The Fitzsimmons Range is a small mountain range on the northwestern edge of the Garibaldi Ranges in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, located between the valleys of Cheakamus Lake (SW) and Fitzsimmons Creek (NE).  Its most famous summit is Whistler Mountain, which overlooks the resort town of Whistler and is one of the two mountains forming the Whistler Blackcomb ski resort.  Most of the range is within Garibaldi Provincial Park, while its northeastern extremity is part of the resort municipality, and of the lands associated with the ski resort operation.  Other summits in the range include Oboe Summit, Piccolo Summit and Flute Summit, which are hillocks along the ridge running southeast from Whistler Mountain and were named in association with the renaming of Whistler.  Beyond them is Singing Pass and Mount Fitzsimmons 2603 m (8540 ft) which is at the opposite end of the range from Whistler Mountain and the location of Fitzsimmons Glacier, which is the source of Fitzsimmons Creek.

Mount Fitzsimmons is part of the Overlord Massif, which is named for the highest peak in the range, Overlord Mountain, 2625 m (8612 ft), just to its west.  The massif forms a pyramidal massif visible from Whistler Village; another summit in the massif is Mount Benvolio 2613 m (8573 ft).  Other peaks, which lie south of the Overlord massif, are Cheakamus Mountain 2588 m (8491 ft), Angelo Peak  2561 m (8402 ft) and Diavolo Peak 2569 m (8428 ft).

References

Fitzsimmons Range in the Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia
Mount Fitzsimmons in the Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia
Mount Benvolio in the Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia
Cheakamus Mountain in the Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia

Garibaldi Ranges
Sea-to-Sky Corridor
Mountain ranges of British Columbia
Whistler, British Columbia

Fitzsimmons Range


The John Lennon Artificial Intelligence Project is a chatterbot designed to simulate a conversation with John Lennon. It was developed as a "Persona-Bot" by Triumph PC Online, based in Washington, D.C.  Triumph PC's "Persona-Bots" are software programs that attempt to mimic the personalities or quirks of particular historical figures in conversation.

In development since 1997, the JLAI Project (originally called the Plastic Digital Karma Project) claims to have achieved similarity to Lennon's speech patterns, but still has a way to go to achieve the seamlessness of a conversation with a real person.

References
Feature in the Evening Standard
Article in Stereophile
Article in the Austin Chronicle
Official site

Chatbots
Artificial Intelligence Project


Robert Wickens "Robbin" Thompson (June 16, 1949 – October 10, 2015) was an American singer-songwriter based in Richmond, Virginia. Since 1976 he recorded several albums which included guest appearances by Melissa Manchester, Steve Cropper, Waddy Wachtel, Bruce Hornsby and Ellen McIlwaine, among others. He was a member of an early Bruce Springsteen band, Steel Mill, and co-wrote songs with Timothy B. Schmit, Phil Vassar and Butch Taylor and Carter Beauford of the Dave Matthews Band. He twice won the American Song Festival and in 1980 had a minor national hit with "Brite Eyes". He also wrote songs featured on the soundtracks of Gleaming the Cube and The Fighting Temptations. In March 2015, "Sweet Virginia Breeze", which Thompson co-wrote with Steve Bassett, became Virginia's second official state song (joining "Our Great Virginia").

Career

Early years
Thompson was born in Boston, Massachusetts. From age seven he lived in Melbourne, Florida, where he graduated from Melbourne High School.

Between 1963-67 he was the lead singer and songwriter with several Florida-based bands including The Hanging Five, The Five Gents and The Tasmanians. The latter band even released a couple of singles in 1966. In 1968 he formed Transcontinental Mercy Flight before moving to Richmond, Virginia, initially to attend Virginia Commonwealth University. While at VCU he formed Mercy Flight in early 1969.

Steel Mill
On November 11, 1969, Mercy Flight opened for Steel Mill when they played a concert at VCU. Throughout early 1970 Mercy Flight continued to open regularly for Steel Mill and when Bruce Springsteen decided to add another vocalist he recruited Thompson. He made his debut with Steel Mill on August 29, 1970 at the 3rd Annual Nashville Music Festival, sponsored by WMAC.

Steel Mill was one of about twenty different acts to take part. Headliners included Roy Orbison, Brian Hyland, Ronnie Milsap, Bobby Bloom, Ballin' Jack, Ten Wheel Drive and The Illusion. During Thompson's time with Steel Mill they also opened for, among others, Ike & Tina Turner, Cactus and Black Sabbath. While Springsteen was Steel Mill's main songwriter, the band performed some Thompson songs, including "Train Ride". Thompson would release his own version of this song as a B-side in 1982 and then on a 1999 re-issue of Two B's Please. Steel Mill played their final show on January 23, 1971 at The Upstage Club in Asbury Park, New Jersey. While Thompson went on to establish his own career, the remaining members of the band – Vini Lopez, Danny Federici and Steve Van Zandt – would continue to play with Springsteen and eventually evolved into the E Street Band.

After the breakup of Steel Mill, Thompson and Springsteen occasionally guested at each other's concerts. On August 6, 1981 at the Bayou Club in Washington D.C., Thompson was joined onstage by Springsteen, Garry Tallent and Clarence Clemons for an eight-minute version of "Carol".

On March 3, 2003 at the Richmond Coliseum during The Rising Tour, Thompson, together with Bruce Hornsby, joined Springsteen on stage for the Hank Ballard song "Let's Go, Let's Go, Let's Go". According to Thompson they were going to try and perform a version of "He's Guilty (Send That Boy To Jail)", a Steel Mill-era song that Thompson had recorded. However, apparently nobody in the E Street Band could remember how it went.

Recording career
In 1976, Thompson launched his solo career with the release of an eponymous album on Nemperor Records. Among the album's highlights was the American Song Festival winner "Boy From Boston". The album featured guest appearances by Timothy B. Schmit, Melissa Manchester, Steve Cropper, Waddy Wachtel and Rick Roberts. Schmidt would go on to provide harmony vocals on several of Thompson's albums. They co-wrote "Find Out in Time", which was recorded by Schmit with Poco on their 1977 album, Indian Summer. In 1978 Thompson released Together, a collaboration with another Richmond-based songwriter, Steve Bassett. Among the songs they co-wrote and recorded for this album was an early version of "Sweet Virginia Breeze".

Thompson had some commercial success with Two B's Please, released in 1980 and credited to The Robbin Thompson Band. Background vocals on the majority of album were provided by Schmit and Roberts. The album would eventually sell 200,000 copies and included a re-recorded version of "Sweet Virginia Breeze" as well as "Candy Apple Red" and "Brite Eyes". All three songs were hits in the Southeastern United States. The latter song was also a minor national hit and spent nine weeks on the Billboard charts, peaking at No. 66. It spent six weeks on the Cash Box chart, reaching No. 78. The album included "Even Cowgirls Get the Blues", which was originally intended to be theme song for a film based on the Tom Robbins novel of the same name. However, when a film was eventually made the song was not featured.

Thompson's 1985 album Better Late Than Never, which featured cover versions of "Fortunate Son" and "Be My Baby", was his first to be released on his own label Out There Records. It also included "Guilty", Thompson's version of "He's Guilty (Send That Boy To Jail)", originally written by Bruce Springsteen for Steel Mill. In 1997 this song was also included on the compilation One Step Up/Two Steps Back: The Songs Of Bruce Springsteen. Another highlight was "You're My Obsession" which was an American Song Festival winner in 1984. In 1988 Thompson released Since Grade School: A Robbin Thompson Anthology, which combined five new songs with eleven songs from his first four albums. Among the new songs was the title song for the film Gleaming the Cube. I Don't Need A Reason To Ride from 1991 featured Bruce Hornsby while Out on the Chesapeake from 1998 was the first of several collaborations with Butch Taylor of the Dave Matthews Band and saw Schmit once again provide backing vocals. In between Thompson was also involved in a collaboration with fellow songwriters Michael Lille and Lewis McGehee, recording an eponymous album as The Famous Unknowns.

In 2002 a second collection, The Vinyl Years, was basically a reissue of Robbin Thompson plus later songs such as the original version of "Sweet Virginia Breeze" and a reissue of "Guilty". His 2003 album, One Step Ahead of the Blues, again featured Schmit and Taylor, as well a song called "Orange Moon" that was recorded in Shanghai with traditional Chinese musical instruments. It included another Springsteen/Steel Mill song, "The Train Song". Live in Studio A was recorded at the in Your Ear Studios in Richmond, Virginia with an invited audience of eighty people over two nights. It features thirteen live tracks and stories about how some of the songs were written. Just A Blur in the Rearview featured a guest appearances by Ellen McIlwaine. The title song was co-written with Phil Vassar while "I Won't Quit" was co-written and recorded with Carter Beauford and Butch Taylor of the Dave Matthews Band. It was also featured on the soundtrack of The Fighting Temptations.

In early 2008, Thompson's Move on Down the Line won in The 7th Annual Independent Music Awards for Gospel Song.

Death
Thompson was first diagnosed with cancer in 2000. He was a resident of Richmond, Virginia and died of cancer on October 10, 2015, after a long battle with a rare gastrointestinal stromal tumor. He was 66.

