is an Italian-Japanese anime series produced by Tatsunoko Productions, Mondo TV and NHK. It is an adaptation of the Alexandre Dumas version of the Robin Hood story consisting of 52 episodes. In this version, Robin and his allies are mostly pre-teens.

Overview
Robin's palace was burned to ashes by the order of Alwyn, the Baron of Nottingham. Robin and his cousins Will, Winifred and Jenny flee into Sherwood Forest, hoping to escape persecution.  They end up encountering a group of bandits led by Little John, who dubs himself as Big John during the beginning of the series, until Robin pokes fun renaming him "Little John" for playing with a pussycat. Together, Robin and the bandits must stop Baron Alwyn's persecutions and greed as well as to prevent the greedy and fat Bishop Hartford from adopting (marrying in the Japanese version) Marian Lancaster and obtaining her family's wealth.

Characters

Protagonists

 Robert Huntington or Robert Huntingdon, aka Robin Hood (voiced by Kazue Ikura) – The heir to the noble family of Huntington, Robin Hood's house is burned to the ground by the order of Baron Alwyn. He is forced to flee and hideout in Sherwood Forest where he and his cousins encounter Little John and his gang.
 Marian Lancaster (voiced by Naoko Matsui) – The descendant of the noble Lancaster family who is to be adopted by a greedy bishop named Hartford. She wears a golden cross around her neck as a symbol of her family and was her Mother's prized possession.  Marian was especially notable throughout the series for her evolution in character development.
 Will Scarlet (voiced by Yuko Mita) – Robin's friend/cousin who fight along his side when trouble arises. He has two sisters.
 Friar Tuck (voiced by Kenichi Ogata) – An old monk who lives on the edge of Sherwood Forest and helps Robin if needed. A recurring gag is that Friar Tuck is constantly trying to use his inventions to fly, but they never work.
 Little John (voiced by Bin Shimada) – A leader of a group of bandits who were forced to hide out in Sherwood Forest to avoid forced labor. Though he clashes with Robin at first, he proves to be an "invincible" ally. He has a love interest in Winifred.
 Much (voiced by Mayumi Tanaka) – Much is Little John's right-hand man.
 Winifred Scarlet (voiced by Maria Kawamura) – Robin's cousin and Will's sister.
 Jenny Scarlet, but called Barbara in the Japanese version (voiced by Sayuri Iketmoto) – Jenny is Robin's cousin, and the younger sister of Will and Winifred.
King Richard the Lionheart (voiced by Mugihito) – the true and rightful king of England.

Antagonists

Most of the antagonists of the series serve as only "temporary" antagonists who eventually start aiding the protagonists near the end of the series. However, all of them start off as those who oppose Robin through the majority of the series. It's only near the end due to some of them start to make a change for the better.

 Baron Alwyn (voiced by Masashi Ebara) – The Baron of Nottingham that taxes his workers and keeps them working for him. He is the one that orders the destruction of the Huntington's castle. He is based on the Sheriff of Nottingham in both character design and personality. Near the end of the series, due to Robin's constant thwarting and a near death experience by him, he starts to make a change for the better until coming across a plot that would allow him to take over the kingdom, thus, changing him back to his greedy, inconsiderate self. Once again, however, his plan of action is stopped by Robin as well as King Richard.
 Bishop Hartford (voiced by Yuu Shimaka) – A greedy bishop of Nottingham that is to adopt Marian Lancaster for the Lancaster's wealth. Like Alwyn, the Bishop eventually starts to make a change for the better towards the end of the series. Unlike Alwyn, he remains loyal to the protagonists in the end, and eventually helps out Robin by informing them Alwyn's plot to take over the kingdom.
 Gilbert (voiced by Toshihiko Seki) – A loyal and dangerous knight that serves under Baron Alwyn and does his bidding. He has a scar under his right eye, which is hidden by his long hair, from a very short fight with Robin in the first episode. During a fight with Robin he is blown off a cliff by the forces of nature along with Marian, but he uses his strength to help Robin save her, and ends up falling, believing to have died. It is discovered later that he survived the fall. He later becomes a knight for King Richard, and no longer serves under Baron Alwyn.
 Cleo (voiced by Chieko Honda) – Gilbert's sister, first introduced in episode 24 "The Girl in Black". She wears a black dress and has long dark hair. After Gilbert's supposed death early in the series, she is told by Alwyn that Robin was the cause. She plans to kill Robin and avenge the death of her older brother, despite he was not the cause of Gilbert's death. Later on, Cleo eventually finds out the truth and no longer tries to kill Robin, and the two form somewhat of a relationship (however, Robin's true feelings stay true to Marian).
 King John (voiced by Issei Futamata) – Upon discovering his heritage, Alwyn uses him to try to take over the kingdom. He himself follows the plan to become king and attempts to replace his brother, King Richard.
Guy of Gisbourne – A mercenary hired by Alwyn to kill Robin.  He is accompanied by two men known as The Viking and Hood.  He succeeds in capturing the outlaws, Robin Hood and his friends, but is thwarted when Much, who manages to avoid capture, realizes they made a grave mistake. Gisbourne and his goons plans are thwarted when they unknowledgeably ate a bunch of Laughing Cap Toadstools picked by Marian, Winifred and Jenny.

