Song structure is the arrangement of a song, and is a part of the songwriting process. It is typically sectional, which uses repeating forms in songs. Common forms include bar form, 32-bar form, verse–chorus form, ternary form, strophic form, and the 12-bar blues. Popular music songs traditionally use the same music for each verse or stanza of lyrics (as opposed to songs that are "through-composed"—an approach used in classical music art songs). Pop and traditional forms can be used even with songs that have structural differences in melodies. The most common format in modern popular music is introduction (intro), verse, pre-chorus, chorus, verse, pre-chorus, chorus, bridge, and chorus. In rock music styles, notably heavy metal music, there is usually one or more guitar solos in the song, often found after the middle chorus part. In pop music, there may be a guitar solo, or a solo performed with another instrument such as a synthesizer or a saxophone.

The foundation of popular music is the "verse" and "chorus" structure. Some writers use a simple "verse, hook, verse, hook, bridge, hook" method. Pop and rock songs nearly always have both a verse and a chorus. The primary difference between the two is that when the music of the verse returns, it is almost always given a new set of lyrics, whereas the chorus usually retains the same set of lyrics every time its music appears." Both are essential elements, with the verse usually played first (exceptions include "She Loves You" by The Beatles, an early example in the rock music genre). Each verse usually employs the same melody (possibly with some slight modifications), while the lyrics usually change for each verse. The chorus (or "refrain") usually consists of a melodic and lyrical phrase that repeats. Pop songs may have an introduction and coda ("tag"), but these elements are not essential to the identity of most songs. Pop songs often connect the verse and chorus via a pre-chorus, with a bridge section usually appearing after the second chorus.

The verse and chorus are usually repeated throughout a song, while the intro, bridge, and coda (also called an "outro") are usually only used once. Some pop songs may have a solo section, particularly in rock or blues-influenced pop. During the solo section, one or more instruments play a melodic line which may be the melody used by the singer, or, in blues or jazz improvised.

Verse–chorus form

Verse–chorus form consists of two main sections – a verse and chorus – that often contrast melodically, rhythmically, harmonically and dynamically. Songs in verse–chorus form may also include introductory, transitional and concluding sections.

Introduction

The introduction is a unique section that comes at the beginning of the piece. Generally speaking, an introduction contains just music and no words. It usually builds up suspense for the listener so when the downbeat drops in, it creates a pleasing sense of release. The intro also creates the atmosphere of the song. As such, the rhythm section typically plays in the "feel" of the song that follows. For example, for a blues shuffle, a band starts playing a shuffle rhythm. In some songs, the intro is one or more bars of the tonic chord (the "home" key of the song). With songs, another role of the intro is to give the singer the key of the song. For this reason, even if an intro includes chords other than the tonic, it generally ends with a cadence, either on the tonic or dominant chord.

The introduction may also be based around the chords used in the verse, chorus, or bridge, or a stock "turnaround" progression may be played, such as the I–vi–ii–V progression (particularly in jazz influenced pop songs). More rarely, the introduction may begin by suggesting or implying another key. For example, a song in C Major might begin with an introduction in G Major, which makes the listener think that the song will eventually be in G Major. A cliche used to indicate to the listener that this G Major section is in fact the dominant chord of another key area is to add the dominant seventh, which in this case would shift the harmony to a G7 chord. In some cases, an introduction contains only drums or percussion parts that set the rhythm and "groove" for the song. Alternately the introduction may consist of a solo section sung by the lead singer (or a group of backup singers), or a riff played by an instrumentalist.

The most straightforward, and least risky way to write an introduction is to use a section from the song. This contains melodic themes from the song, chords from one of the song's sections, and the beat and style of the song. However, not all songs have an intro of this type. Some songs have an intro that does not use any of the material from the song that is to follow. With this type of intro, the goal is to create interest in the listener and make them unsure of what will happen. This type of intro could consist of a series of loud, accented chords, punctuated by cymbal, with a bassline beginning near the end, to act as a pitch reference point for the singer. The intro also sets the story too.

Verse

In popular music, a verse roughly corresponds to a poetic stanza because it consists of rhyming lyrics most often with an AABB or ABAB rhyme scheme. When two or more sections of the song have almost identical music but different lyrics, each section is considered one verse.

Musically, "the verse is to be understood as a unit that prolongs the tonic....The musical structure of the verse nearly always recurs at least once with a different set of lyrics." The tonic or "home key" chord of a song can be prolonged in a number of ways. Pop and rock songs often use chords closely related to the tonic, such as iii or vi, to prolong the tonic. In the key of C Major, the iii chord would be E Minor and the vi chord would be A Minor. These chords are considered closely related to the tonic because they share chord tones. For example, the chord E Minor includes the notes E and G, both of which are part of the C Major triad. Similarly, the chord A Minor includes the notes C and E, both part of the C Major triad.

Lyrically, "the verse contains the details of the song: the story, the events, images and emotions that the writer wishes to express....Each verse will have different lyrics from the others." "A verse exists primarily to support the chorus or refrain...both musically and lyrically." A verse of a song, is a repeated sung melody where the words change from use to use (though not necessarily a great deal).

Pre-chorus
An optional section that may occur after the verse is the pre-chorus. Also known as a "build", "channel", or "transitional bridge", the pre-chorus functions to connect the verse to the chorus with intermediary material, typically using subdominant (usually built on the IV chord or ii chord, which in the key of C Major would be an F Major or D minor chord) or similar transitional harmonies. "Often, a two-phrase verse containing basic chords is followed by a passage, often harmonically probing, that leads to the full chorus." Often, when verse and chorus use the same harmonic structure, the pre-chorus introduces a new harmonic pattern or harmony that prepares the verse chords to transition into the chorus.

For example, if a song is set in C Major, and the songwriter aims to get to a chorus that focuses on the dominant chord (G Major) being tonicized (treated like a "home key" for a short period), a chord progression could be used for the pre-chorus that gets the listener ready to hear the chorus' chord (G Major) as an arrival key. One widely used way to accomplish this is to precede the G Major chord with its own ii–V7 chords. In the key given, ii of G Major would be an A minor chord. V7 of G Major would be D7. As such, with the example song, this could be done by having a pre-chorus that consists of one bar of A minor and one bar of D7. This would allow the listener to expect a resolution from ii–V to I, which in this case is the temporary tonic of G Major. The chord A minor would not be unusual to the listener, as it is a shared chord that exists in both G Major and C Major. A minor is the ii chord in G Major, and it is the vi chord in C Major. The chord that would alert the listener that a change was taking place is the D7 chord. There is no D7 chord in C Major. A listener experienced with popular and traditional music would hear this as a secondary dominant. Harmonic theorists and arrangers would call it V7/V or five of five, as the D7 chord is the dominant (or fifth) chord of G Major.

Chorus or refrain

The terms chorus and refrain are often used interchangeably, both referring to a recurring part of a song. When a distinction is made, the chorus is the part that contains the hook or the "main idea" of a song's lyrics and music, and there is rarely variation from one repetition of the chorus to the next. A refrain is a repetitive phrase or phrases that serve the function of a chorus lyrically, but are not in a separate section or long enough to be a chorus. For example, refrains are found in the Beatles' "She Loves You" ("yeah, yeah, yeah"), AC/DC's "You Shook Me All Night Long", Simon & Garfunkel's "The Sound of Silence", and "Deck the Halls" ("fa la la la la").

The chorus or refrain is the element of the song that repeats at least once both musically and lyrically. It is always of greater musical and emotional intensity than the verse. "The chorus, which gets its name from a usual thickening of texture from the addition of backing vocals, is always a discrete section that nearly always prolongs the tonic and carries an unvaried poetic text." In terms of narrative, the chorus conveys the main message or theme of the song. Normally the most memorable element of the song for listeners, the chorus usually contains the hook.

Post-chorus

An optional section that may occur after the chorus is the post-chorus (or postchorus). The term can be used generically for any section that comes after a chorus, but more often refers to a section that has similar character to the chorus, but is distinguishable in close analysis. The concept of a post-chorus has been particularly popularized and analyzed by music theorist Asaf Peres, who is followed in this section.

Characterizations of post-chorus vary, but are broadly classed into simply a second chorus (in Peres's terms, a detached postchorus) or an extension of the chorus (in Peres's terms, an attached postchorus). Some restrict "post-chorus" to only cases where it is an extension of a chorus (attached postchorus), and do not consider the second part of two-part choruses (detached postchorus) as being a "post"-chorus.

As with distinguishing the pre-chorus from a verse, it can be difficult to distinguish the post-chorus from the chorus. In some cases they appear separately – for example, the post-chorus only appears after the second and third chorus, but not the first – and thus are clearly distinguishable. In other cases they always appear together, and thus a "chorus + post-chorus" can be considered a subdivision of the overall chorus, rather than an independent section.

Characterization of a post-chorus varies, beyond "comes immediately after the chorus"; Peres characterizes it by two conditions: it maintains or increases sonic energy, otherwise it is a bridge or verse; and contains a melodic hook (vocal or instrumental), otherwise it is a transition.

Detached post-choruses typically have distinct melody and lyrics from the chorus:
 "Chandelier" (Sia, 2014): the chorus begins and ends with "I'm gonna swing from the chandelier / From the chandelier", while the post-chorus repeats instead "holding on", in "I'm holding on for dear life" and "I'm just holding on for tonight", and has a new melody, but the same chord progression as the chorus.
 "The Boys Are Back in Town" (Thin Lizzy, 1976): the chorus consists of the phrase "the boys are back in town", repeated in a call-and-response style, while the post-chorus features a prominent riff by two lead guitars.
 "Smells Like Teen Spirit" (Nirvana, 1991): the chorus lasts from "With the lights out, it's less dangerous" to "A mosquito, my libido", while the post-chorus features a heavy riff with the vocals "hey, yay".

Lyrics of attached post-choruses typically repeat the hook/refrain from the chorus, with little additional content, often using vocables like "ah" or "oh". Examples include:
 "Umbrella" (Rihanna, 2007): the chorus begins "When the sun shine, we shine together" and run through "You can stand under my umbrella / You can stand under my umbrella, ella, ella, eh, eh, eh", which is followed by three more repetitions of "Under my umbrella, ella, ella, eh, eh, eh", the last one adding another "eh, eh-eh". Here the division between chorus and post-chorus is blurred, as the "ella, ella" begins in the chorus, and was a play on the reverb effect.
 "Shape of You" (Ed Sheeran, 2017): the chorus runs "I'm in love with the shape of you ... Every day discovering something brand new / I'm in love with your body", and the post-chorus repeats vocables and the hook "Oh—I—oh—I—oh—I—oh—I / I'm in love with your body", then repeats the end of the chorus, switching "your body" to "the shape of you": "Every day discovering something brand new / I'm in love with the shape of you"
 "Girls Like You" (Maroon 5, 2018): the chorus runs "'Cause girls like you ... I need a girl like you, yeah, yeah ... I need a girl like you, yeah, yeah", and the post-chorus repeats the hook with added "yeah"s: "Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah / I need a girl like you, yeah, yeah / Yeah yeah yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah / I need a girl like you".

