health professional. A major advantage for the patient is the integration of the physical, mental, and social aspects of his or her health condition. All aspects of a person's life (development, participation and environment) are incorporated into the ICF instead of solely focusing on his or her diagnosis. A diagnosis reveals little about one's functional abilities. Diagnoses are important for defining the cause and prognosis, but identifying the limitations of function is often the information used to plan and implement interventions. Once a rehabilitation team is aware of the daily activities a client is required to participate in, the problem solving sequence set up by the ICF can be utilized. An occupational therapist, for example, would observe a patient performing his or her daily activities and note the patient's functional abilities. This information would then be used to determine the extent to which the individual's abilities can be improved through therapy and to what extent the environment can be changed to facilitate the individual's performance. Intervention at one level (current abilities) has the potential to prevent or modify events at a succeeding level (participation). For example, teaching a deaf child manual signs will foster effective interaction and increase one's participation with his or her family.

Rehabilitation therapists will be empowered with the ICF not only in their daily work with their patients, but also when working with other medical disciplines; hospitals and other health care administrations; health authorities and policy makers. All items are operationally defined with clear descriptions that can be applied to real life evaluations with clarity and ease. The language used in the ICF helps facilitate better communication between these groups of people.

Clinical relevance
Knowing how a disease affects one's functioning enables better planning of services, treatment, and rehabilitation for persons with long-term disabilities or chronic conditions. The current ICF creates a more integrative understanding of health forming a comprehensive profile of an individual instead of focusing on one's disease, illness, or disability. The implications of using the ICF include an emphasis on the strengths of individuals, assisting individuals in participating more extensively in society by the use of interventions aimed at enhancing their abilities, and taking into consideration the environmental and personal factors that might hamper their participation.
Qualifiers: The ICF qualifiers "may be best translated clinically as the levels of functioning seen in a standardized or clinic setting and in everyday environments". Qualifiers support standardization and the understanding of functioning in a multidisciplinary assessment. They enable all team members to quantify the extent of problems, even in areas of functioning where one is not a specialist. Without qualifiers codes have no inherent meaning. An impairment, limitation or restriction, is qualified from 0 (No problem; 0–4%), 1 (Mild problem: 5–24%), 2 (Moderate problem: 25–49%), 3 (Severe problem: 50–95%) to 4 (Complete problem: 96–100%). Environmental factors are quantified with a negative and positive scale denoting the extent to which the environment acts as a barrier or facilitator. For insurance purposes, the qualifiers can describe the effectiveness of treatment. One can interpret the decreasing of a qualifier score to be an increase in the functional ability of a patient.

Core sets
An ICF Core Set can serve as a reference framework and a practical tool to classify and describe patient functioning in a more time efficient way. ICF Core Sets can be used along the continuum of care and over the course of a health condition. The ICF classification includes more than 1,400 categories limiting its use in clinical practice. It is time-consuming for a clinician to utilize the main volume of the ICF with his or her patients. Only a fraction of the categories is needed. As a general rule, 20% of the codes will explain 80% of the variance observed in practice. ICF Core Sets contain as few as possible, but as many ICF categories as necessary, to describe a patient's level of functioning. It is hypothesized that using an ICF Core Set will increase the inter-rater reliability when coding clinical cases as only the relevant categories for a particular patient will be utilized. Since all of the relevant categories are listed in an ICF Core Set, its use in multidisciplinary assessments protects health professionals from missing important aspects of functioning.

Pediatric use
As clinicians and researchers used the ICF, they became more aware of its limitations. The ICF lacks the ability to classify the functional characteristics of a developing child. Different ICF codes are needed across the first years of a child's life to capture the growth and development of a disability even when the child's diagnosis does not change. The coding system can provide essential information about the severity of a health condition in terms of its impact on functioning. This can serve a significant role for providers caring for children with spectrum disorders such as autism or cerebral palsy. Children with these conditions may have the same diagnoses, but their abilities and levels of functioning widely vary across and within individuals over time.

The first draft of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health for Children and Youth (ICF-CY) was completed in year 2003 and published in 2007. The ICF-CY was developed to be structurally consistent with the ICF for adults. A major difference between the ICF-CY and ICF is that the generic qualifiers from the adult ICF now include developmental aspects for children and youth in the ICF-CY. Descriptions of codes in the ICF-CY were revised and expanded and new content was added to previously unused codes. Codes were added to document characteristics as adaptability, responsivity, predictability, persistence, and approachability. "Sensing" and "exploration of objects" codes were expanded as well as the "importance of learning". Since a child's main occupation is playing, it is also important to include more codes in this area. Different levels of play have separate codes in the ICF-CY (solitary, onlooker, parallel). This contrasts with the adult ICF as only one code existed in regards to leisure or recreation.

Changes in ICF-CY codes over time reflect developmental effects attributable to the child's interaction with the environment. Environmental factors influence functioning and development and can be documented as barriers or facilitators using the ICF-CY. The key environments of children and adolescents include their homes, day care centers, schools and recreation settings of playground, parks, and ball fields. Children will transition between different environments many times as they grow. For example, a child will transition into elementary or high school or from one service setting or agency to another. Attention to these transitions of children with disabilities has been identified as an important role for health care providers. A transition requires preparation and planning to find an appropriate and accommodating setting for a child's needs. With a coding system such as the ICF-CY, the transition will be smoother and interventions can start where the previous health provider left off.

See also
 Social model of disability

References

Further reading

External links

  The ICF and ICF-CY browsing tool of the Italian Collaborating Centre of the World Health Organization for the Family of International Classifications.

World Health Organization
Medical classification
Medical assessment and evaluation instruments
Disability


Jan z Jenštejna (1348 – 17 June 1400) was a Bohemian archbishop, composer and poet. From 1379 to 1396 he was the Archbishop of Prague. He studied in Bologna, Padova, Montpellier and Paris.