Music
The series uses two pieces of theme music for the Japanese version; one opening song and one ending song. The Japanese opening song is called "Wood Walker", and the Japanese ending song is called "Hoshizora no Labirinsu (星空のラビリンス lit.Labyrinth of the Starry Sky)", both sing by the Japanese vocalist Satoko Shimonari.

There are two English opening songs. One is called "Robin of the Forest", while another is an instrumental of "Wood Walker" used for the Interfilm video dub. The Italian dub, called simply Robin Hood, features an opening theme with words by Alessandra Valeri Manera and music by Carmelo "Ninni" Carucci, sung by the popular singer Cristina D'Avena; the French dub, called Les Adventures de Robin des Bois, uses the same tune sung by Alexis Tomassian. All the opening animations are kept the same, however, the ending animation differs depending on the international versions, for example, the Japanese ending is completely original whereas the German dub shows scenes from the series to a shortened instrumental theme of their composed opening.

Episodes
 "Birth of the Hero"
 "Mystery Forest"
 "A Duel"
 "House Building"
 "The Mercenary"
 "Gentlemen Bandits"
 "The Loyal King"
 "Towards Nottingham"
 "Friend or Foe"
 "Impossible"
 "An Uncertain Future"
 "Disguise"
 "Up in Smoke"
 "A New Day"
 "An Unexpected Return"
 "Fog and Wind"
 "The Ultimate Farewell"
 "Tuck's Battle"
 "Witchcraft"
 "Revenge"
 "King of the Forest"
 "Fire"
 "Thunderstorm in Nottingham"
 "The Girl in Black"
 "Love and Hate"
 "Peace After the Storm"
 "A Foundling"
 "The Flying Ship"
 "A Prediction"
 "Barons Greed"
 "The Bandits Revenge"
 "Jenny's Tale"
 "Return"
 "The Fog of Revenge"
 "The Good Old Days"
 "Gamekeeper"
 "Fire in the Forest"
 "The Treasury"
 "Reconciliation"
 "An Evil Being"
 "Traitor"
 "The Lake of Truth"
 "The Decisive Battle"
 "The Bad Luck Man"
 "A Charming Villain"
 "Unbeatable"
 "Honest Eyes"
 "Tragedy"
 "Prince of the Woods"
 "The Decision"
 "The Crowning"
 "Immortal"

References

External links
 Official anime website of Tatsunoko Production

1990 anime television series debuts
1990 Japanese television series debuts
1992 Japanese television series endings
Italian children's animated adventure television series
Italian children's animated fantasy television series
Japanese children's animated adventure television series
Japanese children's animated fantasy television series
Adventure anime and manga
Drama anime and manga
Historical anime and manga
NHK original programming
Robin Hood television series
Television series set in the Middle Ages
Television shows set in England
Anime and manga based on fairy tales

Robin Hood (1990 TV series)


Harawi is an ancient traditional genre of Andean music and also indigenous lyric poetry. Harawi was widespread in the Inca Empire and now is especially common in countries that were part of it, mainly: Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia. Typically, harawi is a moody, soulful slow and melodic song or tune played on the quena (flute). The words of harawi speak of love (often unrequited), plight of ordinary peasant, privations of orphans, etc. Melodies are mainly in minor pentatonic scale.

History
The first recorded harawi lyrics related to the Inca era. Some of the extant songs may also have the same age. Later, harawi became the basis for the mestizo genre yaravi.

"Harawi language"
In Andean villages, there is still a tradition: a man, in love with a woman, expresses his feelings for her by playing one of many well-known "harawis" on the flute, not far from her house. She recognizes the melody and remembers words of this song to understand the feelings men experience.

References

Inca
Andean music
Bolivian music
Peruvian folk music
Peruvian literature
Bolivian literature

Harawi (genre)


The year 1768 in architecture involved some significant events.

Events

 Work begins on Monticello near Charlottesville, Virginia, designed by Thomas Jefferson.
 Duchal House, Scotland, extended.
 In Bath, England, St James' Church is designed by John Palmer of Bath (between 1768-1769).
 Potseluev Bridge, St Petersburg, Russia, reconstructed to accommodate horse traffic.
 Architects Domenico Merlini and Szymon Bogumił Zug are ennobled in Poland.

Buildings and structures

Buildings completed

Nathaniel Hill Brick House, Montgomery, New York.
The Paragon, Bath, England, designed by Thomas Warr Attwood.
Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, originally designed by Ange-Jacques Gabriel by the order of King Louis XV for his long-term mistress, Madame de Pompadour, but used by Queen Marie Antoinette.
Blue Mosque, Yerevan.
Façade of Theatine Church, Munich, designed by François de Cuvilliés, is completed by his son.
Reconstruction of Puerta del Sol in Madrid and construction of Real Casa de Correos (post office) there, both begun by Ventura Rodríguez, are completed by Jaime Marquet.

Births
April 12 – John Sanders, architect, first pupil of Sir John Soane (died 1826)
May 11 – David Hamilton, Glasgow architect (died 1843)

Deaths
February 8 – George Dance the Elder, City of London surveyor and architect (born 1695)
March 11 – Giovanni Battista Vaccarini, Sicilian Baroque architect (born 1702)
April 14 – François de Cuvilliés, Walloon-born Bavarian architect (born 1695)

References

Architecture
Years in architecture
18th-century architecture

1768 in architecture


Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world. It was a colony of Portugal from 1500 until 1815.