Hybrids are also common (Peres: hybrid postchorus), where the post-chorus keeps the hook from the chorus (like an attached postchorus), but introduces some additional content (hook or melody, like a detached postchorus.

Bridge

A bridge may be a transition, but in popular music, it more often is "...a section that contrasts with the verse...[,] usually ends on the dominant...[,] [and] often culminates in a strong re-transitional." "The bridge is a device that is used to break up the repetitive pattern of the song and keep the listener's attention....In a bridge, the pattern of the words and music change." For example, John Denver's "Country Roads" is a song with a bridge while Stevie Wonder's "You Are the Sunshine of My Life" is a song without one.

In music theory, "middle eight" (a common type of bridge) refers to a section of a song with a significantly different melody and lyrics, which helps the song develop itself in a natural way by creating a contrast to the previously played, usually placed after the second chorus in a song.

A song employing a middle eight might look like:
        ....  ....    ....  ....    ........  ....     ....
 Intro-{Verse-Pre-Chorus-Chorus}{Verse-Pre-Chorus-Chorus}-Middle 8-{Chorus}

By adding a powerful upbeat middle eight, musicians can then end the song with a hook in the end chorus and finale.

Conclusion or outro

The conclusion or (in popular-music terminology) outro of a song is a way of finishing or completing the song. It signals to the listeners that the song is nearing its close. The reason for having an outro is that if a song just ended at the last bar of a section, such as on the last verse or the last chorus, this might feel too abrupt for listeners. By using an outro, the songwriter signals that the song is, in fact, nearing its end. This gives the listeners a good sense of closure. For DJs, the outro is a signal that they need to be ready to mix in their next song.

In general, songwriters and arrangers do not introduce any new melodies or riffs in the outro. However, a melody or riff used throughout the song may be re-used as part of an outro. Generally, the outro is a section where the energy of the song, broadly defined, dissipates. For example, many songs end with a fade-out, in which the song gets quieter and quieter. In many songs, the band does a ritardando during the outro, a process of gradually slowing down the tempo. Both the fade-out and the ritardando are ways of decreasing the intensity of a song and signalling that it is nearing its conclusion.

For an outro that fades out, the arranger or songwriter typically repeats a short section of the music over and over. This can be the chorus, for example. An audio engineer then uses the fader on the mixing board to gradually decrease the volume of the recording. When a tribute band plays a cover song that, in the recorded version ends with a fade-out, the live band may imitate that by playing progressively quieter.

Another way many pop and rock songs end is with a tag. There are two types of tags: the instrumental tag and the instrumental/vocal tag. With an instrumental tag, the vocalist no longer sings, and the band's rhythm section takes over the music to finish off the song. A tag is often a vamp of a few chords that the band repeats. In a jazz song, this could be a standard turnaround, such as I–vi–ii–V7 or a stock progression, such as ii–V7. If the tag includes the tonic chord, such as a vamp on I–IV, the bandleader typically cues the last time that the penultimate chord (a IV chord in this case) is played, leading to an ending on the I chord. If the tag does not include the tonic chord, such as with a ii–V7 tag, the bandleader cues the band to do a cadence that resolves onto the tonic (I) chord. With an instrumental and vocal tag, the band and vocalist typically repeat a section of the song, such as the chorus, to give emphasis to its message. In some cases, the vocalist may use only a few words from the chorus or even one word. Some bands have the guitar player do a guitar solo during the outro, but it is not the focus of the section; instead, it is more to add interesting improvisation. A guitar solo during an outro is typically mixed lower than a mid-song guitar solo.

Elision

An elision is a section of music where different sections overlap one another, usually for a short period. It is mostly used in fast-paced music, and it is designed to create tension and drama. Songwriters use elision to keep the song from losing its energy during cadences, the points at which the music comes to rest on, typically on a tonic or dominant chord. If a song has a section that ends with a cadence on the tonic, if the songwriter gives this cadence a full bar, with the chord held as a whole note, this makes the listener feel like the music is stopping. However, if songwriters use an elided cadence, they can bring the section to a cadence on the tonic, and then, immediately after this cadence, begin a new section of music which overlaps with the cadence. Another form of elision would, in a chorus later in the song, to interject musical elements from the bridge.

Instrumental solo

A solo is a section designed to showcase an instrumentalist (e.g. a guitarist or a harmonica player) or less commonly, more than one instrumentalist (e.g., a trumpeter and a sax player). Guitar solos are common in rock music, particularly heavy metal and in the blues. The solo section may take place over the chords from the verse, chorus, or bridge, or over a standard solo backing progression, such as the 12-bar blues progression. In some pop songs, the solo performer plays the same melodies that were performed by the lead singer, often with flourishes and embellishments, such as riffs, scale runs, and arpeggios. In blues- or jazz-influenced pop songs, the solo performers may improvise a solo.

Ad lib

An ad lib section of a song (usually in the coda or outro) occurs when the main lead vocal or a second lead vocal breaks away from the already established lyric and/or melody to add melodic interest and intensity to the end of the song. Often, the ad lib repeats the previously sung line using variations on phrasing, melodic shape, and/or lyric, but the vocalist may also use entirely new lyrics or a lyric from an earlier section of the song. During an ad lib section, the rhythm may become freer (with the rhythm section following the vocalist), or the rhythm section may stop entirely, giving the vocalist the freedom to use whichever tempo sounds right. During live performances, singers sometimes include ad libs not originally in the song, such as making a reference to the town of the audience or customizing the lyrics to the current events of the era.

There is a distinction between ad lib as a song section and ad lib as a general term. Ad lib as a general term can be applied to any free interpretation of the musical material.

AABA form

Thirty-two-bar form uses four sections, most often eight measures long each (4×8=32), two verses or A sections, a contrasting B section (the bridge or "middle-eight") and a return of the verse in one last A section (AABA). The B section  is often intended as a contrast to the A sections that precede and follow it. The B section may be made to contrast by putting it in a new harmony. For example, with the jazz standard "I Got Rhythm", the A sections are all tonic prolongations based around the I–vi–ii–V chord progression (B in the standard key); however, the B section changes key and moves to V/vi, or D7 in the standard key, which then does a circle of fifths movement to G7, C7 and finally F7, setting the listener up for a return to the tonic Bb in the final A section.

The "I Got Rhythm" example also provides contrast because the harmonic rhythm changes in the B section. Whereas the A sections contain a vibrant, exciting feel of two chord changes per bar (e.g., the first two bars are often B–g minor/c minor–F7), the B section consists of two bars of D7, two bars of G7, two bars of C7 and two bars of F7. In some songs, the "feel" also changes in the B section. For example, the A sections may be in swing feel, and the B section may be in Latin or Afro-Cuban feel.

While the form is often described as AABA, this does not mean that the A sections are all exactly the same. The first A section ends by going back to the next A section, and the second A section ends and transitions into the B section. As such, at the minimum, the composer or arranger often modifies the harmony of the end of the different A sections to guide the listener through the key changes. As well, the composer or arranger may re-harmonize the melody on one or more of the A sections, to provide variety. Note that with a reharmonization, the melody does not usually change; only the chords played by the accompaniment musicians change.

Examples include "Deck the Halls":
A: Deck the hall with boughs of holly,
A: 'Tis the season to be jolly.
B: Don we now our gay apparel,
A: Troll the ancient Yuletide carol.

Variation on the basic structure
Verse-chorus form or ABA form may be combined with AABA form, in compound AABA forms. That means that every A section or B section can consist of more than one section (for example Verse-Chorus). In that way the modern popular song structure can be viewed as a AABA form, where the B is the bridge.

AAA format may be found in Bob Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin'", and songs like "The House of the Rising Sun", and "Clementine". Also "Old MacDonald", "Amazing Grace", "The Thrill Is Gone", and Gordon Lightfoot's "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald".

AABA may be found in Crystal Gayle's "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue", Billy Joel's "Just the Way You Are", and The Beatles' "Yesterday".

ABA (verse/chorus or chorus/verse) format may be found in Pete Seeger's "Turn! Turn! Turn!" (chorus first) and The Rolling Stones's "Honky Tonk Woman" (verse first).

ABAB may be found in AC/DC's "Back in Black", Jimmy Buffett's "Margaritaville", The Archies's "Sugar, Sugar", and The Eagles's "Hotel California".

ABABCB format may be found in  John Cougar Mellencamp's "Hurts So Good", Tina Turner's "What's Love Got to Do with It?", and ZZ Top's "Sharp Dressed Man". Variations include Smokey Robinson's "My Guy", The Beatles's "Ticket to Ride",  The Pretenders' "Back on the Chain Gang" (ABABCAB), Poison's "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" (ABABCBAB), and Billy Joel's "It's Still Rock and Roll to Me" (ABABCABCAB).

See also

 Earworm
 Lick
 Ostinato
 Subject
 Vamp

References

Further reading

 Appen, Ralf von / Frei-Hauenschild, Markus "AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms and their Historical Development". In: Samples. Online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusikforschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e.V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas Phleps. Vol. 13 (2015).
Covach, John. "Form in Rock Music: A Primer", in Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. .
Covach, John and Boone, Graham, eds. Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis. Cited in Covach (2005).
Everett, Walter, ed. Rock Music: Critical Essays on Composition, Performance, Analysis, and Reception. Cited in Covach (2005).
 Forte, Allan The American Popular Ballad of the Golden Era, 1924–1950: A Study in Musical Design, Princeton University Press, 1995. .
 Kaiser, Ulrich "Babylonian confusion. Zur Terminologie der Formanalyse von Pop- und Rockmusik". In: Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Musiktheorie 8/1 (2011) – ISSN 1862-6742.
Middleton, Richard. "Form", in Horner, Bruce and Swiss, Thomas, eds. (1999) Key Terms in Popular Music and Culture. Malden, Massachusetts. .