Discography
Albums
 Robbin Thompson (1976, Nemperor 440 0698)
 Better Late Than Never (1985, Out There Records 585)
 Since Grade School: A Robbin Thompson Anthology (1988, Out There Records 1188)
 I Don't Need A Reason To Ride (1991, Out There Records 6591)
 Out on the Chesapeake (1998, Out There Records 0898)
 The Vinyl Years (2002, Out There Records)
 One Step Ahead of the Blues (2003, Out There Records 31003)
 Live In Studio A (2006, Out There Records 92305)
 Just A Blur In The Rearview (2007, Out There Records 2207)
 A Real Fine Day (2013, Out There Records)
Robbin Thompson and Steve Bassett
 Together (1978, Richmond Records 1001)
The Robbin Thompson Band
 Two B's Please (1980, Ovation 1759)
 Live at the National (2010, Out There Records)
The Famous Unknowns (with Michael Lille and Lewis McGehee)
 The Famous Unknowns (1994, Out There Records 33194)
Tracks on anthologies
 "Guilty" One Step Up/Two Steps Back: The Songs Of Bruce Springsteen (1997, Capitol Records)
 "Wouldn't Want to Be You" on United We Stand (2001, Capitol Records)

Singles
 Boy From Boston/Another Cup of Coffee and a Cigarette (1976, Nemperor Records 010)
 Boy From Boston(mono)/Boy From Boston(stereo) (1976, Nemperor Records 010)
 Dream On Melinda/It's My Turn (1976, Nemperor Records 011)
 Dream On Melinda(mono)/Dream On Melinda(stereo) (1976, Nemperor Records 011)
The Tasmanians
 "Baby/Love, Love, Love (1966, Conda Records 101)
 I Can't Explain This Feeling/If I Don't (1966, Power Records 4933)
Robbin'
 What Am I Gonna Do?/Changes'' (1972, Colpar Records 1007S)
Robbin Thompson and Steve Bassett
 "Sweet Virginia Breeze/Virginia In the Springtime" (1978, Richmond Records 1002)
 "Looking for a Sunny Day/Let's Do One Together" (1978, Richmond Records 1003)
 "Sweet Virginia Breeze/Virginia Is For Lovers" (1986, Virginia Is For Lovers 605061XA)
The Robbin Thompson Band
 "Brite Eyes/That's Alright" (1980, Ovation Records 1157)
 "Candy Apple Red/Barroom Romance" (1980, Richmond Records 500)
 "Movin' On Up/Train Ride" (1982, Short Pump Records RR502)

References

Links
Notice of death of Robbin Thompson, nj.com; accessed January 9, 2016.
Notice of death of Robbin Thompson, richmond.com; accessed January 9, 2016.

1949 births
2015 deaths
American male singer-songwriters
American rock singers
American rock songwriters
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
Deaths from cancer in Virginia
Singer-songwriters from Virginia
Singer-songwriters from Florida
Musicians from Richmond, Virginia
People from Melbourne, Florida
Independent Music Awards winners
Singer-songwriters from Massachusetts
20th-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American singer-songwriters
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Florida
Guitarists from Virginia
Guitarists from Massachusetts
Melbourne High School alumni
20th-century American male singers
21st-century American male singers
Steel Mill members

Robbin Thompson


Vulnicura is the ninth studio album by Icelandic singer-songwriter Björk released in March 2015. The album deals the break-up with her long-time partner Matthew Barney chronologically. The name Vulnicura is a latin word that means "Cure for wounds".

The album was produced by Björk, Venezuelan producer Arca and British producer The Haxan Cloak. To promote the album, Björk embarked in the Vulnicura Tour. No song was released as promotional single.

It received universal acclaim from music critics and drew comparison to Björk previous albums Homogenic (1997) and Vespertine due to its instrumentation (strings and electronic beats) as well as its lyrical content.

Two different versions of the album were released during 2015 and 2016: Vulnicura Strings, which feature all the songs with new string arrangements, and Vulnicura Live, featuring Live versions of the album tracks as well as songs from her previous albums with new arrangements.

Tracklist
 Stonemilker
 Lionsong
 History of Touches
 Black Lake
 Family
 Notget
 Atom Dance (feat. Anohni)
 Mouth Mantra
 Quicksand

2015 albums
Björk albums

Vulnicura


Daniel Juslenius (10 June 1676, Mynämäki – 17 July 1752, Skara) was a Finnish writer and bishop. He was a professor of Hebrew, Greek and theology at the Royal Academy of Turku.

Juslenius is considered Finland's first Fennoman and a firm advocate of Finnishness. In his works, he presented completely overblown images of the past of the Finnish people. He wrote, for example, Aboa vetus et Nova ("Vanha ja uusi Turku", 1700, "The Old and New Turku"), in which he claimed that the civilisations of Rome and Ancient Greece originated in Finland. He also wrote Vindiciae Fennorum ("Suomalaisten puolustus", 1703, "The Defence of the Finns"). Both works represent homeland images which were fashionable to write about in the late 17th century. The purpose of this depiction was to make an inventory of the possessions during Sweden's time as a great power.

Juslenius' picture of Finland

Juslenius derived the family roots of the Finns from the family of Magog in the Bible. According to him, the descendants of Magog migrated to Finland after the Deluge. This so-called tradition of Gothicismus aimed to provide a foundational myth for the people. It gave the people a feeling of genetic unity, and right to possession while living in their own country. Juslenius also believed that Finns are one of the Ten lost tribes of Israel.

Juslenius glorified Finland from all angles. He praised the excellent productivity of crops in the country and the civilised nature of the Finns. According to Juslenius, the Finns had invented their own writing system, even before the Romans. He used linguistics in his research, a typical method of his time. Among others, he explained the reputation of the Finns as being hakkapeliitta, brave soldiers, by deriving the term hakkaa päälle from a compound word:

The never-ending passion of the Finnish people to strike an enemy down forms a new word hakkapeliitta ('hakkaa päälle' means to strike, hit, bludgeon with all your might), with which Poland always trembled and the Austrians and the defenders of the Holy (if God allows us to say) League will end up in the grip of fear and will lose their lives.

According to Juslenius, words are not born in vain, in other words, without the presence of meaningful facts. If the Finns cried that they will strike their enemies once, they had to be one up in battle.

The firing up of his country leads us to think that his motivation would have been to glorify the image of Finland. For this reason, he is considered the first Fennoman of Finland. The works of Juslenius, however, were scholarly dissertations which complied with the requirements of academics of the time. The so-called method of dialectics was used in his research, this dialectic configuration counterpoint in the works of Juslenius came from the struggle of two images of Finland. Juslenius appeared to be an advocate of the Finns and he encountered appreciative foreigners on his imaginary soapbox. His mission was to eliminate all of the unfavourable claims against the Finnish people and prove the exact opposite. With the dialectic method, the subject and content were side factors in his research. It was more important to show his scholarliness by using Latin clearly and logically. Finland and its people were the subject of debate in a crowd of others.

Juslenius as a linguist and clergyman

Juslenius was an expert in linguistics. His inaugural presentation for the position as language professor in 1712 dealt with the relationship of Finnish with Hebrew and Greek (De convenientia lingvae Fennicae cum Hebraea et Graeca). Juslenius' interest in language led him to create the first extensive Finnish-language dictionary Suomalaisen Sana-Lugun Coetus, which was published in 1745, it was the first dictionary to have Finnish as the reference language and contains 16,000 lexical entries. Juslenius was also bishop of the Church of Sweden in Porvoo (Borgå) (1735–1742) and in Skara (1744–1752).

In 1975, a new building at the University of Turku was named Juslenia after Daniel Juslenius.

References

External links

 Pieni tietosanakirja
 Ylioppilasmatrikkeli 1640–1852, Daniel Juslenius
 Daniel Juslenius in 375 humanists – 18 April 2015. Faculty of Arts, University of Helsinki.

1676 births
1752 deaths
18th-century Finnish writers
People from Mynämäki
Finnish Lutheran bishops
Finnish lexicographers
Writers from Southwest Finland
Finnish scholars
Fennomans
Bishops of Skara
Academic staff of Åbo Akademi University

18th-century Finnish Lutheran bishops
17th-century Finnish Lutheran bishops

Daniel Juslenius


Debt is what someone owes to someone else. Usually, debt is in the form of money, but it can also be items, services, favors, or other things. Thus if you make an agreement to give or do something for someone else, you now owe a debt. Unpaid debt can lead to problems such as the Greek government-debt crisis. Debt is used by governments, corporations and individuals to make purchases that they could not normally afford.  Common types of debt owed by households and individuals are mortgage loans, car loans, credit card debt, and income taxes. In the case of individuals, debt is a way to use an anticipated income combined with the future purchasing power at present before earning the same.

On the other hand, corporates have a multitude of options when it comes to debt.  Companies may use debt for their working capital or day-to-day operations.

Types of debt
Goods, services or money borrowed with the intent of repayment (in kind or not) creates a debt. Debt can be classified as either secured debt, unsecured debt, revolving debt, or a mortgage.

