Edward Neville Isdell (born 8 June 1943) is an Irish businessman, former chair and CEO of The Coca-Cola Company and currently president of the WWF.

Early life and career
Isdell moved to Zambia at the age of ten, and joined the Coca-Cola Company in 1966 with the local bottling company there. In 1972, he became general manager of Coca-Cola Bottling of Johannesburg, the largest Coca-Cola bottler in Africa. Isdell was named region manager for Australia in 1980, and in 1981 he became president of the bottling joint venture between The Coca-Cola Company and San Miguel Corporation in the Philippines, where he oversaw the turnaround and renewal of the Coca-Cola business in that key country.

Isdell moved to (Germany) as president of the Company's Central European Division in 1985. In 1989, he was elected senior vice president of the Company and appointed president of the Northeast Europe/Africa Group (renamed the Northeast Europe/Middle East Group in 1992) and led the Company's entry into new markets in India, the Middle East, Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. In 1995, he was named president of the Greater Europe Group.

From July 1998 to September 2000, Isdell served as chairman and CEO of Coca-Cola Beverages Plc in Great Britain, where he oversaw that company's merger with Hellenic Bottling to form the world's second largest Coca-Cola bottler at the time, Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company (HBC). He retired as vice chairman of Coca-Cola HBC in December 2001. From January 2002 to May 2004, Isdell was an international consultant to The Coca-Cola Company and headed his own investment company in Barbados.

Isdell served as chairman of the board (2004–2009) and chief executive officer (2004–2008) of Coca-Cola.  While CEO of Coca-Cola in 2007, Isdell earned a total compensation of $21,648,740, which included a base salary of $1,612,500, a cash bonus of $6,649,500, stocks granted of $5,200,017, and options granted of $7,369,657.

Isdell is currently Interim President of the World Wildlife Fund's International Board of Trustees and serves on the board of a number of other charities. He has also served on a number of corporate boards including General Motors and British Telecom. He holds five honorary doctorates and is a recipient of the Clinton Foundation Global Citizen Award. He is based together with his business interests in Barbados.

Education
Isdell earned a bachelor's degree in Social Science from the University of Cape Town and graduated from the Harvard Business School program for Management Development. He was awarded an honorary doctorate degree from Georgia State University.

Legacy
In 2011, Isdell donated 1 million dollars to the rugby club of the University of Cape Town, of which he is an alumnus.

In 2013, Isdell acquired the CHQ Building for €10 million, inside of which in 2016 he funded and launched EPIC The Irish Emigration Museum.

In 2023, Isdell donated US$1.5 million to the University of Cape Town towards the Holistic Drug Discovery and Development Centre (H3D).

References

External links

 Coca-Cola Profile
 Forbes Profile

|-

1944 births
Living people
American chief executives of food industry companies
American drink industry businesspeople
Businesspeople from County Down
Coca-Cola people
People from Downpatrick
University of Cape Town alumni
Harvard Business School alumni

E. Neville Isdell


Tele Finland was a Finnish "no frills" mobile virtual network operator. It was established by TeliaSonera on May 17, 2004 to respond to the demand for inexpensive GSM calls. At first it was a daughter company of TeliaSonera Finland but was fused to it on December 31, 2005. Tele Finland still has its own customer support, own pricing and own terms apart from TeliaSonera customers.

Tele Finland's principles are the equal treatment of customers, good coverage, and the absence of special talktime offers. The operator was able to increase its customer base the fastest of all operators and have the lowest emigration of customers.

Tele Finland quit all advertising and sales on April 1, 2006 but returned in the spring of 2007.

In 2017, Sonera changed its name to Telia (Finland), and the Tele Finland brand was discontinued.

References

External links
Website

Mobile phone companies of Finland

Tele Finland


John Haughton D'Arms (November 27, 1934 – January 22, 2002) was the Gerald F. Else Professor of Humanities and professor of classical studies and history at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.  He also served as president of the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS).  He served ACLS until his death in 2002. He died of brain cancer in New York City.

A University of Michigan faculty member beginning in 1965, D'Arms served as chair of the Department of Classical Studies for nine years, and was named the Gerald F. Else Professor in 1983. He received Michigan's Distinguished Faculty Achievement Award in 1982 and was also named professor of history in 1986.  D'Arms was appointed as dean of the graduate school in 1985 and he also served as vice provost for academic affairs in 1990–95.  In 1977–80, he was director of the American Academy in Rome and the A.W. Mellon Professor in its School of Classical Studies. D'Arms was a spokesman for the humanities at a national level, as a former member of the Board of Directors of the ACLS, trustee of the National Humanities Center, trustee emeritus of the American Academy in Rome, and member of the national Committee for Mellon Fellowships in the Humanities. In 1992, D' Arms was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. President Bill Clinton appointed D'Arms to the National Council on the Humanities in 1994. In 1998, he became a member of the American Philosophical Society. As president of ACLS, D'Arms initiated and oversaw a $3-million, 5-year grant from The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to initiate The History E-Book Project.

Born in Poughkeepsie, New York, D'Arms was married to Maria Teresa Waugh, daughter of novelist Evelyn Waugh, in 1961 in Somerset, England. He received his undergraduate degree from Princeton University in 1956 and in 1959 received a B.A. degree in Literae Humaniores from New College, Oxford. D'Arms went on to complete a Ph.D. in classical philology at Harvard University in 1965 with a dissertation entitled Republican Roman Villas in Coastal Campania.

D'Arms's scholarly work focused on aspects of ancient Roman cities, culture and society. His works include Romans on the Bay of Naples (1970), Commerce and Social Standing in Ancient Rome (1981), and more than sixty scholarly articles and reviews. At the time of his death, he was working on a study of the social and cultural conventions concerning food and drink in Roman society.

Publications
 [dissertation] 1965. Republican Roman villas in coastal Campania. Thesis (Ph.D.), Harvard University.
 1970. Romans on the Bay of Naples; a social and cultural study of the villas and their owners from 150 B.C. to A.D. 400. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
 Gerald Frank Else, J. H. D'Arms, and John William Eadie. 1977. Ancient and modern: essays in honor of Gerald F. Else. Ann Arbor, Mich. : Center for Coördination of Ancient and Modern Studies.
 J. H. D'Arms and E. C. Kopff. 1980. The Seaborne commerce of ancient Rome : studies in archaeology and history. Rome: American Academy in Rome.
 1981. Commerce and social standing in ancient Rome. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
 J. H. D'Arms and N. Cantor. 2002. John H. D'Arms and the Humanities : his achievements, our future course. (ACLS Occasional Paper; 53). New York: American Council of Learned Societies.
 J. H. D'Arms and J. F. Donahue. 2003. Roman dining: [this special issue on Roman dining is dedicated to the memory of John Haughton D'Arms, teacher, scholar, classicist, friend, 1934 - 2002] 	American Journal of Philology 124.2003.3 = Nr. 495. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
 J. H. D'Arms, André Tchernia and Fausto Zevi. 2003. Romans on the bay of Naples and other essays on Roman Campania. Bari: Edigpulia.
 J. Andreau, J. H. D'Arms, A. G. Zevi. 2004. Ostia, Cicero, Gamala, feasts, & the economy: papers in memory of John H. D'Arms. Portsmouth RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.

External links

References

1934 births
2002 deaths
People from Poughkeepsie, New York
Princeton University alumni
Alumni of New College, Oxford
Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
Historians of ancient Rome
American classical scholars
Classical scholars of the University of Michigan
American expatriates in Italy
Historians from New York (state)
American male non-fiction writers
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Presidents of the American Council of Learned Societies

John D'Arms


Ian Campbell (26 April 1926 – 9 September 2007) was a Scottish politician who served as a backbench Labour Member of Parliament (MP) of the United Kingdom from 1970 to 1987.

Early life
Campbell was born in Dumbarton, the second of the four children of William Campbell and his wife Helen (née Crockett). He was educated at Knoxland Primary School and Dumbarton Academy, and studied electrical engineering at the Royal College of Science and Technology in Glasgow (now Strathclyde University). After National Service in Germany with the Royal Engineers, he became a chartered engineer, and worked for the South of Scotland Electricity Board from 1948 to 1965. He married Mary Millar in 1950; they had two sons and three daughters.

Political career
Campbell joined the Labour Party in 1953. He was elected to Dumbarton Burgh Council in 1958 and was first elected as Provost of Dumbarton in 1962. In 1968, was re-elected unopposed for an almost unprecedented third term. The Labour administration in Dumbarton during these years embarked on a significant programme of slum clearance, house building, and town centre redevelopment. The closure of the Denny Shipyard in 1963 was the most significant sign of a shift from heavy industry as the major source of employment in the town requiring a major investment of effort from the council and its leadership in economic development.

When Tom Steele, the Labour MP for Dunbartonshire West, indicated that he would stand down at the 1970 general election, Campbell was selected by the Constituency Labour Party as their candidate. He was duly elected, serving as MP for Dunbartonshire West until 1983 and then for the successor seat, Dumbarton, until 1987.

He won at five general elections, although his seat was not always particularly safe, particularly in the two general elections of 1974: his majority was reduced to just over 1,800 votes by the Scottish National Party at the October 1974 general election. As a Member of Parliament, his focus was firmly on the interests of his constituency and constituents. Throughout his time in parliament, he took a keen interest in the Scotch whisky industry, which was the key employer in the constituency. The nuclear base at Faslane was also in his constituency, and his constituents were also affected by the decline of the shipbuilding industry on the Lower Clyde. Although a backbencher for all of his time in the Commons, he was Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Secretary of State for Scotland, Bruce Millan, from 1976 until 1979, during the period when the Labour government was proposing to implement Scottish devolution. He also served for many years as a member of the Chairman's panel, and eventually as the regular Chairman of the Scottish Grand Committee. He was involved in the campaign against abortion, co-sponsoring an ultimately unsuccessful private member's bill introduced by his friend and colleague, James White, MP for Glasgow Pollok, to tighten the requirements of the Abortion Act 1967. Campbell acted as an informal whip in the committees considering various bills aimed at tightening the law in this area.  Early in the 1979 parliament, he successfully piloted a private member's bill through the House of Commons to enable Scottish local authorities to offer concessionary transport to people with mental disabilities.