Popular music

Song structure


The Rat is a 1925 British silent film drama, directed by Graham Cutts and starring Ivor Novello, Mae Marsh and Isabel Jeans. The film is based on the 1924 play of the same title written by Novello and Constance Collier, set in the Parisian criminal underworld. The film's louche settings and melodramatic storyline proved popular with audiences, and its success spawned two sequels, The Triumph of the Rat (1926) and The Return of the Rat (1929).

Plot
Zélie de Chaumet (Jeans) is a bored, sensation-seeking demimondaine, living with her older lover and keeper Herman Stetz (Robert Scholz) in a lavish apartment in a wealthy area of Paris. By contrast career criminal Pierre Boucheron (Novello), known as The Rat, lives with his casual girlfriend Odile (Marsh) in a run-down room in a squalid part of the city.

One evening Zélie has an arrangement to attend a performance at the Folies Bergère with friends. Fearing that this will be a dreary evening out, she asks Herman to arrange an after-theatre party for them at the White Coffin Club, a notorious low-life hangout, to end the evening on an exciting note. Pierre also attends the Folies Bergères that evening on the lookout for easy pickings, and steals Zélie's cigarette case. Meanwhile, Odile has noticed that Pierre has gone out without his knife, and goes to the White Coffin with it. Herman notices her and is struck by her beauty and naïvety. He is in the process of trying to force his attentions on her when Pierre arrives and violently throws him out of the club, warning him never to return.

Zélie and her friends arrive at the White Coffin. Watching Pierre win a knife fight and performing a wild Apache dance with one of the club's showgirls, she is intrigued and strikes up a conversation with him. Pierre recognises her from the Folies Bergères and returns her cigarette case. After she leaves, Pierre receives a note with her address, inviting him to visit. Unknown to Zélie, Herman has had her movements watched and when she arrives home he confronts her about her earlier conduct with Pierre. When she does not deny her fascination with Him, Herman says that he is going out and expects to find her gone by the time he returns.

Pierre arrives at the apartment and although Zélie is delighted to see him, she professes no knowledge of the note which has brought him there. They realise that the note must have been sent by Herman as a ruse to get Pierre out of the way while he pursues Odile. Pierre rushes home, to find Odile in a desperate struggle with Herman to prevent him from forcing himself on her. The enraged Pierre stabs him to death. The screams and struggles are heard by a passing policeman, who summons assistance. Odile persuades Pierre to make his escape through a window, and when the police arrive she claims to have killed Herman herself in self-defence. Pierre returns to the room intending to say he has just returned from visiting Zélie, but when he learns that Odile has confessed to the murder he confesses the truth. However the police do not believe him, thinking he is trying to protect her. Odile asks for some time alone with Pierre, and points out to him that she has a chance of being acquitted by claiming self-defence, whereas he would certainly be sentenced to death for the crime. Reluctantly he agrees, and Odile is taken to prison.

Pierre is refused permission to visit Odile in prison, and becomes increasingly distressed and tormented, taking to wandering the streets in a near-hysterical state. Odile requests a visit from Zélie, which is granted. She begs Zélie to testify that Pierre was with her at the time of the murder. Zélie reluctantly agrees. As Odile's trial is about to begin Pierre spots Zélie and, assuming she has come to gloat, launches a verbal attack on her. He is forcibly removed and returned home by the police. He is beside himself with anguish when Odile returns, having been acquitted of the murder on the self-defence plea. The couple acknowledge how much they mean to each other.

Cast
 Ivor Novello as Pierre Boucheron
 Mae Marsh as Odile Etrange
 Isabel Jeans as Zélie de Chaumet
 Robert Scholz as Herman Stetz
 James Lindsay as Detective Caillard
 Marie Ault as Mère Colline
 Julie Suedo as Mou Mou
 Hugh Brook as Paul
 Esme Fitzgibbons as Madeleine Sornay
 Iris Grey as Rose

References

External links

 The Rat at the British Film Institute

1925 films
1925 drama films
British silent feature films
Films directed by Graham Cutts
Gainsborough Pictures films
British black-and-white films
Films set in Paris
Silent British drama films
British films based on plays
1920s British films

The Rat (1925 film)


Angkor National Museum is an archaeological museum dedicated to the collection, preservation and presentation of Angkorian artifacts, also to provides information and education about art and culture of Khmer civilization, with collections mainly dated from Khmer Empire's Angkor period circa 9th to 14th-century. Most of the artifacts are discovered in and around the Angkor archaeological sites nearby. The museum is located in Siem Reap, Cambodia, on the way between downtown Siem Reap to northern road leading to Angkor ancient city.

Opened on 12 November 2007, the Angkor National Museum covers the golden era of the Khmer Empire, making use of audio-visual multimedia technology. The museum covers Khmer history, civilization, and cultural heritage in eight galleries. The museum has a strict no-photos policy.

The museum is owned and operated by Thai Vilailuck International Holdings, based in Bangkok. It is currently displaying archaeological objects borrowed from the Cambodian National Museum in Phnom Penh. Another source of artifacts is the Conservation d'Angkor, a storage facility of some 6,000 pieces created by the École française d'Extrême-Orient in 1908 and currently in the hands of the Cambodian Ministry of Culture.

Galleries
The exhibits in this museum are arranged in flowing single direction through themed galleries. Audio guides are available at the entrance in Khmer language, English, French, German, Japanese, Chinese, Korean and Thai language. The galleries are:
The Briefing Hall: Before entering the galleries, visitors are invited to sit in an 80-seat theater for an orientation which will introduce the museum collections, galleries, and its amenities. Show times are scheduled for every 15 minutes and are available in 7 languages; Khmer, Korean, Japanese, Chinese, English, French and Thai.
Gallery of 1,000 Buddha: The gallery displays Buddhism spiritual influence upon Cambodian people, from the ancient Khmer civilization to the modern Cambodia. The gallery contains the collections of Buddha statues and relics.
Gallery A: Khmer Civilization: The gallery explains how the Khmer Empire was established, learn what drove the ancient Khmer to create colossal structures, their faith in their great kings and the history of the land.
Gallery B: Religion and Beliefs: Explains about religion and beliefs of Khmer civilization, including literary works, sculptures, architecture and daily life.
Gallery C: Great Khmer Kings: The gallery displays the history about famous Khmer kings, such as King Jayavarman II, the king who united the two kingdoms of Chenla around 802–850. King Yasovarman I who established Angkor as the capital between 889 and 900. King Suryavarman II who built Angkor Wat circa 1116–1145. And King Jayavarman VII who built Angkor Thom circa 1181–1201.
Gallery D: Angkor Wat: The gallery displays the history, spiritual concept and architectural technique of constructing the grand structure of Angkor Wat. It also explains the Angkor Wat's equinox phenomenon.
Gallery E: Angkor Thom: The exhibit in this gallery displays about the construction and expansion of Angkor Thom. The changes in religious beliefs, also about ancient engineering plans for public utilities, such roads and large scale irrigation projects to support the city's population.
Gallery F: Story from Stone: The gallery displays stone inscriptions found throughout Angkor that recorded important historical events.
Gallery G: Ancient Costume: The gallery displays the ancient Khmer clothing, jewelry and accessories illustrated by sculptures of gods, goddesses, and the apsara celestial dancers.

Gallery

Criticism
The name of the museum and its ownership has drawn controversy and criticism. Salient issues include the fact that it is foreign-owned by a Thai enterprise, which some critics find at odds with the "national" epithet in its name, and that it is suspected to be primarily interested in turning a profit instead of a genuine cultural motivation. Another criticism has been that the majority of the Buddha images in the gallery of 1,000 Buddhas are from an era of aesthetic influence from the Thai Ayutthaya Kingdom, while the critics would favor a focus on the earlier era of the Angkor kingdom. The museum design also been criticized as taking form as a "Cultural Mall".

References

Museums in Siem Reap
2007 establishments in Cambodia
Museums established in 2007
Archaeological museums in Cambodia

Angkor National Museum


The Bridges of Madison County  is a 1992 fictional novel written by American author, Robert James Waller. The book was published by Warner Books, Inc. In the first chapter, "The Beginning," the author misleads the readers by saying that the book is a true story. It is actually a work of fiction. The main character, Kincaid, has the same first name as author and is a photographer and an artist, as was Robert James Waller.

The book is a love story about an Italian woman, Francesca Johnson, a farmer's wife, who falls in love with Robert Kincaid, a photojournalist from Bellingham, Washington over a four-day period. The story is set in Madison County, Iowa. Winterset, the nearby town, is quite small, according to the book.

The novel has been translated into 25 languages and has sold 50 million copies worldwide. It was on the New York Times best seller list for 164 weeks from 1992 until 1995. The story was made into a movie in 1995, directed by Clint Eastwood.  Meryl Streep plays Francesca Johnson and Clint Eastwood plays Robert Kincaid.

Main Characters

Francesca Johnson
Francesca Johnson is a conservative Italian woman in her mid-forties, living a quiet, conventional life on an Iowa farm.  Over a four-day period, while her husband and children are away, she meets and falls in love with Robert Kinkaid, a National Geographic photojournalist. She wants to run away with him, but ultimately stays to protect her family from the hurt and scandal it would cause. Her time with Robert is carefully conducted as she lives in a small community where the local residents know everyone else's business. Though devoted to her family, she loathes her dull life. Francesca's teen children take her for granted and her kindly husband does not fulfill her romantic needs. Robert's presence reawakens her femininity and passion. She often feels unappreciated, much like the covered bridges which the locals consider to be worn out but are always there. Robert admires the elegant covered bridges. While Francesca feels undervalued by her family and is just getting older, Robert sees her true beauty.

Robert Kincaid
Robert Kincaid is a photojournalist, currently working for National Geographic magazine. Kinkaid, a divorced man in his early-fifties, lives a nomadic life, traveling the world on assignments, unencumbered by attachments to people or places. A poetic and sensitive man, he dislikes modern civilization and how computers and robots are taking over people's lives. He is an attractive, though not handsome, man. The women he has dated saw something powerful in him, and often compared to an animal such as leopard or peregrine.  He falls deeply in love with Francesca, who he considers a far more complicated woman than others realize.

Summary
Francesca Johnson is from Naples, Italy. She married Richard Johnson, a WWII soldier, and moved to Iowa with him, becoming a farmer's wife. For Francesca, who studied literature and is a former teacher, rural life is dull and monotonous. One summer day in 1965, Robert Kincaid visits Madison County in Iowa. He is on assignment to photograph historic covered bridges for a National Geographic article. Unable to find Roseman Bridge, he stops by the Johnson farm to ask for directions. Francesca's husband and two teenage children are away for four days, attending the Illinois State Fair. Francesca guides Robert to the bridge. After, she invites him to stay for dinner. He and Francesca develop an immediate attraction to one another.