A secured debt uses collateral, which is an asset that is promised to the debt-holder until the debt has been repaid. If the repayment is not made in full, the lender gets the collateral asset. For instance, a car loan typically creates a secured debt. If you still owe money on the car loan and do not make timely payments, the note-holder can take back (or repossess) the car and sell it to get the money still due. A home mortgage is similar.

An unsecured debt is more risky to the debt-holder (the lender, also called creditor). In the event of non-payment of the debt, the lender cannot take assets. Credit card debt is typically unsecured. If you charge items to a credit card and do not make the monthly payments, the credit card issuer can report the non-payment to the credit-reporting agencies. That will reduce your credit score so others will not lend you money. But usually they cannot take back whatever you bought with the card.

Revolving debt is a line of credit or an amount that a borrower can continuously borrow from. In other words, the borrower may use funds up to a certain amount, pay it back, and borrow up to that amount again. Revolving credit accounts are open ended, meaning they don't have an end date. As long as the account remains open and in good standing, borrower can continue to use it.

A mortgage is a debt issued to purchase real estate, such as a house or condo. It is a form of secured debt as the subject real estate is used as collateral against the loan.

Related pages
Debt bondage
Loan

References
Basic English 850 words
Economics

Debt


In economics, people talk about elasticity of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price. The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable.

If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down. For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand.

If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it. For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it. They need their daily salt intake. The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic.

Elasticity is often measured in percents. If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.

Related pages
Price elasticity of demand

Microeconomics

Elasticity (economics)


Mahiro Maeda (前田 真宏 Maeda Mahiro; born March 14, 1963) is a Japanese anime director, character designer, and animator.

Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies called him "one of the most imaginative visualists in anime".  He also worked on Concept Art and Design  for Mad Max: Fury Road (2015), which won six Academy Awards. He has been one of the top contributors at the anime studio GONZO for many years, having directed Blue Submarine No. 6, Final Fantasy: Unlimited and Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo.

His design work ranges from 2 of the "Angels" in Neon Genesis Evangelion to production and mechanical design for such series as , The Vision of Escaflowne and Last Exile. He was also one of the designers for Gate Keepers 21.

His earlier years were spent mostly at the famed Studio Ghibli, where he helped animate classics such as Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, Castle in the Sky, and Porco Rosso. Maeda is one of the select Japanese directors to actively collaborate with the international film media on various projects. He provided key animation for the animation sequence in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill Vol. 1. His directorial work has also been featured in such exclusive package films as The Animatrix (segment: "The Second Renaissance Parts I and II"), Genius Party Beyond (segment: "Gala"), and Ani*Kuri15 (segment: "Princess Onmitsu"). He has also visited the American Anime Expo convention in 2000 and 2003.

References

External links

1963 births
Anime directors
Final Fantasy designers
Japanese animators
Japanese animated film directors
Mechanical designers (mecha)
People from Yonago, Tottori
Living people

Mahiro Maeda


Ezzard Mack Charles (July 7, 1921 – May 28, 1975) was an African-American professional boxer. He was the heavyweight boxing champion from September 27, 1950, when he outpointed Joe Louis in 15 rounds in New York City, to July 18, 1951, when he was knocked out by Jersey Joe Walcott in 7 rounds in Pittsburgh.

As an amateur, Charles was undefeated and in 1939 won the national AAU Middleweight Championship. Charles turned professional in 1940, but his career was interrupted while he served in the United States military during World War II. Charles won the World Heavyweight Championship in 1950 and retired from boxing in 1959 with a record of 96 wins, 25 losses, and 1 draw. Ring Magazine named Charles Fighter of the Year in 1949 and 1950. In 1976, Cincinnati honored Charles by renaming a street Ezzard Charles Drive and in 1990 he was posthumously inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. In 2009, Boxing Magazine designated Charles the greatest light heavyweight boxer of all time.

American boxers
Sportspeople from Georgia (U.S. state)
1921 births
1975 deaths

Ezzard Charles


Roy Rockwood is the pseudonym created by the Stratemeyer Syndicate for the team of ghostwriters who wrote the syndicate's boys' adventure books. The name is best remembered for the Bomba the Jungle Boy and the Great Marvel series.

Series
Deep Sea (1905–1908)--Later reused as part of Dave Fearless series
Great Marvel (1906–1935)--Volumes 1-5 and 8 ghostwritten by Howard R. Garis
Speedwell Boys (1913–1915)
Dave Dashaway (1913–1915)
Dave Fearless (1926–1927)
Bomba, the Jungle Boy (1926–1937), many ghostwritten by John William Duffield

In addition to Garis and Duffield, some of these books were also written by Leslie McFarlane and W. Bert Foster. Edward Stratemeyer had earlier used the pseudonym "Roy Rockwood"  for the book The Wizard of the Sea; or a Trip Under the Ocean, published by the Mershon Company in 1900.

Other websites

American children's writers

Roy Rockwood


Cecilia Manguerra Brainard (born 1947) is an author and editor of 20 books. She co-founded PAWWA or Philippine American Women Writers and Artists; and also founded Philippine American Literary House. Brainard's works include the World War II novel, When the Rainbow Goddess Wept, The Newspaper Widow, Magdalena, and Woman With Horns and Other Stories. She edited several anthologies including Fiction by Filipinos in America, Contemporary Fiction by Filipinos in America, and two volumes of Growing Up Filipino I and II, books used by educators.

Biography
Cecilia Manguerra Brainard (born 1947) grew up in  Cebu City, Philippines, the youngest of four children to Concepcion Cuenco Manguerra and Mariano F. Manguerra. The death of her father when she was nine prompted her to start writing, first in journals, then essays and fiction. She attended St. Theresa's College and Maryknoll College in the Philippines; and she did graduate work at UCLA.

Brainard has worked with Asian American youths for which she received a Special Recognition Award from the Los Angeles Board of Education. She has also received awards from the California State Senate, 21st District, several USIS Grants, a California Arts Council Fellowship, an Outstanding Individual Award from the City of Cebu, Philippines, Brody Arts Fund Award, a City of Los Angeles Cultural grant, and many more. The books she has written and edited have also won awards, the Gintong Aklat Award and the International Gourmand Award among them. Her work has been translated into Finnish and Turkish.

Brainard's second novel, Magdalena inspired the playwright Jocelyn Deona de Leon to write a stage play, Gabriela's Monologue, which was produced in 2011 by the Bindlestiff Studio in San Francisco as part of Stories XII! annual production showcasing original works for the stage by Pilipino/Filipino  American Artists.

Brainard's writings can be found in periodicals such as Town and Country, Zee Lifestyle Magazine, Focus Philippines, Philippine Graphic, Amerasia Journal, Bamboo Ridge among others.  Her stories have been anthologized in books such as Making Waves (1989), Songs of Ourselves (1994),  On a Bed of Rice (1995), "Pinay: Autobiographical Narratives by Women Writers, 1926-1998" (Ateneo 2000), "Asian American Literature" (Glencoe McGraw-Hill 2001),Cherished (New World Library, 2011),  and others.

Selected works

Novels and short story collections (writer)

Acapulco at Sunset and other Stories (short story collection, Anvil, 1995); (PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2020)
Angelica's Daughters, a Dugtungan Novel (a collaborative novel co-authored by Brainard, Cuizon, Evangelista, Montes, and Sarreal, Anvil, 2010)
"Gokkusagi Tanricasi Agladginda" (Turkish edition of "When the Rainbow Goddess Wept" Bilge Kultur Sanat, translated by Fusun Talay, 2001)
Magdalena (novel, Plain View Press, 2002); (University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2016); (PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2021)
The Newspaper Widow (novel, University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2017); (PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2021)
Selected Short Stories by Cecilia Manguerra Brainard (short story collection, University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2021), (PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2021).
Vigan and other Stories (short story collection, Anvil, 2011)
When the Rainbow Goddess Wept (novel, Dutton, 1994), which first appeared as Song of Yvonne;  (New Day Publishers, 1991) (Plume paperback, 1995); (University of Michigan Press, 1999); (University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2019)
Woman With Horns and Other Stories (short story collection, New Day Publishers, 1988; (PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2020)

Short story collections (edited)
Ala Carte Food and Fiction (Edited by Brainard and Orosa, Anvil, 2007)
Asian and Philippine Folktales: Retellings by PAWWA, (Edited by Brainard, PALH, 2022)
Contemporary Fiction by Filipinos in America (Anvil, 1998; PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2021)
Fiction by Filipinos in America (New Day, 1993); (PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2020)
Growing Up Filipino: Stories for Young Adults (PALH & Anvil, 2003)
Growing Up Filipino II: More Stories for Young Adults (PALH, 2010)
Growing Up Filipino 3: New Stories for Young Adults (University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, 2022; PALH/Philippine American Literary House, 2023)
Seven Stories from Seven Sisters: A Collection of Philippine Folktales (Co-editor, PAWWA, 1992)
The Beginning and Other Asian Folktales (Co-editor, PAWWA, 1995)