In the run-up to the 1983 general election, he narrowly won a re-selection battle within his own Constituency Labour Party, against a challenge from a Leo Crawley, later a left-wing councillor in the constituency. In that election he was re-elected for the new Dumbarton constituency, which was practically the same as his old constituency, the only change was the addition of the villages of Bowling, and Milton. He retired at the 1987 general election and was replaced by John McFall.

Later life
After he retired from Parliament, Campbell he was active as an elder at Riverside Church in Dumbarton. He was also a member of the Dumbarton District Enterprise Trust, a member of the Strathclyde Local Valuation Panel, and a magistrate.

He was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2007, and died in Dumbarton. He was survived by his wife, five children and thirteen grand children.

External links

Political history of his constituency
Obituary, The Independent, 21 September 2007
Obituary, The Scotsman, 25 September 2007
Obituary, The Daily Telegraph, 2 October 2007
Obituary, The Times, 8 October 2007

1926 births
2007 deaths
Scottish Labour MPs
People from Dumbarton
Provosts in Scotland
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
People educated at Dumbarton Academy
Deaths from prostate cancer

Ian Campbell (Scottish politician)


Paul Sérieux (; 1864–1947) was a French psychiatrist who was a native of Paris.

He practiced medicine in several French hospitals and asylums during his career, including the Asylum of Ville-Evrard and the hospital of Sainte-Anne. He also worked as a physician at the Asylum of Marsens in Switzerland.

Sérieux is best known for research of psychoses and delusional thought processes, and his collaborative work with Joseph Capgras (1873–1950). With Capgras, he described a type of non-schizophrenic, paranoid psychosis called délire d'interprétation, which is defined as a "chronic interpretive psychosis". Sérieux was also instrumental in introducing the theories of German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) into French psychiatry.

With his one-time mentor Valentin Magnan (1835–1916), he co-authored the book Le délire chronique a evolution systématique (1892), and in 1909 with Capgras, he published a treatise called Les folies raisonnantes. Sérieux traveled widely throughout Europe, and created an extensive report on the state and conditions of psychiatric treatment in French, German, Swiss and Belgian mental asylums.

References
1904. L'Année Psychologique.,10, 532 : Paul Sérieux, 1903, Clinique psychiatrique de l'Université de Giessen (Grand Duché de Hesse), Arch. de neurologie, juillet, p. 15-31.
 This article is based on a translation of an article from the French Wikipedia.

External links
 Le délire érotique at Psychanalyse-Paris.com
 Instruction sur la manière de gouverner les Insensés

French psychiatrists
1864 births
1947 deaths
Physicians from Paris

Paul Sérieux


Amrit Sanchar ("nectar ceremony"; also called Amrit sanskar, Amrit Parchar, or Khande di Pahul), is the name given in the Sikh tradition to the Baptism ceremony which is also known as the initiation ceremony into the Khalsa "brotherhood". The word Pahul or Puhul is a derivative from a substantive, "pahu" — meaning an agent which brightens, accelerates or sharpens the potentialities of a given object. In Sikhism, the baptised Sikh is also called an Amritdhari, literally meaning Amrit Taker or one who has 'Taken on Amrit'.

History

This practice has been in existence since the times of Guru Nanak Dev (1469 - 1539). During that time-period, this ceremony was known as Charan Amrit or Charan Phul or the Pag Pahul, the words Charan and Pag both signifying the foot of the teacher. During that time-period, the neophytes poured water over Guru's toe to be initiated into the fold. When the Guru was not present, the masands or the local sangat leaders officiated. The water was poured on Guru's toe and then the devotees would drink it and seek blessings of the Guru. The Guru would guide the Sikhs about the Sikh teachings and instruct them to adopt them as a way of life.

Khande di Pahul (Amrit ceremony) was initiated in the times of Guru Gobind Singh when Khalsa was inaugurated at Sri Anandpur Sahib on the day of Baisakhi in 1699. Guru Gobind Singh asked a gathering of Sikhs, "who is prepared to die for God?" At first, the people hesitated, and then one man stepped forward, and he was taken to a tent. After some time, Guru Gobind Singh came out of the tent, with blood dripping from his sword. He asked the same question again. After the next four volunteers were in the tent, he reappeared with the five, who were now all dressed like him. These five men came to be known as Panj Pyares or the Beloved Five. These five were initiated into the Khalsa by receiving Amrit. These five were Bhai Daya Singh, Bhai Mukham Singh, Bhai Sahib Singh, Bhai Dharam Singh and Bhai Himmat Singh. Sikh men were then given the name "Singh" meaning "lion" and the women received the last name "Kaur" meaning "princess"

Khande Di Pahul not only embodies the primary objects of Sikh faith and the promises connected therewith, but also is itself a promise to lead a pure and pious life to unite with Almighty Lord. It is about inward cleansing of the conscience and seeking unity with The Supreme Lord through His Grace. The word Pahul is a derivative from the substantive, Pahu- which is an agent which brightens, accelerates or sharpens the potentialities of a given object.

Amrit Chhakhna
Amrit Chhakhna refers to the drinking of the Amrit or the Nectar. The Amrit is administered in the presence of the holy text of the Sikhs, the Guru Granth Sahib which is consideded the 11th Guru. The candidates take a full bath, wear the five 5 Kakas and present themselves before the Guru Granth Sahib for initiation of Amrit.

The five Sikhs, who represent the five beloved, who have led a virtuous life and have strictly observed the Sikh discipline are chosen to prepare and administer the Amrit. The candidates for baptism are apprised of the Amrit conditions for acceptance before the ceremony is started. They are apprised about the pure and virtuous life they must lead. When the candidates agree to live by the discipline and code of Sikh conduct, the Panj Pyares start preparing the Amrit.

A Sarb Loh (Iron or steel) cauldron (Bata or bowl) is filled with clean water. Some Patashas (sugar crystals/plums) are poured into the water. The Five Beloveds then sit in Vir Asan ( seated on the ground with left knee down and the right knee up) around the cauldron.

The mixture of Amrit is stirred with a Khanda while the Panj Pyares recite path of five Banis (Japji Sahib, Jaap Sahib, Sawayae, Chaupai Sahib and Anand Sahib) from Sri Guru Granth Sahib and Dasam Granth with attention and full concentration on the Amrit preparation in the cauldron. The solution thus prepared is called Amrit (nectar of immortality).

In this religion, it is believed that it should not be taken into mind that Amrit Chhakhna is the end purpose. It is the start of one's journey on a right path to attain a pure and pious life which is essential to attain God (according to the Guru Granth Sahib). It is not something external.

The person to become Amritdhari must wear the five holy symbols.

 Kesh (unshorn hair)
 Kirpan ("sword", i.e. a small dagger worn on the person)
 Kachehra (prescribed boxer shorts)
 Kangha (comb tucked in the tied-up hair)
 Karha (steel bracelet)

References

Sikhism

Amrit Sanskar


Mabel FitzRobert, Countess of Gloucester (c. 1100 – 29 September 1157) was an Anglo-Norman noblewoman, and a wealthy heiress who brought the lordship of Gloucester, among other prestigious honours to her husband, Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester upon their marriage. He was the illegitimate son of King Henry I of England.

Her father was Robert Fitzhamon, Lord of Gloucester and Glamorgan. As she was the eldest daughter of four, and her younger sisters had become nuns, Mabel inherited all of his honours and properties upon his death in 1107.

As Countess of Gloucester, Mabel was significant politically and she exercised an important administrative role in the lordship.

Family
Mabel was born in Gloucestershire, England around 1100, the eldest of the four daughters of Robert FitzHamon, Lord of Gloucester and Glamorgan, and his wife, Sybil de Montgomery. Her three younger sisters, Hawise, Cecile and Amice all became nuns, making Mabel the sole heiress to her father's lordships and vast estates in England, Wales, and Normandy.

Her paternal grandfather was Hamon, Sheriff of Kent, and her maternal grandparents were Roger de Montgomery, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury and Mabel de Bellême.

In March 1107, her father died in Normandy, leaving his lordships and estates to Mabel. Her mother married secondly Jean, Sire de Raimes.

Marriage
In June 1119, Mabel's marriage to Robert of Caen (also called FitzRoy and FitzEdith), an illegitimate son of King Henry I (not by his mistress Sybil Corbet - other sources say Robert's mother was of the Gai family of Oxfordshire), was solemnized. Their marriage may have been contracted as early as 1107 and is recorded by Orderic Vitalis who also names her parents. He would later become an important figure during the turbulent period in English history known as The Anarchy which occurred in the reign of King Stephen of England. Throughout the civil war, he was a loyal supporter of his half-sister Empress Matilda who would make him the chief commander of her army. He had originally sworn fealty to King Stephen, but after quarrelling with him in 1137, his English and Welsh possessions were forfeited, and thus he joined forces with Matilda.

Countess of Gloucester
Mabel brought to her husband the honours of Gloucester in England, Glamorgan in Wales, Sainte-Scholasse-sur-Sarthe, Evrecy and Creully in Normandy. By right of his wife, he became the 2nd Lord of Glamorgan, and gained possession of her father's castle of Cardiff in Wales. In August 1122, he was created 1st Earl of Gloucester; henceforth, Mabel was styled as Countess of Gloucester.

As countess, Mabel exercised a prominent administrative role in the Gloucester lordship. Her political importance was evident when she was made responsible for seeing that her husband upheld his side of the agreement in the treaty he made with Miles de Gloucester, 1st Earl of Hereford. She also witnessed four of Robert's charters; as well as giving her personal consent for his foundation of the Abbey of Margam, whose endowment  came from her own lands. Later, after Robert's death, Mabel assumed control of the honour of Gloucester's Norman lands on behalf of her eldest son William.