Later that night, Francesca drives to  Roseman Bridge and leaves a note inviting Robert to dine with her again. He finds it the next morning and calls to ask her to go to another covered bridge with him, then joins her for dinner. They make love, knowing they have little time together. When their dream-like period is nearly over, Robert asks Francesca to leave with him. She almost does, but is unable to abandon her family, knowing the pain and suffering it would cause them. She also realizes that she would be unable to live with the guilt over hurting her husband and children and it would destroy her relationship with Robert. He unhappily accepts her decision.

Robert and Francesca never meet again. After her husband's death, Francesca attempted to contact Robert, but his whereabouts by then were unknown as he no longer worked for the National Geographic. Three years later, an attorney sends Francesca a package containing Robert's belongings, including his cameras, his published photo book, and a letter. Robert has died and his ashes were scattered at the Roseman Bridge. When Francesca passes away, her children learn about the affair from a journal she has left them. She requests to be cremated and her ashes be scattered at Roseman Bridge. Her children are initially shocked by her request. They finally respect the love their mother had for Robert and agree to publish the love story.

Other websites
Study of reader response to the novel
20th-Century American Bestsellers entry

1992 books
20th-century American novels

The Bridges of Madison County


Errol Christie (29 June 1963 – 11 June 2017) was an English professional boxer and boxing trainer. He was the captain of the English amateur boxing team from 1980 to 1983 and European amateur champion in 1983. After turning professional he was a regular fixture on ITV Fight Night in the 1980s. After retiring from boxing he became a trainer in white-collar boxing.

Career

Boxing career
Christie was born in Leicester and raised in Radford, Coventry, one of seven brothers. At the age of eight, he started boxing at the Standard-Triumph gym in Coventry managed by Tom McGarry. Out of 80 fights in his early career, Christie lost only two and gained a reputation for early knockouts. He was Warwickshire champion in 1976, schoolboy champion in 1977, NABC champion in 1979 and senior ABA champion in 1981, beating Cameron Lithgow in the final. He was appointed England boxing captain from 1980 to 1983. He moved to London in 1981 to further his boxing career.

In 1982, he became European amateur under-19 champion after defeating Assylbek Kilimov in the semi-finals and Moe Gruciano in the finals at Schwerin in what was then East Germany. Christie was listed in The Guinness Book of Records as the only British boxer to win all 10 amateur titles.

After turning professional in 1982 with new manager Burt McCarthy he won his first 13 fights, 12 inside the distance, including a victory over French champion Joel Bonnetaz in February 1984. He earned the right to wear the Kronk Gym golden shorts after impressing its promoter Emanuel Steward while sparring there. In September 1984 Jose Seys delivered a surprise knockout which shook Christie's confidence. Seven more wins followed, including a win over former Mexican champion Gonzalo Montes, before a bout with Mark Kaylor in a British middleweight title eliminator at Wembley Arena in November 1985 in which he was knocked out in the eighth round.

After winning his next four fights, beating Nigerian champion Hunter Clay and former welterweight world title challenger Sean Mannion, he suffered another setback when he was stopped by Charles Boston in December 1986. He won eight of his thirteen fights between June 1987 and October 1990, and in November 1990 faced Michael Watson at the National Exhibition Centre; Watson stopped him in the third round. Christie was out of the ring for over two years, returning in March 1993 to face Trevor Ambrose, losing after being stopped in the second round of what proved to be his final fight.

Post-boxing career
Christie had tried his hand at stand up comedy towards the end of his boxing career and after retiring from boxing in 1993 he worked as a market trader for six years.

In 1999, Christie began teaching white-collar boxers, initially at the Real Fight Club, and from 2003 at Gymbox in Holborn, London. In 2005, The Guardian and other newspapers reported an incident where one of Errol's white collar-boxing students, film distributor Simon Franks, hit Hollywood actor George Clooney at the premiere of his film Good Night, and Good Luck. An argument between the two men was alleged to have got out of control. Christie was quoted in The Guardian asking whether his student, Franks, had used his left hook. His students have included TV presenter Dermot O'Leary, former footballer Gianluca Vialli, musician Seal, and journalist Tony McMahon. He also worked with children in schools and community centres.

In 2010, Christie was taken on as the fight consultant to the play Sucker Punch written by Roy Williams and directed by Sacha Wares, performed at the Royal Court Theatre in Chelsea, London. In March 2010, Christie published his biography No Place To Hide, about racism in both the boxing game and 1970s/1980s Britain in collaboration with McMahon. The book was longlisted for the William Hill sports writer prize for 2010.

Personal life
Christie was the uncle of Cyrus Christie, a professional footballer for Hull City A.F.C. and the Irish national team.

Illness and death
In March 2015 Christie was diagnosed with small-cell lung cancer. He died at St. Christopher's Hospice in London on 11 June 2017 of complications from the disease, aged 53.

References

External links

Black British sportsmen
English male boxers
English people of Jamaican descent
Middleweight boxers
Sportspeople from Coventry
Boxers from Leicester
1963 births
2017 deaths
Deaths from lung cancer in England
England Boxing champions

Errol Christie


The Falling Woman is a 1986 contemporary psychological fantasy novel by Pat Murphy. The book won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1987.

Plot summary
Elizabeth Butler is an archaeologist, and the author of several popular books that challenge her colleagues' ideas about Maya civilization. Elizabeth has a strange gift, connected to a suicide attempt as a young woman, which allows her to see the spirits of ancient people while she walks at dusk and dawn. The story opens with Elizabeth in the middle of an eight-week field study at Dzibilchaltún. Her team hopes to find dramatic artifacts that will spark interest and increased funding for future field studies at the site.

In the middle of the field study, Elizabeth's estranged adult daughter Diane arrives unannounced. After the death of her father, Elizabeth's ex-husband, Diane suddenly abandoned her life in the United States, and flew to Mexico to see her mother. It is revealed that Diane has seen Elizabeth for only a few brief visits since Elizabeth left her as a young child to be raised by her father. Neither is sure what Diane wants from Elizabeth.

As the two struggle to connect, Elizabeth has a new experience: one of her spirit visions, a Mayan priestess named Zuhuy-kak, can see and speak with Elizabeth. Zuhuy-kak provides unprecedented knowledge about the Mayans' departure from Dzibilchaltún, and leads Elizabeth to the major archaeological find her team needs, but demands a sacrifice to the goddess Ix Chebel Yax. As the dig progresses, haunted by bad luck and tragedy, Zuhuy-kak makes it clear that Elizabeth must sacrifice her daughter.

References

1986 American novels
Nebula Award for Best Novel-winning works
1986 science fiction novels
Novels set in Mexico
Yucatán Peninsula
Works by Pat Murphy (writer)
Tor Books books

The Falling Woman


John Vitéz de Zredna (, , ;  1408 – 8 August 1472) was a Hungarian and Croat humanist, diplomat, Latinist, mathematician, astrologist and astronomer. He served as Archbishop of Esztergom from 1465 until his death.

Early life
Vitéz was born in Sredna near Križevci in a Croat-Hungarian family which was already influential at the Hungarian court. Vitéz's mother was originated from the Garázda genus (originally from Bosnia, genus is named after Goražde). On his father's side he derived from Pilis county (his father's surname was originally Csévi). His father was the secretary of the regent John Hunyadi, from 1446 to 1452. Vitéz became a prothonotary in his government.

Vitéz studied in Vienna, where he graduated in law and became knowledgeable in physics, astronomy and alchemy due to frequent contacts with other humanists. In the chancery of King Sigismund, he probably met the excellent Italian humanist Pier Paolo Vergerio. For a while (around 1437) he was the canon in Zagreb. In that period, he helped strengthen the relations between the Croatian capital and the thriving Italian cultural and scientific centers. Then he left for Hungary, where he was to play a major role in the development of cultural and scientific institutions.

Career
Vitéz was one of the educators of Hunyadi's son Matthias Corvinus, who became King of Hungary. Vitéz became the bishop of Oradea in 1445 and turned it into a humanist centre, where he invited a number of Polish and German humanists, such as Gregory of Sanok. He was a book collector and built a library there. Both his court and the library moved from Oradea to Esztergom in 1465, when he became the primate of Hungary, or the archbishop of Esztergom – one of the two bishoprics in Hungary.

In the government of Matthias Corvinus, he fulfilled many positions. First of all, due to his earlier practice, he was an excellent diplomat to the king. In 1458 he was sent to Prague to George of Poděbrady to redeem the king and then he (according to Bonfini) welcomed the king when he entered the kingdom. He served the king in a few diplomatic missions, especially to the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. After 1464 he became active in the highest and secret chancellor (together with Stephen Várdai), but did not take many actions in the position. During the late 1460s he became estranged to the king and in 1471 he led a plot against the ruler.

Vitéz, who spoke and wrote in excellent Latin, had a major role in the international circle of humanists at Corvin's court, some of whom were prominent scientists, such as Regiomontanus, Bylica, Peuerbach, Hans Dorn. He was especially interested in natural sciences and promoted their study. He founded the academy and library in Oradea (moved to Esztergom) and the Universitas Istropolitana in Pozsony (currently Bratislava). He promoted astrologic and astronomic research, had astronomic instruments of his own, and founded the observatory in Esztergom. He is sometimes referred to as the Father of Hungarian Humanism.

As the initiator of a rebellion against the king (1471–1472), he lost his privileges and estates. Soon after, he fell ill and died in Esztergom.

His nephew was the great Latin humanist Janus Pannonius.

See also
List of Catholic clergy scientists

References

In Croatian:
Ivan Vitez od Sredne in Prominent Scientists and Works in the Middle Ages

1400s births
1472 deaths
15th-century Hungarian cardinals
15th-century Croatian people
15th-century astronomers
Croatian astronomers
Croatian astrologers
15th-century astrologers
Croatian Renaissance humanists
Croatian Latinists
Hungarian nobility
Archbishops of Esztergom
Bishops of Várad
Catholic clergy scientists
Hungarian Renaissance humanists
15th-century Hungarian writers
15th-century mathematicians
Medieval Hungarian astronomers

John Vitéz


Charles Albert Watts (27 May 1858 – 15 May 1946) was an English secularist editor and publisher.  He founded the journal Watts's Literary Guide, which later became the New Humanist magazine, and the Rationalist Press Association.  His father Charles Watts was also a prominent secularist writer. Father and son are sometimes confused with each other, and Charles Albert Watts is sometimes referred to as C. A. Watts or Charles Watts Jr.