Brazil was the second country in the world, after Great Britain, to issue postage stamps valid within the entire country (as opposed to a local issue). Like Great Britain's first stamps, the design does not include the country name.

First stamps

The first stamps of Brazil were issued on 1 August 1843 and are known as "Bull's Eyes" due to their distinctive appearance. On 1 July 1844 a new series was issued which is known as the slanted numeral series. Subsequent stamps were in a similar format until the first pictorial stamps were issued in 1866 depicting Emperor Dom Pedro II

Pedro II issues

In 1866 the emperor was represented on all issues until 1884, first with a black beard.

Recent issues
For many years stamps from Brazil had Brasil Correio displayed on them. However today the trend is to just have the country name and year, e.g. Brasil 2000.

Telegraph stamps

See also
List of people on stamps of Brazil

References

Further reading
 Barata, Paulo Rui. Brazil revenues: Federal, state, and municipal. PUBLIFIL, 1985.
 Brookman, Lester G. The 100th anniversary of the "Bulls Eyes" stamps of Brazil. State College, PA: American Philatelic Society, 1943.
 Ferreira, Henrique Bunselmeyer. Catalogo Ilustrado Dos Carimbos Sobre os Olhos-de-boi. 2011.
 Mayer, Peter. Encyclopaedic catalogue of the stamps and postal history of Brazil: from the origins to 1890. 1999.
 Studart, Marcelo Gladio da Costa. Catálogo Histórico dos Selos do Império do Brasil (1843-1889). 1991.
 Studart, Marcelo Gladio da Costa. Falsificações e Fraudações na Filatelia Brasileira. 1991. Awarded the Alvaro Bonilla Lara Medal in 1995 by the FIAF.
 Taveira, Walter Gonçalves. Brasil 1844–1846: "Inclinados": selos do império do Brasol (segunda estampa). Editora O Lutador. Belo Horizonte, MG. Brasil: Fundação Belgo-Mineira, 2001.

External links

 CDD Catalog of Brazil Stamps
Stamp News - Brazil.

Philately of Brazil

Postage stamps and postal history of Brazil


USS Gazelle (IX-116), an unclassified miscellaneous vessel, was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for the gazelle, any of numerous small, graceful, and swift antelopes, with lustrous eyes, found especially in South Africa, northern Africa, Iran, and India.  She was built as an auxiliary oiler, launched on 9 November 1943 by the California Shipbuilding Corporation, at Wilmington, Los Angeles, as SS Cyrus K. Holliday sponsored by Mrs. J. E. Stewart, and acquired by the Navy and simultaneously commissioned on 29 November 1943.

Gazelle sailed from Wilmington on 9 January 1944 for Pearl Harbor, where she was assigned to Rear Admiral Turner's Southern Attack Force for the imminent assault on Kwajalein. Underway with the task force 28 January, she entered Kwajalein Lagoon on 2 February 1944 and began fueling operations in the midst of the furious fighting. For two weeks she fueled combatant ships, including battleships
New Mexico (BB-40),
Mississippi (BB-23),
Idaho (BB-42),
many cruisers, escort carriers, and smaller warships.

Her mission accomplished, Gazelle stood out 15 February for further combat duties. She steamed into Eniwetok Lagoon on 18 February to support the amphibious invasion of that strategic island. Here in the front line of fighting she fueled several destroyer divisions before sailing 26 February for Kwajalein, where she issued fuel to American warships until getting underway 1 April for Pearl Harbor, arriving 12 April.

One week later she sailed for Majuro, arriving 27 April, and subsequently continued fueling operations and shuttle runs through submarine-infested waters to Majuro, Roi, Kwajalein, and Eniwetok through the summer of 1944, until reaching Ulithi on 15 October. Gazelle escaped damage when Japanese midget submarines penetrated the harbor net and patrol defenses at Ulithi on 20 November and sank oiler Mississinewa, moored  away. Underway once more on 10 January 1945, the ship reached Palau two days later and served there until arriving Leyte on 28 February. While at Leyte she fueled some 100 Allied ships during the next six months.

Gazelle sailed 13 September for Korea, arriving Jinsen on 28 September, and joined the Korean Service Group, Seventh Fleet. She remained in Korea through October 1945.

Sometime during this period, the Gazelle encountered a typhoon, keeling so far over she almost sank, according to Jere Hamill, one of the ship's officers (in an oral interview with Bruce Edlen, April, 2010).

Gazelle reached Norfolk, Virginia, on 28 February 1946 and decommissioned there on 9 May 1946. Returned to the War Shipping Administration the next day, she was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 21 May 1946. In 1948 she was sold to Intercontinental S.S. Corporation and renamed Evistar.

Gazelle earned one battle star for World War II service.

References

Liberty ships
Ships built in Los Angeles
Armadillo-class tankers
1943 ships

USS Gazelle (IX-116)


The architectural form of theatre in Rome has been linked to later, more well-known examples from the 1st century BC to the 3rd Century AD. The theatre of ancient Rome referred to as a period of time in which theatrical practice and performance took place in Rome has been linked back even further to the 4th century BC, following the state's transition from monarchy to republic. Theatre during this era is generally separated into genres of tragedy and comedy, which are represented by a particular style of architecture and stage play, and conveyed to an audience purely as a form of entertainment and control. When it came to the audience, Romans favored entertainment and performance over tragedy and drama, displaying a more modern form of theatre that is still used in contemporary times.