Non-fiction collections (edited)
Behind the Walls: Life of Convent Girls (Edited by Brainard and Orosa, Anvil, 2005)
Finding God: True Stories of Spiritual Encounters (Edited by Brainard and Orosa, Anvil, 2009)
Journey of 100 Years: Reflections on the Centennial of Philippine Independence (Edited by Brainard and Litton, Anvil, PAWWA, 1999)
Magnificat: Mama Mary's Pilgrim Sites (Edited by Brainard, Anvil, 2012)
Philippine Woman in America (New Day Publishers, 1991)

Non-fiction (writer)
Cecilia's Diary: 1962-1969 (memoir, Anvil, 2003)
Fundamentals of Creative Writing (Anvil, 2009)
Magical Years: Memories & Sketches (PALH, 2020)
Out of Cebu: Essays and Personal Prose (personal essays, University of San Carlos Press, 2012)
Philippine Woman in America (New Day Publishers, 1991)

Awards
Winner 40th National Book Award, Best Book Short Fiction English, for Selected Short Stories by Cecilia Manguerra Brainard (UST Publishing House 2021)
Top Hat Award from the Philippine American Business Improvement and Development (2015)
Certificate of Recognition from the United States House of Representatives (Juan Vargas) (2015)
Gintong Aklat Award (Golden Book Award), for Finding God: True Stories of Spiritual Encounters (coeditor) (2009)
Gourmand Award, for Ala Carte Food & Fiction (coeditor) (2008)
Certificate of Recognition from the Cebu Provincial Government (2006)
Amazing Alumni Achiever Award from Maryknoll College, QC, RP (2003)
Certificate of Recognition from the California State Senate, 21st District (Jack Scott) (2001)
Filipinas Magazine Achievement Award for Arts and Culture (2001)
California State Summer School for the Arts Award (2000)
Outstanding Individual Award from the City of Cebu, Philippines (1998)
USIS Travel Lecture Grants (1995 & 1997)
Makati Rotarian Award (1994)
Literature Award, Filipino Women's Network (1992)
City of Los Angeles Certificate of Appreciation (1992)
Brody Arts Fund Fellowship (1991)
Special Recognition Award, Los Angeles Board of Education (1991)
City of Los Angeles Cultural Grant (1990–91)
California Arts Council Artists' Fellowship in Fiction (1989–90)

See also

Estrella Alfon
Carlos Bulosan
N.V.M. Gonzalez
Jessica Hagedorn
Tess Uriza Holthe
Lina Espina-Moore
Jose Rizal
Ninotchka Rosca
E. San Juan, Jr.
Bienvenido Santos
Miguel Syjuco
Linda Ty Casper
F.Sionil Jose

References

Other sources
 Abao, Jane Frances P. 2001. "Retelling the Stories, Rewriting the Bildungsroman: Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's  When the Rainbow Goddess Wept ." Humanities Diliman (January–June).
 Adler, Les. 1996. "Acapulco at Sunset and Other Stories: A Review." Pilipinas 26 (Spring).
 Alexice, Mya. Book Review of "The Newspaper Widow" - Foreword Reviews, January/February 2018.
 Anonas-Carpio, Alma. "The Tremendous Power of Secrets." Philippines Graphic. March 2, 2018.
 Aubry, Erin. "A Child's Vision of Life During Wartime." Los Angeles Times. November 15, 1994, E-8.
 Bautista, Veltisezar. "Brainard, Cecilia Manguerra: Award-Winning Writer." The Filipino Americans (1763-Present): Their History, Culture and Traditions. BookHaus Publishers, 1998 & 2002, 188-189.
 Beltran, Marie G. "Woman With Horns and Other Concerns." Filipinas (May 1995): 29, 56.
 Casper, Leonard. "BACK-AZIMUTH Filipino Writers Abroad." Kinaadman XXVII (2005): 69-82.
 Casper, Leonard. Rev. of Song of Yvonne, Philippine Studies 41 (2nd Quarter 1993): 251-54.
 Cebuano Studies Center & National Commission for Culture and the Arts. The Cebuana in the World: Cecilia Manguerra Brainard Writing Out of Cebu Cebuano Studies Center, documentary video premiered Feb. 7, 2023.
 Cruz, Isagani R. "The Pleasures of Ubec, Otherwise Known as Cebu." Starweek: The Sunday Magazine of the Philippine Star (October 29, 1995): 20.
 Cruz, Jhoanna Lynn. "Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's Fiction: Bridging Distances". Likha, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1994-1995: 14-22.
 Campomanes, Oscar V. 2012. "Cecilia Manguerra Brainard, Scenographer." Introduction of Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's  Vigan and Other Stories  (2012).
 Diores, Luis. "Cecilia Manguerra-Brainard: Fiction is Organic to me." Kulokabildo: Dialogues with Cebuano Writers Ed. Yu, Hope S. University of San Carlos Cebuano Studies Center, 2009, 125-132.
 Grice, Helen. "Artistic Creativity, Form, and Fictional Experimentation in Filipina American Fiction." MELUS: The Journal of the Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States 29.1 (2004): 181-198.
 Grow, L. M. "Brainard, Cecilia Manguerra (1947-)".The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Asian American Literature. Ed. Guiyou Huang. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2009, 100-104.
 Lauron, Cheryl Grace Palang. "The Adolescent Filipino in Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's Select Short Fictions: Learning Activities." MA Education Thesis, Cebu Technological University, 2015.
 Lim Jr., Paulino (2012), "Diplotic (Double Vision) Consciousness of Overseas Filipino Writers." A Paper delivered at the Ninth International Conference on the Philippines, Oct 28-30, 2012 at Michigan State University, page 5.
 Magan, Rhodora G. "Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's Oriental Oriental "Magdalena": A Linguistic Reinvention." GSTF Journal of Law and Social Sciences (JLSS) Vol. 4, No. 2, 2015.
 Magan, Rhodora G. "Eve and Her Beings: A Chopin-Brainard Simulation." A Paper delivered at the Asian Conference on Literature & Librarianship, April 2–5, 2015 in Osaka, Japan.
 Melnick, Lisa Suguitan. "An Enjoyable Period Piece." Positively Filipino. March 27, 2018.
 Pieri, Caterina E. (2003). "Tesi di Laurea: When the Rainbow Goddess Wept di Cecilia Manguerra Brainard." MA in English, Literary Translation Thesis, Universita di Torino, Italy.
 Rafols, Margarita. 2010. "Hide and Seek: Redefining 'Filipino' in Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's  Fiction by Filipinos in America  (1993) and  Contemporary Fiction by Filipinos in America  (1997)." BA Literature Thesis, Ateneo de Manila University.
 Rimando, Ruth S. (2006). "Foregrounding Myths and Legends in Cecilia Manguerra Brainard's When the Rainbow Goddess Wept." BA. Literature Thesis, University of Santo Tomas.
 Wigley, John Jack (2004). "Representations of the Female Body in Cecilia Manguera Brainard's Fiction." MA Literature Thesis, University of Santo Tomas.
 Wigley, John Jack. "From Waxing to Waning: Woman's Psychosexual Development in Selected Short Stories of Cecilia Manguerra Brainard and Michelle Cruz Skinner." Inter/Sections (February 18, 2008):48-49.
 Ty, Eleanor. "Cecilia Manguerra Brainard. Asian American Novelists: A Bio-Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook. Ed. Emmanuel S. Nelson. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000, 29-33.
 Ty, Eleanor. "'Never Again Be the Yvonne of Yesterday': Personal and Collective Loss in Cecilia Brainard's Song of Yvonne." In Writing Dispossession, Writing Desire: Asian-American Women Writers. Ed. Srimati Mukherjee.
 Ty, Eleanor. "The Politics of the Visible in Asian North American Narratives", Toronto: University of Toronto Press, .

External links
 Cecilia Brainard by Eleanor Ty, in Asian American Novelists.
  Author's website

1947 births
Living people
Filipino novelists
Filipino women short story writers
Filipino short story writers
Filipino women novelists
Cebuano writers
American novelists of Asian descent
American women novelists
American writers of Filipino descent
English-language writers from the Philippines
Postmodern writers
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
Writers from California
Filipino emigrants to the United States
People from Cebu City
Writers from Cebu
American women short story writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers

Cecilia Manguerra Brainard


The Butler's in Love is a short film directed by David Arquette and starring Elizabeth Berkley and Thomas Jane. The film is based on a painting by Mark Stock which hangs in Bix, the San Francisco restaurant where Arquette and his wife Courteney Cox held their rehearsal dinner the night before their wedding.

The work shows a butler holding up a glass which is smudged with lipstick and a bottle of absinthe on a side table. "We didn't have any absinthe at our wedding," Arquette said with a laugh. "But I never forgot about the painting. I think of the romance behind it."

The film was shot in 3-D  on location in San Francisco and premiered June 23, 2008 at Mann's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California. The rest of the Arquette siblings attended the screening, as well as his wife Cox and stars Elizabeth Berkley and Thomas Jane.

 The Butler's in Love is the first of many short films from the new full-service film production company titled Tourmented Films.  French Absinthe brand Le Tourment Vert, in cooperation with Converge Entertainment, announced on June 23, 2008, the launch of their newest venture, Tourmented Films. Established to create edgy short films that carry the look and feel of the absinthe genre, Tourmented Films officially launched with The Butler's in Love directed by David Arquette.

