Clyde Lee McCoy (December 29, 1903 – June 11, 1990), was an American jazz trumpeter whose popularity spanned seven decades. He is best remembered for his theme song, "Sugar Blues", written by Clarence Williams and Lucy Fletcher, and also as a co-founder of Down Beat magazine in 1935.  The song hit in 1931 and 1935, in Columbia and Decca versions, and returned to Billboard magazine's Country (Hillbilly) chart in 1941. It was also played with vocals, by Bob Wills and his Texas Playboys, Fats Waller and Ella Fitzgerald.

Johnny Mercer had a vocal hit in 1947. McCoy was a member of one of the families of the Hatfield-McCoy feud, and was based at various times in Los Angeles, New York City, and at Chicago's Drake Hotel, where he first performed "Sugar Blues" in 1930. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6426 Hollywood Boulevard.

Early career
McCoy had begun mastering the trumpet when he was without formal instruction, after the McCoy family moved to Portsmouth, Ohio in 1912. This would lead him to perform regularly at church and school affairs. He was to perform on the Cincinnati riverboats five years later, plying the Mississippi River, and would also perform on the side-wheelers the Island Queen and the Bernard McSwain, becoming one of the youngest musicians on the river at age 14.

McCoy was informed in 1920 by a musical associate about an opening for a small band at a popular resort location in Knoxville, Tennessee, which was originally planned to be a two-week gig. The band boarded a train for Knoxville with a group who had never played together as a unit. The band rehearsed in the train's smoker, en route to the Whittle Springs Hotel and Spa. When the band arrived in Knoxville, owner George Whittle agreed to audition Clyde's "Chicago Orchestra" and approved of their performance, as well the patrons. The Clyde McCoy Orchestra would be officially launched after the gig lasted for 2 months.

Recorded material
McCoy performed his song "Sugar Blues" at the Drake Hotel in Chicago in 1930. Clyde's solo rendition of the song would draw enthusiastic approval from the patrons at the Drake Hotel, and provided national broadcast exposure for the band on the radio. This would also help Clyde be signed to a recording contract with Columbia Records, and the song was recorded on January 22, 1931. It was an instant retail success and continued to enjoy successful sales over the years. The song sold in excess of fourteen million copies internationally by the time of Clyde's retirement in 1985.

The Clyde McCoy Orchestra had a long and successful run at the Drake Hotel before beginning a year-long engagement at Terrace Gardens in Chicago. The band was featured in a Balaban and Katz vaudeville production, before beginning a two-year second engagement Chicago. In mid-1935 Clyde signed a five-year recording contract with Decca Records.

Clyde and the band accelerated their recording activity when they signed with Decca Records. The national recording industry was suffering the Great Depression at the time, which severely hampered the number of record sales. After signing with Decca, McCoy's recording activity accelerated. In addition to conventional retail discs, he began to record regularly at the transcription studios. Those recordings were used primarily in delayed radio broadcasts. Before McCoy entered military service in World War II, he recorded frequently for Associated Transcriptions, both in Chicago and New York. The ASCAP recording ban in 1941 halted recording of all songs composed by its members. Clyde would start recording for LangWorth Transcriptions in New York and several prominent labels, including Mercury, Capitol, and Vocalion Records.

Personal life
McCoy was the son of a Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad detective and a member of the McCoy clan that was involved in the Hatfield-McCoy feud.

At his home in Kentucky in 1926, Clyde petitioned the Daylight Lodge No. 760 in Louisville, Tennessee, and received the E.A. Degree on January 9, 1926, the F.C. Degree on May 8, and the M.M. Degree on June 26, 1926. He would be a member of that lodge for 64 years by the time of his death. He became a devoted Mason and a lifetime member of the lodge. Shortly after, Clyde became a member of the Valley of Memphis, Tennessee, A.A.S.R., and joined Kosair Shrine Temple in Louisville, Kentucky.

On January 20, 1945, McCoy married one of the Bennett sisters, Maxine Means, who he had been courting since the girls joined his band back in 1936. The two did not have children, which kept McCoy traveling and performing as long as Clyde's health would permit. He had Alzheimer's disease, and Maxine adamantly rejected medical advice to admit her beloved Clyde to an extended care facility.  She cared for him in their home, where he died on June 11, 1990, at age 86. Private memorial services were offered on the 14th at the Memorial Park Rotunda in Memphis.

"Wah-wah" style and pedal
McCoy had been experimenting for nearly ten years with the "wah-wah" trumpet mute. He used it when performing the song "Sugar Blues" and many of the songs in his band's library of arrangements. It was so popular that he licensed the King Instrument Company to manufacture and market the device.

McCoy developed the signature "wah-wah" sound in the late 1920s by fluttering a Harmon mute in the bell of his trumpet. In 1967, a similar effect was made for electric guitar with the introduction of the Vox Clyde McCoy Wah-Wah Pedal (Clyde's name was only used for promotion and Clyde had nothing to do with the use or development of the pedal), the most significant guitar effect of its time. The Wah-wah pedal was invented by a young engineer named Brad Plunkett, who worked for the Thomas Organ Company, Vox/JMI's U.S. counterpart. The wah circuit basically sprang from the 3-position midrange voicing function used on the Vox Super Beatle amplifier.

Vox cleverly packaged the circuit into an enclosure with a rocker pedal attached to the pot (which controlled the frequency of the resonant peak) and named the new device after Clyde McCoy. Early versions of the Clyde McCoy pedal featured an image of McCoy on the bottom panel, which soon gave way to his signature only before Thomas Organ changed the name of the pedal to Cry Baby. Thomas Organ's failure to trademark the Cry Baby name soon led to the market being flooded with Cry Baby imitations from various parts of the world, including Italy, where the McCoy pedals were originally made.

Partial filmography
A Midnight Bell (1921)
The Idle Class (1921) (extra)

References

External links

1903 births
1990 deaths
Musicians from Ashland, Kentucky
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
Big band bandleaders
Mercury Records artists
20th-century American musicians
Jazz musicians from Kentucky
20th-century trumpeters
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians

Clyde McCoy


Pietro Giovanni Guarneri (1655–1720), also known as Pietro da Mantua or Peter Guarnerius of Mantua was a violin maker of the Guarneri family who also worked as a professional musician. Today his instruments are highly regarded, though quite rare. They are played by musicians such as Joseph Szigeti.

Biography
Pietro Guarneri was the eldest son of the master luthier Andrea Guarneri and Anna Maria di Orcelli, born in Cremona, Italy on the 18th of February 1655. Although the exact date he began working in his father's workshop is unknown, experts have found traces of his workmanship beginning about 1670 in instruments labeled as Andrea Guarneri. His work appears in many instruments between 1670 and 1678, and some seem to be wholly his own work though, unlike his younger brother Giuseppe filius Andrea Guarneri, he never used his own label while working with their father. His early work shows not only promising ability and craftsmanship, but also a pronounced tendency to express his own personality and follow his own ideas. He quickly developed his own style, noticeable in its distinctive f-holes, precise corners and purfling, and a fuller arching than his father used.  Evidence from his father's will indicates that father and son did not work together in the family workshop harmoniously, and Pietro left Cremona altogether in 1679, eventually establishing himself in Mantua.

In 1677 Pietro married Caterina Sassagni, and they had a son in the following year. In 1694, he appears in the census in Mantua as having remarried to Lucia Guidi, and having five children, none of whom followed their father into violin making.

Even while he was in Cremona violin making was not his only interest. He also developed himself as a violin and viol player. By 1685, he was accomplished enough to perform for the Duke of Mantua as a violin soloist, and play a viol in the Mantuan Court Orchestra. His musicianship is unique among the great Italian violin makers of the classical period. He is the only one who left any record of musical ability, and certainly the only one who pursued both violin making and performing professionally.
He also appears to be the earliest known violin maker in the city of Mantua, though doubtless there were many viol and lute makers. The city was already famous for its music, being home to the  composer Monteverdi and Duke Vincenzo I of Gonzaga,  a composer and patron of the arts.  His performing resulted in his making few instruments. Today not more than fifty of his violins are thought to exist, and there are no known violas or violoncelli.*

Footnotes

*Although William Henry Hill states that there are no Pietro Guarneri violoncelli in his 1931 book The Violin Makers of the Guarneri Family: Their Life and Work, in 1951 Emil Herrmann, a respected authority on stringed instruments, certified a 'cello that was labeled and had been previously attributed to Andrea Guarneri as made by his son Pietro

Instruments
Pietro inherited from his father basics of the Amati form and concept of the violin, but his style quickly developed as distinctly his own. His workmanship was much finer and more controlled than his father's, and his instruments demonstrate a harmony of elements rarely equaled by his father, which indicates a superior eye for form.  The earliest instrument that exhibits Pietro's personal label is dated 1685, and was made in Mantua. This instrument's curves are slightly stiffened and elongated in a Stradivarian style.  In general Pietro's instruments were the standard 14 inches long, and tended to be of a narrow pattern with rather elongated bouts. The corners and edgework were light, delicate and deeply fluted.  His f-holes were based on an Amati template, but the top and bottom holes were larger than any Amati's, and the nicks more deeply cut.

Even before he left his father's workshop, Pietro experimented with ornamentation on his instruments, possibly to increase their value. He sometimes added fleur-de-lis at the corners and at times added a second line of purfling. However his attempts at embellishment always fell short those he was probably copying: Nicolò Amati and Antonio Stradivari.

From 1700 onward, he abandoned the Amati-like delicacy of his earlier work and adopted a larger, more masculine style. His model remained basically the same, though with increased width, enlarged edges, corners and f-holes. His massive scrolls are especially distinctive in this period, with the intermediate turn of the volute being left so high that the eyes appear dwarfed.

Throughout his career Pietro Guarneri was fastidious in his choice of wood. He accepted no compromises, and his maple is often of foreign growth and exceptional appearance. His varnish, likewise, was first quality, ranging in colour from golden-brown to orange to a brilliant red.