'Spectacle' became an essential part of an everyday Romans expectations when it came to theatre. Some works by Plautus, Terence, and Seneca the Younger that survive to this day, highlight the different aspects of Roman society and culture at the time, including advancements in Roman literature and theatre. Theatre during this period of time would come to represent an important aspect of Roman society during the republican and imperial periods of Rome.

Origins of Roman theatre
Rome was founded as a monarchy under Etruscan rule, and remained as such throughout the first two and a half centuries of its existence. Following the expulsion of Rome's last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, or "Tarquin the Proud," circa 509 BC, Rome became a republic and was henceforth led by a group of magistrates elected by the Roman people. It is believed that Roman theatre was born during the first two centuries of the Roman Republic, following the spread of Roman rule into a large area of the Italian Peninsula, circa 364 BC.

Following the devastation of widespread plague in 364 BC, Roman citizens began including theatrical games as a supplement to the Lectisternium ceremonies already being performed, in a stronger effort to pacify the gods. In the years following the establishment of these practices, actors began adapting these dances and games into performances by acting out texts set to music and simultaneous movement.

As the era of the Roman Republic progressed, citizens began including professionally performed drama in the eclectic offerings of the ludi (celebrations of public holidays) held throughout each year—the largest of these festivals being the Ludi Romani, held each September in honor of the Roman god Jupiter. It was as a part of the Ludi Romani in 240 BC that author and playwright Livius Andronicus became the first to produce translations of Greek plays to be performed on the Roman stage.

Prior to 240 BC, Roman contact with northern and southern Italian cultures began to influence Roman concepts of entertainment. The early Roman stage was dominated by: Phylakes (a form of tragic parody that arose in Italy during the Roman Republic from 500 to 250 BC), Atellan farces (or a type of comedy that depicted the supposed backwards thinking of the southeastern Oscan town of Atella; a form of ethnic humor that arose around 300 BC), and Fescennine verses (originating in southern Etruria). Furthermore, Phylakes scholars have discovered vases depicting productions of Old Comedy (e.g. by Aristophanes, a Greek playwright), leading many to ascertain that such Comedic plays were presented at one point to an Italian, if not "Latin-Speaking" audience as early as the 4th century. This is supported by the fact that Latin was an essential component to Roman Theatre. From 240 BC to 100 BC, Roman theatre had been introduced to a period of literary drama, within which classical and post-classical Greek plays had been adapted to Roman theatre. From 100 BC till 476 AD, Roman entertainment began to be captured by circus-like performances, spectacles, and miming while remaining allured by theatrical performances.

The early drama that emerged was very similar to the drama in Greece. Rome had engaged in a number of wars, some of which had taken place in areas of Italy, in which Greek culture had been a great influence. Examples of this include the First Punic War (264-241 BC) in Sicily. Through this came relations between Greece and Rome, starting with the emergence of a Hellenistic world, one in which Hellenistic culture was more widely spread and through political developments via Roman conquests of Mediterranean colonies. Acculturation had become specific to Greco-Roman relations, with Rome mainly adopting aspects of Greek culture, their achievements, and developing those aspects into Roman literature, art, and science. Rome had become one of the first developing European cultures to shape their own culture after another. With the end of the Third Macedonian War (168 BC), Rome had gained greater access to a wealth of Greek art and literature, and an influx of Greek migrants, particularly Stoic philosophers such as Crates of Mallus (168 BC) and even Athenian philosophers (155 BC).This allowed the Romans to develop an interest in a new form of expression, philosophy. The development that occurred was first initiated by playwrights that were Greeks or half-Greeks living in Rome. While Greek literary tradition in drama influenced the Romans, the Romans chose to not fully adopt these traditions, and instead the dominant local language of Latin was used. These Roman plays that were beginning to be performed were heavily influenced by the Etruscan traditions, particularly regarding the importance of music and performance.

Genres of ancient Roman theatre

The first important works of Roman literature were the tragedies and comedies written by Livius Andronicus beginning in 240 BC. Five years later, Gnaeus Naevius, a younger contemporary of Andronicus, also began to write drama, composing in both genres as well. No plays from either writer have survived. By the beginning of the 2nd century BC, drama had become firmly established in Rome and a guild of writers (collegium poetarum) had been formed.

Roman tragedy

No early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three early tragedians—Ennius, Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. One important aspect of tragedy that differed from other genres was the implementation of choruses that were included in the action on the stage during the performances of many tragedies.

From the time of the empire, however, the work of two tragedians survives—one is an unknown author, while the other is the Stoic philosopher Seneca. Nine of Seneca's tragedies survive, all of which are fabulae crepidatae; a fabula crepidata or fabula cothurnata is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects.

Seneca appears as a character in the tragedy Octavia, the only extant example of fabula praetexta (tragedies based on Roman subjects, first created by Naevius), and as a result, the play was mistakenly attributed as having been authored by Seneca himself. However, though historians have since confirmed that the play was not one of Seneca's works, the true author remains unknown.