Issue
Together Robert and Mabel had at least eight children:
William Fitz Robert, 2nd Earl of Gloucester (died 23 November 1183), married Hawise de Beaumont by whom he had five children, including Isabella of Gloucester, the first wife of King John of England, and Amice FitzRobert, Countess of Gloucester.
 Roger, Bishop of Worcester (died 9 August 1179)
 Hamon FitzRobert, (died 1159), killed in the Siege of Toulouse.
 Robert FitzRobert of Ilchester (died before 1157), married Hawise de Redvers, by whom he had a daughter Mabel who in her turn married Jordan de Cambernon.
 Richard FitzRobert, Sire de Creully (died 1175), inherited the seigneury of Creully from Mabel, and became the ancestor of the Sires de Creully. He married the daughter of Hughes de Montfort by whom he had five children.
 Philip FitzRobert, (died after 1147), Castellan of Cricklade. He took part in the Second Crusade.
 Maud FitzRobert (died 29 July 1190), married Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester by whom she had three children.
 Mabel FitzRobert, married Aubrey de Vere

Robert also sired an illegitimate son, Richard, Bishop of Bayeux by Isabel de Douvres.

Death
Mabel's husband died on 31 October 1147. Mabel herself died on 29 September 1157 in Bristol at the age of fifty-seven years. She was buried at St James' Priory, Bristol.

References

English countesses
1100s births
1157 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
12th-century English nobility
12th-century English women
12th-century English landowners
12th-century women landowners
Women landowners
Burials at St James' Priory, Bristol
Anglo-Normans
Anglo-Norman women


Electronic business (also known as online business or e-business) is any kind of business or commercial transaction that includes sharing information across the internet. Commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups, and individuals and can be seen as one of the essential activities of any business.

Electronic commerce focuses on the use of information and communication technology to enable the external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups, and other businesses, while e-business refers to business with help of the internet. Electronic business differs from electronic commerce as it does not only deal with online transactions of selling and buying of a product and/or service but also enables to conduct of business processes (inbound/outbound logistics, manufacturing & operations, marketing and sales, customer service) within the value chain through internal or external networks. The term "e-business" was coined by IBM's marketing and Internet team in 1996.

Market participants in Electronic Business

Electronic business can take place between a very large number of market participants; it can be between business and consumer, private individuals, public administrations, or any other organizations such as NGOs.
These various market participants can be divided into three main groups:
1) Business (B)
2) Consumer (C)
3) Administration (A)
All of them can be either buyers or service providers within the market. There are nine possible combinations for electronic business relationships. B2C and B2B  belong to E-commerce, while A2B and A2A belong to the E-government sector which is also a part of the electronic business.

History
One of the founding pillars of electronic business was the development of the Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) electronic data interchange. This system replaced traditional mailing and faxing of documents with a digital transfer of data from one computer to another, without any human intervention.
Michael Aldrich is considered the developer of the predecessor to online shopping. In 1979, the entrepreneur connected a television set to a transaction processing computer with a telephone line and called it "teleshopping", meaning shopping at distance.
From the mid-nineties, major advancements were made in the commercial use of the Internet. Amazon, which launched in 1995, started as an online bookstore and grew to become nowadays the largest online retailer worldwide, selling food, toys, electronics, apparel and more. Other successful stories of online marketplaces include eBay or Etsy.
In 1994, IBM, with its agency Ogilvy & Mather, began to use its foundation in IT solutions and expertise to market itself as a leader of conducting business on the Internet through the term "e-business." Then CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. was prepared to invest $1 billion to market this new brand.

After conducting worldwide market research in October 1997, IBM began with an eight-page piece in The Wall Street Journal that would introduce the concept of "e-business" and advertise IBM's expertise in the new field. IBM decided not to trademark the term "e-business" in the hopes that other companies would use the term and create an entirely new industry. However, this proved to be too successful and by 2000, to differentiate itself, IBM launched a $300 million campaign about its "e-business infrastructure" capabilities. Since that time, the terms, "e-business" and "e-commerce" have been loosely interchangeable and have become a part of the common vernacular.

According to the U.S. Department Of Commerce, the estimated retail e-commerce sales in Q1 2020 were representing almost 12% of total U.S. retail sales, against 4% for Q1 2010.

Business model

The transformation toward e-business is complex and in order for it to succeed, there is a need to balance between strategy, an adapted business model (e-intermediary, marketplaces), right processes (sales, marketing) and technology (Supply Chain Management, Customer Relationship Management).
When organizations go online, they have to decide which e-business models best suit their goals. A business model is defined as the organization of product, service and information flows, and the source of revenues and benefits for suppliers and customers. The concept of the e-business model is the same but used in online presence.

Revenue model

A key component of the business model is the revenue model or profit model, which is a framework for generating revenues. It identifies which revenue source to pursue, what value to offer, how to price the value, and who pays for the value. It is a key component of a company's business model. It primarily identifies what product or service will be created in order to generate revenues and the ways in which the product or service will be sold.

Without a well-defined revenue model, that is, a clear plan of how to generate revenues, new businesses will more likely struggle due to costs that they will not be able to sustain. By having a revenue model, a business can focus on a target audience, fund development plans for a product or service, establish marketing plans, begin a line of credit and raise capital.

E-commerce

E-commerce (short for "electronic commerce") is trading in products or services using computer networks, such as the Internet. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the transaction's life cycle, although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail.

Concerns
While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide. Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.

Security
E-business systems naturally have greater security risks than traditional business systems, therefore it is important for e-business systems to be fully protected against these risks. A far greater number of people have access to e-businesses through the internet than would have access to a traditional business. Customers, suppliers, employees, and numerous other people use any particular e-business system daily and expect their confidential information to stay secure. Hackers are one of the great threats to the security of e-businesses. Some common security concerns for e-Businesses include keeping business and customer information private and confidential, the authenticity of data, and data integrity. Some of the methods of protecting e-business security and keeping information secure include physical security measures as well as data storage, data transmission, anti-virus software, firewalls, and encryption to list a few.

Privacy and confidentiality
Confidentiality is the extent to which businesses makes personal information available to other businesses and individuals. With any business, confidential information must remain secure and only be accessible to the intended recipient. However, this becomes even more difficult when dealing with e-businesses specifically. To keep such information secure means protecting any electronic records and files from unauthorized access, as well as ensuring safe transmission and data storage of such information. Tools such as encryption and firewalls manage this specific concern within e-business.

Authenticity
E-business transactions pose greater challenges for establishing authenticity due to the ease with which electronic information may be altered and copied. Both parties in an e-business transaction want to have the assurance that the other party is who they claim to be, especially when a customer places an order and then submits a payment electronically. One common way to ensure this is to limit access to a network or trusted parties by using a virtual private network (VPN) technology. The establishment of authenticity is even greater when a combination of techniques are used, and such techniques involve checking "something you know" (i.e. password or PIN), "something you need" (i.e. credit card), or "something you are" (i.e. digital signatures or voice recognition methods). Many times in e-business, however, "something you are" is pretty strongly verified by checking the purchaser's "something you have" (i.e. credit card) and "something you know" (i.e. card number).

Data integrity
Data integrity answers the question "Can the information be changed or corrupted in any way?" This leads to the assurance that the message received is identical to the message sent. A business needs to be confident that data is not changed in transit, whether deliberately or by accident. To help with data integrity, firewalls protect stored data against unauthorized access, while simply backing up data allows recovery should the data or equipment be damaged.

Non-repudiation
This concern deals with the existence of proof in a transaction. A business must have the assurance that the receiving party or purchaser cannot deny that a transaction has occurred, and this means having sufficient evidence to prove the transaction. One way to address non-repudiation is using digital signatures. A digital signature not only ensures that a message or document has been electronically signed by the person, but since a digital signature can only be created by one person, it also ensures that this person cannot later deny that they provided their signature.

Access control
When certain electronic resources and information is limited to only a few authorized individuals, a business and its customers must have the assurance that no one else can access the systems or information. There are a variety of techniques to address this concern including firewalls, access privileges, user identification and authentication techniques (such as passwords and digital certificates), Virtual Private Networks (VPN), and much more.

Availability
This concern is specifically pertinent to a business's customers as certain information must be available when customers need it. Messages must be delivered in a reliable and timely fashion, and information must be stored and retrieved as required. Because the availability of service is important for all e-business websites, steps must be taken to prevent disruption of service by events such as power outages and damage to physical infrastructure. Examples to address this include data backup, fire-suppression systems, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) systems, virus protection, as well as making sure that there is sufficient capacity to handle the demands posed by heavy network traffic.

Cost structure
The business internet which supports e-business has a cost to maintain of about $2 trillion in outsourced IT dollars just in the United States alone.  With each website custom crafted and maintained in code, the maintenance burden is enormous.  In the twenty-first century, look for new businesses that will help standardize the look and feel of the internet presence of a business to be more uniform in nature to help reduce the cost of maintenance.

The cost structure for e-businesses varies a lot from the industry they operate in. There are two major categories that have commune characteristics. The first group is fully digital businesses that do not provide any products or services outside of the digital world. This includes for example software companies, social networks, etc. For those, the most significant operational cost is the maintenance of the platform. Those costs are almost unrelated to every additional customer the business acquires, making the marginal cost almost equal to zero. This is one of the major advantages of that kind of business. The second group are businesses that provide services or products outside of the digital world, like online shops, for those costs are much harder to determine. Some common advantages over traditional businesses are lower marketing cost, lower inventory cost, lower payroll, lower rent, etc.

Security solutions

When it comes to security solutions, sustainable electronic business requires support for data integrity, strong authentication, and privacy. Numerous things can be done in order to protect our E-Business. Starting off with basic things like switch to HTTPS from old outdated HTTP protocol which is more vulnerable to attacks. Furthermore, the other things that require full attention are securing servers and admin panels, payment gateway security, antivirus and anti-malware software, using firewalls is also a must, regular updates, and back up our data.

Access and data integrity
There are several different ways to prevent access to the data that is kept online. One way is to use anti-virus software. This is something that most people use to protect their networks regardless of the data they have. E-businesses should use this because they can then be sure that the information sent and received to their system is clean.
A second way to protect the data is to use firewalls and network protection. A firewall is used to restrict access to private networks, as well as public networks that a company may use. The firewall also has the ability to log attempts into the network and provide warnings as it is happening. They are very beneficial to keep third parties out of the network. Businesses that use Wi-Fi need to consider different forms of protection because these networks are easier for someone to access. They should look into protected access, virtual private networks, or internet protocol security.
Another option they have is an intrusion detection system. This system alerts when there are possible intrusions. Some companies set up traps or "hot spots" to attract people and are then able to know when someone is trying to hack into that area.