Life and career
Born in 1348 in Prague, he became the owner of the castle Hrádek in 1379. The same year he succeeded to the archbishopric of his uncle Jan Očko z Vlašimi who had stepped down. Soon he became Chancellor to Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia. The next year the capital was struck by a Plague epidemic, which struck him as well. He recovered, but this episode left deep scars on his character and he began to examine theological and philosophical problems at his castle Helfenburk u Úštěka.
He had abandoned public life because of a quarrel with Wenceslav IV, which was mainly over the matter of the Popes of Avignon. Jan was still loyal to Pope Urban VI, to whom the king was not. In 1384 he left his chancellor post. The quarrel with the king removed him completely from political life, and he retired to his castle and abandoned the post of archbishop on 2 July 1396. He was succeeded as archbishop by Olbram ze Škvorce.

While on his castle, he fell from a newly built tower and miraculously managed to grab hold of something before falling to the ground.

He died in Rome on 17 June 1400, and all his possessions, including his castle, passed to the Archbishops of Prague.

Artistic works
His musical works were compiled in the book Die Hymnen Johanns von Jenstein, Erzbischofs von Prag of Q. M. Dreves. The book was published in German in 1886. His literary activity was very rich and includes not only religious and philosophical works, but also poems.

References

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

 Weltsch, Ruben Ernest (1968) Archbishop John of Jenstein (1348–1400): papalism, humanism and reform in pre-Hussite Prague Mouton, The Hague, OCLC 963607
 Wratislaw, Albert Henry (1878) "John of Jenstein, archbishop of Prague, 1378-1397" Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 7: pp. 30–57
  (1999) Jan Milíč z Kroměříže a Jan z Jenštejna Cisterciana Sarensis, Žďár nad Sázavou, OCLC 44149277, in Czech
  (1938) Jan z Jenštejna: Mariánský a eucharistický horlitel české gotiky Vítězové, profesoři bohosloveckého učiliště řádu dominikánského, Olomouc, OCLC 85601162 in Czech
 Holinka, Rudolf (1933) Církevní politika arcibiskupa Jana z Jenštejna za pontifikátu Urbana VI: Studie z dĕjin velikého schismatu zapadního University Komenskeho, Bratislava, OCLC 19047598 in Czech

1348 births
1400 deaths
Roman Catholic archbishops of Prague
14th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the Holy Roman Empire
14th-century composers
14th-century Bohemian poets
Czech male poets
Czech male classical composers
Czech classical composers
Czech philosophers
Czech expatriates in Italy
Medieval male composers

Jan of Jenštejn


Luis A. Dorante (born October 25, 1968, at Coro, Falcón, Venezuela) is the current manager of the Pulaski Yankees in the New York Yankees organization.

He had previously served as the Pittsburgh Pirates bullpen coach from 2008 through 2010, as well as with the Florida Marlins in the same capacity during the 2005 campaign.

Dorante spent the 2007 season as the Manager of the Jupiter Hammerheads, the Marlins Class-A affiliate in the Florida State League and also managed in the Dominican Republic during the 2007 off-season.

Prior to managing the AA Carolina Mudcats in 2006, Dorante spent three seasons at the helm with Jupiter. In that time, he produced a 221-190 record, which included an 81-57 mark in 2002, the most victories by Jupiter in a single season. Luis led the Hammerheads to the playoffs twice in those three seasons. In 2003, he led the club to a combined 76-62 record, which included a 42-28 mark and a first-place finish in the first half. Luis shared post-season FSL Manager-of-the-Year honors in both 2002 and 2003.

Dorante began his managerial career within the Montreal Expos system in the Gulf Coast League in 1995. He was a coach with the GCL Expos in 1996, a club which posted a league-best 41-18 record and a first-place finish, only to lose in the first round of the playoffs. After three seasons with the GCL Expos (also managed in 1997), he led the Cape Fear Crocs to an overall record of 80-61 and a post-season appearance in 1998.

Luis also managed Jupiter again in 1999 and 2000 while the club was affiliated with the Montreal Expos.

In 11 seasons as a minor league skipper, Dorante led his team to the playoffs four times and compiled an overall record of 671-696.

Primarily a catcher during his playing days, Luis also made appearances at first base, third base and in the outfield during his six-year minor league career. He batted and threw right-handed, stood 6 feet (1.8 m) tall and weighed 165 pounds (75 kg). He played in a total of 221 games from 1987 thru 1993 in the Boston organization after being signed as a non-drafted free agent on September 15, 1986. Dorante missed the 1992 season, but finished his playing career as a player/coach with the Fort Lauderdale Red Sox in 1993. Following his playing career, Dorante joined the Expos organization and worked as a Venezuelan scout in 1994.

Family
His son Luis Dorante Jr. works as the official Spanish interpreter in the Marlin's organization.

References

External links
, or Pura Pelota (Venezuelan Winter League)

1968 births
Living people
Elmira Pioneers players
Florida Marlins coaches
Fort Lauderdale Red Sox players
Gulf Coast Red Sox players
Lynchburg Red Sox players
Major League Baseball bullpen coaches
Minor league baseball coaches
Minor league baseball managers
Montreal Expos scouts
New Britain Red Sox players
People from Falcón
Pittsburgh Pirates coaches
Tiburones de La Guaira players
Venezuela national baseball team people
Venezuelan baseball coaches
Venezuelan expatriate baseball players in the United States
Winter Haven Red Sox players

Luis Dorante


In the Middle ages, many Europeans were seafaring nations. They discovered new countries. Creole people are people who descended from people of different ethnic backgrounds. At the start, usually the father was European, and the mother was local. With time, whole societies of such people were formed.

There were three big groups:

 In the former Portuguese colonies,  people mixed rapidly.  The men often didn't find a woman of the same standing, so they married a slave. This meant that by default, their children would also be slaves. The men didn't want that, and many freed the woman they married (and their children).  Such societies developed in Cape Verde, or in Brazil, for example. Today, these people are known as Crioulo.
 In the former Spanish colonies, things developed differently. Only the Spanish people born in the country could become bishop, or governor for example. The mixed people developed into a middle class, which gained a lot of influence. They are known as Criollo today.
 So-called Atlantic creoles traveled with the ships, mostly as translators. Very often one parent was European, the other was from Africa.

Since about the 18th century, the criollos make up the majority of people in many countries.