Senecan tragedy put forth a declamatory style, or a style of tragedy that emphasized rhetoric structures. It was a style characterized through paradox, discontinuity, antithesis, and the adoption of declamatory structures and techniques that involved aspects of compression, elaboration, epigram, and of course, hyperbole, as most of his plays seemed to emphasize such exaggerations in order to make points more persuasive. Seneca wrote tragedies that reflected the soul, through which rhetoric would be used within that process of creating a tragic character and reveal something about the state of one's mind. One of the most notable ways that Seneca developed a tragedy, was through the use of an aside, or a common theatre device found within Hellenistic drama, which at the time was foreign to the world of Attic tragedy. Seneca explored the interior of the psychology of the mind through 'self-representational soliloquies or monologues,' which focused on one's inner thoughts, the central causes of their emotional conflicts, their self-deception, as well as other varieties of psychological turmoil that served to dramatize emotion in a way that became central to Roman tragedy, distinguishing itself from the prior used forms of Greek tragedy. Those that witnessed Seneca's use of Rhetoric; pupils, readers, and audience, were noted to have been taught Seneca's use of verbal strategy, psychic mobility, and public role-play, which for many, substantially altered the mental states of many individual's.

 Roman comedy

All Roman comedies that have survived can be categorized as fabula palliata (comedies based on Greek subjects) and were written by two dramatists: Titus Maccius Plautus (Plautus) and Publius Terentius Afer (Terence). No fabula togata (Roman comedy in a Roman setting) has survived.

In adapting Greek plays to be performed for Roman audiences, the Roman comic dramatists made several changes to the structure of the productions. Most notable is the removal of the previously prominent role of the chorus as a means of separating the action into distinct episodes. Additionally, musical accompaniment was added as a simultaneous supplement to the plays' dialogue. The action of all scenes typically took place in the streets outside the dwelling of the main characters, and plot complications were often a result of eavesdropping by a minor character.

Plautus wrote between 205 and 184 B.C. and twenty of his comedies survive to present day, of which his farces are best known. He was admired for the wit of his dialogue and for his varied use of poetic meters. As a result of the growing popularity of Plautus' plays, as well as this new form of written comedy, scenic plays became a more prominent component in Roman festivals of the time, claiming their place in events that had previously only featured races, athletic competitions, and gladiatorial battles.

All six of the comedies that Terence composed between 166 and 160 BC have survived. The complexity of his plots, in which he routinely combined several Greek originals into one production, brought about heavy criticism, including claims that in doing so, he was ruining the original Greek plays, as well as rumors that he had received assistance from high ranking men in composing his material. In fact, these rumors prompted Terence to use the prologues in several of his plays as an opportunity to plead with audiences, asking that they lend an objective eye and ear to his material, and not be swayed by what they may have heard about his practices. This was a stark difference from the written prologues of other known playwrights of the period, who routinely utilized their prologues as a way of prefacing the plot of the play being performed.

 Stock characters in Roman comedy

The following are examples of stock characters in Roman comedy:
 The adulescens is an unmarried man, usually in late teens or twenties; his action typically surrounds the pursuit of the love of a prostitute or slave girl, who is later revealed to be a free-born woman, and therefore eligible for marriage. The adulescens character is typically accompanied by a clever slave character, the pseudolus servus who attempts to solve the adulescens' problems or shield him from conflict.
 The senex is primarily concerned with his relationship with his son, the adulescens. Although he often opposes his son's choice of love interest, he sometimes helps him to achieve his desires. He is sometimes in love with the same woman as his son, a woman who is much too young for the senex. He never gets the girl and is often dragged off by his irate wife.
 The leno is the character of the pimp or 'slave dealer.' Although the activities of the character are portrayed as highly immoral and vile, the leno always acts legally and is always paid in full for his services.
 The miles gloriosus is an arrogant, braggart soldier character, deriving from Greek Old Comedy. The character's title is taken from a play of the same name written by Plautus. The miles gloriosus character is typically gullible, cowardly, and boastful.
 The parasitus (parasite) is often portrayed as a selfish liar. He is typically associated with the miles gloriosus character, and hangs upon his every word. The parasitus is primarily concerned with his own appetite, or from where he will obtain his next free meal.
 The matrona is the character of the wife and mother, and is usually displayed as an annoyance to her husband, constantly getting in the way of his freedom to pursue other women. After catching her husband with another woman, she typically ends the affair and forgives him. She loves her children, but is often temperamental towards her husband.
 The virgo (young maiden) is an unmarried young woman, and is the love interest of the adulescens, She is often spoken of, but remains offstage. A typical plot point in the last act of the play reveals her to be of freeborn descent, and therefore eligible for marriage.

 Roman theatre in performance

Stage and physical space

Beginning with the first presentation of theatre in Rome in 240 B.C., plays were often presented during public festivals. Since these plays were less popular than the several other types of events (gladiatorial matches, circus events, etc.) held within the same space, theatrical events were performed using temporary wooden structures, which had to be displaced and dismantled for days at a time, whenever other spectacle events were scheduled to take place. The slow process of creating a permanent performance space was due to the staunch objection of high-ranking officials: it was the opinion of the members of the senate that citizens were spending too much time at theatrical events, and that condoning this behavior would lead to corruption of the Roman public. As a result, no permanent stone structure was constructed for the purpose of theatrical performance until 55 B.C.E.Sometimes theatre building projects could last generations before being completed, and would take a combination of private benefactors, public subscription, and proceeds from the summae honorariae or payments for office positions made by magistrates. To demonstrate their benefactions, statues or inscriptions (sometimes in sums of money) were erected or inscribed for all to see in front of the tribunalia, in the proscaenium or scaenae frons, parts of the building meant to be in the public eye. Building theatres required both a massive undertaking and a significant amount of time, often lasting generations.