Life and career
Charles Albert Watts was the son of Charles Watts and his first wife Mary Ann Watts, and was the nephew of John Watts, all of whom were active in the rationalist and secularist movement in London, based around Charles Bradlaugh.  John and Charles Watts both edited the National Reformer, and founded a radical publishing house, Watts & Co., in London in 1864.  Charles Watts co-founded the National Secular Society in 1866, and became a leading spokesman for the group after his brother's death, but broke with Bradlaugh in 1877 and, in 1883, emigrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, leaving his son Charles Albert to run his publishing house and continue his editorial work.

In November 1885, the younger Watts established a journal, Watts's Literary Guide. In the first issue, which sold for one penny, the then-anonymous editor set out his ambition to fill it with "literary gossip" of interest to freethinkers, together with recording "the best liberal publications in this country".  It also contained details of his father's speaking tours of Canada and the US, and regular criticisms of the Christian establishment on every front, from science and metaphysics to history and poetry.  Soon afterwards, he also organised the Propagandist Press Committee, which later became the Rationalist Press Association.  This provided him with a large group of subscribers, and enabled him to expand the magazine in size and with a widening readership. The name was changed to The Literary Guide in 1894.

C. A. Watts himself remained anonymous.  He was described as "...decisive but self-effacing. He encouraged controversy in his pages, though he shrank from it himself."  He did not allow his own name to appear in the magazine until his sixtieth birthday, in 1918. He edited the regular journal for over 60 years until his death, writing editorial content himself and drawing on contributors from a wide range of disciplines, including Annie Besant, Walt Whitman, and H. G. Wells.

He also expanded the work of his business, Watts & Co., into publishing books, including a series of "cheap reprints" which made the works of such writers as Charles Darwin, Thomas Huxley and John Stuart Mill available to a mass audience, at only sixpence a volume. This later became the "Thinker's Library", a series of 140 small books published between 1929 and 1951. They included essays, literature, and extracts from works by various classical and contemporary humanists and rationalists.

Charles Albert Watts died in 1946 at the age of 87.  The magazine was later renamed The Humanist, and then New Humanist.

References

1858 births
1946 deaths
English humanists
Publishers (people) from London
English sceptics
British secularists
Freethought writers

Charles Albert Watts


Nitrite is an ion. Its chemical formula is NO2–. It contains nitrogen in its +3 oxidation state. Nitrites are normally strong oxidizing agents. Most of them are colorless crystalline compounds. Sodium nitrite is a common nitrite. They are also weak reducing agents, being oxidized to nitrates (NO3–).

Related pages
Nitrate
Nitride
Azide

Nitrogen compounds
Ions

Nitrite


An alkaliphile is an organism that lives and grows well in extremely alkaline conditions that are harmful to most life on Earth. To be considered an alkaliphile, the organism must have optimal growth in environments with a pH level of 9.0 or above.

Surviving and growing in an environment that has a high pH level is very difficult. Many processes in the cell are blocked by high pH levels. Alkaline conditions change DNA, and make the plasma membrane of the cell unstable. Alkaliphiles have two basic methods of dealing with these problems: Either they have a way of making the environment more acidic, or they have adapted the cellular processes, so that they work best in highly alkaline conditions. To find out which of the two mechanisms a specific organism uses, experiments are needed.

References

Extremophiles

Alkaliphile


The Great Peacemaker (Skén:nen rahá:wi [skʌ̃.nːʌ̃.ɾahaːwi] in Mohawk), sometimes referred to as Deganawida or Tekanawí:ta (as a mark of respect, some Iroquois avoid using his personal name except in special circumstances) was by tradition, along with Jigonhsasee and Hiawatha, the founder of the Haudenosaunee, commonly called the Iroquois Confederacy. This is a political and cultural union of six Iroquoian-speaking Native American tribes residing in the present-day state of New York, northern Pennsylvania, and the eastern portion of the province of Ontario, Canada.

Background
The Great Peacemaker's name means "Two River Currents Flowing Together". Some of the numerous legends about the Great Peacemaker have conflicting information.  It is reported that he was born a Huron, and by some accounts, his mother was a virgin, making the birth miraculous.  Others say he was born an Onondaga and later adopted by the Mohawk.

Arthur C. Parker's book The Constitution of the Five Nations describes how the Great Peacemaker travelled to different settlements to spread his message of peace. At one settlement, when asked who he was, the Great Peacemaker answered, "I am the man who is called on earth by the name of Dekanahwideh, and I have just come from the west and am now going east for the purpose of propagating peace so that the shedding of human blood might cease among you." When the settlement agreed to his plan, he explained, "This day is early and yet young, so is the new mind also tender and young, so also is the Good Tidings of Peace and Power, and as the new sun of Good Tidings of Peace and Power arose, so it will proceed on its course and prosper; so also will the young mind, and the Good Tidings of Peace and Power shall prevail and prosper. Therefore in the future, your grandchildren forever shall live in peace."

Haudenosaunee confederacy

By all accounts, the Great Peacemaker was a prophet who counseled peace among the warring tribes. According to some legends his first ally was Jigonhsasee, who became known as the Mother of Nations. She lent her home for the meeting of the leaders of the rival tribal nations. The Great Peacemaker's follower Hiawatha, an Onondaga renowned for his oratory, helped him achieve his vision of bringing the tribes together in peace.

According to the archaeologist Dean Snow, the Great Peacemaker converted Hiawatha in the territory of the Onondaga; he traveled alone to visit the Mohawk tribe who lived near what is now Cohoes, New York. Other traditional accounts hold that the Great Peacemaker consulted with Jigonhsasee about which tribal leaders to approach and she facilitated that meeting to create the confederacy.

According to some legends, initially the Mohawk rejected the message of the Great Peacemaker, so he decided to perform a feat to demonstrate his purity and spiritual power.  After climbing a tree high above Kahon:ios (Cohoes Falls), the Great Peacemaker told the Mohawk warriors to chop the tree down.  Many onlookers watched as the Great Peacemaker disappeared into the swirling rapids of the Mohawk River.  They believed he had died but the next morning they found him sitting near a campfire.  Greatly impressed by the Great Peacemaker's miraculous survival, the Mohawk became the founding tribe of the Iroquois Confederacy. The tribes gathered at Onondaga Lake, where they planted a Tree of Peace and proclaimed the Great Binding Law of the Iroquois Confederacy.

The Mackinac natives record that Hiawatha came to Mackinaw Island to see Giche Mantitou Rock, also known as "Sugarloaf Rock",  where Peacemaker taught as well references that Peacemaker walked upon Lake Ontario. It is additionally recorded by them that Peacemaker's canoe could fly including a story where Peacemaker stated to Hiawatha, "this canoe can be rowed across these waters or do you want it to see it fly across". He traveled through the narrow neck of land near Niagara Falls healing the sick and all that he touched.

Dates
The dates Dekanawida lived, and thus the founding of the Confederacy, have not been identified with certainty.

Historians and archeologists have researched an incident related in the oral history of the founding of the Confederacy. As recorded by later scholars, one account relates there was a violent conflict among the Seneca, who were the last Iroquois nation to join the confederacy as a founding member. Their violence stopped when the sun darkened and the day seemed to turn to night. Since 1902 scholars have studied the possibility that this event was a solar eclipse, as William Canfield suggested in his Legends of the Iroquois; told by "the Cornplanter" . As scholars have learned more about the representation of natural events in oral histories, scholars into the 21st century have noted eclipses that could serve to date the founding of the Confederacy, in addition to the archeological evidence. Scholars referring to an eclipse have included (chronologically): Paul A. W. Wallace, Elizabeth Tooker, Bruce E. Johansen, Dean R. Snow, Barbara A. Mann and Jerry L. Fields, William N. Fenton, David Henige, Gary Warrick, and Neta Crawford.

Since Canfield's first mention, and the majority view, scholars have widely supported a date of 1451 AD as being of a known solar eclipse and the likely founding date based on this oral account and other evidence. Some argue it is an insufficient fit for the description, and favor a date of 1142, when there was also a documented solar eclipse. A few question dating the founding of the confederacy based on the mention of the eclipse.

Archeological investigation has contributed to discussions about the founding date, as its evidence can be dated and correlated to natural events. In 1982 archeologist Dean Snow said that evidence from mainstream archeology did not support a founding of the confederacy for any dates of an eclipse before 1350 AD (thus ruling out the 1142 AD date.) By 1998 Fenton considered an eclipse earlier than the 1451 AD majority view unlikely, but possible as long as it was after 1000 AD. By 2007/8 reviews considered an 1142 AD eclipse as a possible point of reference, even if most scholars supported 1451 AD as the safe choice.

Influence on the United States constitution
This confederacy influenced the United States Constitution and Anglo-American ideas of democracy, as recognized by Concurrent Resolution 331 issued by the U. S. Congress in 1988, which states in part:Whereas the original framers of the Constitution, including, most notably, George Washington and Benjamin Franklin, are known to have greatly admired the concepts of the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy; Whereas the confederation of the original Thirteen Colonies into one republic was influenced by the political system developed by the Iroquois Confederacy as were many of the democratic principles which were incorporated into the Constitution itself

Iroquois dominance
The Great Peacemaker established a council of clan and village chiefs to govern the confederacy.  In each tribe, which had matrilineal kinship systems of descent and property-holding, power was shared between the sexes.  Men held the positions of hereditary chiefs through their mother's line; clan mothers ruled on the fitness of chiefs and could depose any that they opposed. Most decisions in council were made by consensus, to which each representative had an equal voice. Early anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan attributed the regional dominance achieved by the Iroquois to their superior organization and coordination compared to other tribes; George Hunt also thought there was a factor of economic determinism, with their need for furs for the European trade and their superior geographic position controlling most of central and western New York. The oral laws and customs of the Great Law of Peace became the constitution of the Iroquois Confederacy, established by the 16th century or earlier.