Related pages
 Creole language, a language that is a mix of several languages

African people
Asian people
North American people
South American people

Creole peoples


Rodger Boyce is an American character actor who has appeared in more than a dozen feature films, including Best Picture Oscar winner No Country for Old Men  one of three films he has done with Tommy Lee Jones (the others including The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada and The Good Old Boys).  Other notable feature film appearances include Where the Heart Is, A Perfect World and Lone Star State of Mind.  He has also appeared in some 25 made-for-television movies.  In addition, his television work has included episodic appearances in TV series ranging from Dallas, Dangerous Curves and The Big Easy to Walker, Texas Ranger, Roughriders, The Good Guys and even Wishbone.  Rodger began his acting career in theater, and he has occasionally returned to the stage, appearing in summer stock and regional theater productions.  A graduate of Texas Tech University where he majored in journalism and English, Rodger is a native Texan and former newspaper reporter and editor, and for a number of years was a community college teacher and administrator.  He and his wife Juddi, a professional counselor/therapist, live in Gainesville, Texas.

Filmography

External links

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Male actors from Texas
American male television actors

Rodger Boyce


Duro v. Reina, 495 U.S. 676 (1990), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court concluded that Indian tribes could not prosecute Indians who were members of other tribes for crimes committed by those nonmember Indians on their reservations. The decision was not well received by the tribes, because it defanged their criminal codes by depriving them of the power to enforce them against anyone except their own members. In response, Congress amended a section of the Indian Civil Rights Act, , to include the power to "exercise criminal jurisdiction over all Indians" as one of the powers of self-government.

Background

Reservation
The Salt River Indian Reservation, located to the east of Scottsdale, Arizona, is home to the Salt River Pima Maricopa Indian Community.  The reservation was established in 1879 by executive order to recognize the occupation of the land by Pima and Maricopa Indians.  The Indians moved from the Gila River Indian Reservation due to white settlers upstream diverting water from the Gila River to the point that the Indians could no longer farm there.  Although the Indians had complained at the Gila River reservation, nothing was done to stop the theft of their water, where at the Salt River, the tribes were upstream of the settlers and did not have the same problem.  In 1926, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) created a Pima Advisory Council and in 1934 the two tribes adopted a constitution for the reservation. The current constitution dates from 1940.

Facts
Albert Duro was not a member of the Salt River Pima Maricopa Indian Community. He was from California and was a member of the Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians; thus, he was not eligible for membership in the Salt River Pima Maricopa Indian Community, and could not vote in tribal elections, hold tribal office, or serve on tribal juries.

Duro lived on the Salt River Indian Reservation with a "woman friend" and worked for the tribe's construction company, PiCopa Construction. In 1984, he was accused of killing a 14-year-old boy inside the boundaries of the reservation. Initially, Duro was charged with murder and aiding and abetting murder in federal court, but the prosecution dismissed those charges without prejudice. Duro was handed over to Salt River tribal authorities, who charged Duro with illegally firing a weapon because under federal law, Indian tribes are limited to prosecuting misdemeanor crimes. The tribal courts denied Duro's motion to dismiss for lack of jurisdiction, and then Duro filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona.

The district court granted the writ and ordered Duro released. Under Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe, , the tribal court had no jurisdiction over non-Indians. If the district court were to find that the tribal court had jurisdiction over Indians who were not members of the tribe, it reasoned that would violate the equal protection guarantee of freedom from discrimination based on race. The Ninth Circuit reversed. It read the Supreme Court's decision in United States v. Wheeler, , which stated that tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over nonmembers, as supported by an "equivocal" history, and concluded that federal statutory law allowed tribal jurisdiction over all Indians, not simply members. Finally, it concluded that holding that tribes lacked criminal jurisdiction over nonmembers would create a "jurisdictional void," since only the state might have the power to prosecute the nonmember, and the state may lack the power or resources to do so. The U.S. Supreme Court agreed to review the Ninth Circuit's decision.

Opinion of the Court
In an opinion by Justice Kennedy, the Court described this case as falling at the "intersection" of its prior decisions in Oliphant and Wheeler. In Oliphant, the Court held that the inherent sovereignty of Indian tribes did not allow them to have criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians who commit crimes on the reservation. And in Wheeler, the Court held that tribes retain their jurisdiction to prosecute their members for crimes committed on the reservation. The question this case posed was whether "the sovereignty retained by the tribes in their dependent status within our scheme of government includes the power of criminal jurisdiction over nonmembers." The Court reasoned that the decisions in Oliphant and Wheeler compelled a negative answer to this question.

The sovereignty retained by the Indian tribes is "of a unique and limited character." A fully sovereign government would have the power to prosecute all crimes that take place within its territorial boundaries, but the Indian tribes are no longer sovereign in that sense. The sovereignty retained by the tribes to prosecute their own members stems from their power to govern themselves in order to maintain "their own unique customs and social order." When the tribes were relegated to dependents of the federal government, they did not lose this inherent power. Rather, the tribes were divested only of the power to regulate relations between themselves and nonmembers.

The distinction between members and nonmembers is the critical distinction in this case, not the distinction between Indian and non-Indians. Thus, states may not impose taxes on transactions between members that take place on reservations, because this would interfere with the sovereignty of tribes vis-à-vis their own members. Tribes also retain the power to regulate hunting on lands they own or lands held in trust for them by the United States, but not on lands held in fee. And although other decisions of the Court had recognized broader retained powers in the civil context, criminal powers of Indian tribes were strictly limited to members because "the exercise of criminal jurisdiction subjects a person not only to the adjudicatory power of the tribunal, but also to the prosecuting power of the tribe, and involves a far more direct intrusion on personal liberties." Thus, Indian tribes may only prosecute members for crimes committed on their reservations. Because Duro was not a member of the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community, that tribe did not have the power to prosecute him for the crime of illegally firing a weapon.