Plot
The plot is based on the Mark Stock painting "The Butler's in Love". It concerns the romance between a butler and the wife of the host of a fancy dress party in 1912.

Cast
Thomas Jane as The Butler
Elizabeth Berkley as The Wife
Richmond Arquette as The Husband
Mark Stock as The Magician
Jenny Scheinman as The Singer
Celia de Blas as Dinner Party Guest
Kyle Scudiere as Patron
Bert van Aalsburg as Dinner Party Guest

3D Capture
This was the first production use of KernerFX's Kernercam stereoscopic 3D camera rig. When the project was brought to Kerner Studios, Kerner requested that a number of features previously considered 'tricky' for 3D capture be included in the film including fire, crystal glass and motion.

"Butler's in Love" was lensed by Peter Anderson, a 3-D Cinematographer that had originally designed the Kerner 3-D rig for his filming of "Godzilla 3-D".

References

External links

2008 films
American short films
2008 short films
Films set in 1912
Films directed by David Arquette
Coquette Productions films
2000s English-language films

The Butler's in Love


The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is the United States national DNA database created and maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. CODIS consists of three levels of information; Local DNA Index Systems (LDIS) where DNA profiles originate, State DNA Index Systems (SDIS) which allows for laboratories within states to share information, and the National DNA Index System (NDIS) which allows states to compare DNA information with one another.

The CODIS software contains multiple different databases depending on the type of information being searched against. Examples of these databases include, missing persons, convicted offenders, and forensic samples collected from crime scenes. Each state, and the federal system, has different laws for collection, upload, and analysis of information contained within their database. However, for privacy reasons, the CODIS database does not contain any personal identifying information, such as the name associated with the DNA profile. The uploading agency is notified of any hits to their samples and are tasked with the dissemination of personal information pursuant to their laws.

Establishment
The creation of a national DNA database within the U.S. was first mentioned by the Technical Working Group on DNA Analysis Methods (TWGDAM) in 1989. The FBI's strategic goal was to maximize the voluntary participation of states and avoid what happened several years early, when eight western states frustrated with the progress creating a national Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) network formed the Western Identification Network (WIN). The FBI's strategy to discourage states from creating systems that competed with CODIS was to develop DNA databasing software and provide it free of charge to state and local crime laboratories.This strategic decision--to provide software free of charge for the purpose of gaining market share--was innovative at that time and predated the browser wars. In 1990, the FBI began a pilot DNA databasing program with 14 state and local laboratories.

In 1994, Congress passed the DNA Identification Act which authorized the FBI to create a national DNA database of convicted offenders as well as separate databases for missing persons and forensic samples collected from crime scenes. (Some in the Bureau believed the Act was not required to establish a national DNA database because the FBI's Criminal Justice Information Services Division was already using similar authorities to provide data-sharing solutions to federal, state, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies.) The DNA Identification Act also required that laboratories participating in the CODIS program maintain accreditation from an independent nonprofit organization that is actively involved in the forensic fields and that scientists processing DNA samples for submission into CODIS maintain proficiency and are routinely tested to ensure the quality of the profiles being uploaded into the database. The national level of CODIS (NDIS) was implemented in October 1998. Today, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, federal law enforcement, the Army Laboratory, and Puerto Rico participate in the national sharing of DNA profiles.

Database structure

The CODIS database contains several different indexes for the storage of DNA profile information. For assistance in criminal investigations three indexes exist: the offender index, which contains DNA profiles of those convicted of crimes; the arrestee index, which contains profiles of those arrested of crimes pursuant to the laws of the particular state; and the forensic index, which contains profiles collected from a crime scene. Additional indexes, such as the unidentified human remain index, the missing persons index, and the biological relatives of missing persons index, are used to assist in identifying missing persons. Specialty indexes also exist for other specimens that do not fall into the other categories. These indexes include the staff index, for profiles of employees who work with the samples, and the multi-allelic offender index, for single-source samples that have three or more alleles at two or more loci.

Non-criminal indexes

While CODIS is generally used for linking crimes to other crimes and potentially to suspects there are non-criminal portions of the database such as the missing person indexes. The National Missing Person DNA Database, also known as CODIS(mp), is maintained by the FBI at the NDIS level of CODIS allowing all states to share information with one another. Created in 2000 using the existing CODIS infrastructure, this section of the database is designed to help identify human remains by collecting and storing DNA information on the missing or the relatives of missing individuals. Unidentified remains are processed for DNA by the University of North Texas Center for Human Identification which is funded by the National Institute of Justice. Nuclear, Y-STR (for males only), and mitochondrial analysis can be performed on both unknown remains and on known relatives in order to maximize the chance of identifying remains.

Statistics

, NDIS contained more than 14 million offender profiles, more than four million arrestee profiles and more than one million forensic profiles. The effectiveness of CODIS is measured by the number of investigations aided through database hits. , CODIS had aided in over 520 thousand investigations and produced more than 530 thousand hits. Each state has their own SDIS database and each state can set their own inclusionary standards that can be less strict than the national level. For this reason, a number of profiles that are present in state level databases are not in the national database and are not routinely searched across state lines.

Scientific basis

The bulk of identifications using CODIS rely on short tandem repeats (STRs) that are scattered throughout the human genome and on statistics that are used to calculate the rarity of that specific profile in the population. STRs are a type of copy-number variation and comprise a sequence of nucleotide base pairs that is repeated over and over again. At each location tested during DNA analysis, also known as a locus (plural loci), a person has two sets of repeats, one from the father and one from the mother.  Each set is measured and the number of repeat copies is recorded. If both strands, inherited from the parents, contain the same number of repeats at that locus the person is said to be homozygous at that locus. If the repeat numbers differ they are said to be heterozygous. Every possible difference at a locus is an allele. This repeat determination is performed across a number of loci and the repeat values is the DNA profile that is uploaded to CODIS. As of January 1, 2017, requirements for upload to national level for known offender profiles is 20 loci.

Alternatively, CODIS allows for the upload of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) information into the missing persons indexes. Since mtDNA is passed down from mother to offspring it can be used to link remains to still living relatives who have the same mtDNA.

Loci

Prior to January 1, 2017, the national level of CODIS required that known offender profiles have a set of 13 loci called the "CODIS core". Since then, the requirement has expanded to include seven additional loci. Partial profiles are also allowed in CODIS in separate indexes and are common in crime scene samples that are degraded or are mixtures of multiple individuals. Upload of these profiles to the national level of CODIS requires at least eight of the core loci to be present as well as a profile rarity of 1 in 10 million (calculated using population statistics).

Loci that fall within a gene are named after the gene. For example, TPOX, is named after the human thyroid peroxidase gene. Loci that do not fall within genes are given a standard naming scheme for uniformity. These loci are named D + the chromosome the locus is on + S + the order in which the location on that chromosome was described. For example, D3S1358 is on the third chromosome and is the 1358th location described. The CODIS core are listed below; loci with asterisks are the new core and were added to the list in January 2017.

The loci used in CODIS were chosen because they are in regions of noncoding DNA, sections that do not code for proteins. These sections should not be able to tell investigators any additional information about the person such as their hair or eye color, or their race. However, new advancements in the understanding of genetic markers and ancestry have indicated that the CODIS loci may contain phenotypic information.

International use

While the U.S. database is not directly connected to any other country, the underlying CODIS software is used by other agencies around the world. , the CODIS software is used by 90 international laboratories in 50 countries. International police agencies that want to search the U.S. database can submit a request to the FBI for review. If the request is reasonable and the profile being searched would meet inclusionary standards for a U.S. profile, such as number of loci, the request can be searched at the national level or forwarded to any states where reasonable suspicion exists that they may be present in that level of the database.

Controversies

Arrestee collection

The original purpose of the CODIS database was to build upon the sex offender registry through the DNA collection of convicted sex offenders. Over time, that has expanded. Currently, all 50 states collect DNA from those convicted of felonies. A number of states also collect samples from juveniles as well as those who are arrested, but not yet convicted, of a crime. Note that even in states which limit collection of DNA retained in the state database only to those convicted of a crime, local databases, such as the forensic laboratory operated by New York City's Office of Chief Medical Examiner, may collect DNA samples of arrestees who have not been convicted. The collection of arrestee samples raised constitutional issues, specifically the Fourth Amendment prohibiting unreasonable search and seizure. It was argued that the collection of DNA from those that were not convicted of a crime, without an explicit order to collect, was considered a warrantless search and therefore unlawful. In 2013, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Maryland v. King that the collection of DNA from those arrested for a crime, but not yet convicted, is part of the police booking procedure and is reasonable when that collection is used for identification purposes.

Familial searching

The inheritance pattern of some DNA means that close relatives share a higher percentage of alleles between each other than with other, random, members of society. This allows for the searching of close matches within CODIS when an exact match is not found. By focusing on close matches, investigators can potentially find a close relative whose profile is in CODIS narrowing their search to one specific family. Familial searching has led to several convictions after the exhaustion of all other leads including the Grim Sleeper serial killer. This practice also raised Fourth Amendment challenges as the individual who ends up being charged with a crime was only implicated because someone else's DNA was in the CODIS database. , twelve states have approved the use of familial searching in CODIS.