Encryption
Encryption, which is actually a part of cryptography, involves transforming texts or messages into a code that is unreadable. These messages have to be decrypted in order to be understandable or usable for someone. There is a key that identifies the data to a certain person or company. With public-key encryption, there are actually two keys used. One is public and one is private. The public one is used for encryption and the private one for decryption. The level of the actual encryption can be adjusted and should be based on the information. The key can be just a simple slide of letters or a completely random mix-up of letters. This is relatively easy to implement because there is software that a company can purchase. A company needs to be sure that its keys are registered with a certificate authority.

Digital certificates
The point of a digital certificate is to identify the owner of a document. This way the receiver knows that it is an authentic document. Companies can use these certificates in several different ways. They can be used as a replacement for user names and passwords. Each employee can be given these to access the documents that they need from wherever they are.
These certificates also use encryption. They are a little more complicated than normal encryption, however. They actually used important information within the code. They do this in order to assure the authenticity of the documents as well as confidentiality and data integrity which always accompany encryption.
Digital certificates are not commonly used because they are confusing for people to implement. There can be complications when using different browsers, which means they need to use multiple certificates. The process is being adjusted so that it is easier to use.

Digital signatures
A final way to secure information online would be to use a digital signature. If a document has a digital signature on it, no one else is able to edit the information without being detected. That way if it is edited, it may be adjusted for reliability after the fact. In order to use a digital signature, one must use a combination of cryptography and a message digest. A message digest is used to give the document a unique value. That value is then encrypted with the sender's private key.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
When looking at e-business we have many advantages, which are mostly connected to making doing business easier. The benefits of implementing e-business tools are in the streamlining of business processes and not so much in the use of technology. Here are some:

 Easy to set up: electronic business is easy to set up even from home, the only requirements are software, a device and an internet connection.
 Flexible business hours: There are no time barriers that a location-based business can encounter since the internet is available to everyone all the time. Your products and services can be accessed by everyone with an internet connection.
 Cheaper than traditional business: Electronic business is less costly than a traditional business, but it is more expensive to set up. Transactions cost are also cheaper.
 No geographical boundaries: The greatest benefit is the possibility of geographical dispersion. Anyone can order anything from anywhere at any time.
 Government subsidies: Digitalisation is very encouraged by the government and they provide the necessary support.
 Newmarket entry: It has a great potential to enable an entry to a previously unknown market that a traditional business could not.
Lower levels of inventory: Electronic business enables companies to lower their level of inventory by digitalizing their assets. (i.e.: Netflix does not sell anymore physical DVDs but proposes online streaming content instead).
Lower costs of marketing and sales: E-commerce allows the actors of the industry to advertise for their product/service offer (i.e.: house rental) at generally lower costs than by promoting physically their business.

Disadvantages
Despite all the limits, there are also some disadvantages that we need to address. The most common limitations of electronic business are:

 Lack of personal touch: The products cannot be examined or felt before the final purchase.  In the traditional model, we have a more personal customer experience, while in the electronic business that is mostly not the case. Another missing factor of personal touch could also be in online transactions.
 Delivery time: Traditional business enables instant satisfaction as you obtain the product the moment you purchase it, while in electronic business that is not possible. There will always be a waiting period before you receive the product. For example, Amazon assures one-day delivery. This does not resolve the issue completely, but it is an improvement.
 Security issues: Scams could be mentioned as a factor for people's distrust in electronic business. Hackers can easily get customers' financial and personal details. Some customer still finds it hard to trust electronic businesses because of the lack of security, reliability and integrity issues.

See also

Electronic commerce
Electronic Commerce Modeling Language
Very Large Business Applications
Digital economy
Types of E-commerce
Shopping cart software

References

Business terms
Web development
Web applications
E-commerce

Electronic business


The World Championship of Speedway is an international competition between the highest-ranked motorcycle speedway riders of the world, run under the auspices of the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM). The first official championships were held in 1936.

Today, this official FIM championship is organised as a series of Speedway Grand Prix events, where points are awarded according to performance in the event and tallied up at the end of each season. However, up to 1994, it was run as a single-night event after qualifying rounds during the season, leading up to a big final of 20 heats, where points were awarded according to riders' heat placings and then tallied up at the end.

Before the World Championship received its formal recognition from the ACU and the FIM in 1936, other unofficial Speedway World Championships were staged between 1931 and 1935, in Europe, South America and Australasia, such as the Star Riders' Championship.

Organization

1929 to 1935 – Unofficial Championships
1929 to 1935 England.
The Star Riders' Championship (1929–1935) was considered an unofficial World Championships, featuring riders from Great Britain, Australia and the United States, the event was arguably the closest format to the first World Championship in 1936 because it was at the same venue (Wembley) and contained nearly all of the same riders, including two of the first three official world champions.
Additionally in 1931 the Promoters Association initiated a match race competition for the 'Individual World Championship' matching first the top Australian rider against the best Englishman over a 'best of three' series. A month later that winner next met another challenger for his world title. After the event was raced however, the SCB refused to recognise the title, and it subsequently became the 'British Individual Championship', - but the season's winner held still the trophy inscribed "World Champion" !

1930/31, Argentina, S.America. A.J.Hunting's  'International Speedway Ltd' staged a "World's Championship Series" at one of their Buenos Aires tracks during the second season of Dirt Track racing in Argentina. Culminating in February 1931, it was run as a series of eliminating match races between local and visiting British, USA and Australian riders.

1931 to 1935, Paris, France.
An Anglo-French promotion syndicate ran an annual Dirt Track " Championnat du Monde" (World Championship,) for five years at the Buffalo Velodrome, Paris between 1931 and '35. The format usually comprised 9 riders drawn from Europe and the UK scene, (3 per race,) across 13 heats, Semi's and Finals.

1933, 1934, Australia.
A Johnny Hoskins'-led  Anglo/Australian promotion staged a 'World's Championship Final' at the Sydney Showground Speedway (Speedway Royal) on 4 March 1933 following qualifying rounds in Perth (Claremont Speedway) on 2 December 1932, Adelaide (Wayville Showground) on 2 January, Melbourne (Exhibition Speedway) on 28 January, and Sydney (Royal) on 18 February. A squad of 7 riders, 5 Australian and 2 English, competed over 7 races (3 riders per race,) the top point scorer, English rider Harry Whitfield, becoming World Champion. The riders who qualified for the Final were Lionel Van Praag, Bluey Wilkinson, Dicky Smythe, Billy Lamont and Jack Chapman (Australia), with Harry Whitfield and Jack Ormston from England.

The 1934 event was cancelled after the initial qualifying meeting was rained off.

1936 to 1954 –  ACU (FICM) Championships
Wembley, London.
With minor modifications, the general system stayed the same from the first official championship. There were initial qualifying rounds, where the riders raced in heats of four to score points against each other (3 for first place, 2 for second place, 1 for third place). The final qualifying round was called the Championship Round, and it consisted of seven to ten meetings, though no one participated in all of them. The 16 who scored the most points then qualified for the World Championship Final at Wembley, where the heat system was again used - this time with a total of 20 heats of four riders, each rider racing five heats, and every rider meeting each other at some point during the competition. The same points system was used, and the rider with the most points won. From 1936 to 1938 bonus points were carried over from the Championship Round. This was scrapped when the World Championship resumed after the War in 1949.

1955 to 1994 – FIM Championships
Wembley and beyond.
In 1955, the World final organisers recognised that it was no longer practical for the foreigners to travel to the Championship round races in Britain, and so a system with zonal qualification races was invented. The Nordic countries Finland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway had their own qualifiers, Austria, Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia had the "continental" qualifiers, and the best riders met for European Championships - all organised in roughly the same way as the World final was before. The Championship Round for British, Australian and New Zealand racers, however, was kept until 1960, after which the first World Final outside London was staged in Sweden, in '61. Finals in Poland, and later USA, Germany Denmark and the Netherlands followed, the number of British & Commonwealth participants reducing over time, quotas from each nation/continent varying dependent upon which nation hosted the championship final.

1995 to present – SGPs
Grand Prix Series.
Gradually, it became apparent that the single-night event was getting obsolete, and a Grand Prix series similar to that used in Formula One and MotoGP was implemented in 1995 - while the system with qualifiers and a final was now used to qualify riders for the next Grand Prix series. Initially, there were six races, in Poland, Austria, Germany, Sweden, Denmark and Great Britain. The old system with everyone racing each other was still used, however, except that the four best riders qualified for a final heat which would determine who won the individual event (and score maximum points). Points were awarded as follows:

 25 for the winner, then 20, 18, 16, 14, 13, 12, 11, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 3, 2, and 1 for 16th

This system was used until 1998, when FIM invented another system. Instead of 16 riders racing for points and trying to qualify for a final, there would now be 24 riders, divided into two classes. The eight best would be directly qualified for the so-called Main Event, while the sixteen others would be knocked out if they finished out of the top two in 4-rider heats on two occasions - while they would go through if they finished inside the top two on two occasions. This resulted in 10 heats, where eight proceeded to the Main Event, where exactly the same system was applied to give eight riders to a semi-final. The semi-finals were then two heats of four, where the top two qualified for a final and the others raced off in a consolation final. This system meant that the point system had to be revised, with 5th place getting 15 points, 6th 14, 8th 10, and after that 8, 8, 7, 7, etc. Places after 8th place were awarded according to the time a rider was knocked out and, secondly, according to position in the last heat he rode in.

This system went largely unchanged until 2004 (with the consolation final having been abolished in 2002), although the number of GP events was increased to ten in 2002 and then changed back to 9 in 2003 and 2004. However, the system was viewed by many as too complicated, and for the 2005 Speedway Grand Prix season the system used from 1995 to 1997 was back, but with one minor modification; points gained in the heats would now count for the aggregate standings, and the top eight riders would qualify for two semi-final heats, just like the 1998–2004 system. In 2020, the points system was again changed with overall positions deciding total championship points scored and points scored in individual heats again deciding overall positions in Grands Prix.