References

 Gianpaolo Gregori, Pietro Giovanni Guarneri's 21 children in Mantua, in:
http://www.archiviodellaliuteriacremonese.it/en/monographs/pietro_giovanni_guarneri_children_mantua.aspx=2017.

Luthiers from Cremona
1655 births
1720 deaths
Musicians from Cremona
Businesspeople from Mantua

Pietro Giovanni Guarneri


'තේ හෝ චා යනු කැමිලියා සයිනෙන්සිස් හි සුව කළ හෝ නැවුම් කොළ මත උණු හෝ උතුරන වතුර වත් කිරීමෙන් සකස් කරන ලද ඇරෝමැටික පානයකි. සදාහරිත පඳුරක් වන මෙය නිරිතදිග චීනයේ සහ උතුරු මියන්මාරයේ මායිම් ප්‍රදේශවල ආරම්භ වූ අතර නැගෙනහිර ආසියාවට ආවේණික වේ. තේ Camellia taliensis මගින්ද කලාතුරකින් සාදනු ලබයි. සාමාන්‍ය ජලයෙන් පසු, තේ යනු ලෝකයේ වැඩිපුරම පරිභෝජනය කරන පානයයි. විවිධ තේ වර්ග තිබේ; සමහර ඒවා සිසිලනය, තරමක් කටුක සහ කහට රසය ඇති අතර අනෙක් ඒවාට පැණිරස, ගෙඩි, මල් හෝ තෘණ සටහන් ඇතුළත් විශාල වශයෙන් වෙනස් රසයන් ඇත. මූලික වශයෙන් එහි කැෆේන් අන්තර්ගතය නිසා තේ මිනිසුන් තුළ උත්තේජක බලපෑමක් ඇති කරයි.

චීන වෛද්‍ය හුවා ටුඕ විසින් ලියන ලද වෛද්‍ය ග්‍රන්ථයක තේ පානය පිළිබඳ මුල් විශ්වාසනීය වාර්තාවක් ක්‍රි.ව. තුන්වන සියවස දක්වා දිව යයි. එය චීන ටැන්ග් රාජවංශයේ විනෝදාස්වාද පානයක් ලෙස ප්‍රචලිත වූ අතර තේ පානය පසුව අනෙකුත් නැගෙනහිර ආසියාතික රටවලට ව්‍යාප්ත විය. පෘතුගීසි පූජකයන් සහ වෙළෙන්දෝ එය 16 වන සියවසේදී යුරෝපයට හඳුන්වා දුන්හ. 17 වන ශතවර්ෂයේදී, බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය ඉන්දියාවේ මහා පරිමාණයෙන් තේ වගා කිරීමට පටන් ගත් ඉංග්‍රීසි ජනතාව අතර තේ පානය විලාසිතාවක් විය.

"ඖෂධ තේ" යන්නෙන් අදහස් කරන්නේ "Camellia sinensis" වලින් සාදන ලද බීම නොවේ. ඒවා පලතුරු, කොළ හෝ රෝස්ෂිප්, චමමයිල් හෝ රෝයිබොස් වැනි වෙනත් ශාක කොටස්වල කහට වේ. තේ පැලෑටියෙන් සාදන ලද තේ සමඟ ව්‍යාකූලත්වය වැලැක්වීම සඳහා මේවා "ටිසේනස්" හෝ "ඖෂධ කහට" ලෙස හැඳින්විය හැක.

නිරුක්ති
තේ සඳහා වූ විවිධ වචනවල නිරුක්තිය, චීනයේ සිට ලොව පුරා රටවලට තේ පානය කිරීමේ සංස්කෘතිය සහ වෙළඳාම සම්ප්‍රේෂණය කිරීමේ ඉතිහාසය පිළිබිඹු කරයි. ලොව පුරා තේ සඳහා වචන සියල්ලම පාහේ පුළුල් කාණ්ඩ තුනකට අයත් වේ: te, cha සහ chai, ඉංග්‍රීසියෙන් te, cha හෝ  ලෙස පවතී. char, සහ chai. ඉංග්‍රීසි භාෂාවට ඇතුළු වූ තිදෙනාගෙන් මුල්ම තැනැත්තා "චා" වන අතර එය 1590 ගණන්වල මැකාවෝ හි වෙළඳාම් කළ පෘතුගීසීන් හරහා පැමිණ වචනයේ කැන්ටනීස් උච්චාරණය ලබා ගත්තේය. වඩාත් සුලභ තේ ආකෘතිය 17 වන සියවසේදී ලන්දේසීන් හරහා පැමිණි අතර, ඔවුන් එය වක්‍රව මැලේ "ටෙ" වෙතින් හෝ සෘජුවම මින් චීන භාෂාවෙන් "ටෙ" උච්චාරණයෙන් ලබා ගත්හ. තුන්වන ස්වරූපය වන චායි (අර්ථය "කුළුබඩු සහිත තේ") "චා" යන උතුරු චීන උච්චාරණයෙන් ආරම්භ වූ අතර, එය මධ්‍යම ආසියාවට සහ පර්සියාවට ගොඩබිමට ගමන් කළ අතර එහිදී එය පර්සියානු අවසානයක් වන "යි" ලබා ගත්තේය.

Botanical origin

Tea plants are native to East Asia and probably originated in the borderlands of southwestern China and northern Myanmar.

Chinese (small-leaf) type tea (C. sinensis var. sinensis) may have originated in southern China possibly with hybridization of unknown wild tea relatives. However, since there are no known wild populations of this tea, its origin is speculative.

Given their genetic differences forming distinct clades, Chinese Assam-type tea (C. sinensis var. assamica) may have two different parentages – one being found in southern Yunnan (Xishuangbanna, Pu'er City) and the other in western Yunnan (Lincang, Baoshan). Many types of Southern Yunnan Assam tea have been hybridized with the closely related species Camellia taliensis. Unlike Southern Yunnan Assam tea, Western Yunnan Assam tea shares many genetic similarities with Indian Assam-type tea (also C. sinensis var. assamica). Thus, Western Yunnan Assam tea and Indian Assam tea both may have originated from the same parent plant in the area where southwestern China, Indo-Burma, and Tibet meet. However, as the Indian Assam tea shares no haplotypes with Western Yunnan Assam tea, Indian Assam tea is likely to have originated from an independent domestication. Some Indian Assam tea appears to have hybridized with the species Camellia pubicosta.

Assuming a generation of 12 years, Chinese small-leaf tea is estimated to have diverged from Assam tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese Assam tea and Indian Assam tea diverged 2,800 years ago. The divergence of Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam tea would correspond to the last glacial maximum.

Early tea drinking

People in ancient East Asia ate tea for centuries, perhaps even millennia, before ever consuming it as a beverage. They would nibble on the leaves raw, add them to soups or greens, or ferment them and chew it like how betel is chewed.

Tea drinking may have begun in the region of Yunnan, where it was used for medicinal purposes. It is also believed that in Sichuan, "people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction."

Chinese legends attribute the invention of tea to the mythical Shennong (in central and northern China) in 2737 BC, although evidence suggests that tea drinking may have been introduced from the southwest of China (Sichuan/Yunnan area). The earliest written records of tea come from China. The word tú  appears in the Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of "bitter vegetable" (), and it is possible that it referred to many different plants such as sow thistle, chicory, or smartweed, as well as tea. In the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The Qin later conquered the state of Ba and its neighbour Shu, and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi Lu (): "It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea." Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by the Qin dynasty general Liu Kun who requested that some "real tea" to be sent to him.

The earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an, indicating that tea from the genus Camellia was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as the second century BC. The Han dynasty work, "The Contract for a Youth", written by Wang Bao in 59 BC, contains the first known reference to boiling tea. Among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, the contract states that "he shall boil tea and fill the utensils" and "he shall buy tea at Wuyang". The first record of tea cultivation is also dated to this period, during which tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain () near Chengdu. Another early credible record of tea drinking dates to the 3rd century AD, in a medical text by Hua Tuo, who stated, "to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better." However, before the mid-8th century Tang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice. Tea was disdained by the Northern dynasties aristocrats, who describe it as a "slaves' drink", inferior to yogurt. It became widely popular during the Tang dynasty, when it was spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. The Classic of Tea, a treatise on tea and its preparations, was written by the 8th century Chinese writer, Lu Yu. He was known to have influenced tea drinking on a large part in China.

Developments

Through the centuries, a variety of techniques for processing tea, and a number of different forms of tea, were developed. During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form, while in the Song dynasty, loose-leaf tea was developed and became popular. During the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unoxidized tea leaves were first stirred in a hot dry pan, then rolled and air-dried, a process that stops the oxidation process that would have turned the leaves dark, thereby allowing tea to remain green. In the 15th century, oolong tea, in which the leaves are allowed to partially oxidize before being heated in the pan, was developed. Western tastes, however, favoured the fully oxidized black tea, and the leaves were allowed to oxidize further. Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently careless practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, which yielded a different flavour.

Worldwide spread

Tea was first introduced to Western priests and merchants in China during the 16th century, at which time it was termed chá. The earliest European reference to tea, written as chiai, came from Delle navigationi e viaggi written by Venetian Giambattista Ramusio in 1545. The first recorded shipment of tea by a European nation was in 1607 when the Dutch East India Company moved a cargo of tea from Macao to Java, then two years later, the Dutch bought the first assignment of tea which was from Hirado in Japan to be shipped to Europe. Tea became a fashionable drink in The Hague in the Netherlands, and the Dutch introduced the drink to Germany, France, and across the Atlantic to New Amsterdam (New York).