See also
 Debbie Smith Act
 GEDmatch
 Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS)

References

External links
 CODIS page on FBI.gov
 "ACLU Warns of Privacy Abuses in Government Plan to Expand DNA Databases". ACLU. March 1, 1999.
 A Not So Perfect Match, CBS, 2007
 "DNA didn't prove anything, as it only had five points out of 13. Juror Explains Verdict In Double Murder". November 13, 2008.

Biometrics
DNA
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Law enforcement databases in the United States
Identity documents of the United States
National DNA databases
Sex offender registration
Forensic databases
Biological databases
1998 introductions

Combined DNA Index System


In France the Police Nationale (in English language national police) is the state component of public safety. In contrast to the Gendarmerie Nationale personal are all civilian  functionnaries of the state. The Police Nationale has several very different sub-directorates, each responsible for specific missions.
In 2014 more than 143 500 peoples were members of the Police Nationale.

Missions of the Police Nationale
In France the Police Nationale is responsible of many missions.
The first and perhaps the most important is, in French language sécurité des personnes et des biens. It translation is safety of persons and property. This is the true role of each French police officer.
Like many other police services in the world the Police Nationale has many other missions : counter-terrorism, fight against illegal drug trade, riot operations, and sometime SAR missions on the French beaches and mountains, especially in the Alps.

Organization
The main directions of the Police Nationale are headquartered in Paris.

The Sécurité Publique

The Sécurité Publique (in English language Public Security) is responsible of all missions of police on the French territory. For each French department, there is a departmental office. Also for Corsica and overseas departments of France. The majority of police officers conduct their mission in uniform. However, some units have the ability to act in civilian clothes, they are called BAC, for Brigade Anti-Criminalité.

The Police aux Frontières
It's the branch of the Police Nationale in charge of the fight against illegal immigration. The Police aux Frontières or PAF (in English language Border Police) is present in all French airports, important railway stations, and harbours. The PAF is also present for the security of the famous Channel Tunnel.

The Compagnies Républicaines de Sécurité

The Compagnie Républicaine de Sécurité, or CRS, is one of the famous direction of the Police Nationale. It's the riot unit. It's also the police directorate in charge of beaches and mountains SAR. Finally, the CRS are involved in the fight against road crime, on French motorways.

The Police Judiciaire
The Police Judicaire, or PJ, is in charge of criminal investigations. The Police Judiciaire (in English language Judicial Police) tasks range from research of the perpetrators of murders, rapes and robberies in the counter-terrorism. It is also in charge of the scientific police.

The Service de la Protection
The Service de la Protection, or SDLP, is the service of official bodyguards. The SDLP (or in English language Protection Service) is in charge of security of heads of state of the French Republic. In 2015 President of the French Republic François Hollande, French Prime minister Manuel Valls and all ministers are under protection of SDLP police officer. Some foreign ambassadors, like ambassador of United Kingdom, USA, or Israel are also under protection when they are in France.

The RAID

The RAID (acronym for Recherche, Assistance, Intervention, Dissuasion) is the special unit of the Police Nationale. Made famous in 1993 by a hostage-taking at a school in Neuilly-sur-Seine, it is the elite unit of the Police Nationale. Its members are almost all snipers.
In January 2015 the RAID participated in the hunt for terrorists responsible for the attack against the satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo and the murder of a young policewoman. They led an assault against one of the terrorists holed up in a kosher store in Vincennes, releasing all hostages unharmed.

Vehicles
If the Police National has not helicopter it has many cars, vans, motorbikes, boats and special vehicles. When police officers need to use an helicopter, they call the Sécurité Civile and their red and yellow Eurocopter EC145.
Cars of the Police Nationale are made by Citroën, Dacia, Ford, Peugeot, and Renault. Motorbikes are BMW and Yamaha.

Law enforcement agencies
Government of France
Law of France

National Police (France)


A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin:  or ) is an advanced postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In most jurisdictions, the LL.M. is the advanced professional degree for those usually already admitted into legal practice.

Definition
To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, a person must first obtain a law degree. In most common law countries, a Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) is required. In the United States, the Juris Doctor (J.D.) is generally a requirement to practice law. Some jurisdictions, such as Canada and Australia, require either an LL.B. or J.D. Individuals with law degrees must typically pass an additional set of examinations to qualify as a lawyer.

The LL.M. program is a postgraduate program, typically for individuals who either possess a law degree or have qualified as a lawyer. The word legum is the genitive plural form of the Latin word lex and means "of the laws". When used in the plural, it signifies a specific body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words "juris" and "justice" derive.

An LL.M. is also typically a requirement for entry into the research doctoral programs in law, such as the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D or J.S.D.), the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. or DPhil) or doctorat en droit (in France), Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Dr. iur.) (in Germany), the Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.), and the Doctor of Laws" (LL.D.).

Historically, the LL.M. degree is an element particular to the education system of English speaking countries, which is based on a distinction between bachelor's and master's degrees. Over the past years, however, specialized LL.M. programs have been introduced in many European countries.

Types of LL.M. degrees

A wide range of LL.M. programs are available worldwide, allowing students to focus on almost any area of the law. Most universities offer only a small number of LL.M. programs. One of the most popular LL.M. degrees in the United States is in tax law, sometimes referred to as an MLT (Master of Laws in Taxation).

In Europe, LL.M. programs in European law are popular, often referred to as LL.M. Eur (Master of European Law).

In the Netherlands and its former colonies, the title used was Meester in de Rechten (mr.). This title is still widely used in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium), especially by those who studied Dutch or Belgium law respectively.

Some LL.M. programs, particularly in the United States, and also in China, focus on teaching foreign lawyers the basic legal principles of the host country.

The length of time to study an LLM program depends on the mode of study. Most full-time on-campus courses take one academic year to complete. Other students may complete their LLM program on a part-time basis over two years, and increasingly courses are available online. Part-time online courses can take between two and five years to complete.

Requirements

LL.M. programs are usually only open to those students who have first obtained a degree in law, typically an LL.B. or J.D. Some programs are exceptions to this, requiring only an undergraduate degree or extensive experience in a related field. Full-time LL.M. programs usually last one year and vary in their graduation requirements. Most programs require or allow students to write a thesis. Some programs are research oriented with little classroom time, while others require students to take a set number of classes.

LL.M. degrees are often earned by students wishing to develop more concentrated expertise in a particular area of law. Pursuing an LL.M. degree may also allow law students to build a professional network. Some associations provide LL.M. degree holders with structures designed to strengthen their connections among peers and to access a competitive business environment, much like an MBA degree.

LL.M. programs by country

Australia
In Australia, the LL.M. is generally only open to law graduates. However, some universities permit non-law graduates to undertake variants of the degree. There are nearly 100 LLM courses in Australia across 25 institutions taught in English.

Unique variants of the LL.M. exist, such as the Master of Legal Practice (M.L.P.) available at the Australian National University, where students who have completed the Graduate Diploma of Legal Practice (which law graduates must obtain before being able to be admitted as a solicitor/barrister), will be granted some credit towards the Master qualification. Other variants of the LL.M. are more similar to the LL.M. available in the wider Commonwealth but under a different title, for example Master of Commercial Law, Master of International Law or Master of Human Rights Law. These courses are usually more specialised than a standard LL.M.

Canada

In Canada, the LL.M. is generally  open to law graduates holding an LL.B., LL.L., B.C.L., or a J.D. as a first degree.  Students can choose to take research-based LL.M. degrees or course-based LL.M. degrees.  Research-based LL.M. degrees are one- or two-year programs that require students to write a thesis that makes a significant contribution to their field of research.  Course-based LL.M. degrees do not require a significant research paper.  An LL.M. can be studied part-time, and at some schools, through distance learning. LL.M. degrees can be general, or students can choose to pursue a specialized area of research.

Foreign trained lawyers who wish to practice in Canada will first need to have their education and experience assessed by the Federation of Law Societies of Canada's National Committee on Accreditation. Upon having received a certificate of accreditation from the National Committee on Accreditation, foreign law graduates would then have to obtain articles with a law firm, take the professional legal training course, and pass the professional exams to be called to the bar in a province. The University of British Columbia's LLM in Common Law is an example of one of a few LLM courses that help to prepare students for the professional exams.

China (Mainland)

The LL.M. is available at China University of Political Science and Law, and the entrance requirements are: native English competency, or near native English, with any bachelor's degree. The program is flexible and allows students to study Mandarin and assists with organizing work experience in Beijing and other cities in China. It normally takes two years, but can be completed in one and a half years if students take the required credits in time.

The flagship of the China-EU School of Law (CESL) in Beijing is a Double Master Programme including a Master of Chinese Law and a Master of European and International Law. The Master of European and International Law is taught in English, open for international students and can be studied as a single master programme. CESL also offers an International Master of Chinese Law (IMCL) which is an LL.M. in Chinese law taught entirely in English.