History

Dirt track pioneers
Businessman A.J. Hunting was a dirt track speedway pioneer, promoting first in Australia in 1926, then Gt.Britain in '28, but it was in his second season in Argentina, at the Huracan Stadium, Buenos Aires in 1930/31, that he ran his first, and the world's first, World Championship competition. Arranged over a season-long series of eliminating Match Races, America's Sprouts Elder was the first Championship winner. In the following European season of the same year Australian Billy Lamont took the "Championnat du Monde" in Paris, followed by fellow countryman Arthur "Bluey" Wilkinson the next year. But these two stars of the Dirt Track could only manage podium places behind Brit Harry Whitfield when a 'World's Championship' was staged on their home soil in 1933. Meanwhile, in the UK Jack Parker had replaced Aussie Vic Huxley as the 'Individual World Champion' but after the event the Speedway Control Board refused to honour the title put up by the promotion. Englishman Claude Rye took the Paris title twice before the Wembley event subsequently emerged in 1936.

Humble beginnings

The British pride themselves on organising the official World Championship, having hosted the first fifteen ACU/FIM-sanctioned events, - all in Wembley Stadium. These were from 1936, when Australian Lionel Van Praag won the title, to 1938 and from 1949 to 1960. 1937 saw Americans Jack Milne, Wilbur Lamoreaux and Cordy Milne swept the podium for the first win for America and the first time riders from one country took all 3 top positions. It was also the last American victory until 1981. Commonwealth countries dominated, with the UK, Australia and New Zealand taking four titles each up to 1959, including the first two time and back to back winner, Australia's Jack Young who won in 1951 and 1952. The first non-English-speaking victor came in 1956, when the Swede Ove Fundin won the first of his five titles. The late 1950s and 1960s were dominated by Fundin along with the two New Zealanders Ronnie Moore (two titles) and Barry Briggs (four titles), and Englishman Peter Craven (two titles).

Mauger's era

Then, at the 1966 World Championship in Gothenburg Ivan Mauger, a 26-year-old New Zealander who had had a slow breakthrough in British league speedway, made his debut. He finished fourth, but won two out of five races, and showed potential by winning the European final (without Swedes) at Wembley. And he lived up to it. He raced until the age of 39, winning six World titles, including three in a row from 1968 to 1970 - including nine successive races in finals events. After 1970, though, he showed himself to be more human, as Ole Olsen took over - winning in Göteborg in 1971 and eventually taking three titles. However, Mauger had the last laugh of the two - winning the last final that they both competed in, at Chorzów in 1979, when he scored 14 out of 15 possible points to win the final ahead of Pole Zenon Plech.

Danes take over

After American Bruce Penhall won twice in 1981 and 1982 - the latter being the first and only time a World Championship race has been hosted in the United States, in Los Angeles - it was time for Denmark to ascend the world control of speedway. Earlier on, only Ole Olsen had won World titles, in 1971, 1975 and 1978, but a new generation was growing up, led by Erik Gundersen and Hans Nielsen who occupied the first two places at Gothenburg in 1984. And, in fact, there were two Danes on top of the table in each and  every World final from 1984 to 1989 - a somewhat extraordinary record. Gundersen and Nielsen took three titles each as the Danes won six successive and seven out of eight titles from 1984 to 1991. However, the forced retirement of Gundersen in 1989 following a horrific crash in the Speedway World Team Cup Final in Bradford, followed by 1991 champion Jan O. Pedersen in 1992, both prematurely because of serious injuries, weakened Danish speedway somewhat, as only Nielsen held the class required to win the World Championship. He did in 1995, the first year of the Speedway Grand Prix series - scoring 103 points and winning one of six races (fellow Dane Tommy Knudsen actually won two, but was too inconsistent and finished tenth), fifteen points more than his nearest opponent. He was pipped to the title by two points by America's Billy Hamill in 1996, and although he continued racing until 1999 and was still winning Grands Prix, he never threatened the top.

Speedway Grand Prix

The previous, single meeting World Final, was held in the UK or Europe, except in 1982 when it was in the USA. The Speedway Grand Prix series events have to date been staged in the UK, Europe, Australia and New Zealand.

It was Sweden, represented by Tony Rickardsson, the 1994 champion, who took over. Rickardsson won four titles from 1998 to 2002, only interrupted by Mark Loram in 2000. Englishman Loram has the dubious honour of being the first (and so far only) SGP World Champion not to win a Grand Prix during his championship year, though his consistency in reaching the Semi-final at each event and being runner-up in the first 2 rounds saw him score enough points to defeat Hamill and Rickardsson. Although Dane Nicki Pedersen and Australian Jason Crump won in 2003 and 2004 respectively, Rickardsson was hampered by injury and unlucky draws through many of the Grand Prix races and was often in contention for the title. The 2005 Speedway Grand Prix series, however, saw Rickardsson return, taking his sixth victory to equal the record of Ivan Mauger. The 2006 Grand Prix was again won by Jason Crump who amassed a total of 188 points to lead the field throughout the championship. Rickardsson announced his retirement from the sport half way through the 2006 campaign.

In 2007, Nicki Pedersen once again regained the title he first won in 2003, with a total of 196 points, while Leigh Adams finished his nearest rival on 153. Nicki Pedersen won the 2008 series for a third time, while Jason Crump picked up the silver medal, and Pole Tomasz Gollob finished third. Crump would win his third title in 2009 before Gollob became just the second Polish rider to win the world title in 2010 following on from Jerzy Szczakiel's surprise win in 1973. American Greg Hancock, the 1997 champion, won his second championship in 2011 at the age of 41 to become the oldest champion, while Australia added another World Crown when Chris Holder raced to the 2012 championship with 160 points to defeat Pedersen on 152 and Hancock on 148. Tai Woffinden gave England its first champion since Mark Loram when he won the SGP in 2013, while Greg Hancock proved age is no barrier when he won the 2014 World Championship at the age of 44. In 2015 Woffinden would again win the World Championship despite a late season surge from 45 year old Hancock.

Hancock once again won the World Championship in 2016. Australian Jason Doyle had led the standings for the majority of the year, succumbing to injury before the last couple of rounds, saw Hancock win his fourth World Championship. Doyle would eventually become World Champion in 2017, his first ever medal. Tai Woffinden would become a three-time champion in 2018. Bartosz Zmarzlik would become World Champion for the first time in 2019, and the third ever Polish World Champion. Zmarzlik then won three more titles in 2020, 2022 and 2023.

Table of winners

See also
World Championship Medals Table
Under-21 World Championship

References

Individual
Events at Wembley Stadium
Recurring sporting events established in 1931
1931 establishments in Argentina

Speedway World Championship


Providence was an American six-piece rock band, active from 1971 to 1974. The group originated in Boise, Idaho, but was later based in Portland, Oregon. The Moody Blues signed Providence to a recording contract with Threshold. They released one album, Ever Sense the Dawn, in 1972.

Band members
 Bob Barriatua - electric bass, vocals
 Bart Bishop - lead vocals, piano, harpsichord, organ, autoharp
 Jim Cockey - violin, glockenspiel, vocals
 Andy Guzie - guitars, vocals
 Tim Tompkins - cello, vocals, recorders, percussion
 Tom Tompkins - viola, vocals, occasional violin.

Musical style
The style of the group was soft rock with classical influences, particularly in contrapuntal instrumental interludes by their string trio and in broad vocal harmonies that followed strict rules of voice-leading.

Providence was an impressive live unit that drew heavily on the combined power of Barriatua's bass and Tompkins' cello, the two instruments combining to create a rock edge that could be quite intense. Layered on top of that were Tompkins' viola and Cockey's violin. Guzie's guitar work was often treated as a lyrical embellishment more than the blistering leads of his rock contemporaries of the period. Lead singer and main writer Bartholomew Bishop's keyboards centered on piano, organ and harpsichord, rather than the Moog, ARP and other synthesizers then in common use among groups exploring a mixture of rock and classical influences. Because of their string trio, the group did not use the popular Mellotron (which the Moody Blues popularized in songs such as "Nights in White Satin"), giving Providence a sound that was quite organic and more complex than that created by the Mellotron.

After breakup
Following the band's breakup, individual members went on to a wide range of professional activities.

Cockey and the Tompkins brothers lent their talents to the duet album Blue Jays (1975) by the Moodies' Justin Hayward and John Lodge. They also became part of the Bluejays touring band for the 1975 UK tour, and in 1977 they appeared on Justin Hayward's solo album Songwriter.

Barriatua completed an M.D. degree and established a practice in Portland.

Cockey completed a degree in composition at University of Oregon under Hal Owen and has since established himself as a composer and music teacher working out of McCall, Idaho.

Andy (now known as Andrew) Guzie completed a classical guitar degree from the University of Oregon and continues to work as a performing guitarist in Portland.

Tim and his wife Frances Tompkins have been composing and performing music together for 40 years. He appeared on the 1995 recording Freelight, which also featured former Moody Blues keyboardist and vocalist Michael Pinder. Tom Tompkins has worked as principal violist with the Boise, Idaho symphony, broadened his musical skills to include flute and mandolin, among other instruments, and recorded with a range of artists.

Tom Tompkins with wife Jill established careers as principal string players in the Boise Philharmonic Orchestra.  They left their long held positions in 2015.

Rand Bishop is Bart's brother and was the original producer of the Providence demo that drew attention from the Moodies resulting in the signing to Threshold.  Rand now works on Music Row in Nashville, Tennessee and has written top sellers for Tim McGraw, Toby Keith and others.

Bart Bishop has perhaps sustained the most visibility in the field of recorded music.  He continued working in the recording industry as a vocalist throughout the 1970s, featured on albums by Ted Nugent (Nugent), Allan Clarke former lead singer of the Hollies, Billy Thorpe (Children of the Sun), Carmine Appice/Rick Derringer (Doctors of the Universe), Peter Noone (Herman of Herman's Hermits), The Orchids,  The Runaways, Staying Alive soundtrack album (platinum selling status), and Rand Bishop and the Underdogs.

Bartholomew's work as a busy session vocalist and instrumentalist in Hollywood drew the attention of Takoma Records Denny Bruce in 1981 and Bart wrote produced and performed the Takoma records release The Roulettes, a pop rock project of his own. In recent years Bart had gone back to using his original stage name of "Bartholomew" and was in production of a new album  that focused on his folk-classical musical roots. The new project, tentatively titled Three Cornered Hat, was produced by brother Theo Bishop at Native Language Studios in the Los Angeles area, with a tentative release in 2008. It was to feature the string arrangements and performances of  another brother, Jayson Bishop, on cello and string bass, as well as Theo's keyboard work.  The brothers entertained distribution opportunities around the world, particularly to accommodate a European tour scheduled for summer 2009, along with Bart's son Graham's act, "Senors of Marseille".