Prophecy of the Boy Seer
The Great Peacemaker worked all his life to bring his vision to fruition.  He prophesied that a "white serpent" would come to his people's lands and make friends with them, only to deceive them later.  A "red serpent" would later make war against the "white serpent", but a Native American boy would be given a great power.  He would be accepted as a chosen leader by the people of "the land of the hilly country."  The boy stays neutral in the fight, and he speaks to the people, who number as the blades of grass, but he is heard by all. After a season, a "black serpent" would come and defeat both the "white" and "red serpents".  According to the prophecy, when the people gathered under the elm tree become humble, all three "serpents" would be blinded by a light many times brighter than the sun. Deganawidah said that he would be that light.  His nation would accept the "white serpent" into their safekeeping like a long-lost brother.

In the Bahá'í Faith

Some members of the Bahá'í Faith have connected the signs of a Prophet, as described by Bahá'u'lláh (Prophet-founder of the Bahá'í Faith), with the Peacemaker. As such, many Native American Bahá'ís in North America (and some non-Native) revere the Peacemaker as a Manifestation of God.

In film
Kissed by Lightning, 2009 film by Shelley Niro

See also
 List of peace activists

References

Further reading

Gibson, John Arthur (1992). "Concerning the League: the Iroquois League as Dictated in Onondaga", newly elicited, edited and translated by Hanni Woodbury in collaboration with Reg Henry and Harry Webster on the basis of A.A. *Goldenweiser's Manuscript. Memoir 9 (Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics, Winnipeg).
Henry, Thomas R. (1955). Wilderness Messiah: the story of Hiawatha and the Iroquois. Bonanza Books, New York. .
Mann, Charles C (2005). 1491 New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.  .
Sidis, W.J. (1982). The Tribes and the States. Wampanoag Nation.
Snow, Dean R. (2008). Archaeology of Native North America, New York: Prentice Hall.

External links
"Deganawidah" Infoplease, University of Liverpool
"Great Law of Peace", Six Nations.org

 The Great Peacemaker Deganawidah and his follower Hiawatha Theater play by Living Wisdom School
 The Quarterly Journal of the New York State Historical Association 1926

Iroquois people
Native American leaders
Indigenous leaders in Ontario
Religious figures of the indigenous peoples of North America
National founders
12th-century North American people
Founders of religions
Prophets

Great Peacemaker


Visible Secret is a 2001 Hong Kong horror comedy film, directed by Ann Hui, starring Eason Chan, Shu Qi, Anthony Wong, Sam Lee, James Wong, Wayne Lai, Kara Hui, Tony Liu and Cheung Tat-ming.

Plot
Peter, a hairdresser, meets June, a nurse, at the disco one night and she becomes his girlfriend. She claims to have a spiritual "third eye" which allows her to see ghosts. As they become closer to each other, Peter starts to encounter visions of ghosts. After a vacation at a holiday resort, June befriends a boy in the neighbourhood. One day, Peter and June visit the boy at his house, and Peter is horrified to see that the boy's mother is under attack by two vicious ghosts, who are fighting for possession of her body. The boy is later found dead. Meanwhile, Peter's father commits suicide in hospital under strange circumstances.

Peter becomes suspicious of June and wants to break up with her, even when she tries to warn him that he is being targeted by a "headless ghost". When Peter's best friend, Simon, tells him that he was indeed possessed, Peter regains his trust in June and they start unraveling the mystery together by tracking down details of a horrific accident that happened at Sai Wan two decades ago. Peter's father had accidentally bumped into a man and caused the man to fall onto a railway, where he was knocked down by an incoming tram and was decapitated. The man is the "headless ghost" and he is seeking revenge on Peter and his father.

Cast
 Eason Chan as Peter Wong Choi
Man Kin-fung as young Peter
 Shu Qi as June / Wong Siu-kam
Kelly Moo as young June
 Anthony Wong as Wong-lin
 Sam Lee as Simon
 James Wong as Lo Kit
 Wayne Lai as Peter's brother
 Kara Hui as Siu-kam's mother
 Tony Liu as Master Tsang
 Cheung Tat-ming as Taxi driver
 Jo Kuk as Ghost on the subway
 Perry Chan as Dicky
 Tiffany Lee as Carmen
 Rashima Maheubani as Sue
 Ho Fili as Fatso
 Yau Man-shing as Ah-kow
 Chung Yiu-shing as Little Chung
 Tammy Ting as Tat's wife
 Lo Yan-yan as Cher
 Fok Lin as Aunt San
 Janet Chang as Singing woman
 Ng Wing-han as Nurse
 Lo Pui-ho as Boy in salon A
 Kung Siu-ling as Boy's mother
 Lee Wing-yin as Sue's friend
 Lau Ho-yee as Jake's girlfriend
 Ng Tat-lap as Youngster in salon B
 Lai Hing-san as Uncle Chan
 Lee Chi-ming as Snake Head
 Li Fung as Miss Wong

Release
Visible Secret was released in Hong Kong on 1 June 2001. In the Philippines, the film was released by Media Asia Films on 21 August 2003.

See also
Visible Secret 2 (2002)

References

External links

2001 films
2001 comedy horror films
2000s ghost films
Films directed by Ann Hui
Hong Kong ghost films
Hong Kong supernatural horror films
2000s Hong Kong films
Films about nurses

Visible Secret


John Fayette Frame (born November 27, 1950) is an American sculptor, photographer, composer and filmmaker. He has been working as an artist in California since the early 1980s. Frame has been given Grants and Awards from the National Endowment for the Arts, the J. Paul Getty Museum, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. He has participated in group exhibitions around the world and has had major solo exhibitions at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Long Beach Museum of Art, and the Huntington Library, Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens. After five years of preparation, Part One of "The Tale of the Crippled Boy", a sweeping project incorporating sculpture, photography, installation, music and film, premiered at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California in March 2011.

Life
Frame was born in Colton, California. His father, Rudolph Randolph Frame, had only a third-grade education and was a welder and sheet metal worker for the Santa Fe Railway. His mother, Mildred Louise Frame (née Jones) was a cook in a local middle school. He has two siblings, Robert Wayne Frame (born 1931) and Phyllis Louise Frame Runyon (born 1943). After his graduation from the Colton School District, he attended San Diego State University from 1968 to 1969 and then left Southern California. During the following four years, he traveled through Europe and North America. He held multiple jobs including assistant manager of a discount department store, gas station attendant, bookstore employee, dishwasher, library assistant, and construction worker. From 1970 to 1971 he was employed by the state psychiatric hospital of New Hampshire as a psychiatric aide for the criminally insane. He returned to Southern California in 1972 and completed an undergraduate degree in English at San Diego State University in 1975. In 1972 he met Laura Lynn Dierker and they were married in 1977. They have three children: Katherine Lynn (born 1981), Ashley Fayette (born 1985), and Lilian M. (born 1987).

From 1979 to 1980, Frame attended the Claremont Graduate School, where he was an assistant in the printmaking department and foreman in the wood shop. He graduated with an MFA. In 1980, John and Laura Frame purchased their first home in Wrightwood, California where Laura had obtained a teaching position in the local elementary school. At the same time John, along with three fellow artists, (Randall Lavender, Eve Steele, and Lynn Roylance) leased a  building in downtown Los Angeles, known as the Firestone building, and began converting it to artists' studios. Although this project was never completed, it became the first artist-in-residence complex to come under the Los Angeles live/work residency ordinance for artists. Frame's studio was located there from 1980 until 1991. From 1992 until 2001 the artist's primary studio was located in the Santa Fe art colony in downtown Los Angeles. He also maintained a small working studio at his home in Wrightwood. During the years at the Santa Fe colony, his studio became a focal point for many of the figurative artists working in the Los Angeles area including Jim Doolan, Lauren Richardson, Jon Swihart, Peter Zokosky, Enjeong Noh, Brian Apthorp, F. Scott Hess, Cecilia Miguez, Ken Jones, Wes Christensen, Luis Serrano, Stephen Douglas and Stephen Dean Moore, among many others. The Los Angeles drawing group met in his studio on a weekly basis between 1992 and 2001 to draw from live models. Frame also originated the Los Angeles collaborative group known as the Bastards.This group consisted of Frame, Jon Swihart, Steve Galloway, Michael C. McMillan, F. Scott Hess and Peter Zokosky. The Bastards completed more than 60 collaborative works and had two exhibitions, one at Hunsaker/Schlesinger gallery in Los Angeles and one at the Davidson gallery in Seattle, Washington.

In 2001, Frame closed his studio in the Santa Fe art gallery and moved full-time to Wrightwood, where he continues to live and work.

Sculpture
Frame spent much of the 1970s studying a variety of art forms, including dance, theater, and literature. After college, he began creating his own work, experimenting with drawing, painting, and printmaking  before coming to sculpture. (To Hear the Sirens' Song and Live, the earliest work appearing in his 2005 retrospective show, was created in 1980.)

Although Frame received an MFA, he had no formal training in sculpture. His sculptural works were initially roughly-hewn, somewhat coarse studies of the human form. Though the refinement of his technical skill is evident in the stylistic changes in his work over the years, he has remained primarily a figurative sculptor with a humanistic, expressionist bent. His work draws on a tradition of fragmented figuration that dates back to the Renaissance and is visible in works of Rodin, Brancusi, and Giacometti. This focus represents a conscious departure from the abstract and conceptualist art that was popular when he attended graduate school and that has continued to dominate from an academic point of view. Instead, in addition to the Renaissance, Frame's work has drawn from older traditions, including Greek tragedy and medieval art and spiritual practice (altarpieces, reliquary, morality plays, Italian Commedia dell'arte, and hagiography). Critics have noted other diverse echoes and influences in Frame's work, including 19th century allegorical statuary, Black Forest Carvings, aboriginal fetish figures  romanesque and gothic effigies, American Arts and Crafts, and cubism  His work has been noted to have commonalities with that of Joseph Cornell, H.C. Westermann, Michael McMillen, and Stephen DeStaebler

His sculptural output increased between 1984 and 1990. In the mid-1990s, he began to incorporate found objects into his pieces, a practice he has continued into the present. Thus, he has been said to be a part of the California assemblage tradition. In the late 1990s, Frame's interest in literature began to be reflected directly in his work as he juxtaposed image and text in relief carving. Relief carvings reference, among others, Keats (Here lies one whose name was writ in water) and Blake (Some are born to sweet delight; some are born to endless night). Literary allusions have also appeared frequently in his titles, whose referents include Shakespeare (As water is in water, Poor Tom), the Bible (Noli me Tangere), and Wilfred Owen (All A Poet Can Do Is Warn).
In addition to these explicitly referenced sources, Frame cites other artists among his influences, among them writers Emily Dickinson, Leo Tolstoy, Simone Weil, and Fyodor Dostoevsky, and directors Kurosawa, Tarkovsky, and Fellini, and Bergman. (He credits the latter with helping him realize that he was to be an artist.) He has also been deeply influenced by classical music.