The tribes argued that, historically, tribes had jurisdiction over all Indians regardless of membership. For example, federal statutes used the word "Indian" without regard to membership, to refer to the "family of Indians." Courts of "Indian offenses," established by the Department of the Interior for tribes without their own functioning court systems, historically exercised jurisdiction over all Indians without regard to membership, and continue to do so. But the Court responded that federal statutes had always referred to federal programs, and never to the power of tribes with respect to individual Indians. "The historical record prior to the creation of modern tribal courts shows little federal attention to the individual tribes' powers as between themselves or over one another's members. Scholars who do find treaties or other sources illuminating have only divided in their conclusions." After the federal government allowed the tribes to "express [their] retained tribal sovereignty" by creating their own tribal courts, the Secretary of the Interior still had to approve the legal codes the tribes created before the courts of Indian offenses would yield to the tribes own courts. Written opinions of the Solicitor General of the Department of the Interior consistently affirmed the power of the tribes over their own members, but went no further. In light of the historical record, the Court was not "persuaded that external criminal jurisdiction is an accepted part of the courts' function."

The Court could not ignore the fact that Duro was also a citizen of the United States, entitled to all the privileges and immunities that attach to that status. One right a citizen of the United States enjoys is the right to due process of law, which protects them from "unwarranted intrusions on their personal liberty. Criminal trial and punishment is so serious and intrusion on personal liberty that its exercise over non-Indian citizens was a power necessarily surrendered by the tribes in their submission to the overriding sovereignty of the United States." Tribal courts do not necessarily afford defendants the full range of protections afforded defendants in federal courts by the Bill of Rights. Because tribal members may participate in tribal governance, the Court approves of tribal members being subject to the criminal jurisdiction of their own tribes. Because nonmembers do not participate in tribal governance, the Court felt it was too great an intrusion to allow tribes to prosecute nonmembers.

Finally, the Court rejected the argument that not allowing tribes to prosecute nonmembers, those nonmembers would escape prosecution altogether for criminal activity engaged in within tribal boundaries. The federal government retains the power to prosecute felonies that take place on reservations. Tribes retain the power to expel undesirable persons. Tribal authorities may still arrest the nonmember and detain him until he can be handed over to authorities who do have the power to prosecute the nonmember. The tribe pointed out that state authorities can lack the power to prosecute crimes committed by nonmembers on reservations; Arizona, for instance, expressly disclaims this prosecutorial authority. But Congress has allowed states to assume this power, and Arizona is free to take up Congress's invitation. Finally, if the tribes still believed that there remained a "jurisdictional void," despite these options, they could persuade Congress to give it to them.

Dissenting opinion
Justice Brennan disagreed that the Court's holding did not create a jurisdictional void. "The existence of a jurisdictional gap is not an independent justification for finding tribal jurisdiction, but rather is relevant to determining congressional intent. The unlikelihood that Congress intended to create a jurisdictional void in which no sovereign has the power to prosecute an entire class of crimes should inform our understanding of the assumptions about tribal power upon which Congress legislated." Accordingly, Justice Brennan believed the Court should have read the historical evidence in such a way that supported Congress's intent to allow Indian tribes to exert jurisdiction over nonmembers. Furthermore, Justice Brennan did not accept the Court's argument that the fact that nonmembers were citizens of the United States counseled against allowing tribes to exert jurisdiction over nonmembers. If that was true, he said, it would also be true that tribes could not exert jurisdiction over their own members either. Nor had the Court ever held that participation in the political process was a prerequisite to exercising criminal jurisdiction over a citizen. If this were true, then states could never prosecute nonresidents or aliens.

Aftermath
Congress quickly addressed the jurisdictional gap that emerged from the Court's ruling by amending the Indian Civil Rights Act in 1990 as part of the Department of Defense Appropriations Act of 1991, which was signed into law on November 5, 1990. Nearly fourteen years later, the Supreme Court ruled on the constitutionality of this amendment to 25 U.S.C. § 1301(2) in United States v. Lara (2004), upholding the amendment to the Indian Civil Rights Act and effectively overturning Duro v. Reina.

See also
 Tribal sovereignty in the United States
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 495
 List of United States Supreme Court cases
 Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
 List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court

References

External links

  Commentary from the National Conference of State Legislatures

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Native American criminal jurisdiction case law
1990 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
Native American history of Arizona
Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community
Cahuilla

Duro v. Reina


Motorways of the Sea is a concept in the transport policy of the European Union, stressing the importance of sea transport. The main aim of these Motorways of the Sea is to improve port communications with peripheral regions of the European continent and thus strengthen the networks between the EU candidate countries and those countries already part of the European Union.

History
The concept came about in the White paper European transport policy for 2010: time to decide of the European Commission, which was adopted in June 2001 in Gothenburg, as an alternative to motorways on land.

Routes
The routes selected to be Motorways of the Sea should be able to maintain a series of quality criteria; these pertain to frequency, port to port costs, simplicity of administrative tasks. Future routes should compensate for congestion experienced, for example when crossing the Channel (as the similar road networks should do for routes crossing the Alps or the Pyrenees). One envisaged impact of the Motorways of the Sea is energy savings, pollution reductions and more capacity on current overland European transport networks.

Legal framework
The adoption of Article 12a of the TEN-T  by Council and European Parliament gave a legal framework for funding the Motorways of the Sea, while Article 13 of the same Programme defines the characteristics of this part of the TEN-T network.

Geographic Areas
Four Geographic areas have been designated by the EC (see map):

Motorway of the Baltic Sea, linking the Baltic Sea and the North Sea-Baltic Sea canal.
Motorway of the Sea of western Europe, from Portugal and Spain via the Atlantic Arc to the North Sea and the Irish Sea.
Motorway of the Sea of south-east Europe, from the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea and the Eastern Mediterranean, including Cyprus.
Motorway of the Sea of south-west Europe; western Mediterranean, connecting Spain, France, Italy and including Malta and linking with the Motorway of the Sea of south-east Europe and including links to the Black Sea.

References

External links
 European Commission official site

Water transport in Europe
Transport and the European Union
International water transport
Sea lanes

Motorways of the Sea


The Boylston Street subway is a light rail tunnel which lies primarily under Boylston Street in Boston, Massachusetts.  In operation since 1914, it now carries all four branches of the MBTA Green Line from Kenmore Square under the Back Bay into downtown Boston, where it joins with the older Tremont Street subway. The tunnel originally ended just east of Kenmore Square; it was extended under the square to new portals at  and  in 1932.