In another familial collaboration, Theo and yet another brother, Greg, produced and released the CD Fly Brother Fly in 1998. Greg is a flutist and vocalist with roots in classical, pop, rock, world music and jazz. Fly Brother Fly has been described as "An exotic, cinematic blend of stellar flute-driven music that transports, soothes, heals, and uplifts through many styles including contemporary jazz, new age, and lush vocal pop." Greg says much of his inspiration for becoming a musician came from watching Providence rehearse at their home in Boise.

Theo has been active as a composer and performer, scoring TV shows and movies and lending his skills to many rock, blues and jazz groups throughout southern California. He has produced three CDs as a jazz pianist: One Man's Dream, Newport Nights, and Time to Think (2013). He has also produced several other artists from his Southern California Studio. Theo has written and produced some of smooth jazz's top songs and performed with some of its brightest stars. He has recorded and/or played live with Jeff Kashiwa, Steve Oliver, Dave Hooper of the Rippingtons, Tony Guerrero, Rob Mullins, Juan Carlos Quintero, Brian Hughes, Jimmie Haslip and Will Kennedy from the Yellow Jackets.

The members of Providence reunited in 2007 to autograph rare copies of their original Ever Sense the Dawn Threshold Records release for fans and friends in Europe.

Bart Bishop died on 19 October 2009.

References

Rock music groups from Idaho
Rock music groups from Oregon
Musical groups from Portland, Oregon
Musical groups established in 1971
Musical groups disestablished in 1974
Musicians from Boise, Idaho

Providence (band)


Brent Woody Musburger (born May 26, 1939) is an American sportscaster, currently the lead broadcaster and managing editor at Vegas Stats and Information Network (VSiN).

With CBS Sports from 1973 until 1990, he was one of the original members of their program The NFL Today and is credited with coining the phrase "March Madness" to describe the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament while covering the Final Four. While at CBS, Musburger also covered the Super Bowl, NBA Finals, the World Series, U.S. Open tennis, and The Masters.

Joining ESPN and ABC Sports in 1990, Musburger continued to cover the NBA Finals, as well as hosting Monday Night Football and providing play-by-play for Saturday Night Football and the SEC Network. He covered the Indianapolis 500, U.S. Open and British Open golf, the World Cup, the Belmont Stakes, and the College Football national championship among other big events. In January 2017, he left the ESPN and ABC television networks after 27 years, briefly retiring from play-by-play of live sports before returning as the play-by-play voice of the Las Vegas Raiders from 2018 until 2022.

Raised in Billings, Montana, he is a member of the Montana Broadcaster's Association Hall of Fame.

Early life and career
Musburger was born in Portland, Oregon, and raised in Billings, Montana, the son of Beryl Ruth (Woody) and Cec Musburger. He was an umpire for minor league baseball during the 1950s. He was also a boyhood friend of former Major League pitcher Dave McNally. His brother, Todd Musburger, is a prominent sports agent.

Musburger's youth included some brushes with trouble: when he was 12, he and his brother stole a car belonging to their mother's cleaning lady and took it for a joy ride. His parents sent him to the Shattuck-St. Mary's School in Faribault, Minnesota. Educated at Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism, he was kicked out for a year for owning and operating a car without a license.

Musburger began his career as a sportswriter for the now-defunct Chicago American newspaper, where his editor was the legendary sportswriter Warren Brown. In 1968, Musburger penned a column regarding Tommie Smith and John Carlos's protest of racial injustice in the United States with a Black Power salute on the medal stand during the 1968 Summer Olympics. In it he stated "Smith and Carlos looked like a couple of black-skinned storm troopers" who were "ignoble," "juvenile," and "unimaginative". In a 1999 article in The New York Times, Musburger stated that comparing the two to the Nazis was "harsh", but he stood by his criticism of the pair's action:

According to Carlos, Musburger never apologized:

Carlos later told Jemele Hill during a 2019 discussion that "Brent Musburger doesn't even exist in my mind. He didn't mean anything to me 51 years ago. He doesn't mean anything to me today. Because he's been proven to be wrong."

In 1968, Musburger began a 22-year association with CBS, first as a sports anchor for WBBM radio and later for WBBM-TV. In the mid-1970s, Musburger moved to Los Angeles and anchored news and sports for KNXT (now KCBS-TV); there he worked alongside Connie Chung as a co-anchor on KNXT's evening newscasts from 1978 until 1980, when he joined CBS Sports full-time.

In 2020, Musburger told the Sports Illustrated Media Podcast that he has always won while betting the length of the Super Bowl national anthem by having his friends attend the rehearsal the day before the game and time it: "Some people have lip-synched it and that was an easy win because that recording is automatic."

CBS Sports (1973–1990)
Beginning in late 1973, Musburger was doing play-by-play for CBS Sports. He started out doing regular season National Football League games (future The NFL Today co-host Irv Cross was also doing NFL games at that time as well). Musburger was paired with Tommy Mason or Bart Starr, who provided the color commentary. A year later, Wayne Walker would be paired with Musburger in the booth.

By 1975 at CBS, Musburger went from doing NFL play-by-play (and other items, mostly on CBS' Sports Saturday/Sunday programs) to rising to prominence as the host of the network's National Football League studio show, The NFL Today. Suddenly, Musburger began to cover many assignments for CBS Sports. Among the other events he covered, either as studio host or play-by-play announcer, were college football and basketball, the National Basketball Association, horse racing, the U.S. Open (tennis) tournament, and The Masters golf tournament. He would even lend his talents to weekend afternoon fare such as The World's Strongest Man contests and the like. Musburger also called Major League Baseball games for CBS Radio.

The NFL Today
But it was Musburger's association with The NFL Today that made him famous. During his tenure, CBS' NFL pregame show was consistently the #1 rated pregame show. One of the signatures of the program was Musburger's show-opening teases to the various games CBS would cover, along with live images from the various stadiums. Musburger's accompanying intro to each visual, "You are looking live at ..." became one of his catch phrases.  In promoting the network, his voice often tailed off on the last letter of "CBS" ("C.B. eeezz"), creating another catch phrase.

Musburger made headlines when he got into a fist-fight with The NFL Todays betting analyst Jimmy "The Greek" Snyder in a Manhattan bar on October 27, 1980. However, the fist-fight incident was quickly regarded as water under the bridge as the two cheerfully appeared on The NFL Today the following week wearing boxing gloves on camera.

CBS departure
By the late 1980s, Musburger was CBS's top sportscaster. He was the main host and play-by-play announcer for the NBA Finals, college basketball, college football, the Belmont Stakes, and the College World Series. He also hosted a New Year's Eve countdown for CBS. Musburger is regarded as the first broadcaster to apply the term March Madness to the annual NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship tournament.

Early in 1990, CBS underwent a significant management change. During the early morning hours of April 1, 1990, Musburger was fired from CBS. His final assignment for CBS came the following evening, doing play-by-play for the 1990 NCAA men's basketball final, which was Duke versus UNLV. When the game was completed, Musburger thanked the audience and CBS Sports, and the analysts that he had worked with through the years like Billy Packer, who was standing next to him.

At the time of his firing (which he originally thought was an April Fools joke), Musburger had been set to handle play-by-play duties for CBS's television coverage of Major League Baseball later that month; he was replaced by Jack Buck in that capacity. His position at The NFL Today was filled by Greg Gumbel. His position as the lead play-by-play announcer for college basketball was filled by Jim Nantz.

ABC Sports and ESPN (1990–2017)
Following his dismissal from CBS, Musburger considered several offers, including one to return to Chicago and work at WGN-TV, ultimately settling at ABC. With Al Michaels entrenched as ABC's top broadcaster, Musburger focused on college football and basketball. After his hiring, ABC's merger with ESPN under the Disney umbrella allowed him to work on ESPN as well (increasingly since 2006), including Major League Baseball, NBA games, ESPN Radio, golf tournaments, horse racing, the Indianapolis 500, Little League World Series, soccer games, college football, and even some NFL games (including hosting halftime duties for Monday Night Football and Wild Card round games). Musburger was also the main studio host during ABC's coverage of the 1998 World Cup and the 2006 World Cup, was briefly the studio host for ESPN and ABC's NASCAR coverage and has hosted Tour de France coverage for ABC.

Major League Baseball
In 1995, Musburger called Games 3-5 of the American League Division Series between the Seattle Mariners and New York Yankees alongside Jim Kaat for ABC in association with The Baseball Network. The fifth and decisive game went into the bottom of the 11th inning before Edgar Martínez won it for Seattle with a double that scored both Joey Cora and Ken Griffey Jr., sending them to the League Championship Series for the first time in their franchise's history.

Musberger's call, dramatic as it was, incorrectly implied that Bernie Williams fielded the double in left. Bernie was playing center field at the time. Gerald Williams was in left field playing the ball and making the late throw back to the infield.

Musburger and Jim Kaat later called Games 1-2 of the 1995 American League Championship Series, while the rest of the games were called by Bob Costas and Bob Uecker on NBC.

College football

Musburger's college football duties for ESPN and ABC have included calling seven BCS National Championship games (2000, 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014).

Beginning in 2006, Musburger called ABC Sports' college football prime time series, along with analysts Bob Davie and Kirk Herbstreit. Musburger called the 2007 Rose Bowl, taking over for the retired Keith Jackson. He also called games on ESPN during his time at ABC.

During the 2013 BCS National Championship Game between Alabama and Notre Dame, a camera turned to Katherine Webb, who was in the stands cheering for her boyfriend, Alabama quarterback, A. J. McCarron. Musburger, impressed with Webb's beauty, remarked, "I'm telling you, you quarterbacks get all the good-looking women. What a beautiful woman. Wow!" and continued commenting in a similar fashion. The next day, ESPN apologized for his comments, saying they "went too far". The controversy died down quickly afterwards, largely due to Webb stating that she was not bothered at all by Musburger's comments. As the Raiders' new radio broadcaster in 2018, Musburger jokingly revisited the incident with a Twitter post welcoming the now-married McCarrons to Oakland after the Raiders acquired AJ from the Buffalo Bills.