Roman theatres, particularly ones constructed in western-Roman, were mainly modeled on Greek ones. They were often arranged in a semicircle around an orchestra, but both the stage and scene building were joined together with the auditorium and were elevated to the same height, creating an enclosure very similar in structure and appearance to that of a modern theatre. This was furthered by odea or smaller theatres having roofs or larger theatres having vela, allowing for the audience to have some shade.

During the time of these temporary structures, theatrical performances featured a very minimalist atmosphere. This included space for spectators to stand or sit to watch the play, known as a cavea, and a stage, or scaena. The setting for each play was depicted using an elaborate backdrop (scaenae frons), and the actors performed on the stage, in the playing space in front of the scaenae frons, called the proscaenium. These structures were erected in several different places, including temples, arenas, and at times, plays were held in Rome's central square (the forum).

Societal divisions within the theatre were made apparent in how the auditorium was divided, typically by broad corridors or praecinctiones, into one of three zones, the ima, media, and summa cavea. These zones served to section off certain groups within the population. Of these three divisions, the summa cavea or 'the gallery' was where men (without togas or pullati (poor)), women, and sometimes slaves (by admission) were seated. The seating arrangements of the theatre highlight the gender disparities in Roman society, as women were seated among the slaves. Sur notes that it wasn't until Augustus that segregation in the theatre was enforced, to which women had to either sit at or near the back.

Theatres were paid for by certain benefactors and were seen as targets for benefaction, mainly out of the need to maintain civil order and as a consequence of the citizens desire for theatrical performance. Theatres were constructed almost always through the interests of those who held the highest ranks and positions in the Roman Republic. In order to maintain segregation of power, those of high rank were often seated near the front or in the public eye (tribunalia). Individuals who made benefactions to the construction of theatres would often do so for propaganda reasons. Whether it be at the hand of an imperial benefactor or a wealthy individual, the high cost of building a theatre usually required more than a single individual's donations.

In 55 B.C., the first permanent theatre was constructed. Built by Pompey the Great, the main purpose of this structure was actually not for the performance of drama, but rather, to allow current and future rulers a venue with which they could assemble the public and demonstrate their pomp and authority over the masses. With seating for 20,000 audience members, the grandiose structure held a 300-foot-wide stage, and boasted a three-story scaenae frons flanked with elaborate statues. The Theatre of Pompey remained in use through the early 6th century, but was dismantled for its stone in the Middle Ages. Virtually nothing of the vast structure is visible above ground today.

Actors

The first actors that appeared in Roman performances were originally from Etruria. This tradition of foreign actors would continue in Roman dramatic performances. Beginning with early performances, actors were denied the same political and civic rights that were afforded to ordinary Roman citizens because of the low social status of actors. In addition, actors were exempt from military service, which further inhibited their rights in Roman society because it was impossible for an individual to hold a political career without having some form of military experience. While actors did not possess many rights, slaves did have the opportunity to win their freedom if they were able to prove themselves as successful actors.

The open-air declaiming, gesturing, singing, and dancing of Roman stage acting required stamina and agility.

The spread of dramatic performance throughout Rome occurred with the growth of acting companies that are believed to have eventually begun to travel throughout all of Italy. These acting troupes were usually composed of four to six trained actors. Usually, two to three of the actors in the troupe would have speaking roles in a performance, while the other actors in the troupe would be present on stage as attendants to the speaking actors. For the most part, actors specialized in one genre of drama and did not alternate between other genres of drama.

The most famous actor to develop a career in the late Roman Republic was Quintus Roscius Gallus (125BC-62BC). He was primarily known for his performances in the genre of comedy and became renowned for his performances among the elite circles of Roman society. Through these connections he became intimate with Lucius Licinius Crassus, the great orator and member of the Senate, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. In addition to the acting career Gallus would build, he also would take his acting abilities and use them to teach amateur actors the craft of becoming successful in the art. He would further distinguished himself through his financial success as an actor and a teacher of acting in a field that was not highly respected. Ultimately, he chose to conclude his career as an actor without being paid for his performances because he wanted to offer his performances as a service to the Roman people.

Until recently, it was commonly believed, that although the possibility exists that women may have performed non-speaking roles in Roman theatrical performances, historical evidence dictated that male actors portrayed all speaking roles. Later research has shown that, although likely rare, there were women who performed speaking roles. Bassilla and Fabia Arete were, for example, two actresses known for their role of Charition in a popular folk comedy. There were certainly successful women stage performers within dance and singing in theatrical performances, many of whom apparently enjoyed widespread fame, and even a guild exclusively for female stage performers, the Sociae Mimae.

The public opinion of actors was very low, placing them within the same social status as criminals and prostitutes, and acting as a profession was considered illegitimate and repulsive. Many Roman actors were slaves, and it was not unusual for a performer to be beaten by his master as punishment for an unsatisfactory performance. These actions and opinions differ greatly from those demonstrated during the time of ancient Greek theatre, a time when actors were regarded as respected professionals, and were granted citizenship in Athens.