In 1567, Russian people came in contact with tea when the Cossack Atamans Petrov and Yalyshev visited China. The Mongolian Khan donated to Tsar Michael I four poods (65–70 kg) of tea in 1638. According to Jeremiah Curtin, it was possibly in 1636 that Vassili Starkov was sent as envoy to the Altyn Khan. He was given 250 pounds of tea as a gift to the tsar. Starkov at first refused, seeing no use for a load of dead leaves, but the Khan insisted. Thus was tea introduced to Russia. In 1679, Russia concluded a treaty on regular tea supplies from China via camel caravan in exchange for furs. It is today considered the de facto national beverage.

The first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting "the best sort of chaw" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fujian in 1637, wrote, "chaa – only water with a kind of herb boyled in it". Tea was sold in a coffee house in London in 1657, Samuel Pepys tasted tea in 1660, and Catherine of Braganza took the tea-drinking habit to the English court when she married Charles II in 1662. Tea, however, was not widely consumed in the British Isles until the 18th century and remained expensive until the latter part of that period. English drinkers preferred to add sugar and milk to black tea, and black tea overtook green tea in popularity in the 1720s. Tea smuggling during the 18th century led to the general public being able to afford and consume tea. The British government removed the tax on tea, thereby eliminating the smuggling trade, by 1785. In Britain and Ireland, tea was initially consumed as a luxury item on special occasions, such as religious festivals, wakes, and domestic work gatherings. The price of tea in Europe fell steadily during the 19th century, especially after Indian tea began to arrive in large quantities; by the late 19th century tea had become an everyday beverage for all levels of society. The popularity of tea played a role in historical events – the Tea Act of 1773 provoked the Boston Tea Party that escalated into the American Revolution. The need to address the issue of British trade deficit because of the trade in tea resulted in the Opium Wars. The Qing Kangxi Emperor had banned foreign products from being sold in China, decreeing in 1685 that all goods bought from China must be paid for in silver coin or bullion. Traders from other nations then sought to find another product, in this case opium, to sell to China to earn back the silver they were required to pay for tea and other commodities. The subsequent attempts by the Chinese Government to curtail the trade in opium led to war.

Chinese small-leaf-type tea was introduced into India in 1836 by the British in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea. In 1841, Archibald Campbell brought seeds of Chinese tea from the Kumaun region and experimented with planting tea in Darjeeling. The Alubari tea garden was opened in 1856, and Darjeeling tea began to be produced. In 1848, Robert Fortune was sent by the Honourable East India Company on a mission to China to bring the tea plant back to Great Britain. He began his journey in high secrecy as his mission occurred in the lull between the First Opium War and the Second Opium War. The Chinese tea plants he brought back were introduced to the Himalayas, though most did not survive. The British had discovered that a different variety of tea was endemic to Assam and the northeast region of India, which was then hybridized with Chinese small-leaf-type tea. Using Chinese planting and cultivation techniques, the British colonial government established a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate it for export. Tea was originally consumed only by Anglo-Indians; however, it became widely popular in India in the 1950s because of a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board. The British introduced tea industry to Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) in 1867.

Chemical composition

Physically speaking, tea has properties of both a solution and a suspension. It is a solution of all the water-soluble compounds that have been extracted from the tea leaves, such as the polyphenols and amino acids, but is a suspension when all of the insoluble components are considered, such as the cellulose in the tea leaves. Tea infusions are among most consumed beverages globally.

Caffeine constitutes about 3% of tea's dry weight, translating to between 30 and 90 milligrams per  cup depending on the type, brand, and brewing method. A study found that the caffeine content of one gram of black tea ranged from 22 to 28 mg, while the caffeine content of one gram of green tea ranged from 11 to 20 mg, reflecting a significant difference. Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, which are stimulants, and xanthines similar to caffeine.

The astringency in tea can be attributed to the presence of polyphenols. These are the most abundant compounds in tea leaves, making up 30–40% of their composition. Polyphenols include flavonoids, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and other catechins. Although there has been preliminary clinical research on whether green or black teas may protect against various human diseases, there is no evidence that tea polyphenols have any effect on health or lowering disease risk.

Health effects

Although health benefits have been assumed throughout the history of Camellia sinensis's consumption, there is no high-quality evidence showing that tea consumption gives significant benefits other than possibly increasing alertness, an effect caused by caffeine in the tea leaves. In clinical research conducted in the early 21st century, it was found there is no scientific evidence to indicate that consuming tea affects any disease or improves health.

Black and green teas contain no essential nutrients in significant amounts, with the exception of the dietary mineral manganese, at 0.5 mg per cup or 26% of the Reference Daily Intake (RDI). Fluoride is sometimes present in tea; certain types of "brick tea", made from old leaves and stems, have the highest levels, enough to pose a health risk if much tea is drunk, which has been attributed to high levels of fluoride in soils, acidic soils, and long brewing.

Cultivation and harvesting

Camellia sinensis is an evergreen plant that grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates. Some varieties can also tolerate marine climates and are cultivated as far north as Cornwall in England, Perthshire in Scotland, Washington in the United States, and Vancouver Island in Canada. In the Southern Hemisphere, tea is grown as far south as Hobart in Tasmania and Waikato in New Zealand.

Tea plants are propagated from seed and cuttings; about 4 to 12 years are needed for a plant to bear seed and about three years before a new plant is ready for harvesting. In addition to a zone 8 climate or warmer, tea plants require at least 127 cm (50 in) of rainfall per year and prefer acidic soils. Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to  above sea level. Though at these heights the plants grow more slowly, they acquire a better flavour.

Two principal varieties are used: Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, which is used for most Chinese, Formosan and Japanese teas, and C. sinensis var. assamica, used in Pu-erh and most Indian teas (but not Darjeeling). Within these botanical varieties, many strains and modern clonal varieties are known. Leaf size is the chief criterion for the classification of tea plants, with three primary classifications being: Assam type, characterised by the largest leaves; China type, characterised by the smallest leaves; and Cambodian type, characterised by leaves of intermediate size. The Cambodian-type tea (C. assamica subsp. lasiocaly) was originally considered a type of Assam tea. However, later genetic work showed that it is a hybrid between Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam-type tea. Darjeeling tea also appears to be a hybrid between Chinese small-leaf tea and Assam-type large-leaf tea.

A tea plant will grow into a tree of up to  if left undisturbed, but cultivated plants are generally pruned to waist height for ease of plucking. Also, the short plants bear more new shoots which provide new and tender leaves and increase the quality of the tea. Only the top  of the mature plant are picked. These buds and leaves are called 'flushes'. A plant will grow a new flush every 7 to 15 days during the growing season. Leaves that are slow in development tend to produce better-flavoured teas. Several teas are available from specified flushes; for example, Darjeeling tea is available as first flush (at a premium price), second flush, monsoon and autumn. Assam second flush or "tippy" tea is considered superior to first flush, because of the gold tips that appear on the leaves.

Pests that can afflict tea plants include mosquito bugs, genus Helopeltis, which are true bugs and not to be confused with dipterous insects of family Culicidae ('mosquitos'). Mosquito bugs can damage leaves both by sucking plant materials, and by the laying of eggs (oviposition) within the plant. Spraying with synthetic insecticides may be deemed appropriate. Other pests are Lepidopteran leaf feeders and various tea diseases.

Production
Tea is mainly grown in Asia and Africa, though it is also grown in South America and around the Black and Caspian Seas. The four biggest tea-producing countries are China, India, Kenya and Sri Lanka, together representing 75% of world tea production. Smaller hubs of production include such places as São Miguel Island, Azores, in Portugal, and Guria, in Georgia. In 2020, global production of tea was 7.0 million tonnes, led by China with 42% and India with 20% of the world total. Kenya, Argentina, and Sri Lanka were secondary producers.

Storage
Storage conditions and type determine the shelf life of tea; that of black teas is greater than that of green teas. Some, such as flower teas, may last only a month or so. Others, such as pu-erh, improve with age. To remain fresh and prevent mold, tea needs to be stored away from heat, light, air, and moisture. Tea must be kept at room temperature in an air-tight container. Black tea in a bag within a sealed opaque canister may keep for two years. Green tea deteriorates more rapidly, usually in less than a year. Tightly rolled gunpowder tea leaves keep longer than the more open-leafed Chun Mee tea.

Storage life for all teas can be extended by using desiccant or oxygen-absorbing packets, vacuum sealing, or refrigeration in air-tight containers (except green tea, where discrete use of refrigeration or freezing is recommended and temperature variation kept to a minimum).

Processing and classification

Tea is generally divided into categories based on how it is processed. At least six different types are produced:
 White: wilted and unoxidized;
 Yellow: unwilted and unoxidized but allowed to yellow;
 Green: unwilted and unoxidized;
 Oolong: wilted, bruised, and partially oxidized;
 Black: wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized (called  [hóngchá], "red tea" in Chinese and other East Asian tea culture);
 Post-fermented (Dark): green tea that has been allowed to ferment/compost (called Pu'er if from the Yunnan district of South-Western China or  [hēichá] "black tea" in Chinese tea culture).

After picking, the leaves of C. sinensis soon begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried. An enzymatic oxidation process triggered by the plant's intracellular enzymes causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as their chlorophyll breaks down and tannins are released. This darkening is stopped at a predetermined stage by heating, which deactivates the enzymes responsible. In the production of black teas, halting by heating is carried out simultaneously with drying. Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, growth of undesired molds and bacteria may make tea unfit for consumption.

Additional processing and additives

After basic processing, teas may be altered through additional processing steps before being sold and is often consumed with additions to the basic tea leaf and water added during preparation or drinking. Examples of additional processing steps that occur before tea is sold are blending, flavouring, scenting, and decaffeination of teas. Examples of additions added at the point of consumption include milk, sugar and lemon.

Tea blending is the combination of different teas together to achieve the final product. Such teas may combine others from the same cultivation area or several different ones. The aim is to obtain consistency, better taste, higher price, or some combination of the three.