Route
The eastern end of the tunnel is at the Tremont Street subway, just west of Boylston station near the intersection of Boylston Street and Tremont Street next to Boston Common. It then runs westward under Boylston Street; Arlington station is located at Arlington Street, and Copley station is at Dartmouth Street in Copley Square. The Huntington Avenue subway branches off to the south just to the west of Copley. The main line continues west under Boylston Street; at Hereford Street, it curves northward into Hynes Convention Center station at Massachusetts Avenue, then runs west under Newbury Street and the Muddy River and into Kenmore station at Kenmore Square.

The depth of the tunnel varies based on street considerations and other geography. At Arlington, Hynes Convention Center, and Kenmore, the tunnel is substantially below street level, and the stations have below-ground fare mezzanines offering access to both platforms; at Copley, the tunnel is shallower, and the fare gates are at platform level, with a free crossover to reverse direction not possible. The deepest section of the tunnel is under the Muddy River, in the Fenway neighborhood of Boston.

See also
 Boylston Street Fishweir – archeological site discovered while excavating the Boylston Street subway

References

External links

Green Line (MBTA)

Boylston Street subway


The Crab Nebula (catalogue designations M1, NGC 1952, Taurus A) is a supernova remnant and 'pulsar wind nebula' in the constellation of Taurus. The nebula was observed by John Bevis in 1731; it corresponds to a bright supernova recorded by Chinese  and Islamic astronomers in 1054. In 1840, astronomer William Parsons gave it the name it has today.

The nebula is about 6,500 light-years (2 kpc) from Earth. It has a diameter of 11 ly (3.4 pc) and expands at a rate of about 1,500 kilometers per second.  It is part of the Perseus Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy.

At the center of the nebula lies the Crab pulsar, a neutron star (or spinning ball of neutrons), 28–30 km across, which emits pulses of radiation from gamma ray bursts to radio waves with a spin rate of 30.2 times per second. The nebula was the first astronomical object identified with a historical supernova explosion.

The nebula acts as a source of radiation for studying celestial bodies between it and us. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Sun's corona was mapped from observations of the Crab's radio waves passing through it, and in 2003, the thickness of the atmosphere of Saturn's moon Titan was measured as it blocked out X-rays from the nebula.

The cloudy remnants of SN 1054 are now known as the Crab Nebula. The nebula is also referred to as Messier 1 or M1, being the first Messier object catalogued in 1758.

Energy levels
Previous analysis showed that with X-ray and gamma ray energies above 30 keV, the Crab is the strongest persistent source in the sky. Its flux (energy emission) was known to be above 1012 eV.

However, recent work has shown the energy levels are much higher than previously thought. Scientists found emissions at more than 100 GeV (gigaelectronvolts) – 100 billion times more energetic than visible light.

Origin
The creation of the Crab Nebula corresponds to the bright SN 1054 supernova, which was recorded by Chinese astronomers in 1054 AD. The Crab Nebula itself was first observed in 1731 by John Bevis. The nebula was independently rediscovered in 1758 by Charles Messier as he was observing a bright comet. Messier catalogued it as the first entry in his catalogue of comet-like objects. The Earl of Rosse observed the nebula at Birr Castle in 1848, and referred to the object as the Crab Nebula because a drawing he made of it looked like a crab.

In the early 20th century, the analysis of early photographs of the nebula taken several years apart revealed that it was expanding. Tracing the expansion back revealed that the nebula must have become visible on Earth about 900 years ago. Historical records revealed that a new star bright enough to be seen in the daytime had been recorded in the same part of the sky by Chinese astronomers in 1054. Given its great distance, the daytime 'guest star' observed by the Chinese could only have been a supernova—a massive, exploding star, having exhausted its supply of energy from nuclear fusion and collapsed in on itself.

Recent analysis of historical records have found that the supernova that created the Crab Nebula probably appeared in April or early May, rising to its maximum brightness of between apparent magnitude −7 and −4.5 (brighter than everything in the night sky except the Moon) by July. The supernova was visible to the naked eye for about two years after its first observation. Thanks to the recorded observations of Far Eastern and Middle Eastern astronomers of 1054, Crab Nebula became the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion.

References

Nebulae
Supernovae

Crab Nebula


The Last Don is a 1996 novel by American author Mario Puzo, best known as the author of the 1969 novel The Godfather. The story follows an aging Mafia Don and his family as they try to retain power.

The story alternates between the film industry and the Las Vegas Strip casinos, and how the American Mafia is linked to both.

The Last Don was adapted into a television miniseries of the same name, which aired in 1997. A sequel to the miniseries, The Last Don II, aired in 1998.

Plot
The last plan of Don Domenico Clericuzio, an aging Mafia boss, is to eventually have his family enter the legitimate world and assimilate into American society. Twenty-five years later, his grandson Dante and grandnephew Crocifisso "Cross" De Lena make their way through life, and the eighty-year-old Don is semi-retired. Cross, who holds a majority share in a Las Vegas casino, is supposed to become the strong arm of the family. However, when he refuses to take part in the murder of an old friend, Dante is left to be the sole tough guy. Dante's greed for power and blood lead him to plan the elimination of his relatives, who are an obstacle to the desire to become as powerful as the old Don himself. When Dante arranges a hit on Cross's father, strongman Pippi De Lena—who, in a subplot, once commanded the elimination of the rival Santadio Family whose scion, Jimmy, married Don Clericuzio's daughter Rose Marie and fathered Dante before his family's assassination, driving Dante's mother to insanity—Cross, who is aware of being on the blacklist, catches Dante in a trap. Having acted against the family, he waits for the Don's vendetta, but, to his own surprise, his life is spared and he is only condemned to exile. Cross then resumes his romance with actress Athena Aquitane. The story ends with the revelation that Don Clericuzio planned this outcome, even anticipating his grandson's death, all along, for the long-term survival of his family.