Notable Roman playwrights
 Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave taken to Rome in 240 BC; wrote plays based on Greek subjects and existing plays. Rome's first playwright
 Plautus, 3rd century BC comedic playwright and author of Miles Gloriosus, Pseudolus, and Menaechmi Terence, wrote between 170 and 160 BC
 Titinius, writing in the second century BC
 Gaius Maecenas Melissus, 1st century playwright of a "comedy of manners"
 Seneca, 1st century dramatist most famous for Roman adaptations of ancient Greek plays (e.g. Medea and Phaedra) Ennius, contemporary of Plautus who wrote both comedy and tragedy
 Lucius Accius, tragic poet and literary scholar
 Pacuvius, Ennius's nephew and tragic playwright

See also

 History of theatre
 Theatre of ancient Greece
 Roman theatre (structure)
 Atellan farce
 Roman funerals and burial
 Ludi''
 Floralia
 Latin literature
Theatre Area of Pompeii
Sociae Mimae

References

External links
 The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman theatre architecture - Dr. Thomas G. Hines, Department of Theatre, Whitman College
 Cliff, U.The Roman Theatre, Clio History Journal, 2009.
 Roman Theater, Roman Colosseum, 2008.
 Classical Drama and Theatre, Mark Damen, Utah State University
 What the Roman Play Was Like, A Short History of the Drama, Martha Fletcher Bellinger
 Rhyme, Women, and Song: Getting in Tune with Plautus, Anne H. Groton, Olaf College

Ancient Roman leisure
History of theatre

Theatre of ancient Rome


Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four families: the albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters, storm petrels, and diving petrels. They have a cosmopolitan distribution across the world's oceans, with the highest diversity being around New Zealand.
Only a single egg is laid per nesting attempt, and usually only a single nesting attempt is made per year, although the larger albatrosses may only nest once every two years. Both parents participate in incubation and chick rearing. Incubation times are long compared to other birds, as are fledgling periods. Once a chick has fledged there is no further parental care.

Procellariiformes


Lee Hyo-ri  (b. May 10, 1979) is a South Korean singer and actress. She debuted as a leader of the girl group, 'FIN.KL' on May, 1998. The group was rival with another group named 'S.E.S'.

Lee Hyori became a sole singer in 2003. With her debut, her fashion and activity attracted public attention. She was so popular that 'Lee Hyori syndrome' was the highest keyword in Korea.

Lee Hyori acted the leading part in drama, named 'three-leaf clover'. Despite popularity of Lee Hyori, the acting ability was criticized.

'U-Go-Girl', her 3rd album's title music, gained public interest. And another music named 'Hey Mr.BiG' also became popular. These made Lee Hyori to the highest position. Now she is member of program which SBS broadcasts. She is a huge asset to the program called "Here come the 'family'", in which she was praised to have shown her cool, honest personality.

Other websites

 Hyolee World
 Lee Hyori discography at MusicTea
 Lee Hyori at the Korean Movie Database

1979 births
Living people
South Korean singers
South Korean actors

Lee Hyori


Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner (14 October 1840 – 22 March 1899), also known as Gottlieb William Leitner, was a British orientalist.

Early life and education
Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner was born in Pest, Hungary, on 14 October 1840 to a Jewish family. His mother was Marie Henriette Herzberg. His father, Leopold Saphir, died when Gottlieb was young and his mother then married Johann Moritz Leitner. Gottlieb and his sister Elisabeth (the mother of British politician Leopold Amery) were thereafter known as Leitner.

As a child Leitner showed an extraordinary ability in languages. At the age of eight he went to Constantinople to learn Arabic and Turkish, and by the age of ten he was fluent in Turkish, Arabic and most European languages. At fifteen, he was appointed Interpreter (First Class) to the British Commissariat in the Crimea, with the rank of colonel. When the Crimean War ended, he wanted to become a priest and went to study at King's College London.

It is also reported that during his tour of Muslim countries he adopted a Muslim name of Abdur Rasheed Sayyah. Sayyah in Arabic means a traveller.

As a linguist, he is said to have had acquaintance with some fifty languages, many of which he spoke fluently. At nineteen, he became lecturer in Arabic, Turkish and Modern Greek, and at twenty-three was appointed Professor in Arabic and Muslim Law at King's College London.

Three years later, sometime in 1864, he became Principal of Government College University (Lahore) (then British India, present day Pakistan). He was instrumental in the foundation of the University of the Punjab in 1882. He took over as first Registrar of University of the Punjab. He founded many schools, literary associations, public libraries and academic journals, while at the same time dedicating himself to the study of the cultures of the Indian subcontinent. During this period he wrote a scholarly and comprehensive book in Urdu, History of Islam, in two volumes, with the help of an Urdu Muslim scholar, Maulvi Karim-ud-Din, who was at that time District Inspector of Schools in Amritsar, Punjab. These two volumes were later published in 1871 and 1876. Following the passage of the Royal Titles Act 1876 which declared Queen Victoria Empress of India, Prof. Leitner coined the title Kaysar-i-Hind as the new Empress' official title.

He retired from the Indian Civil Service in 1886.

Return to Europe
He returned to Europe in the late 1870s to pursue studies at Heidelberg University (Germany), and he also undertook work for the Austrian, Prussian, and British Governments. His ambition now was to found a centre for the study in Europe of Oriental languages, culture and history. On his return to England in 1881, he sought a suitable site for his proposed institution, and in 1883 came upon the vacant Royal Dramatic College in Woking, a building admirably suited for the purpose.