Flavoured and scented teas add aromas and flavours to the base tea. This can be accomplished through directly adding flavouring agents, such as ginger, cloves, mint leaves, cardamom, bergamot (found in Earl Grey), vanilla, and spearmint. Alternatively, because tea easily retains odours, it can be placed in proximity to an aromatic ingredient to absorb its aroma, as in traditional jasmine tea.

The addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680 by the epistolist Madame de Sévigné. Many teas are traditionally drunk with milk in cultures where dairy products are consumed. These include Indian masala chai and British tea blends. These teas tend to be very hearty varieties of black tea which can be tasted through the milk, such as Assams, or the East Friesian blend. Milk is thought to neutralise remaining tannins and reduce acidity. The Han Chinese do not usually drink milk with tea but the Manchus do, and the elite of the Qing Dynasty of the Chinese Empire continued to do so. Hong Kong-style milk tea is based on British habits. Tibetans and other Himalayan peoples traditionally drink tea with milk or yak butter and salt. In Eastern European countries, Russia and Italy, tea is commonly served with lemon juice. In Poland, tea is traditionally served with a slice of lemon and is sweetened with either sugar or honey; tea with milk is called a bawarka ("Bavarian style") in Polish and is also widely popular. In Australia, tea with milk is known as "white tea".

The order of steps in preparing a cup of tea is a much-debated topic and can vary widely between cultures or even individuals. Some say it is preferable to add the milk to the cup before the tea, as the high temperature of freshly brewed tea can denature the proteins found in fresh milk, similar to the change in taste of UHT milk, resulting in an inferior-tasting beverage. Others insist it is better to add the milk to the cup after the tea, as black tea is often brewed as close to boiling as possible. The addition of milk chills the beverage during the crucial brewing phase, if brewing in a cup rather than using a pot, meaning the delicate flavour of a good tea cannot be fully appreciated. By adding the milk afterwards, it is easier to dissolve sugar in the tea and also to ensure the desired amount of milk is added, as the colour of the tea can be observed. Historically, the order of steps was taken as an indication of class: only those wealthy enough to afford good-quality porcelain would be confident of its being able to cope with being exposed to boiling water unadulterated with milk. Higher temperature difference means faster heat transfer, so the earlier milk is added, the slower the drink cools. A 2007 study published in the European Heart Journal found certain beneficial effects of tea may be lost through the addition of milk.

Packaging

Tea bags

In 1907, American tea merchant Thomas Sullivan began distributing samples of his tea in small bags of silk with a drawstring. Consumers noticed they could simply leave the tea in the bag and reuse it with fresh tea. However, the potential of this distribution and packaging method would not be fully realised until later. During World War II, tea was rationed in the United Kingdom. In 1953, after rationing in the UK ended, Yorkshire-based tea manufacturer Tetley launched the tea bag in the UK, and it was an immediate success.

The "pyramid tea bag" (or sachet), introduced by Lipton and PG Tips/Scottish Blend in 1996, attempts to address one of the connoisseurs' arguments against paper tea bags by way of its three-dimensional tetrahedron shape, which allows more room for tea leaves to expand while steeping. However, some types of pyramid tea bags have been criticised as being environmentally unfriendly, since their synthetic material is not as biodegradable as loose tea leaves and paper tea bags.

Loose tea

The tea leaves are packaged loosely in a canister, paper bag, or other container such as a tea chest. Some whole teas, such as rolled gunpowder tea leaves, which resist crumbling, are vacuum-packed for freshness in aluminised packaging for storage and retail. The loose tea is individually measured for use, allowing for flexibility and flavour control at the expense of convenience. Strainers, tea balls, tea presses, filtered teapots, and infusion bags prevent loose leaves from floating in the tea and over-brewing. A traditional method uses a three-piece lidded teacup called a gaiwan, the lid of which is tilted to decant the tea into a different cup for consumption.

Compressed tea

Compressed tea (such as pu-erh) is produced for convenience in transport, storage, and ageing. It can usually be stored longer without spoilage than loose leaf tea. Compressed tea is prepared by loosening leaves from the cake using a small knife, and steeping the extracted pieces in water. During the Tang dynasty, as described by Lu Yu, compressed tea was ground into a powder, combined with hot water, and ladled into bowls, resulting in a "frothy" mixture. In the Song dynasty, the tea powder would instead be whisked with hot water in the bowl. Although no longer practiced in China today, the whisking method of preparing powdered tea was transmitted to Japan by Zen Buddhist monks, and is still used to prepare matcha in the Japanese tea ceremony.

Compressed tea was the most popular form of tea in China during the Tang dynasty. By the beginning of the Ming dynasty, it had been displaced by loose-leaf tea. It remains popular, however, in the Himalayan countries and Mongolian steppes. In Mongolia, tea bricks were ubiquitous enough to be used as a form of currency. Among Himalayan peoples, compressed tea is consumed by combining it with yak butter and salt to produce butter tea.

Instant tea

"Instant tea", similar to freeze-dried instant coffee and an alternative to brewed tea, can be consumed either hot or cold. Instant tea was developed in the 1930s, with Nestlé introducing the first commercial product in 1946, while Redi-Tea debuted instant iced tea in 1953. Additives such as chai, vanilla, honey or fruit, are popular, as is powdered milk.

During the Second World War British and Canadian soldiers were issued an instant tea known as "compo" in their composite ration packs. These blocks of instant tea, powdered milk, and sugar were not always well received. As Royal Canadian Artillery Gunner, George C Blackburn observed:

Bottled and canned tea

Canned tea is sold prepared and ready to drink. It was introduced in 1981 in Japan. The first bottled tea was introduced by an Indonesian tea company, PT. Sinar Sosro in 1969 with the brand name Teh Botol Sosro (or Sosro bottled tea). In 1983, Swiss-based Bischofszell Food Ltd. was the first company to bottle iced tea on an industrial scale.

Tea culture

Tea is the second most consumed beverage on Earth, after water. In many cultures it is consumed at elevated social events, such as the tea party. Tea ceremonies have arisen in different cultures, such as the Chinese and Japanese traditions, each of which employs certain techniques and ritualised protocol of brewing and serving tea for enjoyment in a refined setting. One form of Chinese tea ceremony is the Gongfu tea ceremony, which typically uses small Yixing clay teapots and oolong tea.

In the United Kingdom, 63% of people drink tea daily. It is customary for a host to offer tea to guests soon after their arrival. Tea is consumed both at home and outside the home, often in cafés or tea rooms. Afternoon tea with cakes on fine porcelain is a cultural stereotype. In southwest England, many cafés serve a cream tea, consisting of scones, clotted cream, and jam alongside a pot of tea. In some parts of Britain and India, 'tea' may also refer to the evening meal.

Ireland, as of 2016, was the second-biggest per capita consumer of tea in the world. Local blends are the most popular in Ireland, including Irish breakfast tea, using Rwandan, Kenyan and Assam teas. The annual national average of tea consumption in Ireland is 2.7 kg to 4 kg per person. Tea in Ireland is usually taken with milk or sugar and brewed longer for a stronger taste.

Turkish tea is an important part of that country's cuisine and is the most commonly consumed hot drink, despite the country's long history of coffee consumption. In 2004, Turkey produced 205,500 tonnes of tea (6.4% of the world's total tea production), which made it one of the largest tea markets in the world, with 120,000 tons being consumed in Turkey and the rest being exported. In 2010, Turkey had the highest per capita consumption in the world at 2.7 kg. As of 2013, the per-capita consumption of Turkish tea exceeds 10 cups per day and 13.8 kg per year. Tea is grown mostly in Rize Province on the Black Sea coast.

Russia has a long, rich tea history dating to 1638 when tea was introduced to Tsar Michael. Social gatherings were considered incomplete without tea, which was traditionally brewed in a samovar.

In Pakistan, both black and green teas are popular and are known locally as sabz chai and kahwah, respectively. The popular green tea is often served after every meal in the Pashtun belt of Balochistan and in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In central and southern Punjab and the metropolitan Sindh region of Pakistan, tea with milk and sugar (sometimes with pistachios, cardamom, etc.), commonly referred to as chai, is widely consumed. It is the most common beverage of households in the region. In the northern Pakistani regions of Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan, a salty, buttered Tibetan-style tea is consumed.

Indian tea culture is strong; the drink is the most popular hot beverage in the country. It is consumed daily in almost all houses, offered to guests, consumed in high amounts in domestic and official surroundings, and is made with the addition of milk with or without spices, and usually sweetened. It is sometimes served with biscuits to be dipped in the tea and eaten before consuming the tea. More often than not, it is drunk in "doses" of small cups (referred to as "cutting" chai if sold at street tea vendors) rather than one large cup.

Iranians have one of the highest per-capita rates of tea consumption in the world and a Châikhâne(Tea House) is a common sight on Iranian streets. Due to the suitable climate, tea is usually cultivated in large areas of northern Iran along the shores of the Caspian Sea.

In Burma (Myanmar), tea is consumed not only as hot drinks, but also as sweet tea and green tea known locally as laphet-yay and laphet-yay-gyan, respectively. Pickled tea leaves, known locally as lahpet, are also a national delicacy. Pickled tea is usually eaten with roasted sesame seeds, crispy fried beans, roasted peanuts and fried garlic chips.

In Mali, gunpowder tea is served in series of three, starting with the highest oxidisation or strongest, unsweetened tea, locally referred to as "strong like death", followed by a second serving, where the same tea leaves are boiled again with some sugar added ("pleasant as life"), and a third one, where the same tea leaves are boiled for the third time with yet more sugar added ("sweet as love"). Green tea is the central ingredient of a distinctly Malian custom, the "Grin", an informal social gathering that cuts across social and economic lines, starting in front of family compound gates in the afternoons and extending late into the night, and is widely popular in Bamako and other large urban areas.