Musburger's involvement with Saturday Night Football concluded when he and Jesse Palmer were named ESPN's lead game commentators for college football coverage on the SEC Network in 2014.  Musburger nevertheless called some games on ESPN and ABC after that time.

VSIN, Oakland/Las Vegas Raiders (2018–present)
At the 2017 Sugar Bowl, held in early January, Musburger made controversial comments about then-University of Oklahoma running back Joe Mixon. Mixon had previously punched and broken a woman's jaw.

Later in the same month, Musburger announced that he would retire from play-by-play broadcasting and would call his final game at Rupp Arena in Lexington, Kentucky, on January 31, 2017.

Musburger stated he planned to help his family get a sports handicapping business started in Las Vegas, have a sports gambling show on Sirius XM Radio, and enjoy personal travel. The new venture, Vegas Stats & Information Network (VSiN) is the first multichannel network dedicated to sports gambling information and is broadcast from a custom-built studio at the South Point Hotel, Casino & Spa. Musburger serves as managing editor of the network, and hosts its program My Guys in the Desert (a reference to his sly mentions of events of interest to bookmakers during his play-by-play). Musburger and his sons sold VSiN to DraftKings in March 2021 while remaining executives and on-air personalities with the network.

On July 17, 2018, it was reported that Musburger would be making his return to the broadcast booth, this time as the new radio voice for the Oakland Raiders under a three-year contract (which included its inaugural season in Las Vegas in 2020), succeeding Greg Papa. Musburger continued as announcer through the 2021 season.

Style
Musburger has a down-to-earth manner of speaking, often addressing his viewers as "folks".  In a Sports Illustrated profile done on Musburger in January 1984, he stressed his hesitance to "pontificate" during his broadcasts. In 2004, CNN Sports Illustrated's Stewart Mandel selected him as the second-best college football announcer, behind Ron Franklin. Mandel said of Musburger, "His voice will always be associated with some of the sport's most memorable, modern moments."

Musburger has a reputation for pointing out attractive women in the crowds of the games he calls; among those who later rose to fame include Susan "Busty Heart" Sykes, Jenn Sterger, and Katherine Webb McCarron.

Other media
Musburger was a reporter in Rocky II and had his role immortalized in a 2006 action figure. He also played the right leg of the fictional monster Scuzzlebutt on an episode of South Park. He also made cameo appearances in The Main Event and The Waterboy. In Cars 2 and Planes, he played Brent Mustangburger, a fictionalized version of himself. He appeared as himself in the episode "Lying Around" on the ABC sitcom Happy Endings. Musburger is portrayed by John Dellaporta and has a voice cameo as himself in the HBO series Winning Time: The Rise of the Lakers Dynasty.

Career timeline
 1973–75: NFL on CBS play-by-play
 1975–80; 1983–89: NBA on CBS play-by-play (lead play-by-play, 1975–80)
 1975–89: The NFL Today studio host
 1976–89: US Open (tennis) play-by-play
 1981–84: College Basketball on CBS studio host
 1983–88: The Masters studio host
 1984–89: NCAA Football on CBS play-by-play (lead play-by-play, 1984–88)
 1984: World Series commentator for CBS Radio Network
 1985–90: College Basketball on CBS lead play-by-play
 1990–96: Monday Night Football studio host
 1990–2009: College Basketball on ABC play-by-play
 1990–2014: College Football on ABC play-by-play
 1990–2017: College Basketball on ESPN play-by-play
 1991–92, 1997–98, 2000–11: Little League World Series play-by-play
 1992–96: PGA Tour on ABC host
 1993, 1997, 2003, 2007–14, 2016: Rose Bowl play-by-play
 1994–95: Baseball Night in America #2 play-by-play for ABC
 1996–2004: NBA Finals play-by-play for ESPN Radio
 1998, 2006: World Cup studio host
 2000, 2004, 2010–14: BCS National Championship Game play-by-play (television)
 2002–06: NBA on ESPN and NBA on ABC play-by-play
 2005–12: Indianapolis 500 studio host
 2006–13: Saturday Night Football play-by-play
 2007: NASCAR on ABC studio host
 2007–09: BCS National Championship Game play-by-play (ESPN Radio)
 2014–17: SEC Network lead play-by-play
 2017–present: Vegas Stats & Information Network
 2018–2021: Oakland/Las Vegas Raiders radio play-by-play

References

Bibliography
 Sandomir, Richard, "TV Sports: Now on Film: Raised Fists and the Yogi Love Letters", The New York Times, 6 August 1999

External links

 ESPN profile

1939 births
Living people
American horse racing announcers
American radio sports announcers
American television sports announcers
ArenaBowl broadcasters
Arena football announcers
Association football commentators
College basketball announcers in the United States
College football announcers
Cycling announcers
ESPN people
Golf writers and broadcasters
Las Vegas Raiders announcers
Major League Baseball broadcasters
Medill School of Journalism alumni
Motorsport announcers
National Basketball Association broadcasters
National Football League announcers
Oakland Raiders announcers
People from Jupiter, Florida
Poker commentators
People from Billings, Montana
Television anchors from Portland, Oregon
Television anchors from Chicago
Television anchors from Los Angeles
Tennis commentators

Brent Musburger


Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell, often called neutrophil granulocytes. They destroy bacteria (and other parasites like fungi) during an infection. They get to the site of an injury within minutes. They have tiny granules full of enzymes and peptides which chop up the bacteria after they have taken them in.

The process of taking in bacteria is called phagocytosis. The bacteria end up in a vacuole inside the neutrophil. The enzymes then get to work on destroying the bacteria. Neutrophils are an important part of the body's immune system. They are a kind of granulocyte, and have a short life-span of a couple of days.

Blood cells
Immunology

Neutrophil


The Akhshtyrskaya cave (Big Kazachebrodskaya) is a notable archeological site in the Western Caucasus. It is located on the right side of Akhshtyrskaya gorge of the Mzymta River near the Adlersky City District of Sochi, Krasnodar Krai, Russia. It was discovered in September 1903 by Edouard Martel and Gabriel Revinko, a resident of the nearby village of Kazachy Brod. The cave is named after the local village of Akhshtyr and the alternative name after the village of Kazachy Brod.

Description
The cave entrance is located about  above the Mzymta River ( above sea level) with an eastern exposure. It extends  deep into the rock, first forming a  corridor and then splits into two halls,  and  wide. Further on there is a sharp rise of clay, and two narrow courses coming to a dead end. Near the cave entrance there are two areas connected by a  long corridor.

The cave received the status of "a unique monument of prehistoric architecture". In 1978 the entrance to the cave was closed and the hallway blocked by iron bars. In 1999 the cave became accessible to the public and is equipped with artificial lighting, stairs and steps.

Discovery and excavations
The Akhshtyrskaya Cave was discovered in September 1903 by Édouard-Alfred Martel and Gabriel Revinko, a resident of the nearby village of Kazachy Brod. In 1936, archaeologist Sergei Nikolayevich Zamyatin excavated the first prehistoric human remains. From 1961 to 1965 excavations resumed by archaeologists MZ Panichkina and EA Vekilova. The stratigraphic sequence is about 5 meters thick and ranges from the Middle Paleolithic era to the Early Middle Ages. More recent excavations occurred from 1999 until 2008. In total, more than 6,000 bones were found - 92% of which belonged to the cave bear. In addition, there are the remains of deer, bison, goats, wolves, foxes and other animals. Humans - Neanderthals  settled in the cave about 70,000 years ago. After a break of about 20,000 years the cave was populated by Cro-Magnon humans between 30,000 and 35,000 years ago.

Results

Layer Dating: Layer 3/1: 40,000 yrs BC; Layer 4/1: 70,000 yrs BC; Layer 4/2: 80,000 yrs BC;  Layer 5/1: 112,000 yrs BC; Layer 5/2: 200,000 yrs BC; Layer 6/1: 250,000 yrs BC; Layer 6/2: 270,000 yrs BC; Layer 7: 300,000 yrs BC; Layer 8: 300,000 yrs BC; Layer 9: 350,000 BC

Description and findings

Finding (2005): Mandible of cave bear; hip bone of cave bear; radius; humerus; cervical vertebrae; rib; vertebrae; lumbar vertebrae; thoracic vertebrae

Excavation (2005): Level 3 M Mousterian. This level is associated with Neanderthal culture at about 40,000 BC. Some cave bear relics were found.   Black spots inside the levels of the cave may be the result of fire usage for cooking and warming. Scientists also found tools: knives, spears and axes.

Section (2005): Rock bottom of the cave. Starting about 350,000 years ago. Layer 9: 350,000 BC; Layer 8: 350,000-300,000 BC; The cave was not habitable and was filled with water. Layer 6/2, 6/1: About 250,000 years BC. Tools were found showing Neanderthal habitation; Layer 5/2, 5/1: 112,000 years BC. First level of long-term habitation of Neanderthal people. Layer: 4/2, 4/1: 70,000 years BC. Second level of long-term habitation of Neanderthal people. Layer 3: 40,000 years BC. Late Paleolithic. Stone object of possible Cro-Magnon culture.

Gallery
Photographs of the cave and immediate area

References

 VI Borisov. Реки Кубани. - Krasnodar : Kubánskoye knizhnoye izdatelstvo, 2005 . - 120 pp.
 SA Kulakov. О плане музеефикации Ахштырской пещерной стоянки. - 3-я Кубанская археологическая конференция: Краснодар-Анапа, 2001. - pp 70–74..
 SA Kulakov, Baryshinkov GF, GM Levkovskaya. Некоторые результаты нового изучения Ахштырской пещерной стоянки (Западный Кавказ). Кавказ и первоначальное заселение человеком Старого Света. - St. Petersburg : Peterburgskoye Vostovedeniye, 2007, pp. 65–81.
 BR Mavliukov, IA Kusi. Черноморское побережье Кавказа от Туапсе до Адлера: путеводитель. - Simon-Press, 2000 . - 272 p. -

External links

 Secrets Ahshtyrskaya cave
 Magnetic, paleomagnetic and palynologic studies of Paleolithic depositions of the Akhshtyrskaya Cave (Russia)

1903 archaeological discoveries
Caves of Russia
Landforms of Krasnodar Krai
Archaeological sites in Russia
Tourist attractions in Krasnodar Krai
Natural monuments of Russia
Mousterian
Neanderthal sites
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Krasnodar Krai
Cave bear

Akhshtyrskaya Cave


BASE jumping is a fringe sport in which a person jumps from a fixed place and uses a parachute to slow down before the ground is reached. "BASE" is an acronym that stands for each of the four jump location categories: from buildings, antennas, spans (bridges) and the earth. This last is similar to jumping off a cliff. BASE jumping is an extreme sport. This means it involves speed, height, danger or spectacular stunts.