Frame's sculpture has been described as tragic, theatrical, enigmatic, fragmented, and formally inventive. Critics generally note that his work is concerned, in subject and content, with "the deepest dilemmas of life". Combining "humanistic concerns with irony, intellect, and psychological insight"  they deal with the human condition, spirituality, and nature, with transformation and sacrifice. His work has been criticized for its approach to gender (his figures are generally perceived as male, though the artist has said that he perceives them as "genderless")  and sexuality. In particular, his 1995 piece Strapping Boy has proved disturbing for many who feel that its implied narrative is one of sexual abuse. Critic Gerald Ackerman has interpreted the piece thus: "[it] gives us an unwelcome and unsettling realization of the ambiguity of both sexuality and affection, and of the troubles their impulsive interweaving can engender". These criticisms aside, those who review Frame's work frequently cite that its appeal lies in his propensity to probe the deep questions of life without arriving at easy answers. One critic captures this tension thus: "[In Frame's work] the meaning eludes us while the search for meaning captivates us."

The Tale of the Crippled Boy: Three Fragments of a Lost Tale

In 2005, Frame began to take his work in a new direction. That year, he conceived and began to execute the work that would form his largest exhibition to date. (The work, entitled The Tale of the Crippled Boy: Three Fragments of a Lost Tale was exhibited at the Huntington Library, Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens from March–June 2011.) The installation is unique in the artist's career in that it includes not only thirty-five pieces of sculpture but also sets, photography and animated vignettes, all based around an eclectic cast of sculpted characters, most of whom are fully articulated, with moving fingers, bodies, and jaws. The exhibition also includes an 8-minute documentary on the artist's process, directed by filmmaker Johnny Coffeen.
This departure from Frame's past work was not totally unanticipated; David Pagel, in a review of the artist's 2005 retrospective, noted "If John Frame were in the movie business, he would be a costume designer, stylist, set decorator, prop master, lighting specialist, writer, director, editor, producer, agent and publicist all rolled into one do it yourself lover of every little detail of every little job."  And, in fact, Frame has completed this project (including music, lighting, and photography) with only the help of a few friends and family members.

The work also shares thematic consistency with the artist's previous work, according to curators Kevin Murphy and Jessica Todd Smith, who state, "In keeping with the work John Frame has created throughout his career, the tale and the art associated with it evoke universal human themes—the nature of good and evil, the inevitability of death, and the struggle to find meaning in life—but always in a connotative rather than denotative manner."

The artist anticipates continuing the project, eventually producing a full-length film.

Production Design
In 2018, Frame served as the Production Designer for the Chicago Lyric Opera production of Faust, which ran from March 3 - March 31.  The production was in tandem with the Portland Opera where Faust opened on June 8, 2018.

Solo exhibitions
 2012 Portland Art Museum, Stott Gallery, Portland, Oregon
 2011 The Huntington Library, Art Collections and Botanical Gardens, San Marino, California
 2005 Long Beach Museum of Art, Long Beach, California
 1999 Kohn/Turner Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 1996 Kohn/Turner Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 1993 Jan Turner Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 1992 Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, California
 1990 Jan Turner Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 1987 Jan Turner Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 1984 Janus Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 1983 Installation Gallery, San Diego, California
 1982 Janus Gallery, Los Angeles, California
 Mattingly Baker Gallery, Dallas, Texas
 1981 Francine Seders Gallery, Seattle, Washington

Group exhibitions, awards, and honors
John Frame has received grants and awards from the National Endowment for the Arts (Visual Fellowship Grant, 1984, 1986), the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (New Talent Award, 1985), and the J. Paul Getty Museum (Individual Artists Fellowship, 1995). In 2009, he received an Honorary Doctor of Arts degree from Cornish College of the Arts in Seattle, Washington.

Frame has participated in at least 62 group exhibitions. A partial list appears below:
 2001, "Representing L.A.," Frye Art Museum, Seattle, WA
 1997, "Bastards: Individual and Collaborative Works, "Hunsaker/Schlesinger, Santa Monica, CA
 1997, "Blessings and Beginnings," Skirball Museum, Los Angeles, CA
 1995, "Burning Lights: Spirituality, Tradition, and Craft in Recent Art From the City of Angels," Palm Springs Desert Museum, Palm Springs, CA, Catalog, Illus.
 1994, "beyond appearance," The Armory Center for the Arts, Pasadena, CA, and California College of Arts and crafts, Oakland, CA, Catalog, Illus
 1994, "The Fifth International Shoe Box Sculpture Exhibition," Taiwan Museum of Art, Taichung, Taiwan, Catalog, Illus.
 1991, "Individual Realities in the California ArtScene," Sezon Museum of Art, Tokyo Japan. Seibu Tsukashin Hall, Amagasaki, Japan, Catalog, Illus.
 1991, "Drawings," Koplin Gallery, Los Angeles, CA
 1990, "Fourth International Shoe Box Sculpture Exhibition," University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, Catalog, Illus.
 1989, "Art From Los Angeles," Nakazawa Gallery, Tokyo, Japan.
 1987, "Avant-garde in the Eighties," Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, CA, Catalog, Illus.
 1985, "Spektrum Los Angeles," Galerie Hartje, Berlin, Germany. Catalog, Illus.
 1984, "Return of the Narrative," Palm Springs Desert Museum, Palm Springs, CA, Catalog, Illus.
 1984, "Three Sculptors: John Frame, Sam Hernandez, Gary Martin," ARCO Center for Visual Art, Los Angeles, CA, Catalog, Illus.
 1981, "Newcomers 1981," Los Angeles Municipal Art Gallery, Los Angeles, CA

Frame's work can also be found in more than three hundred public and private collections, including those of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the University of Southern California, and The Renwick Gallery of American Art at the Smithsonian Institution. Frame has been artist-in-residence, visiting artist or guest lecturer at more than fifty museums, universities and art-related institutions around the United States. He has also taught at the University of California at Los Angeles, the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, and the Claremont Graduate School.

References

External links
 Official site

American filmmakers
American animated film directors
American male composers
American male sculptors
1950 births
Living people
Contemporary sculptors
Stop motion animators
Photographers from California
Sculptors from California
Claremont Graduate University alumni
People from Colton, California
People from Wrightwood, California
20th-century American sculptors
21st-century American sculptors
21st-century American male artists
20th-century American composers
21st-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
20th-century American male artists

John Frame (sculptor)


In mathematics, in the field of harmonic analysis, an oscillatory integral operator is an integral operator of the form

where the function S(x,y) is called the phase of the operator and the function a(x,y) is called the symbol of the operator.  λ is a parameter. One often considers S(x,y) to be real-valued and smooth, and a(x,y) smooth and compactly supported. Usually one is interested in the behavior of Tλ for large values of λ.

Oscillatory integral operators often appear in many fields of mathematics (analysis, partial differential equations, integral geometry, number theory) and in physics.  Properties of oscillatory integral operators have been studied by Elias Stein and his school.

Hörmander's theorem
The following bound on the L2 → L2 action of oscillatory integral operators (or L2 → L2 operator norm) was obtained by Lars Hörmander in his paper on Fourier integral operators:

Assume that x,y ∈ Rn, n ≥ 1. Let S(x,y) be real-valued and smooth, and let a(x,y) be smooth and compactly supported. If  everywhere on the support of a(x,y), then there is a constant C such that Tλ, which is initially defined on smooth functions, extends to a continuous operator from L2(Rn) to L2(Rn), with the norm bounded by , for every λ ≥ 1:

References

Microlocal analysis
Harmonic analysis
Singular integrals
Fourier analysis
Integral transforms
Inequalities

Oscillatory integral operator


Paul Leo Locatelli, S.J. (September 16, 1938 – July 12, 2010) was an American Jesuit priest, academic and certified public accountant. Locatelli served as the president of Santa Clara University from 1988 until 2008 before becoming chancellor of Santa Clara in 2008. He also held the post of Secretary of Higher Education for the Society of Jesus in Rome.

Biography

Early life
Locatelli grew up on a ranch in the town of Boulder Creek, California, in the Santa Cruz Mountains, the second of three sons. The family grew their own walnuts and grapes for winemaking. His family had come to Boulder Creek from Italy in the 1890s. His father ran Locatelli Brothers Lumber, where Locatelli worked. His mother's family had immigrated from Italy to Oakland, California, where they opened and operated the Colombo Bakery.

Locatelli was the first member of his family to attend college. He received a bachelor's degree in business at the University of Santa Clara, now Santa Clara University in 1960. Classmates at Santa Clara included CIA director Leon Panetta, who remained friends with Locatelli, and former Oakland A's owner Stephen Schott.  Locatelli obtained a doctorate in business from the University of Southern California's Marshall School of Business.

He enlisted in the United States Army and decided to enter the Jesuits after leaving the armed services. Locatelli entered the former Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley. He was ordained a Jesuit priest in 1974.

Santa Clara University
Locatelli began teaching at Santa Clara University as a professor of accounting in 1974, the same year in which he was ordained a Jesuit priest. Within a few years, he was voted outstanding teacher of the year. He rose from Dean of the School of Business, to Academic Vice-President.

Locatelli was named the 27th President of Santa Clara University in 1988 after 14 years at the university. During Locatelli's tenure as president, academics, admissions standards and endowment funding increased substantially.

Under Locatelli's presidency, Santa Clara University fully renovated or constructed nineteen new campus buildings, as well as a sports center. This is the equivalent of two-thirds of all campus facilities. A prolific fundraiser, Locatelli raised millions for the construction spree which included new academic buildings, a business school building, residence halls, a swim center, a tennis center, and the School of Arts and Science. He also raised funds for scholarships at Santa Clara. Locatelli phased out Santa Clara's fraternity and sorority houses, which lessened the influence of the Greek system on student life. Controversially, Locatelli eliminated the school's Division II football program in 1993.

Locatelli spearheaded the effort to reroute The Alameda (California State Route 82), which had previously run through the center of Santa Clara University's campus. Locatelli also had a new entrance road, lined with palm trees, built which leads to the Mission Santa Clara de Asís, a 1777 Spanish mission which is now the centerpiece of Santa Clara's campus.