In the United States, 80% of tea is consumed as iced tea. Sweet tea is native to the southeastern U.S. and is iconic in its cuisine.

Economics

Tea is the most popular manufactured drink consumed in the world, equaling all others – including coffee, soft drinks, and alcohol – combined. Most tea consumed outside East Asia is produced on large plantations in the hilly regions of India and Sri Lanka and is destined to be sold to large businesses. Opposite this large-scale industrial production are many small "gardens," sometimes minuscule plantations, that produce highly sought-after teas prized by gourmets. These teas are both rare and expensive and can be compared to some of the most expensive wines in this respect.

India is the world's largest tea-drinking nation, although the per capita consumption of tea remains a modest  per person every year. Turkey, with  of tea consumed per person per year, is the world's greatest per capita consumer.

Labor and consumer safety problems
Tests of commercially popular teas have detected residues of banned toxic pesticides.

Tea production in Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda has been reported to make use of child labor according to the U.S. Department of Labor's List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor. Workers who pick and pack tea on plantations in developing countries can face harsh working conditions and may earn below the living wage.

Certification
Several bodies independently certify the production of tea, such as Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade, UTZ Certified, and Organic. From 2008 to 2016, sustainability standards-certified tea production experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 35%, accounting for at least 19% of overall tea production. In 2016, at least 1.15 million tonnes of sustainably certified tea was produced, valued at US$2 billion.

Rainforest Alliance certified tea is sold by Unilever brands Lipton and PG Tips in Western Europe, Australia and the U.S. Fairtrade certified tea is sold by a large number of suppliers around the world. UTZ Certified tea is sold by Pickwick tea.

Production of organic tea has risen since its introduction in 1990 at Rembeng, Kondoli Tea Estate, Assam.  tons of organic tea were sold in 1999.

See also

 Cannabis tea
 Chifir', Russian extra-strong tea brew
 Herbal tea
 Frederick John Horniman
 Indian Tea Association
 International Tea Day
 ISO 3103
 Kombucha, drink produced from bacteria and yeast grown on tea
 List of Chinese teas
 List of hot beverages
 List of national drinks
 List of tea companies
 Peace Iced Tea
 Phenolic content in tea
 Tea classics, influential historical monographs of East Asian tea
 Tea leaf grading
 Tea strainer
 Tea tasting

References

Citations

General sources

Chinese cuisine
Crops originating from China
Herbal and fungal stimulants
Victorian cuisine

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Daisy Geyser is a geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States.

Daisy Geyser is part of the Daisy Group. It was named prior to 1890 by the Hague Party. It erupts every 110 to 240 minutes for a period of 3 to 5 minutes and is one of the most predictable geysers in the park. Its fountain erupts at an angle to the ground and reaches a height of . The interval between eruptions can be temporarily altered by an eruption of nearby Splendid Geyser. To a smaller degree, Brilliant Pool and Comet Geyser are influenced by Splendid and Daisy.

Daisy Geyser was one of the Yellowstone geysers that had its eruption interval disrupted by the 2002 Denali earthquake, in Alaska. Immediately after the quake, the interval rapidly decreased but returned to previous intervals over the course of a few weeks.

References

Geothermal features of Yellowstone National Park
Geysers of Wyoming
Geothermal features of Teton County, Wyoming
Geysers of Teton County, Wyoming

Daisy Geyser


The Articles of Faith: A Series of Lectures on the Principal Doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is an 1899 book by James E. Talmage about doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). The name of the book is taken from the LDS Church's "Articles of Faith", an 1842 creed written by Joseph Smith.

Smith's "Articles of Faith" became part of the LDS Church's scriptural canon in 1880 as part of the Pearl of Great Price. In 1891, when the First Presidency of the LDS Church asked Talmage to produce a work of theology that could be used in church schools, Talmage decided to use Smith's Articles of Faith as an outline of his work. He first delivered the material that he would organize into a book in a series of lectures delivered in 1893 at Latter-day Saints' University in Salt Lake City, Utah, which Talmage was the president of at the time.

First published in 1899, Talmage's work is composed of 24 chapters. The first edition was published by the LDS Church, and has gone through over 50 English-language editions. It has also been translated and published in 13 other languages. The book continues to be published today by Deseret Book, a publishing company owned by the church.

Like Talmage's later work Jesus the Christ, Articles of Faith is today regarded as a Mormon classic. For many years, Articles of Faith and Jesus the Christ were among the few non-scriptural works that full-time LDS Church missionaries were asked to study. However, Articles of Faith is no longer part of the "approved missionary library."

Notes

References
, at p. 69.

External links
Articles of Faith, Project Gutenberg Kindle, epub, html, and text editions
Articles of Faith, archive.org on-line reader copy of first edition
Articles of Faith, archive.org PDF copy of first edition
Articles of Faith, archive.org TXT copy of first edition

1899 books
1899 in Christianity
Deseret Book books
LDS non-fiction
Works by James E. Talmage
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints texts
Works by apostles (LDS Church)

Articles of Faith (Talmage book)


A Metcard is a type of ticket used to use public transport in Melbourne, Australia. It allows the holder to use Trains, Trams and Buses, in two zones (Zone 1 and Zone 2). Zone 1 covers areas close to the CBD, and Zone 2 covers the rest of the city. There used to be a  Zone 3 , but that has been merged with Zone 2. The ticket is about the size of a credit card, and contains a magnitic strip that tells a computer what type of ticket it is.

History
Metcard replaced a identical yet simpler system of scratchies used on the Melbourne public transport network. Scratchies were easy to cheat and the system was eventually abandoned in 2002, but not before tickets for many years of use were printed.

Moves towards automated ticketing were first made by the then state Liberal Government in 1992. Tenders were called for the design, supply, installation and on-going maintenance of such a system, with the 'OneLink Transit Consortium' announced as the preferred people to do it in September 1993. The contract was signed in May 1994, with the major technology supplier being the ERG Group.

Testing of prototypes commenced in December 1993, and the roll-out of the system was carried out from August 1996 to April 1998, and acceptance occurred in November 1997. Public field trials were carried out on buses from August 20 1996, and on rail services from September 18 1996. The system commenced full revenue service from May 1998 at a cost of $330 million. Contractual issues between OneLink and the Victorian Government were not settled until May 2002 with the payment of up to $65 million in a staged settlement.

Controversy surrounded Metcard at its introduction, due to it costing to much, the abolition of tram conductors and the unreliability of ticket purchasing and validation machines. The machines were attacked by vandals frequently (often by pouring liquids into the coin slot), and have seen several revisions to their design since.

Consistent with the privatisation ethos of the government of the day, Metcard's operation was entirely outsourced, with the transport operators (at that time government-owned) having nothing to do with the system. Metcard even had its own website and branding which became stronger than the anonymous and constantly renaming government then privatised operators.

An study released by the State Government in 2001 showed over 1 in 4 (27.2%) of the machines at train stations did not work, and 11.9% of mobile equipment in buses and trams was non-operational. The State Government renegotiated with ticketing network contract operator OneLink Transit Systems to improve the service to commuters. Following these improvements, a 2002 audit showed an increase in availability of machines to 92.1% at train stations, and 98.3% on buses and trams. Usability was also improved, with tram machines able to sell daily tickets. Furthermore, vandalism across the network dropped by 62% between 2001 and 2002.

V/Line tickets were aligned with the Metcard system in April 2006, with each V/Line ticket to stations in the Metcard area having the relevant zones printed on them. In March 2007 the Nightrider bus service was also brought under the Metcard system. Zone 3 was removed from the Metcard system (and merged into zone 2) on March 4 2007, due to a State Election promise made by Opposition Leader Ted Ballieu and matched by then Premier Steve Bracks.

The original Metcard contract with OneLink was to last nine years, expiring in March 2007. In 2005 the contract was changed to permit the system to be extended and changed as work on the replacement myki project keeps going, with the contract being able to be cancelled on six months notice.

Types of Metcards

Most Metcards can be purchased in Zone 1; Zone 2 and Zone 1 + Zone 2 types, with them being valid within their respective zones. All Metcards, except for the City Saver Metcard, are valid for muplitle trips on Trains, Trams and Buses.

2 Hour (valid for 2 hours only)
Daily (valid for one days travel)
Weekly
Monthly
Yearly
City Saver (valid for a single trip within the city center)
Sunday Saver (valid on Sunday only)
Seniors Daily (consession for over sixty-fives)
10 X Early Bird (free ticket for trips ending before 7:00am)

References

Public transport in Melbourne

Metcard


Joachim Barrande (11 August 1799 – 5 October 1883) was a French geologist and palaeontologist.

Career

Barrande was born at Saugues, Haute Loire, and educated in the École Polytechnique and École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées at Paris. Although he had received the training of an engineer, his first appointment was that of tutor to the duc de Bordeaux (afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), grandson of Charles X, and when the king abdicated in 1830, Barrande accompanied the royal exiles to England and Scotland, and afterwards to Prague. Settling in that city in 1831, he became occupied in engineering works, and his attention was then attracted to the fossils from the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of Bohemia.

The publication in 1839 of Murchison's Silurian System incited Barrande to carry on systematic researches on the equivalent strata in Bohemia. For ten years (1840–1850) he made a detailed study of these rocks, engaging workmen specially to collect fossils, and in this way he obtained upwards of 3500 species of graptolites, brachiopoda, mollusca, trilobites and fishes. The first volume of his great work, Système silurien du centre de la Bohême (dealing with trilobites, several genera, including Deiphon, which he personally described), appeared in 1852; and from that date until 1881, he issued twenty-one quarto volumes of text and plates. Two other volumes were issued after his death in 1887 and 1894. It is estimated that he spent nearly £10,000 on these works. In addition he published a large number of separate papers.

In recognition of his important researches the Geological Society of London in 1857 awarded to him the Wollaston medal. In 1862, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. In 1870, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1875.