Miniseries
The Last Don is the basis for the 1997 CBS television miniseries of the same name written by Joyce Eliason and starring Joe Mantegna, Danny Aiello, and Daryl Hannah. In 1998, this was followed by The Last Don II, in which Cross is restored from exile to take reluctant command of the Clericuzio Family upon the Don's death.

Cast
Danny Aiello — Don Domenico Clericuzio
Joe Mantegna — Joseph 'Pippi' De Lena
Daryl Hannah — Athena Aquitane
Jason Gedrick — Crocifisso 'Cross' De Lena
Penelope Ann Miller — Nalene De Lena
Rory Cochrane — Dante Clericuzio
Robert Wuhl — Bobby Bantz
K D Lang — Dita Tommey
Kirstie Alley — Rose Marie Clericuzio
David Marciano — Giorgio Clericuzio
Michelle Burke — Claudia De Lena
Conrad Dunn — Lia Vazzi
David Gianopoulos: — Peter "Petie" Clericuzio
Deno Frangopoulos: — Gauis
Danny Mastrogiorgio — Vincent Clericuzio
Vincent Pastore — Dan Fuberta
Seymour Cassel — Alfred Gronevelt
Ramona Milano — Ceil Ballazzo
Tim Redwine, Young Cross

References

External links

1996 American novels
Novels by Mario Puzo
Novels about Italian-American organized crime
Novels set in the Las Vegas Valley
Random House books

The Last Don


Kwadwo Owusu Afriyie (popularly known as Sir John) (1957 – 1 July 2020) was a Ghanaian lawyer and politician. He held several political positions including serving as general secretary of the New Patriotic Party. He was serving as the chief executive officer of Forestry Commission of Ghana before his demise.

Early life and education
Kojo Afriyie was born in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. He attended Seventh Day Adventist Secondary School in Bekwai from where he obtained his GCE Ordinary level certificate. He proceeded to obtain his GCE Advanced level certificate from Konongo Odumase Secondary School in Konongo. He was admitted to study political science at the University of Ghana. He then enrolled at the Ghana School of Law where he graduated with Bachelor of Laws. After this he was admitted as a solicitor and counsel for the Supreme Court of Ghana.

Career

Legal career
Afriyie entered into private law practice in 1981. During the John Agyekum Kufour administration, he was appointed head of legal services at the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation. He was later made to act as the Deputy Chief Executive Officer of the corporation.

Political career
While managing his firm, Afriyie was also actively engaged in Ghanaian politics. He served as the general secretary of the New Patriotic Party from 2010 to 2014. He lost his bid to secure a second term to Kwabena Agyapong. In May 2017, while serving as the CEO of the Forestry Commission, he publicly declared that he would contest the New Patriotic Party's general secretary elections if there was an overwhelming call for him to do so.

CEO of Forestry Commission
In March 2017, President Nana Akuffo-Addo appointed Afriyie as CEO of the Forestry Commission. He replaced Samuel Afari Dartey, whose term as the CEO had ended. His appointment was surprising to many Ghanaians because of many rumours that he was linked to the position of head of the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority. That position was given to Paul Asare Ansah. Afriyie later revealed that the rumours were true but he had rejected the appointment due to his fear of the sea. He thanked the president for the Forestry Commission appointment and believed that since he hailed from the forest zone of Ghana, he would be able to have a greater impact in that area.

As CEO of the Forestry Commission, Afriyie's job was to oversee the various public agencies that form the divisions of the commission. His first assignment as head of the commission was to supervise the celebration of World Forest Day which fell on 21 March 2017.

Contempt case
In July 2013, Afriyie was summoned to the Supreme Court of Ghana because he had made some potentially contemptuous comments. He had criticised the Court for its actions in a criminal contempt case involving Sammy Awuku of the New Patriotic Party, and had implied that the justices' continuous mention of public radio discussions on cases that were before the court was a ploy by the court to curtail people from expressing themselves. Upon appearing before the court, his counsel, Ayikoi Otoo, pleaded with the court to be lenient and declared that his client had pleaded guilty to the charge. According to Ayikoi Otoo, "... some power for which no one had control over, entered Owusu Afriyie, because as a lawyer, he ought to have known the law". The Peace Council also offered a plea on Afriyie's behalf to the court. After a brief trial, Afriyie was fined 5000 cedis or, if he defaulted on payment, a six-month prison term. Afriyie was made to sign a bond of good behaviour as well as retracting and offering an apology to the bench within 24 hours on the same platform he had used to criticise the court.

Death
Afriyie died on 1 July 2020 in Accra after testing positive for COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. He died at the Korle-bu Teaching Hospital where he was receiving treatment.

Funeral and burial
The funeral of Afriyie was held at Wonoo Basic School Park. Afriyie who was a member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church was buried in Sakora Wonoo in a House Tomb.

References

20th-century Ghanaian lawyers
Ghanaian Seventh-day Adventists
Ghana School of Law alumni
University of Ghana alumni
New Patriotic Party politicians
People from Ashanti Region
2020 deaths
Konongo Odumase Senior High School alumni
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana
1957 births
21st-century Ghanaian lawyers

Kwadwo Owusu Afriyie


A peninsula is a region of land that sticks out in a body of water. It is also defined as a piece of land with water on three sides.

Many countries are on peninsulas, and may either take up part of a peninsula (such as Portugal) or all of it (such as India). Parts of a country may also be on a peninsula. For example, Jutland is a peninsula, as is Baja California in Mexico.

If Eurasia is considered a continent then the continent of Europe is technically a peninsula. In this case, the great peninsulas of Europe, the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas would technically be peninsulas within peninsulas. The area of the European Peninsula, comprised of Europe minus Russia, Fennoscandia, and any islands, is roughly 4.4 million square kilometers.

The Arabian Peninsula is usually cited as the largest peninsula in the world with an area of 3,237,500 square kilometers.

Referencens

Peninsula


Cell (Japanese: セル, Seru) is a fictional character in the Dragon Ball manga and third major villain in Dragon Ball Z anime.

He first appears in chapter #361 The Mysterious Monster, Finally Appears!! (謎の怪物、ついに出現!! Nazo no Kaibutsu, Tsui ni Shutsugen!!) first published in Weekly Shōnen Jump on March 2, 1992. Cell is an evil artificial life form, created using cells from several of the main characters in the series, that travels back in time so he can become the perfect warrior. In order to do this, he must absorb Androids #17 and #18.