For the benefit of Muslim students, Leitner commissioned the construction of a mosque. The Shah Jahan Mosque was built in 1889 as one of the first mosques in Western Europe and the first purpose-built one in Britain, and survives to this day. It was built in Indo-Saracenic style, named after Sultan Shah Jahan, Begum of Bhopal (1868–1901).

Shah Jahan Begum made sizable donations towards the building of the mosque and also contributed generously towards the founding of the "Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College" at Aligarh, which developed into the Aligarh Muslim University.

Inscription on the tomb of Dr G.W. Leitner

Dr. Leitner is buried at Brookwood Cemetery, near Woking.

Major works
 On the Sciences of language and of ethnography, with general reference to the language and customs of the people of Hanza: A report of an extempore address. (nach 1856).
 Introduction to a philosophical Grammar of Arabic: Being an attempt to discover a few simple principles in Arabic Grammar. Reprinted and slightly enlarged from the "Panjab Educational Magazine", Lahore 1871
 The Sinin-i-Islam; The races of Turkey; History of Dardistan, songs, legends etc.; Graeco-budhistic discoveries; History of indigenous education in the Panjab since annexation.
 A lecture on the races of Turkey, both of Europe and of Asia, and the state of their education: being, principally, a contribution to Muhammadan education. Lahore 1871.
A detailed analysis of Abdul Ghafur's dictionary of the terms used by criminal tribes in the Panjab. Lahore 1880.
 History of indigenous education in the Punjab since annexation and in 1882. Calcutta 1882. Reprint Delhi: Amar Prakashan, 1982.
 The Kunza and Nagyr handbook being an introduction to a Knowledge of the language. Calcutta 1889.
 Dardistan in 1866, 1886 and 1893: being an account of the history, religions, customs, legends, fables, and songs of Gilgit, Chilas, Kandia (Gabrial), Yasin, Chitral, Hunza, Aagyr, and other parts of the Hindukush, Reprint der Ausgabe Woking, Oriental Univ. Inst., 1893, New Delhi: Bhavana Books & Prints, 2001
Dardistan in 1866, 1886 and 1893 : being an account of the history, religions, customs, legends, fables and songs of Gilgit Chilas, Kandia (Gabrial) Yasin, Chitral, Hunza, Nagyr and other parts of the Hindukush; as also a suppl. to the 2. ed. of The Hunza and Nagyr handbook and an epitome of p. 3 of the author's "The languages and races of Dardistan".  Reprint of the edition 1889, Karachi: Indus Publ., 1985.

References

 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
 http://www.wokingmuslim.org/pers/dr_leitner.htm
 Muhammad Ikram Chaghatai: Writings of Dr. Leitner: Islam, education, Dardistan, politics and culture of Northern areas. Comp. by Muhammad Ikram Chaghatai. Lahore: Government College Research and Publ. Society; Sang-e-Meel Publ., 2002.
 J. FL Stocqueler, Life and Labors of Dr Leitner (1875)
 "Portraits of Celebrities at Different Times of their Lives", The Strand Magazine, Volume VII, January–June 1894
 William Rubinstein, The secret of Leopold Amery, Historical Research, vol. 73, no. 181 (June 2000), 175–196.

External links
 Jewish Encyclopedia
 http://www.wokingmuslim.org/pers/dr_leitner.htm

19th-century Hungarian people
19th-century British people
Hungarian orientalists
British orientalists
Jewish orientalists
Hungarian Jews
British Jews
Academics of King's College London
Alumni of King's College London
Hungarian emigrants to England
Writers from Budapest
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
1840 births
1899 deaths
British people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
People from Lahore

Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner


Joseph Hopper Nicholson (May 15, 1770 – March 4, 1817) was an American lawyer, jurist, and politician from Maryland.

Born in Chestertown, Kent County, Maryland, Nicholson graduated from Washington College in 1787 and studied law.  He was admitted to the bar and practiced, and also served as a member of the Maryland House of Delegates from 1796 to 1798.  He was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the Sixth and to the three succeeding Congresses and served from March 4, 1799 until his resignation on March 1, 1806.  In Congress, Nicholson was one of the impeachment managers appointed by the House of Representatives in January 1804 to conduct the impeachment proceedings against John Pickering, judge of the United States District Court for New Hampshire, and in December of the same year against Samuel Chase, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Nicholson was significantly ill in February 1801 when the House decided the Election of 1800, yet was carried on a stretcher to the Capitol to vote for Jefferson.

During the War of 1812, Nicholson participated in the defense of Fort McHenry.  He served as chief justice of the sixth judicial district of Maryland and associate justice of the Maryland Court of Appeals from March 26, 1806 until his death at his home in Baltimore County, Maryland.  He is interred in the family cemetery on the Lloyd estate of "Wye House" near Easton, Talbot County, Maryland.

References

External links

1770 births
1817 deaths
Judges of the Maryland Court of Appeals
Members of the Maryland House of Delegates
People from Chestertown, Maryland
American people of the War of 1812
18th-century American Episcopalians
19th-century American Episcopalians
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Maryland
People from Baltimore County, Maryland

Joseph Hopper Nicholson