Barrande died at Frohsdorf on 5 October 1883. His extensive collection has been stored in National Museum in Prague on grounds of his testament.

In 1884 the Barrande Rocks in Prague was named in honor of the scientist and massive plaque with Barrande's name was added at the rocks. On 24 February 1928, a district of Prague, Barrandov, was named after him.

Opposition to evolution

Barrande was an advocate of the theory of catastrophes (as taught by Georges Cuvier).  He later opposed Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. He rejected transmutation of species. He also wrote a five-volume book on the defense of his theory of so-called "colonies", presuming that the cause of the presence of fossils typical for one layer surrounded by those typical for another is atectonical. He tended to name those colonies with names of his scientific adversaries.

His anti-evolutionary views were criticized by geologist Henry Hicks who commented that "Barrande is well known to be a determined opponent to the theory of evolution, and doubtless this strong bias has prevented him from seeing and accepting many facts which would otherwise, to so keen and careful an observer, have seemed inconsistent with such strong views."

References

Further reading

Jiří Kříž, John Pojeta, Jr. and Barrande. (1974). Barrande's Colonies Concept and a Comparison of His Stratigraphy with the Modern Stratigraphy of the Middle Bohemian Lower Paleozoic Rocks (Barrandian) of Czechoslovakia. Journal of Paleontology 48 (3): 489–494.

External links

 Detailed biography
 Detailed biography (in Czech, with details of his stay in Bohemia)

 part of his collection accessible online via Europeana
 Works by Joachim Barrande accessible online via Kramerius (digital library)
 Système silurien du centre de la Bohême accessible online via Kramerius (digital library)

1799 births
1883 deaths
People from Haute-Loire
Legitimists
19th-century French people
Czech people of French descent
19th-century Czech people
French geologists
French paleontologists
Czech paleontologists
Czech geologists
Paleobotanists
Catastrophism
Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni
École Polytechnique alumni
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Wollaston Medal winners

Joachim Barrande


Sopron (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈʃopron]; , ; Central Bavarian: Ednburg, ) is a city of Hungary, near the western border of Hungary with Austria, at the foot of the Alps, 60 km from Vienna (in Austria) and 220 km from Budapest. The people of this city are famous for their loyalty to their country, and their hometown. A famous monument is 'Gate of Faith' which is the symbol of the people's faith to Hungary in 1921.

History

Ancient Scarbantia
At the time of the Roman Empire, there was a city here called Scarbantia. The main square of Sopron is in the same place as the forum (or main square) of Roman times.

After this, the city was probably deserted. When the Hungarians arrived in the area, it was in ruins. In the 9th–11th centuries Hungarians strengthened the old Roman city walls and built a castle. The town got its Hungarian name of Sopron from a steward of the castle named Suprun. By 1153 it was an important town.

In 1273 King Otakar II of Bohemia took over the castle and took the children of Sopron's noble families as hostage. But the people of the city opened the gates when the army of King Ladislaus IV of Hungary arrived. The King Ladislaus made Sopron a free royal town.

1500s-1800s
In 1528 Hungary was invaded by Ottoman Turks who destroyed many parts of the city but did not take it over. Many people from other towns fled to Sopron for safety.

In 1676 most of the ancient buildings in the city were destroyed by a fire. When they were replaced, they were in a new style, called Baroque. Many of the Baroque buildings are standing today.

1900s
Sopron was an important town in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the World War I it became part of Austria. But the townspeople were not happy with this and in December 1921 they voted that the city should be part of Hungary. Since that day the city has been called "Civitas Fidelissima", ("The Most Loyal Town" which in Hungarian is "A Leghűségesebb Város"). A holiday is held every year to celebrate.

In World War II Sopron suffered badly. It was bombed several times. There were many Jewish people living in Sopron before the war. The Nazis and their Hungarian allies sent the Jews of Sopron to death camps and killed nearly all of them, as well as other people who disagreed with Nazi ideas.

The Soviet Red Army captured the city on April 1, 1945. Sopron, as part of Hungary, was ruled by a Socialist government. At this time many factories were built around Sopron. The Socialist government took away a lot of the freedom that people had. In August 1989, in Sopron there was a big protest against the Socialist government, which was called the Pan-European Picnic. While this was happening more than 200 people who lived in East Germany (which was Socialist) escaped to the West. This was the beginning of a big change for all the Socialist countries of Europe. People who had not been allowed to travel or live in other countries were finally allowed to be free.

21st century
Hungary is now part of the European Union. Sopron now has trade with other countries, most importantly Austria. There are many German-speaking people who live in Sopron so most street signs are written in both Hungarian and German.

Culture

Architecture

The city of Sopron shows signs of its long history in its buildings. There are still walls and foundations from the Ancient Roman times and also building from the Middle Ages. The medieval Kecske Church ("Goat Church") was where coronations (crowning kings) and parliament took place. There is also a very old Jewish synagogue.

Many old buildings whose architecture are from the 1600s and 1700s and are in the Baroque style which often has a lot of decoration. Stornó House is one of the most well-known buildings, because of its elegant Baroque architecture, its connection with King Matthias and its interesting collection. There is also a famous statue of the Holy Trinity from this time. the "Várkerület" is part of the city built where the ancient moat was; The inner row of houses follow the line of the castle wall. Várkerület has a famous Maria Statue. The Town Hall built in 1896 and the Ursuline Church is an important building in the Gothic Revival style.

Countryside
Sopron is popular as a holiday place because it is set in beautiful countryside where people like to walk in the hills, enjoying the pure air, the forests and mountain springs. There are many hiking paths and look-out towers. Near to Sopron is Lake Fertő.
The Löverek, is a beautiful hilly area south of the city, with forests of spruce, oaks and chestnut trees. The flowers that bloom there include Lily of the Valley and cyclamens.

Wine
Sopron is a wine producing region, that is one of the few in Hungary to make both red and white wines. The grapes grown here include Kékfrankos for red wine and Traminer (Gewürztraminer) for white wine. In climate it is similar to the Burgenland wine region nearby in Austria, and several winemakers make wine in both countries. The group of ethnic German winegrowers in the Sopron area were the so-called Ponzichter.

Sports
MFC Sopron is a football team based in Sopron.

References

Other websites
 Official website
 Sopron Chat
 Sopron Chat közösségi Portál – SopronChat - www.sopronchat.eu

Cities in Hungary
Wine regions
Győr-Moson-Sopron County

Sopron


Jesse Levine (born October 15, 1987) is an American-Canadian former professional tennis player. He achieved his career-high singles rank of world No. 69 on October 1, 2012. Levine represented the United States through 2012, and he represented Canada starting in 2013.

As a 13-year-old, in 2001 Levine won the U.S. Clay Court 14 Nationals singles championship, and as a 15-year-old he won the USTA boys' 16s doubles championship with his doubles partner. As a 17-year-old, he won the 2005 Wimbledon boys' doubles championship. Playing one year of No. 1 singles as a freshman for the University of Florida in 2007, he lost only one match, finishing his career with a 24–1 record.

In June 2009, while representing the United States on tour, he scored his most significant victory to date, defeating world No. 24 (and former world No. 1) Marat Safin at Wimbledon. The following month he defeated the second top-50 player of his career, world No. 48 Philipp Petzschner. His most significant achievement in doubles was making the finals in the 2009 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, losing to the Bryan brothers.

Levine was the coach of Madison Keys from December 2015 to May 2016.

Early life
Levine was born in Ottawa, Ontario, and grew up in Ottawa's Centrepointe neighbourhood. His father Nathan had played tennis for Penn State.

Jesse attended Hillel Academy of Ottawa.  Off the court Levine, who is Jewish, keeps kosher at home, and he plays with a Star of David on his chain.  He can read and write Hebrew. Levine, along with Dudi Sela, Shahar Pe'er, Sharon Fichman, and Camila Giorgi is one of a number of young Jewish tennis players who are highly ranked.   "I have a lot of contact with the Israeli players, like Ram, Erlich, Sela, and Levy.  They sometimes ask me when I will play for Israel in the Davis Cup", he said.  He also appreciates the Jewish fans who cheer for him.  At one tournament, they cheered and shouted out encouragement such as:  "Come on, man, your opponent hasn't even had his bar mitzvah yet!"

As a youth, Levine took tennis lessons at the Ottawa Athletic Club.  He and his family moved to Florida in the US when he was 13 years old, because his younger brother Daniel suffers from ulcerative colitis and the year-round warm weather was much better for him.  Levine currently resides in Boca Raton, Florida. He said in 2009 that he at that point considered himself "100% American", saying that if he were to play Davis Cup, it would be for the US.

Junior tennis career
In 2001 he defeated Donald Young in the final of the U.S. Clay Court 14 Nationals.  He was trailing 0–5 in the final set when he came back for the win.

In 2003 he won the USTA boys 16s doubles championship with partner Jean Yves Aubone, and the Eddie Herr International Boys under-16s singles title.  He finished the year ranked 11th in the USTA boys' 16 division. In 2004 he won the Eddie Herr International Boys 18s doubles championship with Michael Shabaz, an Iranian-born Assyrian-American.

At the 2005 USTA Junior Nationals, where he lost in the singles semifinals and doubles finals, both 7–6 in the third set, he was judged to have the best service return.  He won the 2005 Wimbledon boys' doubles championship along with Michael Shabaz over Samuel Groth of Australia and Andrew Kennaugh of Great Britain.  "If you believe in yourself anything can happen", said Levine.  He also reached the quarterfinals of the Junior Wimbledon boys' singles tournament that year.  Levine was selected to go to the 2005 Maccabiah Games just after winning the doubles, but decided against it as he was too tired.  He finished 2005 ranked 23rd in the USTA national junior rankings.

He was the runner-up at the 2006 U.S. Junior National Championship to world No. 1 Junior Donald Young, forfeiting in the finals due to food poisoning.  He was voted as having the best backhand.