Physical Appearance
In his "Imperfect" form, Cell walks fully upright on two legs (unlike his "larval" form). His facial features have not yet fully complete and he still retains an orifice-like mouth rather than normal human-like features seen in later forms. The two sections of his head go off in a V-shape. Cell has orange color parts near his abdominal area, the back of his head, and even near the area where gentials would be found. He has two wings which are both green with black spots.He has three fingers in the manga, but five fingers and three toes (just as similar as Frieza and King Cold) in the anime. He has a tail like Frieza and King Cold, but also has a stinger on the end of it. He has black sections as well near his abdominal area, in the middle between the two sections on his head, and even the black part of the opposite side of his tail. He even has visible veins in both of his arms, legs, and even some in the joints in his upper body. His eyes are pink (blue in the manga colored pages) with thin reptilian slits.

In his "Semi-Perfect" form, Cell's wings disappear, and he becomes much more humanoid, he also becomes quite a bit more muscular. While the nose is not yet fully formed, he now has an actual mouth. The two sections of his head now go straight into the air. In this form, he is taller. His tail is longer and slightly thicker than before, and comes from his back, as well as becoming orange and black. His voice is deeper than his first form. The back of his head and the black section on his forehead are now formed together as a ball in between the two sections on his head. His lips are now the color pink, and the black sections above his lips look like a mustache (but it's part of his skin). He now has light blue eyes in this form (a result of absorbing Android 17). He even has boot-like feet in this form and metal-like plates all around both of his ankles. He has the same shape of ears as Frieza's, except that his have an orange line that goes down to the chin and to both sides of the ears. His wings retreat completely into his back. In his self-destruction form, Semi-Perfect Cell bloats himself, his belly greatly expanding in size. He also claimed that his bloated appearance was unstable, and that a single touch may set him off when dissuading Gohan from trying to stop him.

In his "Perfect" form, Cell becomes much more humanoid and more intelligent, complete with both a fully-formed nose and mouth. His tail is retracted and now used to create Cell Jr's. He is also smaller than in his previous form. His wings have grown back and now are shaded black. His body is colored light-green with black spots and has black plates located on his shoulders and chest, and the plates on his ankles as well as the previously orange section near his groin are now shaded black. His skin is now pale all in his face, neck and hands, he now has purple lines in both sides of his cheeks, similar to Frieza in his first three forms, and the orange line across his ears and chin is now changed into a yellow color. His eyes are now pink, and his blue veins are now purple.

Dragon Ball characters
Fictional characters introduced in 1992

Cell (Dragon Ball)


The old Korean calendar tells the phases of the moon and the day in the solar year, like other older calendars of other East Asian countries. Dates are calculated from Chinese calendar. Important dates are based in Korean culture.

The Gregorian calendar officially began to be used in 1896. The dates of older important Korean events are still based on the old calendar. The most important date in Korea today is Seollal, the first day of the Korean calendar's New Year. Other important events include Daeboreum (the first full moon phase, also referred to as Boreumdaal), Dano (spring) and Chuseok (autumn), and Samjinnal (beginning of spring). Other minor events based on the old Korean calendar include Yudu (summer), and Chilseok (monsoon season).

History
The old Korean calendar comes from the old Chinese calendar. The Korean calendar said what its years were by using Korean era names from 270 to 963. Then Chinese era names with Korean era names were used a few times until 1894. In 1894-1895, The calendar based on the moon was used with years numbered from the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty in 1392.

The Gregorian calendar began to be used on 1 January 1896, with Korean era name "Geonyang (건양 / 建陽, "adopting solar calendar")."

From 1945 to 1961 in South Korea, Gregorian calendar years were counted from the start of Gojoseon in 2333 BC (regarded as year one). These Dangi (단기 / 檀紀) years were 4278 to 4294. This numbering was often used unofficially with the Korean lunar calendar before 1945. It has only sometimes been used after 1961, mostly in North Korea before 1997.

In North Korea, the Juche calendar has been used since 1997 to number its years, based on the birth of Kim Il Sung.

References

 Pyeon, Prof. M. Y. The Folkloric Study of Chopail (Buddha's Birthday). Seoul: Minsokwon, 2002.

Korean culture
Calendars

Korean calendar


Alexandre Chatrian (18 December 1826 – 3 September 1890) was a French writer, associated with the region of Alsace-Lorraine. Almost all of his works were written jointly with Émile Erckmann under the name Erckmann-Chatrian.

Life

Youth
He was born at Abreschviller (Moselle), in the locality known as le Grand Soldat (or Soldatenthal in German). From 1842 he studied in Phalsbourg (German Pfalzburg).  During 1843 his father's glassworks went bankrupt, and the next year he went to Belgium for two years to earn a living as an accountant, after which he returned to Phalsbourg as a teacher.

He met Erckmann in 1847, and they became friends, spending the summer in the Vosges. While staying at Paris, Erckmann witnessed the Revolution of 1848: inspired, they founded a political club at Phalsbourg and a short-lived newsletter at Strasbourg. Their politics were republican and nationalist. At the start of the 1850s they began publishing in
Le Démocrate du Rhin, expecting quick success, but after several years they became disillusioned. A play performed at Strasbourg in 1850, L'Alsace en 1814, was banned after just two performances. When he lost his teaching post, Erckmann persuaded him to move to Paris, where in 1852 he took a job as rail administrator the Compagnie des chemins de fer de l'Est.

Success
Recognition came in 1859 and they became well known as fantasy writers under the pseudonym of Émile Erckmann-Chatrian. They moved together to Paris, where they lived close to the east railway station and returned frequently to Lorraine. In 1868 the publisher Hetzel bought exclusive rights to their work, and in May 1869 Chatrian purchased a property at Raincy. He began a relationship with Adélaïde Riberon, by whom he had two sons.
His father, Jean-Baptiste, died on 13 July 1870. He married Riberon in February 1871.