History from skydiving

The idea for BASE jumping came from skydiving. BASE jumping is much more dangerous than skydiving from aircraft.

BASE jumps are usually made from much lower altitudes than skydives. Also, the jumper leaps closer to the platform or standing space. BASE jumpers fall through the air at slower speeds than skydivers, because they begin the jump closer to the ground. As a skydiver falls, he accelerates while falling and gains speed with each second.  So a BASE jumper does not always reach terminal velocity. Because faster speed while falling through the air gives jumpers more control of their bodies, and a quicker parachute opening, the longer the delay in the air, the safer.

Another danger is that most BASE jumpers have very small areas in which to land. A beginner skydiver, after the parachute opens, may have about three minutes or more of a parachute ride to reach the ground. A BASE jump from 500 feet will only have a parachute ride of 10 to 15 seconds.

Deaths

BASE jumping has a death rate averaging about one fatality for every sixty jumpers. It is one of the most dangerous sporting activities in the world. It has a fatality and injury rate 43 times higher than parachuting from a plane.

As of the end of July 2015, at least 264 people have died during a BASE jump.

Dean Potter and Graham Hunt were killed in a BASE jump attempt at Yosemite National Park in California on May 16, 2015.  Potter was a well known rock climber. They jumped at dusk from about 3000 feet up. They both quickly smashed into the rocks of the cliff on the way down. Neither jumper used a parachute that might have saved them.

American BASE jumper Ian Flanders died in Kemaliye, Turkey on July 21, 2015. His parachute got tangled in his feet after he jumped and did not open. He fell 900 feet into the Karasu river at a high speed. The jump was being shown live on a local television station.

Russian BASE jumper Valery Rozov died on November 11, 2017, while jumping from the Ama Dablam Mountain in Nepal.

After the death in Turkey, a fellow jumper said to People Magazine, "There's just this very thin margin of how things can go from 'totally fine' to 'it's over'. And it's really hard to do this sport a lot and have that margin not catch up with you."

In the news
In September 2013, three men jumped off the incompletely built One World Trade Center in New York City. They filmed their jump using cameras on their heads and later showed the video on YouTube.  In March 2014, the three jumpers and one helper on the ground were arrested after turning themselves in.

References

Other websites

Sports

BASE jumping


An air raid is an attack in which bombs are dropped from aircraft on to a ground or sea target.

If the area has a civil defense system, operators may send a air raid alert to warn people. It may be a siren or a radio broadcast. People hearing the alert try to go to an air raid shelter for protection. The same warning system may send an "all clear" signal when the danger is over.

Military tactics
Military terminology

Air raid


Zu Chongzhi (; 429–500 AD), courtesy name Wenyuan (), was a Chinese astronomer, mathematician, politician, inventor, and writer during the Liu Song and Southern Qi dynasties. He was most notable for calculating pi as between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, a record in accuracy which would not be surpassed for over 800 years.

Life and works

Chongzhi's ancestry was from modern Baoding, Hebei. To flee from the ravages of war, Zu's grandfather Zu Chang moved to the Yangtze, as part of the massive population movement during the Eastern Jin. Zu Chang () at one point held the position of Chief Minister for the Palace Buildings () within the Liu Song and was in charge of government construction projects. Zu's father, Zu Shuozhi (), also served the court and was greatly respected for his erudition.

Zu was born in Jiankang. His family had historically been involved in astronomical research, and from childhood Zu was exposed to both astronomy and mathematics. When he was only a youth his talent earned him much repute.  When Emperor Xiaowu of Liu Song heard of him, he was sent to the Hualin Xuesheng () academy, and later the Imperial Nanjing University (Zongmingguan) to perform research. In 461 in Nanxu (today Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), he was engaged in work at the office of the local governor.

Zu Chongzhi, along with his son Zu Gengzhi, wrote a mathematical text entitled Zhui Shu (; "Methods for Interpolation").  It is said that the treatise contained formulas for the volume of a sphere, cubic equations and an accurate value of pi. This book has been lost since the Song Dynasty.

His mathematical achievements included
the Daming calendar () introduced by him in 465.
distinguishing the sidereal year and the tropical year. He measured 45 years and 11 months per degree between those two; today we know the difference is 70.7 years per degree.
calculating one year as 365.24281481 days, which is very close to 365.24219878 days as we know today.
calculating the number of overlaps between sun and moon as 27.21223, which is very close to 27.21222 as we know today; using this number he successfully predicted an eclipse four times during 23 years (from 436 to 459).
calculating the Jupiter year as about 11.858 Earth years, which is very close to 11.862 as we know of today.
deriving two approximations of pi, (3.1415926535897932...) which held as the most accurate approximation for  for over nine hundred years. His best approximation was between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, with  (, milü, close ratio) and  (, yuelü, approximate ratio) being the other notable approximations. He obtained the result by approximating a circle with a 24,576 (= 213 × 3) sided polygon. This was an impressive feat for the time, especially considering that the counting rods he used for recording intermediate results were merely a pile of wooden sticks laid out in certain patterns. Japanese mathematician Yoshio Mikami pointed out, " was nothing more than the  value obtained several hundred years earlier by the Greek mathematician Archimedes, however milü  =  could not be found in any Greek, Indian or Arabian manuscripts, not until 1585 Dutch mathematician Adriaan Anthoniszoon obtained this fraction; the Chinese possessed this most extraordinary fraction over a whole millennium earlier than Europe". Hence Mikami strongly urged that the fraction  be named after Zu Chongzhi as Zu's fraction. In Chinese literature, this fraction is known as "Zu's ratio". Zu's ratio is a best rational approximation to , and is the closest rational approximation to  from all fractions with denominator less than 16600.
finding the volume of a sphere as D3/6 where D is diameter (equivalent to 4r3/3).

Astronomy
Zu was an accomplished astronomer who calculated the time values with unprecedented precision. His methods of interpolation and the use of integration were far ahead of his time. Even the results of the astronomer Yi Xing (who was beginning to utilize foreign knowledge) were not comparable. The Sung dynasty calendar was backwards to the "Northern barbarians" because they were implementing their daily lives with the Da Ming Li. It is said that his methods of calculation were so advanced, the scholars of the Sung dynasty and Indo influence astronomers of the Tang dynasty found it confusing.

Mathematics

The majority of Zu's great mathematical works are recorded in his lost text the Zhui Shu. Most schools argue about his complexity since traditionally the Chinese had developed mathematics as algebraic and equational. Logically, scholars assume that the Zhui Shu yields methods of cubic equations. His works on the accurate value of pi describe the lengthy calculations involved. Zu used the Liu Hui's  algorithm described earlier by Liu Hui to inscribe a 12,288-gon. Zu's value of pi is precise to six decimal places and for a thousand years thereafter no subsequent mathematician computed a value this precise. Zu also worked on deducing the formula for the volume of a sphere.

Inventions and innovations

Hammer mills
In 488, Zu Chongzhi was responsible for erecting water powered trip hammer mills which was inspected by Emperor Wu of Southern Qi during the early 490s.

Paddle boats
Zu is also credited with inventing Chinese paddle boats or Qianli chuan in the late 5th century AD during the Southern Qi Dynasty. The boats made sailing a more reliable form of transportation and based on the shipbuilding technology of its day, numerous paddle wheel ships were constructed during the Tang era as the boats were able to cruise at faster speeds than the existing vessels at the time as well as being able to cover hundreds of kilometers of distance without the aid of wind.

South pointing chariot
The south-pointing chariot device was first invented by the Chinese mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. 200–265 AD). It was a wheeled vehicle that incorporated an early use of differential gears to operate a fixed figurine that would constantly point south, hence enabling one to accurately measure their directional bearings. This effect was achieved not by magnetics (like in a compass), but through intricate mechanics, the same design that allows equal amounts of torque applied to wheels rotating at different speeds for the modern automobile. After the Three Kingdoms period, the device fell out of use temporarily. However, it was Zu Chongzhi who successfully re-invented it in 478, as described in the texts of the Book of Song and the Book of Qi, with a passage from the latter below:

When Emperor Wu of Liu Song subdued Guanzhong he obtained the south-pointing carriage of Yao Xing, but it was only the shell with no machinery inside. Whenever it moved it had to have a man inside to turn (the figure). In the Sheng-Ming reign period, Gao Di commissioned Zi Zu Chongzhi to reconstruct it according to the ancient rules. He accordingly made new machinery of bronze, which would turn round about without a hitch and indicate the direction with uniformity. Since Ma Jun's time such a thing had not been.Book of Qi, 52.905

Literature
Zu's paradoxographical work Accounts of Strange Things [] survives.

Named after him
  ≈  as Zu Chongzhi's  ratio.
The lunar crater Tsu Chung-Chi
1888 Zu Chong-Zhi is the name of asteroid 1964 VO1.
ZUC stream cipher is a new encryption algorithm.

Notes

References
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. Cambridge University Press
Du Shiran and He Shaogeng, "Zu Chongzhi". Encyclopedia of China (Mathematics Edition), 1st ed.

Further reading

External links
Encyclopædia Britannica's description of Zu Chongzhi
Zu Chongzhi at Chinaculture.org
Zu Chongzhi at the University of Maine

429 births
500 deaths
5th-century Chinese mathematicians
5th-century Chinese astronomers
Ancient Chinese mathematicians
Chinese inventors
Liu Song dynasty people
Liu Song government officials
Liu Song writers
Pi-related people
Politicians from Nanjing
Scientists from Nanjing
Southern Qi government officials
Writers from Nanjing

Zu Chongzhi