His highest International Tennis Federation World Junior Ranking was No. 14 (with a 61–27 singles win–loss record and a 61–22 doubles win–loss record).

Junior Slam results – Singles:

Australian Open: 1R (2005)
French Open: 3R (2005)
Wimbledon: QF (2005)
US Open: 2R (2005)

He attended Boca Prep International School on a soccer scholarship for a year and a half and switched to the University of Miami Online High School, where he was class of 2007.  The online school offered an academic program for athletes who were too busy to attend traditional bricks-and-mortar high schools.  Levine did most of his junior training at the Evert Tennis Academy in Boca Raton, which is adjacent to Boca Prep (where he received the senior male sportsmanship award from Chris Evert and was named the academy's Male Player of the Year by his peers), and the Nick Bollettieri Tennis Academy in Bradenton, Florida for two years, and then decided to go to college.

College career (2007)
Levine enrolled in the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida during the spring of 2007, and played for the Florida Gators men's tennis team.  He subsequently withdrew from the university in August 2007 to turn pro.

Singles
Levine was 24–1 playing No. 1 singles for the Gators as a freshman.  He won all but 3 of his matches in straight sets.

In March 2007 he beat 6' 9", 236 pound John Isner, a senior at University of Georgia who was then the No. 1 player in college tennis, who had been undefeated in his prior 46 matches, and who did not lose another regular-season match all season.  On May 23, 2007, Levine lost his first college match, in the quarterfinals in the NCAA Men's Singles to Washington's Alex Slovic.  He was ranked # 3 in singles by the NCAA in the final May 2007 standings, only because he did not have as many matches against ranked opponents as the top two players (Isner and Somdev Devvarman), and he was the only freshman in the top 22.

Doubles
Levine also played No. 1 doubles for the Gators with junior Greg Ouellette, and the duo was 21–3 in 2007, rising to # 3 in the final NCAA rankings.  Levine and Ouellette were defeated in the quarterfinals of the 2007 NCAA Men's Doubles championships by the eventual winners, Middle Tennessee State's Marco Born and Andreas Siljestrom.

Awards
Levine was named the Intercollegiate Tennis Association (ITA) 2007 National Rookie of the Year, and was one of 10 players nationally to be selected to the 2007 ITA All-America Team for NCAA Division I men's tennis in both singles and doubles play.  Levine was named 2007 Southeastern Conference (SEC) Freshman of the Year and was named to the 2007 men's tennis All-SEC first team.  He was named the SEC Men's Tennis Player of the Week twice in 2007.

Pro tournaments

2007
Levine missed the Gators' first dual match of the season, on January 31, 2007, because he was at the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, where he defeated Łukasz Kubot of Poland (ranked # 118) 6–3, 6–2, and Kevin Kim of the US (ranked # 107) 6–2, 6–2, but lost to Benjamin Becker of Germany (ranked # 54) 3–6, 3–6. He also received a wild card into the BMW Tennis Championship, where he lost 6–7(4–7), 6–7(3–7), to Gaël Monfils.

In July 2007 Levine travelled to Dubai when top-ranked Roger Federer invited him there to practice for 10 days.  "I thought it was a joke ... I thought it was one of my college buddies playing a prank on me, but it was for real", Levine said.  Twice he and Federer played match sets, both of which Federer won, 6–4.

Levine left college prior to play as a wildcard at the 2007 U.S. Open, his first professional tournament as a professional. He was defeated by world # 4 Nikolay Davydenko in the first round, 4–6, 0–6, 1–6.  "I was really nervous", Levine said, "but it was an amazing experience."  In doubles, however, he won his first round match, pairing with Alex Kuznetsov, over Dominik Hrbatý of Slovakia and Harel Levy of Israel, 6–1, 6–4, and their second round match upsetting 7th-seeded Frenchmen Arnaud Clément and Michaël Llodra 7–6(7–5), 6–4, before losing in the third round to 9th-seeded Czechs Lukáš Dlouhý and Pavel Vízner, 4–6, 5–7.

In November 2007, Levine won his first pro title, the $75,000 Music City Challenger in Nashville, Tennessee, along the way beating world # 109 Robert Kendrick of the US, 7–5, 6–4, # 148 Sam Warburg of the US, 4–6, 6–3, 6–3, and # 170 Dušan Vemić of Serbia, 6–2, 7–5.  "That first pro title was a big deal for me", Levine said. "I called my parents to tell them I'd won. I was pretty excited."

That same month, Levine won the $50,000 JSM Challenger in Champaign, Illinois, at the University of Illinois.  In the second round he defeated  # 197 Kevin Kim, 6–1, 7–5, and in the semifinals he again beat Isner, now world # 118, this time 7–6(7–5), 6–3.  In the finals Levine topped Donald Young (world # 106), 7–6(7–4), 7–6(7–4); he did not lose a set all week, and moved up in the rankings to # 192 in the world.

Still later in November, he began the $50,000 Knoxville Challenger tournament in Tennessee by defeating former US Junior champion Michael McClune, 6–4, 6–1, in the first round, but three rounds later lost to Kevin Kim in the semifinals.  The loss broke Levine's 16-match winning streak.

In early December, he and Andy Roddick defeated Robert Kendrick and Amer Delic 7–6, 6–4, in a fast-paced match on Har-Tru at the OMNI Healthcare/Harris "Rally with Roddick" charity tennis exhibition in Indian Harbour Beach.

In late December Levine won a wild card berth into the main draw of the Australian Open. He won the spot by defeating Wayne Odesnik and Kuznetsov in a round-robin tournament format.  "It definitely feels good not having it just handed out", Levine said after defeating Odesnik 6–4, 6–0.  He trained and played sets with Max Mirnyi, Xavier Malisse, Andy Murray, and Tommy Haas.  Levine played qualifying in a couple of pre-Grand Slam tournaments in Adelaide and Sydney.  He still flew coach Down Under.  "I'll have to make a lot more money before I can go first class", he said.

Levine ended the year with a 20–10 match record, and ranked # 192.

2008

In January 2008, at the Australian Open, Levine beat Martín Vassallo Argüello of Argentina, a 26-year-old veteran ranked # 77 in the world, to advance to the Open's second round.  There, Levine played a scrappy match against fellow lefty, No. 24 seed Jarkko Nieminen.  But despite serving for the set at 5–3 in both the second and third sets, Levine went down 2–6, 5–7, 6–7(2–7) to the Finn.  "I felt like I was right there, and definitely had my chances in the second and third (sets). I have to work on converting a little better", said Levine.  "Maybe I got a little too antsy, and tried to go for a little too much, maybe stepped too hard on the pedal instead of taking a foot off."

At the personal request of U.S. Davis Cup captain Patrick McEnroe, Levine was a practice partner with the U.S. Davis Cup team in early February in Austria, hitting with  Andy Roddick, James Blake, and twins Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan.  "First of all, he's a lefty, but also, Jesse has shown a lot of promise since last summer, improved his ranking a lot, and he's a great kid and incredibly hard worker", McEnroe said.  "Our guys have a good read on which young guys are working really hard, and they were pushing to invite Jesse.  It will be a great experience for him, and he'll help our guys a lot."  "One day I played four sets.  It was a lot of fun, but my body was sore", Levine said. "The guys are so cool."

In February Levine defeated # 81-ranked Steve Darcis of Belgium in the first round of the San Jose Open, 6–3, 2–6, 6–4, before losing to James Blake in the second round. In May he won all five of his matches, dropping only one set, to win the Bradenton, Florida Challenger event.  He also won the Türk Telecom İzmir Cup challenger tournament in doubles in Turkey, with partner Kei Nishikori of Japan.

In June at Wimbledon, after qualifying by winning three matches, and then getting "shivers" on his arms as he walked out for his opening match, he beat world # 85 Donald Young in the first round, 4–6, 6–2, 6–3, 6–4.  It was the first four-set match he had ever played.  The key was Levine's persistent net play; he approached net 32 times, winning 25 of the points.  In the next round he lost, in his first five-set match ever, to Jürgen Melzer 6–4, 2–6, 6–3, 4–6, 1–6.

In July in Newport on the grass courts at the International Tennis Hall of Fame, he beat No. 5 seeded, world # 83 John Isner 6–3, 6–1.  Later in the month he beat Benjamin Becker of Germany, 6–3, 3–6, 7–6(8–6), at the Rogers Cup in Toronto.  In August at the New Haven, Connecticut International Series, he beat world # 67 Guillermo García López of Spain 6–0, 6–3, and world # 61 Steve Darcis, 2–0, retired.  He broke into the top 100, at 96, on August 25.

In October Federer again invited Levine to join him for an extended practice session in Dubai, as preparation for the Australian Open.

2009

In April at the US Men's Clay Court Championships in Houston, Texas, Levine, ranked 289th in doubles in the world, and doubles partner Ryan Sweeting from the Bahamas, ranked 405th in doubles, made it into the draw via wild card, and in the first round defeated 3rd-seeded world doubles # 40 Lucas Arnold Ker and world doubles # 61 Martin Damm, 6–2, 6–4.  In the quarterfinals they beat world doubles # 66 Jaroslav Levinský and # 82 Pavel Vízner, 7–6(8–6), 6–4, and in the semifinals they defeated 2nd-seeded world doubles # 30 Ashley Fisher and # 29 Jordan Kerr 3–6, 6–3, [10–4].  They lost to Americans Bob and Mike Bryan, ranked # 1 in the world, in the doubles final, 1–6, 2–6.

Levine qualified for the main draw at Wimbledon 2009, after defeating Australian Samuel Groth 6–4, 6–7(3–7), 7–5, German Dieter Kindlmann 6–2, 6–3, and German Matthias Bachinger 6–2, 7–5, 6–2.