Locatelli and Santa Clara University became involved with the Salvadoran Civil War during the late 1980s and early 1990s. He offered Santa Clara as a refuge to the lone surviving Jesuit of the 1989 massacre at the Universidad Centroamericana, in which six Jesuits, their housekeeper and her daughter were killed by the Salvadoran Army. (The surviving Jesuit priest had been out of El Salvador at the time of the killings). Father Locatelli also implemented a program where Santa Clara students volunteered and worked at a women's center and urban schools in El Salvador.

Under President Locatelli's guidance, Santa Clara's endowment at Santa Clara grew from $77 million in 1988 to approximately $700 million in 2008.

Through the Ignatian Center for Jesuit Education, the University has expanded its ability to connect students to communities in Silicon Valley and throughout the world. Locatelli was known affectionately by the students at SCU through a variety of nicknames; such as; "Papa Lōc", "Big Poppa P", "P. Loc", and the "Big P".

On March 1, 2008, Locatelli announced his intention to resign during the 2008–09 academic year, after 20 years as university president, due to his additional responsibilities as Secretary of Higher Education of the Society of Jesus in Rome, a post he had held since January 2007, coordinating the Jesuits 150 universities worldwide, to promote cooperation among Jesuit higher education institutions. He was subsequently promoted to chancellor of the university in November 2008 by new Santa Clara University President Michael Engh, S.J.

Recognitions
On January 16, 2002 he was awarded the Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice from San Jose Bishop Patrick Joseph McGrath.

Father Locatelli was awarded the Spirit of Silicon Valley Lifetime Achievement Award from the Silicon Valley Leadership Group. He was also a recipient of the David Packard Award in 2009.

Death
Locatelli was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in May 2010. At the time Father Locatelli took ill, he was preparing for the fiftieth anniversary celebration and reunion of his classmates in the class of 1960 at Santa Clara University, and had already sent out invitations, including one to Leon Panetta. He was moved to the hospice at Regis Jesuit Infirmary in Los Gatos on July 8, 2010. He died from pancreatic cancer on July 12, 2010, at the age of 71.

Locatelli was survived by his brothers, Albert and Harry. CIA Director, former Congressman and White House Chief of Staff Leon Panetta, a 1960 Santa Clara classmate of Locatelli's, stated after Father Locatelli's death that, "What Paul told you was always the truth. He didn't play games. You knew that what he said was what he believed. I don't think there is any question that he (Father Locatelli) will go down as one of the greatest presidents in Santa Clara history."

References

External links
Office of the President, Santa Clara University
Official speeches and letters
Fr. Locatelli re-appointed for fourth term
Santa Clara University Press Release on Father Locatelli's death

1938 births
2010 deaths
Presidents of Santa Clara University
American accountants
American people of Italian descent
20th-century American Jesuits
21st-century American Jesuits
Santa Clara University alumni
Marshall School of Business alumni
Loyola Marymount University faculty
People from Santa Clara, California
People from Boulder Creek, California
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Deaths from cancer in California
Catholics from California

Paul Locatelli


Barognosis, or baresthesia, is the ability to evaluate the weight of objects, or to differentiate objects of different weights, by holding or lifting them. It is the opposite of abarognosis, the  to evaluate the weight of objects.  This sensory information is transmitted by the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway of the spinal cord, which also carries the sensations of fine touch, stereognosis, tactile pressure, graphesthesia, texture recognition, kinesthesia, two-point discrimination, proprioception, and vibration.

To test for intact barognosis, a set of small objects with the same size and shape but of graduated weight is used.  A series of different weights can be placed one at a time in the same hand, and the patient is asked to identify the comparative weight of the objects, i.e. by saying whether the object is "heavier" or "lighter".  Other methods for testing include different weights being placed in each hand simultaneously, or having the patient pick up each weight using a fingertip grip.

References

Mass
Skills

Barognosis


Clipping is the cutting-out of articles from a paper publication. Newspaper clippings are often used when people have to write a report or make a presentation on current events for school.  Clippings may also be kept by adults for future reference, or for sentimental reasons such as an article on a history-making event. One service of Media monitoring services, which monitor the media exposure of a client, is to collect clippings referring to a client.

Collage
Clipping can also be used for artistic purposes as in collage. Picasso's "Glass and Bottle of Suze" is an example of this technique.

See also

 Media monitoring service
 Collage

References

Collage
Newspapers

Clipping (publications)


The Mahalaxmi Temple is one of the most famous temples of the city of Mumbai, India. It is dedicated to Mahalakshmi the central deity of Devi Mahatmyam. The temple was built in 1831 by Dhakji Dadaji (1760–1846), a Hindu merchant.

History
Built around 1785, the history of this temple is supposedly connected with the building of the Hornby Vellard.  Apparently after portions of the sea wall of the Vellard collapsed twice, the chief engineer, a Pathare Prabhu, named Ramji Shivji Prabhu, dreamt of a devi statue in the sea near Worli.  A search recovered it, and he built a temple for it.  After this, the work on the vellard could be completed without a hitch.

Inside
The Mahalaxmi temple contains images of the Tridevi goddesses Mahakali, Mahalakshmi, and Mahasaraswati. All three images are adorned with nose rings, gold bangles and pearl necklaces. The image of Mahalakshmi is in the center shown holding lotus flowers in tandem. The compound of this temple contains several stalls that sell flower garlands and other paraphernalia used by devotees for worship and as offering.

Navratri Festival
During Navaratri celebrations, devotees from distant places throng to the temple, which is decorated for this occasion, to pay obeisance. They have to stand for hours in long queues holding coconuts, flowers and sweets which they offer to the goddess.

How to reach
It is only 1 km from Mahalakshmi railway station in Mumbai. There are two more temples viz. Tryambakeshwar temple and Mahadev dhakleshwar temple near to the temple.

See also
 History of Mumbai

References

External links

 Official website

Religious buildings and structures completed in 1831
19th-century Hindu temples
Hindu temples in Mumbai
1831 establishments in India

Mahalakshmi Temple, Mumbai


The General Services Administration (GSA) is an  independent agency of the United States government. It was created in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies.

GSA gives products and communications for U.S. government offices, provides transportation and office space to federal employees, and develops government-wide cost-minimizing policies and other management tasks.

References

United States government agencies

General Services Administration


This is about the town in the West Midlands, England. For other towns called Tipton, see Tipton (disambiguation).

Tipton is a town in the Sandwell borough of the West Midlands, England, with a population of around 47,000.

Tipton is located about halfway between Birmingham and Wolverhampton. It is a part of the West Midlands conurbation, and is a part of the Black Country.

Towns in the West Midlands (county)

Tipton


A rigger is one who works on ropes, booms, lifts, hoists and the like for a stage production, film, or television show.

The term "rigger" originally referred to a person who attended to the rigging of a sailing ship.  In the age of sail, trading followed seasonal patterns with ships leaving port at set times of the year to make the most of winds.  When not at sea sailors would seek employment ashore.  Their skill with ropes and booms found use in the theatre.

The original canvas backdrops used in the theatre moved with ropes and pulleys, being developed from techniques used for sails.  It is from these roots that modern fly systems emerged.  This also gave rise to the tradition in British theatres of never whistling on stage as the riggers would use the same whistled instructions on stage as they did aboard ship. A misplaced whistle could be taken as an instruction to the riggers to change the set.

The term rigger is still used for people backstage in theatres, the road crew for a live concert, conventions and trade shows, and by extension to similar jobs such as those who are responsible for fastening chain motors (like CM Lodestar, EXE Rise, Chainmaster) by wire rope to the structural steel of a building.

With the birth of the film industry, just as stage actors adapted their techniques to the new medium so did those back stage. The complexity of the new environment giving rise to specializations such as those in the film industry who rig scaffolding for film sets and camera rigs; also termed as a standby rigger if they are on site and 'on call' all of the time.

Wire riggers
In the theater and film industry, a wire rigger is a worker in the special effects/stunts film crew who "flies" actors.  They are responsible for rigging special harnesses to attached wires which in turn are run through a series of "blocks" (pulleys) to a control area where a wire rigger raises, lowers or traverses an actor wearing the harness.  Wire riggers also rig up rails along which travels a "skate" from which the wire is attached.  Many plays and feature films (e.g. Peter Pan, Harry Potter, Superman) use this technique.

References

External links
wordpress.com, Production Team & Crew Glossary

Filmmaking occupations
Road crew

Rigger (entertainment)


MenuetOS (also known as MeOS) is an operating system for architecture computers for x86 and x86-64 processors, by Ville Mikael Turjanmaa.  It is a very small system, which can be run from a floppy disk.  It is written in only assembly code, and works fast because of these differences and because it has less "code overhead".
It is available in English, Russian, Czech, Serbian, and Chinese.

Operating systems

MenuetOS


Xi Jinping (pronounced , born 15 June 1953) is the General Secretary o the Communist Pairty o Cheenae, the Preses o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae, an the Chairman o the Central Militar Commission. As General Secretary, he is also an ex officio member o the CPC Politburo Staundin Committee, Cheenae's de facto tap decision-makin body.

Son o communist veteran Xi Zhongxun, Xi Jinping rose through the ranks poleetically in Cheenae's coastal provinces. He served as the Govrenor o Fujian atween 1999 an 2002, then as Govrenor an CPC pairty chief o the neighborin Zhejiang atween 2002 an 2007. Followin the dismissal o Chen Liangyu, Xi wis transferred tae Shanghai as the pairty secretary for a brief period in 2007. Xi wis promotit tae the central leadership in October 2007, groomed tae acome Hu Jintao's successor.

Xi is nou the leader o the Fowk's Republic's fifth generation o leadership. He haes cried for a renewed campaign against corruption, continued market economic reforms, an open approach tae govrenance, an a comprehensive naitional renewal unner the neologism "Cheenese Dream".

References

Freemit airtins
 Biography  at www.chinavitae.com

 Xi Jinping collectit news an commentary at the Cheenae Deegital Times

 featur artice on Xi, 29 September 2012

 U.S. Embassy Beijing, Portrait o Xi Jinping , via Unitit States diplomatic cables leak
 Osnos, Evan, "China's Valentine's Day in Washington", The New Yorker, 14 February 2012. Review o comment accompanyin Xi's veesit.

1953 births
Cheenese chemical ingineers
Communist Pairty o Cheenae politeecians frae Beijing
Crown Prince Pairty
Govrenors o Fujian
Govrenors o Zhejiang
Livin fowk
Fowkrepublic o Cheenae politeecians frae Beijing
Preses o the Fowkrepublic o Cheenae
Scientists frae Beijing
Tsinghua Varsity alumni
Vice Preses o the Fowk's Republic o Cheenae

Xi Jinping