Beijing Foreign Studies University has launched an online LLM for international professionals. The course is taken over two years, with the first covering online lessons through video and assignments, the second year is for the dissertation and an online defense is required at the end. Students are required to attend Beijing for an introductory week in September to enroll and meet students and staff. Students also have the opportunity to take work experience at a top five law firm in China.

LL.M degree programs are available at many other universities in Mainland China, such as at Peking University, Tsinghua University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, and Shanghai International Studies University.

Finland
In Finland, an LL.M. is the standard graduate degree required to practice law. No other qualifications are required.

France

In France, the LL.M. is in English. The LL.M. in International Business Law is available at Panthéon-Assas University (Paris), the oldest school of law in France.

The entrance requirements are:

 Very good English level, with master's degree in law (or equivalent); or
 Alternative diploma and four years' professional experience.

The course is flexible and allows students to study French.

A further 11 institutions in France offer almost 20 other LLM programs taught in English, with specialisms including European Law.

Germany

In Germany, the LL.M. is seen as an advanced legal qualification of supplementary character. As such, Master of Laws programmes are generally open not only to law graduates, but also to graduates of related subjects or those displaying a genuine interest in and link to the particular LL.M. programme in question. Some graduates choose to undertake their LL.M. directly following their "Erstes Juristisches Staatsexamen" (the "first state examination", which constitutes the first stage of the official German legal training), an alternative postgraduate course, or their "Zweites Juristisches Staatsexamen" (that is, the second and final stage of the official German legal training).

Hong Kong
LL.M. degree programmes are offered by the law faculties of The University of Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the City University of Hong Kong. An LL.B. degree is usually required for admission, but for some specialised programmes, such as the LL.M. in Human Rights programme offered by HKU, require an undergraduate degree in laws or any related discipline.

India
Similar to the United Kingdom, a master's degree in law in India is basically opted to specialize in particular areas of law. Traditionally the most popular areas of specialization in these master's degrees in law in India have been constitutional law, family law and taxation law.

With the establishment of the specialized autonomous law schools in India in 1987 (the first was the National Law School of India University) much emphasis is being given at the master's level of legal education in India. With the establishment of these universities, focus in specialization has been shifted to newer areas such as corporate law, intellectual property law, international trade law etc. LL.M programs in India were previously two years in duration but presently typically last one year.

Ireland
A number of universities and colleges in Ireland offer LL.M. programs, such as Dublin City University, Trinity College Dublin, University College Cork, National University of Ireland, Galway (NUIG), National University of Ireland, Maynooth (NUIM), the Law Society of Ireland in partnership with Northumbria University, and Griffith College.

University College Dublin also offers the Masters in Common Law (MCL/ Magisterii in Jure Communi, M.Jur.Com), an advanced two-year programme for non-law graduates. The degree is a qualifying law degree for admittance to the entrance exams of the Honorable Society of King's Inns.

Italy
Italy offers both master programs in Italian and in English, depending on the school. They are often called "laurea specialistica", that is, the second step of the Bologna plan (European curriculum), and in this case they last two years. For example, the University of Milan offers a 2 years LLM on Sustainable Development.  In South Tyrol programmes are also taught in German, as in Bolzano.

In Italy the term "master" often refers to a vocational master, 6 or 12 months long, on specific areas, such as "law and internet security", or "law of administrative management", is often taught part-time to allow professionals already working in the field to improve their skills.

Mauritius

The LLM in International Business Law from Panthéon-Assas University is also available in Mauritius in Medine Village campus.

Netherlands
To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL.M. degree with a specific set of courses in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers (NOVA) require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be conditionally written in the district court for three years. After receiving all the diplomas prescribed by NOVA and under supervision of a "patron", a lawyer is eligible to have his own practice and is unconditionally written in a court for life.

Norway
The Norwegian legal degrees master i rettsvitenskap (English for master in jurisprudence) are officially translated to English as Master of Laws (LL.M.), as these degrees are more comprehensive than the basic graduate law degree in common law countries (e.g., J.D. and LL.B). The last year in the five-year professional Norwegian law degree program is thus considered to correspond to a LL.M specialization. In addition, the universities with legal faculties at the masters level offers several LL.M programmes. For example, Universitetet i Oslo offers tuition-free LL.M courses in Public International Law, Maritime Law, Information and Communication Technology (ICT Law), as well as distinct specializations in human rights.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the University of the Punjab, University of Karachi, Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto University of Law, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Government College University, Faisalabad, University of Sargodha are LL.M. degree awarding institutions. Completing a LL.M. qualification in Pakistan consists of studying eight subjects in four semesters. This spans over a period of two years and also requires the student to write a thesis on a proposed topic. A student has to pass in each of the subject in order to qualify for LL.M. degree, and the passing mark is set at 60%. The program is taught in English.

Universities in Pakistan teach comparative constitutional law, comparative human rights law and comparative jurisprudence as mandatory subjects. The programs also include research methodology and four elective subjects, which may include company law, taxation law, intellectual property law and banking law.

Portugal
The Master of Laws programmes offered in Portugal are extremely varied but do not, for the most part, use the designation LL.M., being more commonly called Mestrado em Direito (Master's Degree in Law), like the ones at Coimbra University's Faculty of Law and Lusíada University of Porto. Although the classical Mestrado em Direito takes two years to finish and involves a dissertation, there are some shorter variants. A few Mestrados with an international theme have specifically adopted the LL.M designation: the LL.M in European and Transglobal Business Law at the School of Law of the University of Minho and the LL.M. Law in a European and Global Context and the Advanced LL.M. in International Business Law, both at the Católica Global School of Law, in Lisbon.

Singapore
In Singapore, the LL.M. is in English.
The LL.M. in International Business Law from Panthéon-Assas University is also available in Singapore in Insead campus.

South Africa

In South Africa, the LL.M. is a postgraduate degree offered both as a course-based and research-based master's degree.  In the former case, the degree comprises advanced coursework in a specific area of law as well as limited related research, usually in the form of a short dissertation, while in the latter, the degree is entirely thesis based. The first type, typically, comprises "practice-oriented" topics (e.g. in tax, mining law), while the second type is theory-oriented, often preparing students for admission to LL.D. or Ph.D. programmes. Admission is generally limited to LL.B. graduates, although holders of other law degrees, such as the BProc, may be able to apply if admitted as attorneys and/or by completing supplementary LL.B. coursework.

Taiwan
In Taiwan, law can be studied as a postgraduate degree resulting in an LL.M. Some LL.M. programs in Taiwan are offered to students with or without a legal background. However, the graduation requirements for students with a legal background are lower than for those students who do not have a legal background (to account for fundamental legal subjects that were taken during undergraduate studies). Students studying in an LL.M. program normally take three years to earn the necessary credits and finish a master's thesis.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, an LL.M. programme is open to those holding a recognised legal qualification, generally an undergraduate degree in Laws or equivalent. They do not have to be or intend to be legal practitioners. An LL.M. is not required, nor is it a sufficient qualification in itself to practise as a solicitor or barrister, since this requires completion of the Legal Practice Course, Bar Professional Training Course, or, if in Scotland, the Diploma in Legal Practice. As with other degrees, an LL.M. can be studied on a part-time basis at many institutions and in some circumstances by distance learning. Some providers of the Bar Professional Training Course and the Legal Practice Course also allow the student to gain an LL.M. qualification on top of these professional courses by writing a dissertation.

The UK offers over 1000 different LL.Ms. Large law faculties such as Queen Mary University of London offer multiple different programs, whilst other such as Aston University simply offer one program. Some institutions allow those without a first degree in law onto their LL.M. programme. Examples of such programmes include the Master of Studies in Legal Research at Oxford, the LL.M. degrees at the University of Edinburgh and LL.M.s at the University of Leicester In addition, Queen's University Belfast offers an LL.M. suite, accessible to legal and social science graduates, leading to specialisms in sustainable development, corporate governance, devolution or human rights. Northumbria University offers an approach to the LL.M. qualification by starting the master's programme as undergraduates. Students completing this four-year programme graduate with a combined LL.M. and Legal Practice Course professional qualification or BPTC.

Oxbridge

The University of Cambridge has a taught postgraduate law course, which formerly conferred an LL.B. on successful candidates (undergraduates studying law at Cambridge received a B.A.).  In 1982 the LL.B. for postgraduate students was replaced with a more conventional LL.M. to avoid confusion with undergraduate degrees in other universities.  Additionally in 2012 the University of Cambridge introduced the M.C.L. (Masters of Corporate Law) aimed at postgraduate students with interests in corporate law.

The University of Oxford unconventionally names its taught masters of laws B.C.L. (Bachelor of Civil Law) and M.Jur. (Magister Juris), and its research masters either MPhil (Master of Philosophy) or MSt (Master of Studies).  Oxford continues to name its principal postgraduate law degree the B.C.L. for largely historic reasons, as the B.C.L. is one of the oldest and most senior degrees, having been conferred since the sixteenth century. The M.Jur. was introduced in 1991. At present there is no LL.M. degree conferred by the university.  Oxford claims that the B.C.L. is "the most highly regarded taught masters-level qualification in the common law world". Additionally, the University of Oxford introduced the MSc in Law and Finance (MLF) and the MSc in Taxation in 2010 and 2016, respectively.