During August 1870, Erckmann was at Phalsbourg at the time of Mac-Mahon's defeat. With the Franco-Prussian War, the works of the two lorrains gained a popularity which was closely related to nationalistic desires for revenge and nostalgia for the "blue line of the Vosges."

From 1872, Erckmann spent most of his time on the novels while Chatrian busied himself with their plays: it is likely that the joint pseudonym was now appearing on works that were no longer jointly written. In September, Erckmann moved into a house at Saint-Dié, and the following year he went on a tour of the eastern Mediterranean. Political entanglements started to make life difficult for the two ardent republicans. In 1880 a play by Chatrian, Alsace ou les fiancés d'Alsace, was banned by a republican minister.

Later years
In 1884 Chatrian retired from his position at the railway company and moved to Villemomble; the next year, his play Myrtille failed and he moved again to Saint-Dié. From this point on, his mental health began to deteriorate.

The last work signed Erckmann-Chatrian was L'Art et les grands idéalistes (1885).

In 1886 Erckmann refused to sign a new contract that had been negotiated by Chatrian with their publisher, Hetzel. On 13 March 1887, Chatrian, who was battling mental illness, wrote to Erckmann that he was paying ghost-writers out of their common royalties. This was the end of their association and their friendship.

On 19 August 1889, Chatrian's former secretary published an article in Le Figaro attacking Erckmann, who responded with a lawsuit. About this time, the desperately ill Chatrian lost his reason entirely. Erckmann's visa expired; no longer allowed to reside in his home town, he moved to Lunéville.

Chatrian died on 3 September 1890 in Villemomble.

External links

1826 births
1890 deaths
People from Moselle (department)
French fantasy writers
Fabulists
19th-century French novelists
French male novelists
French male short story writers
19th-century French short story writers
19th-century French male writers

Alexandre Chatrian


A family is a group of people who, in most cases, live together. They share their money and food and are supposed to take care of one another. Its members are either genetically related (like brother and sister) or legally bound to each other, for example by marriage. In many cultures, the members of a family have the same or a similar surname.

The family in accordance to the Catholic doctrine is treated in many articles of the Catechism of the Catholic Church starting from the article 2201.

A family is said to be society's smallest unit, its nucleus. Family life is more private and intimate than public life. But in most countries there are laws for it. For example, there are restrictions for marrying within the family and bans for having a sexual relationship with relatives, especially with children.

Types of families

Three types of family on the basic of size

are: nuclear family, single-parent family and extended family.

A nuclear family is made up of parents and one or more children living together.
A single-parent family is one where there is one parent and one or more children.
An extended family or joint families means father, mother, daughters, sons, grandparents, uncles, aunts, cousins, nieces and nephews. In many countries including China, Pakistan and India, extended or joint families traditionally live together.

Both the "nuclear family" and the "single-parent family" are also called the "immediate family".

Foster families are families where a child lives with and is cared for by people who are not his or her biological parents.

Related pages
Kinship
Affinity
Consanguinity

References

Human behavior
Social groups

Family


Menander II Dikaios (Greek: ; epithet means "the Just") may have been an Indo-Greek King who ruled in the areas of Arachosia and Gandhara in the north of modern Pakistan. However, since he is entirely known through his coins, this may have just been a separate set of coins issued by Menander I with a different epithet.

Time of reign
Bopearachchi has suggested that Menander II reigned c. 90–85 BC, whereas R. C. Senior has suggested c. 65 BC. In that case, Menander II ruled remaining Indo-Greek territories in Gandhara after the invasion of Maues.

Relations to other kings
Menander II Dikaios may have belonged to the dynasty of Menander I Soter, the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. It was long believed that there was only one king named Menander (see discussion under Menander I) as their portraits were rather similar and Menander II seems to have been a devout Buddhist, just as Menander I was, according to the ancient Buddhist scripture the Milindapanha.

On the other hand, the name Menander could well have been popular in the Indo-Greek kingdom, and the coins of Menander II are not very like those of Menander I nor of those other kings (such as Strato I) who are believed to have belonged to his dynasty. R. C. Senior links Menander II with the Indo-Greek king Amyntas, with whom he shares several monograms and also facial features such as a pointed nose and receding chin. He also suggests a close relation to the semi-Scythian king Artemidorus, son of Maues, since their coins use similar types and are often found together.

There is a small possibility that Menander II, rather than Menander I, is actually the Buddhist Greek king referred to in the Milinda Panha. This point is unsolved however, since Greek sources (Plutarch (Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6)) relate that the great conqueror Menander I is the one who received the honour of burial in what could be interpreted as Buddhist stupas.

More likely, Menander I may indeed have first supported Buddhism, like the other Indo-Greek kings, and was probably the protagonist of the Milindapanha, on account of his described fame, whereas Menander II, a minor king, may have wholeheartedly embraced Buddhism, as exemplified by his coins.

Coins of Menander II

The coins of Menander II bear the mention "Menander the Just", and "King of the Dharma" in Kharoshti, suggesting that he adopted the Buddhist faith. Menander II struck only Indian silver. These depict the king in diadem or helmet of the type of Menander I, with a number of reverses:
a king on horseback, Nike and a sitting Zeus of the type of Antialkidas and Amyntas Nikator, but with an eight-spoked Buddhist wheel instead of the small elephant.

His bronzes feature Athena standing, with spear and palm-branch, shield at her feet, making a benediction gesture with the right hand, similar to the Buddhist vitarka mudra.  Other varieties feature a king performing the same gesture.

On the reverse is a lion, symbol of Buddhism, as also seen on the pillars of the Mauryan King Ashoka. In general, the coins of Menander II are quite few, which tends to indicate a rather small rule.

A contemporary king to represent the Buddhist lion on his coins is the Indo-Scythian king Maues, around 85 BC.

References

Further reading
 The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies by Thomas McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts, 2002)
 Buddhism in Central Asia by B.N. Puri (Motilal Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000)
 The Greeks in Bactria and India, W.W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press.

External links
 Coin India gallery
 Coins of Menander II

Indo-Greek kings
1st-century BC monarchs in Asia
Greek Buddhist monarchs
Euthydemid dynasty

Menander II