In the first round of the main Wimbledon draw, in the biggest win of his career Levine upset world # 24 (and former world # 1, and two-time Grand Slam champion) Marat Safin of Russia 6–2, 3–6, 7–6(7–4), 6–4.  Levine was ranked 133rd going into the tournament.  The Guardian described Levine as "a feisty little terrier who kept harrying away at his towering opponent", and The New York Times noted that "If you stand them side by side" Levine and Safin "look a little like David and Goliath.  Levine ... is seven inches (178 mm)  shorter and 45 pounds lighter than Safin, but when it counted ... the American was faster and stronger."  When Levine clinched the win he looked up and pointed into the sky in acknowledgement of his grandmother Lillian Kimmel, who had died three years prior. Safin said that he had known before the match that Levine was a "talented lefty, tough player, fast ... gonna go for it.  He's a tough one."

In the second round Levine defeated Uruguay's top tennis player, Pablo Cuevas, 6–2, 6–1, 4–6, 4–6, 6–3.  "I think my win the other day against Marat really gave me a confidence booster", he said.  It was Levine's first five-set victory, and only his second five-set match.  "I could have played a little bit longer", he said, "But I'm glad I didn't have to."  Levine and Andy Roddick were the only two American men left standing in the tournament, and Levine was also by far the lowest-ranked player left in the men's draw.  Levine next faced Olympic gold medalist, world # 18, 19th seed Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland, in Levine's first trip to the third round in a Grand Slam. "Once again I'm the underdog", said Levine."  "I've got nothing to lose, so I'll go out there swinging away.  For the first set and a half of their match, Levine (described by The Sunday Times as having "the pugnacity of Jimmy Connors and the fashion sense of Eminem") looked as though it was he who was the top 20 player, as he hit low forehands and approached and dominated the net, but in the end Wawrinka prevailed, 7–5, 5–7, 3–6, 3–6, despite Levine saving 17 of 23 break points in the match.

Levine next played in the Hall of Fame Tennis Championships in Newport, Rhode Island, making it as far as the quarterfinals, and along the way upsetting sixth-seeded world # 48 German Philipp Petzschner, 7–6(7–3), 6–2. It was his second win over a top-50 player in three weeks.

In late July Levine qualified for the 2009 Indianapolis Tennis Championships in singles.  In doubles Levine partnered Israeli Dudi Sela, and defeated Denis Istomin of Uzbekistan and Josselin Ouanna of France 6–4, 6–4 to make it to the quarterfinals.

Entering the 2009 US Open via wild card, he won his first round match in straight sets over Russian Teymuraz Gabashvili 7–5, 6–1, 6–2.

2010–11
Levine skipped the 2010 Australian Open and 2010 French Open, and played some Challengers instead. In June, Levine reached the second round in doubles at the 2010 Wimbledon Championships, but lost in the first round in singles to Feliciano López 6–7(2–7), 6–3, 2–6, 3–6. He lost in the final of the Lexington Challenger to Carsten Ball 4–6, 6–7(2–7) at the end of July. A week later he reached the doubles final of the Challenger in Vancouver. Levine had to withdraw in the second round of qualifying at the 2010 US Open to undergo emergency root canal surgery.

At the beginning of 2011, Levine played on the ITF Futures Circuit to improve his ranking. In March, he reached the doubles final at the tournament in Sherbrooke. He won the Futures in Indian Harbour Beach in June, defeating Jeff Dadamo 6–4, 6–4 in the final. In September, Levine reached back-to-back Futures finals in Canada, winning in Toronto 6–1, 6–0 over Rhyne Williams, but losing in Markham to Peter Polansky. He won his third Futures title of the year in Mansfield with a 6–4, 6–3 victory over John-Patrick Smith. Levine reached the final of the Challenger in Charlottesville at the beginning of November. He won his first Challenger title in three years a week later, beating Brian Baker 6–2, 6–3 in Knoxville. Levine received a main draw wild card for the 2012 Australian Open after winning the USTA's Australian Open Wild Card Playoff.

2012

Levine lost in the first round of the 2012 Australian Open to Marcel Granollers in five sets, 0–6, 6–7(4–7), 7–5, 7–5, 3–6. In February, he won his fifth Challenger title thanks to a 6–4, 6–4 win over Steve Darcis in Dallas.

He lost in the first round of the Masters 1000 in Indian Wells and Miami. Levine reached the second round of the French Open in June, his first Grand Slam main draw win in almost three years. He also reached the second round at Wimbledon. He lost in the second round of the Masters 1000 in Cincinnati. In September, Levine lost in the first round of the US Open but made it to the third round in doubles. Also in September, he reached the quarterfinals of the ATP tournament in Moselle in both singles and doubles. In October, he lost in the doubles quarterfinals of the ATP 250 in Vienna.

Levine applied to the International Tennis Federation in late 2012 to represent Canada in future Davis Cup play.

2013
Levine started his season in Brisbane where he qualified, but lost in the first round to Alejandro Falla.  He played his first official tournament as a Canadian in Auckland, where he qualified for the main draw of an ATP tournament for the second straight week. He made it to the quarterfinals, after wins over local player Daniel King-Turner and Brian Baker, before losing to Sam Querrey. At the Australian Open, Levine defeated former world No. 5 Tommy Robredo in the first round, but lost to 14th-seed Gilles Simon in the next round.

Levine was defeated by Japan's Kei Nishikori in the first round of the French Open. At Wimbledon, he made it to the second round with a five-set victory over Guido Pella in his opening match, before losing to world No. 8 Juan Martín del Potro in the next round. Levine reached the second round at the Rogers Cup in August as a wildcard, but was defeated by Rafael Nadal.

Beginning in the spring of 2013 during grass court season, Levine began suffering from an elbow problem and numbness in his pinky finger.  The problem continued for over a year. He stopped playing tennis after the Rogers Cup to rehab his elbow, which was first diagnosed as golfer's elbow, and had non-invasive surgery in the fall of 2013.

2014
Levine's elbow problem continued into 2014. By July 2014 he was back to hitting on practice courts, and though his elbow was troubling him when serving he trained during the summer with Andy Murray. He was chosen as a hitting partner for Canada's Davis Cup team in September. However, when he attempted to come back in October after not playing competitively for 11 months, the problem recurred and was re-aggravated during a match in Houston. Levine was scheduled to have surgery in October 2014, either Tommy John surgery or a different surgery to move his ulnar nerve and thus relieve the numbness in his little finger.

Levine retired at the end of 2014 due to an elbow injury.

Accolades
In 2017, Levine was inducted into the Ottawa Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.

Style of play
Among his strengths as a player are that he is extremely fast and explosive, "quick-footed" with "great feet", "a superb forehand", and what John McEnroe has referred to as "great racket speed"; he is "a hard worker and a natural leader." He also runs everything down.  "He's got a great heart", said Larry Stefanki, who coached Andy Roddick and has previously worked with John McEnroe, Marcelo Ríos, Fernando González and Tim Henman.  "A lot of players today are fast and fit, but just don't seem to play every point at 100%.  It's like they're almost on cruise control and then want to play hard when it gets to 4-all or 5-all", Stefanki said.

"I think because Jesse's so small and he doesn't want to give any free points, he tries every point 100%. That's a big asset out there." At 5' 9" and 150 pounds, Levine is smaller than most professional tennis players.

Personal
Levine had a German Shepherd dog, named "Sarite". He is also good friends with Canadian NHL ice hockey centre Jason Spezza and a big fan of the Ottawa Senators and Miami Dolphins. On April 28, 2014 Jesse was made an honorary brother of the Alpha Epsilon Pi fraternity.

ATP career finals

Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)

ATP Challenger & ITF Futures finals

Singles: 14 (9 titles, 5 runners-up)

Doubles: 6 (3 titles, 3 runner-up)

Junior Grand Slam finals

Doubles: 1 (1 title)

Performance timelines

Singles

Doubles

See also

Florida Gators
List of Florida Gators tennis players
List of notable Jewish tennis players

References

External links

1987 births
Living people
American male tennis players
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian male tennis players
Florida Gators men's tennis players
Jewish American sportspeople
Jewish Canadian sportspeople
Jewish tennis players
Sportspeople from Boca Raton, Florida
Racket sportspeople from Ontario
Sportspeople from Ottawa
Tennis people from Florida
Wimbledon junior champions
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' doubles
21st-century American Jews

Jesse Levine


Acritarchs are early microfossils, the remains, probably, of eukaryote cells. It is the resistant single-layered cell walls, or perhaps a cover secreted by cell walls, that we see in early rocks of the Proterozoic era. These structures are organic in their chemical composition, not calcium carbonate. Their precise nature is not known, but they look like the resting stages of modern dinoflagellates (the 'red tide' organisms).

"These microfossils represent the resting stage in the reproductive cycle of eukaryote algae".p258

Acritarchs appear in quantity in organic-rich shales and siltstone strata 1.4 to 1.6 billion years old.p57 They include a wide range of forms, so it is not clear whether or not they are monophyletic. At about 1 billion years ago they started to increase in abundance, diversity, and especially size and number of spines. Their populations crashed during the Cryogenian period 860 million years ago (the Snowball Earth episodes). They proliferated in the Cambrian explosion and reached their highest diversity in the Palaeozoic. They survived at least until the Ordovician period.p256

The increased spininess possibly resulted from the need for defence against predators large enough to swallow them or tear them apart. Other groups of small organisms from the Neoproterozoic era also show signs of anti-predator defences.

Recent discovery
A recent discovery has greatly extended our knowledge of acritarchs. Large (50μm) acritarchs have been found in silica-based rocks of Archaean age in South Africa. These rocks date to 3,200 million years ago, which makes them the second oldest life to be found as fossils. The earliest are cyanobacteria found in stromatolites.

The significance of this is that acritarchs are eukaryotes. This means that eukaryotes were present at least 1.5 billion years earlier than had been supposed.

References

Protista
Fossils

Acritarch