United States

In the United States, the acquisition of an LL.M. degree is often a way to specialize in an area of law such as tax law, business law, international business law, health law, trial advocacy, environmental law or intellectual property. A number of schools have combined J.D.-LL.M. programs, while others offer the degree through online study. Some LL.M. programs feature a general study of American law. Degree requirements vary by school, and they often differ for LL.M. students who previously earned a J.D. from an American law school and LL.M. students who previously earned a law degree from a non-American law school.

Programs for foreign legal graduates
An LL.M. degree from an ABA-approved law school also allows a foreign lawyer to become eligible to apply for admission to the bar in certain states. Each state has different rules relating to the admittance of foreign-educated lawyers to state bar associations.

An LL.M. degree from an ABA-approved law school qualifies a foreign legal graduate to take the bar exam in Alabama, California, New Hampshire, New York, Texas, as well as in the independent republic of Palau.

In addition, legal practice in the home jurisdiction plus a certain amount of coursework at an accredited law school qualifies a foreign legal graduate to take the bar exam in Alaska, the District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah and West Virginia. However, a number of states, including Arizona, Florida, Georgia, New Jersey and North Carolina only recognize J.D. degrees from accredited law schools as qualification to take the bar.

New York allows foreign lawyers from civil law countries to sit for the New York bar exam once they have completed a minimum of 24 credit hours (usually but not necessarily in an LL.M. program) at an ABA-approved law school involving at least two basic subjects tested on the New York bar exam, including 12 credits in specific areas of law.  Lawyers from common-law countries face more lenient restrictions and may not need to study at an ABA-approved law school.  Foreign lawyers from both civil law and common law jurisdictions, however, are required to demonstrate that they have successfully completed a course of law studies of at least three years that would fulfill the educational requirements to bar admission in their home country.

International law and other LL.M. programs
As of 2008, there is one LL.M. degree in International Law offered by The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, the oldest school of international affairs in the United States. Given that the degree specializes in international law, the program has not sought ABA accreditation.

The Notre Dame Law School at the University of Notre Dame offers an LL.M in International Human Rights Law to JD graduates from ABA-accredited US schools or LL.B or equivalent from accredited non-US schools.

Both Duke University School of Law and Cornell Law School offer J.D. students the opportunity to simultaneously pursue an LL.M. in International and Comparative Law.

The University of Nebraska-Lincoln College of Law provides an LL.M. in Space, Cyber & Telecommunications Law, the only program providing focused study in these three areas.  The program was established using a grant from NASA and a partnership with the U.S. Air Force Strategic Command.

St. Mary's University offers the LL.M. in International and Comparative Law, with students having the option to complete both it and their J.D. simultaneously.

The University of Tulsa College of Law offers an LL.M. in American Indian and Indigenous Peoples Law to JD graduates from ABA-accredited US schools or LL.B or equivalent from accredited non-US schools.

The University of Washington School of Law offers an LL.M. in Sustainable International Development, the first program of its kind to focus on international development law. LL.M. students in this program are also able to elect for a concentration in Indigenous Rights Law. Similarly, the school offers a separate LL.M. degree in Asian and Comparative Law.

There is one institution that offers an ABA-approved LL.M, that does not offer a J.D. degree: The U.S. Army Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School offers an officer's resident graduate course, a specialized program beyond the first degree in law, leading to an LL.M. in Military Law.

See also
 Magister Juris
 Master of Studies in Law
 List of Master of Laws programs

References

External links

Laws, Master
Law degrees

Master of Laws


Orava Castle (, , ) is a castle situated on a high rock above Orava river in the village of Oravský Podzámok, Slovakia. It is considered to be one of the most beautiful castles in Slovakia. The castle was built in the Kingdom of Hungary in the thirteenth century. Many scenes of the 1922 film Nosferatu were filmed here, the castle representing Count Orlok's Transylvanian castle.

Orava Castle stands on the site of an old wooden fortification, built after the Mongol invasion of Hungary of 1241. Its history follows a familiar pattern of construction, destruction, reconstruction, fire, various ownerships and territorial squabbles. The original design was in Romanesque and Gothic style; it was later reconstructed as a Renaissance and Neo-Gothic structure, hugging the shape of the 520-metre spur on which it perches.

The mining magnate Thurzo family, who took charge in the mid-16th century, were responsible for a great deal of rebuilding work, although its present form was not finalised until 1611. It burned down again in 1800, after which it was no longer used as a residence. After a period of dilapidation dating until World War II, the castle became a national monument.

Origins
 The natural rock formation known as "castle cliff" – a limy spur 112 meters (367 ft) high, surrounded by the river Orava and its right tributary stream  – has been inhabited since primeval times. During its history a wooden rampart became a strong walled castle of which the first written record dates back to 1267. At that time only the ground floor was built of stone, while the upper floors were made of wood.

In 1370 as part of the Hungarian Kingdom the castle became the center of Árva county. A tetrahedral multi-story towerntury was built here in the 14th century, probably on older foundations, as a donjon – the place of "last defense" within the castle. After 1474, King Matthias Corvinus gave orders to build a square and a residence-wing in the Middle Castle. The buildings were situated in front of the castle. In 1534 John of Dubovec obtained the castle and became head of the county. He started to rebuild the castle and to make new fortifications. He ordered the building of a half-round tower in the Upper Castle that in 1539 was followed by two large round fortifications for cannons in the Middle Castle. The middle platform was also configured for cannon firing. In the years 1539 to 1543 John of Dubovec built a five-story palace in the empty space between the tower and the stone wall of the Upper Castle. The threat of Ottoman invasion was the reason for building these new fortifications. A new gate with a ditch and drawbridge in the Lower Castle was completed in 1543. The Tower of the Archives was built against the castle walls.

16th–18th centuries

After the death of John of Dubovec, his heirs quarreled over the inheritance and the situation became so bad that the castle even became a store-house. It was paid for by the mine owner Ferenc Thurzó. A lot of building activity took place at the castle following this time period. The wooden stairs in the Upper Castle were replaced by stone stairs. The same was done to the stairs between the Middle and the Upper Castle with the drawbridge. A cellar was also dug out of the stone of the castle court and a single-story residence-wing was built in the lower castle near the west wall.

György Thurzó also carried out some important repairs. One of the first was the building of a tunnel between both castle gates, above which was formed a large terrace. After this was all done he moved the living-quarters and the building of the chapel started using parts of some old architecture. The interior furnishing of the chapel was later arranged in a taste which suited the new owners of the castle. One of the most well-known features is the Renaissance grave tomb of György Thurzó from the beginning of the 17th century and the Baroque altar from 1751–1752.

Disuse, fire and the museum

After the death of Erzsébet Czobor, the widow of György Thurzó, the castle became the property of Thurzó's daughters, who entrusted its administration to an elected administrator. Because of changes in politics, society and the economy, the castle gradually lost its important functions. Only a few clerks stayed on and the uninhabited and disused parts of the castle gradually deteriorated. The greatest catastrophe affected the castle in 1800, when a gigantic fire destroyed all the wooden parts of the castle. Some objects from the Lower Castle were recovered after the fire because they had been covered by the roof shingles. However, the objects from the Middle and Upper Castle were not reconstructed until 1861.

To find a use for the historical object, Ödön Zichy, the administrator of the property (as administrator of Veszprém County), organized a foundation which had the aim of founding a regional museum of Orava. The first exhibition took place at the Thurzo Palace in 1868. Nowadays, the Orava Museum is one of the oldest in Slovakia. Its most attractive expositions are those of the Castle Chapel, the Knights' Room, and several rooms with period-style furnishing. Further highlights include the Painting Gallery, the Weapon room, and the scientific, ethnographic and archaeological collections.

Cultural references
Many scenes of the 1922 film Nosferatu were filmed here, the castle representing Count Orlok's Transylvanian castle; In their 2020 TV adaptation of Bram Stoker's novel Dracula, Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat also used Orava as their Castle Dracula. Orava Castle served as the filming location for the 2000 film, Dragonheart: A New Beginning. It was also used by the Polish video game company CD Projekt as inspiration for the fictional Kaer Morhen, fortress for the witchers of the Wolf School in Andrzej Sapkowski's The Witcher book series. Van Helsing's season 5 was filmed on location.

References

External links

 Orava Castle from Slovak Heritage
 Orava Castle Tour Information from Muzeum.sk
 Photographs of Orava Castle from Muzeum.sk
 Christmas at Orava Castle
 http://www.oravskyhrad.sk/
 Paper model of Orava Castle
  Drone video of Orava Castle
 Slovak Spectator - Orava Castle: Dracula's Slovak residence

Castles in Slovakia
Museums in Žilina Region
Tourist attractions in Žilina Region
13th-century architecture in Slovakia
Romanesque architecture in Slovakia
Gothic architecture in Slovakia
Renaissance architecture in Slovakia
Gothic Revival architecture in Slovakia
Buildings and structures in Žilina Region
Dracula
Buildings and structures completed in the 13th century

Orava Castle